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He was 20-some years older than anybody else in the sample. | Diğer deneklerden 20 küsür yıl kadar daha yaşlıydı. | en-tr |
And I remembered that the old and drunken guy came one day to the lab wanting to make some easy cash and this was the guy. | Przypomniałem sobie, że starszy i pijany gość przyszedł pewnego dnia do laboratorium chcąc zarobić łatwą kasę i to był ten gość. | en-pl |
"Fantastic!" I thought. "Let's throw him out. | "Fantastično! ", pomislio sam. | en-hr |
Who would ever include a drunken guy in a sample?" | Vem skulle någonsin inkludera en alkoholist i urvalsgruppen?" | en-sv |
But a couple of days later, we thought about it with my students, and we said, "What would have happened if this drunken guy was not in that condition? | Ma un paio di giorni dopo, ne abbiamo discusso con i miei studenti, e abbiamo detto, "Cosa sarebbe successo se il tizio ubriaco non fosse stato in quella condizione? | en-it |
What would have happened if he was in the other group? | מה היה קורה אם הוא היה בקבוצה השנייה? | en-he |
Would we have thrown him out then?" | ამ შემთხვევაშიც დავატოვებინებდით მას ექსპერიმენტს?" | en-ka |
We probably wouldn't have looked at the data at all, and if we did look at the data, we'd probably have said, "Fantastic! What a smart guy who is performing this low," because he would have pulled the mean of the group lower, giving us even stronger statistical results than we could. | בטח בכלל לא היינו מסתכלים על הנתונים, ואם כן היינו מסתכלים, בטח היינו אומרים, "פנטסטי! איזה בחור חכם עם ביצועים כ"כ נמוכים," כי הוא היה מושך את הממוצע של הקבוצה נמוך יותר, נותן לנו מובהקות סטטיסטית חזקה אף יותר. | en-he |
So we decided not to throw the guy out and to rerun the experiment. | Tāpēc mēs izlēmām neizslēgt šo cilvēku no grupas, bet veikt eksperimentu atkārtoti. | en-lv |
But you know, these stories, and lots of other experiments that we've done on conflicts of interest, basically kind of bring two points to the foreground for me. | Aber wissen Sie, diese Geschichten und viele andere Experimente, die wir zu Interessenskonflikten gemacht haben, bringen für mich im Wesentlichen zwei Dinge in den Vordergrund. | en-de |
The first one is that in life we encounter many people who, in some way or another, try to tattoo our faces. | El primer és que a la vida ens trobem molta gent que, d'una manera o una altra, intenten tatuar-nos la cara. | en-ca |
They just have the incentives that get them to be blinded to reality and give us advice that is inherently biased. | მათ უბრალოდ სურთ რომ არ შეიმჩნიონ რეალობა და მოგცენ ისეთი რჩევა რომელიც თავიდანვე მიკერძოებული და ტენდენციურია. | en-ka |
And I'm sure that it's something that we all recognize, and we see that it happens. | I això és quelcom que tots reconeixem, i veiem que passa. | en-ca |
Maybe we don't recognize it every time, but we understand that it happens. | შესაძლოა ჩვენ ამას ვერ ვაცნობიერებდეთ ყოველთვის მაგრამ მაინც გვესმის რომ ასეთ რამეს აქვს ადგილი. | en-ka |
The most difficult thing, of course, is to recognize that sometimes we too are blinded by our own incentives. | Το πιο δύσκολο φυσικά, είναι να αναγνωρίσουμε ότι κάποιες φορές και εμείς οι ίδιοι τυφλωνόμαστε από τα δικά μας κίνητρα. | en-el |
And that's a much, much more difficult lesson to take into account. | และนั่นก็เป็นบทเรียนที่ยากมาก มากเพียงพอที่เราจะต้องนำมาใส่ใจ | en-th |
Because we don't see how conflicts of interest work on us. | 왜냐하면 이해의 충돌이 어떻게 우리에게 작용하는지 알 수 없기 때문이죠. | en-ko |
When I was doing these experiments, in my mind, I was helping science. | Mentre facevo questi esperimenti, dentro di me, stavo aiutando la scienza. | en-it |
I was eliminating the data to get the true pattern of the data to shine through. | Eliminam informaţiile pentru a obţine modelul adevărat prin care datele să strălucească. | en-ro |
I wasn't doing something bad. | Nuk po bëja diçka të keqe. | en-sq |
In my mind, I was actually a knight trying to help science move along. | Widziałem siebie jako rycerza, który popycha naukę do przodu. | en-pl |
But this was not the case. | Mas este não era o caso. | en-pt-br |
I was actually interfering with the process with lots of good intentions. | V skutočnosti som zasahoval do procesu s mnohými dobrými úmyslami. | en-sk |
And I think the real challenge is to figure out where are the cases in our lives where conflicts of interest work on us, and try not to trust our own intuition to overcome it, but to try to do things that prevent us from falling prey to these behaviors, because we can create lots of undesirable circumstances. | და მე მგონია რომ რეალური გამოწვევა სწორედ ისაა რომ გავარკვიოთ თუ როდის აქვს ადგილი ჩვენს ცხოვრებაში ასეთ მომენტებს სად მოქმედებს ინტერესთა კონფლიქტი ჩვენზე, და რომ არ ვენდოთ მხოლოდ ჩვენს საკუთარ ინტუიციას, მის დასაძლევად, მაგრამ ვცადოთ რომ მოვიქცეთ ისე რომ მსხვერპლად არ ვიქცეთ მსგავსი ქმედებებისა რადგან ამით ჩვენ შეგვიძლია გამოვიწვიოთ უთვალავი არასასურველი შედეგი. | en-ka |
I do want to leave you with one positive thought. | Eu realmente ao menos deixar um pensamento positivo. | en-pt |
I mean, this is all very depressing, right -- people have conflicts of interest, we don't see it, and so on. | أقصد، كل هذا كئيب للغاية، صحيح -- الناس لديهم تضارب في المصالح، لا نراه، وما إلى ذلك. | en-ar |
The positive perspective, I think, of all of this is that, if we do understand when we go wrong, if we understand the deep mechanisms of why we fail and where we fail, we can actually hope to fix things. | Η θετική άποψη, νομίζω, όλων αυτών είανι ότι, αν καταλάβουμε πότε κάνουμε το λάθος, και αν καταλάβουμε τους βαθύτερους μηχανισμούς του γιατί και πότε κάνουμε τέτοια λάθη, μπορούμε πραγματικά να ελπίζουμε ότι τα πράγματα θα φτιάξουν. | en-el |
And that, I think, is the hope. Thank you very much. | Ir tai, aš manau, yra viltis. | en-lt |
What I want to talk to you about is what we can learn from studying the genomes of living people and extinct humans. | Ajo për të cilën dua t'ju flas, është se ç'mund të mësojmë nga studimi i gjenomeve të njerëzve që jetojnë dhe atyre të zhdukur. | en-sq |
But before doing that, I just briefly want to remind you about what you already know: that our genomes, our genetic material, are stored in almost all cells in our bodies in chromosomes in the form of DNA, which is this famous double-helical molecule. | Men før jeg gør det, så vil jeg kort genopfriske det I allerede ved: vores genomer, vores genetiske materiale, er lagret i næsten alle celler i vores krop i kromosomerne i form af DNA, som er den berømte dobbelt-spiral molekyle. | en-da |
And the genetic information is contained in the form of a sequence of four bases abbreviated with the letters A, T, C and G. | Η γενετική πληροφορία περιέχεται (στο DNA) με τη μορφή αλληλουχίας τεσσάρων βάσεων που γράφονται σε συντομία με τα γράμματα A, T, C και G. | en-el |
And the information is there twice -- one on each strand -- which is important, because when new cells are formed, these strands come apart, new strands are synthesized with the old ones as templates in an almost perfect process. | De informatie is er dubbel aanwezig - een reeks op elke streng - wat belangrijk is, want als er nieuwe cellen worden gevormd, gaan deze strengen uit elkaar, nieuwe strengen worden gesynthetiseerd met de oude als sjablonen in een bijna perfect proces. | en-nl |
But nothing, of course, in nature is totally perfect, so sometimes an error is made and a wrong letter is built in. | Men naturligtvis är ingenting i naturen totalt perfekt, så ibland görs ett misstag och en felaktig bokstav byggs in. | en-sv |
And we can then see the result of such mutations when we compare DNA sequences among us here in the room, for example. | 예를들어 지금 이곳에 계신 여러분의 DNA 서열을 비교해 보면 그런 돌연변이의 결과를 볼 수 있죠. | en-ko |
If we compare my genome to the genome of you, approximately every 1,200, 1,300 letters will differ between us. | Ако сравним моя и вашия геном, приблизително всеки 1200 или 1300 букви ще се различават. | en-bg |
And these mutations accumulate approximately as a function of time. | И такие мутации накапливаются равномерно с течением времени. | en-ru |
So if we add in a chimpanzee here, we will see more differences. | Sehingga jika kita tambahkan simpanse, kita akan melihat lebih banyak perbedaan. | en-id |
Approximately one letter in a hundred will differ from a chimpanzee. | בערך אות אחת בכל מאה תהיה שונה מזו של השימפנזה. | en-he |
And if you're then interested in the history of a piece of DNA, or the whole genome, you can reconstruct the history of the DNA with those differences you observe. | I onda, ako vas interesuje istorija komadića DNK ili celog genoma, možete da rekonstruišete istoriju DNK koristeći te razlike koje ste uočili. | en-sr |
And generally we depict our ideas about this history in the form of trees like this. | Og generelt viser vi vore ideer om denne historie i form af et træ som dette her. | en-da |
In this case, it's very simple. | In diesem Fall ist es sehr einfach. | en-de |
The two human DNA sequences go back to a common ancestor quite recently. | Dvě lidské sekvence DNA sdílejí společného, zcela nedávného předka. | en-cs |
Farther back is there one shared with chimpanzees. | Më tej akoma gjejmë një paraardhës të përbashkët me shimpanzetë. | en-sq |
And because these mutations happen approximately as a function of time, you can transform these differences to estimates of time, where the two humans, typically, will share a common ancestor about half a million years ago, and with the chimpanzees, it will be in the order of five million years ago. | ומשום שהמוטציות האלה מתרחשות בערך כפונקציה של הזמן, אפשר להפוך את ההבדלים האלה לאומדנים של זמן, כאשר שני האנשים חלקו אב משותף לפני בערך חצי מיליון שנה, ועם השימפנזים זה יהיה בערך לפני 5 מיליון שנה. | en-he |
So what has now happened in the last few years is that there are account technologies around that allow you to see many, many pieces of DNA very quickly. | Tas, kas noticis dažos pēdējos gados ir, ka ir pieejamas tehnoloģijas, kas ļoti ātri ļauj redzēt daudzas, daudzas DNS daļas. | en-lv |
So we can now, in a matter of hours, determine a whole human genome. | Šobrīd mēs dažu stundu laikā varam noteikt visu cilvēka genomu. | en-lv |
Each of us, of course, contains two human genomes -- one from our mothers and one from our fathers. | Fiecare din noi, desigur, integrăm doi genomi umani -- unul de la mamă și altul de la tată. | en-ro |
And they are around three billion such letters long. | 长度约为30亿个字母 | en-zh-cn |
And we will find that the two genomes in me, or one genome of mine we want to use, will have about three million differences in the order of that. | I descobrirem que els meus dos genomes, o un genoma meu que volem utilitzar, tindrà unes tres milions de diferències, en aquest ordre. | en-ca |
And what you can then also begin to do is to say, "How are these genetic differences distributed across the world?" | Un tad tas, ko jūs varat arī uzsākt, ir pateikt, kā šīs ģenētiskās atšķirības izplatījās pasaulē. | en-lv |
And if you do that, you find a certain amount of genetic variation in Africa. | Y al hacerlo uno halla una cierta variación genética en África. | en-es |
And if you look outside Africa, you actually find less genetic variation. | Nëse shihni më tej jashtë Afrikës, ju do të gjeni më pak variacione gjenetike. | en-sq |
This is surprising, of course, because in the order of six to eight times fewer people live in Africa than outside Africa. | Това, разбира се, е изненадващо защото хората, които живеят в Африка са между шест и осем пъти по-малко от онези, които живеят извън Африка. | en-bg |
Yet the people inside Africa have more genetic variation. | 但是非洲人 拥有更多的基因变异 | en-zh-cn |
Moreover, almost all these genetic variants we see outside Africa have closely related DNA sequences that you find inside Africa. | Për më tepër, thuajse gjithë këto variante gjenetike që gjejmë jashtë Afrikës kanë sekuenca tepër të ngjashme ADN-je me ato brenda Afrikës, | en-sq |
But if you look in Africa, there is a component of the genetic variation that has no close relatives outside. | 그런데 아프리카 안에 있는 사람들의 유전자 변이 중에는 아프리카 밖에서는 볼 수 없는 유전적 요소가 있죠. | en-ko |
So a model to explain this is that a part of the African variation, but not all of it, [has] gone out and colonized the rest of the world. | Takže model, ktorý toto vysvetľuje, je, že časť africkej rozmanitosti, ale nie všetka, sa dostala von a kolonizovala zvyšok sveta. | en-sk |
And together with the methods to date these genetic differences, this has led to the insight that modern humans -- humans that are essentially indistinguishable from you and me -- evolved in Africa, quite recently, between 100 and 200,000 years ago. | Et avec ces méthodes pour dater les différences génétiques, ceci a conduit à l'idée que les humains modernes -- les humains qu'on ne peut pas distinguer essentiellement de vous et moi -- ont évolué en Afrique assez récemment il y a 100 à 200 000 ans. | en-fr |
And later, between 100 and 50,000 years ago or so, went out of Africa to colonize the rest of the world. | Kemudian, di antara 100.000 hingga 50.000 tahun yang lalu, keluar dari Afrika untuk menghuni seluruh dunia. | en-id |
So what I often like to say is that, from a genomic perspective, we are all Africans. | 所以我常喜歡說 以基因組的觀點來看， 我們都是非洲人。 | en-zh-tw |
We either live inside Africa today, or in quite recent exile. | Ou vivemos em África nos dias de hoje, ou num exílio muito recente. | en-pt |
Another consequence of this recent origin of modern humans is that genetic variants are generally distributed widely in the world, in many places, and they tend to vary as gradients, from a bird's-eye perspective at least. | Outra consequência dessa origem recente dos humanos modernos é que as variantes genéticas estão distribuídas pelo mundo, em muitos lugares, e eles tendem a variar como gradientes, ao menos numa perspectiva ampla. | en-pt-br |
And since there are many genetic variants, and they have different such gradients, this means that if we determine a DNA sequence -- a genome from one individual -- we can quite accurately estimate where that person comes from, provided that its parents or grandparents haven't moved around too much. | E dato che esistono così tante varianti e che hanno diversi gradienti, vuol dire che se determiniamo una sequenza di DNA - il genoma di un individuo - possiamo stabilire con sufficiente precisione il suo luogo di provenienza, sempre che i suoi genitori o i nonni non siano andati troppo in giro. | en-it |
But does this then mean, as many people tend to think, that there are huge genetic differences between groups of people -- on different continents, for example? | fakat peki bu, mesela, birçok insanın düşündüğü gibi, farklı kıtalardaki insan grupları arasında, büyük genetik farklılıklar olduğu anlamına gelir mi? | en-tr |
Well we can begin to ask those questions also. | Kita juga dapat mulai bertanya demikian. | en-id |
There is, for example, a project that's underway to sequence a thousand individuals -- their genomes -- from different parts of the world. | Es gibt hierzu ein laufendes Projekt, bei dem das Genom von 1000 Menschen aus verschiedenen Teilen der Welt bestimmt wird. | en-de |
They've sequenced 185 Africans from two populations in Africa. | Afrika'daki iki topluluktan 185 Afrikalı incelenmiş. | en-tr |
[They've] sequenced approximately equally [as] many people in Europe and in China. | Sequenciaram aproximadamente o mesmo número de pessoas na Europa e na China. | en-pt |
And we can begin to say how much variance do we find, how many letters that vary in at least one of those individual sequences. | I podem començar a comptar les variacions que trobem, quantes lletres varien, en almenys una d'aquestes seqüències individuals. | en-ca |
And it's a lot: 38 million variable positions. | И их много: 38 миллионов различных позиций. | en-ru |
But we can then ask: Are there any absolute differences between Africans and non-Africans? | Mas podemos perguntar: será que há muitas diferenças absolutas entre africanos e não-africanos? | en-pt |
Perhaps the biggest difference most of us would imagine existed. | شاید بزرگترین تفاوت که بسیاری از ما تصور می کنیم وجود دارد. | en-fa |
And with absolute difference -- and I mean a difference where people inside Africa at a certain position, where all individuals -- 100 percent -- have one letter, and everybody outside Africa has another letter. | 我所谓的 绝对差异是指 当所有非洲人 在基因序列中 某个特定位置上都有同样一个字母 而所有非非洲人种 在这个位置上都有另一个字母 | en-zh-cn |
And the answer to that, among those millions of differences, is that there is not a single such position. | Odpoveď na toto je, že medzi miliónmi rozdielov neexistuje ani jedna jediná taká pozícia. | en-sk |
This may be surprising. | To može biti iznenađujuće. | en-hr |
Maybe a single individual is misclassified or so. | Možda je jedna jedinka previđena ili tako nešto. | en-hr |
So we can relax the criterion a bit and say: How many positions do we find where 95 percent of people in Africa have one variant, 95 percent another variant, and the number of that is 12. | Έτσι μπορεί να χαλαρώσουμε λίγο το κριτήριο και να ρωτήσουμε: πόσες θέσεις βρίσκουμε όπου το 95 τοις εκατό των ανθρώπων στην Αφρική έχουν μία παραλλαγή, το 95 τοις εκατό μία άλλη παραλλαγή, και ο αριθμός αυτός είναι 12. | en-el |
So this is very surprising. | Więc to jest bardzo zaskakujące. | en-pl |
It means that when we look at people and see a person from Africa and a person from Europe or Asia, we cannot, for a single position in the genome with 100 percent accuracy, predict what the person would carry. | 왜냐면, 우리가 아프리카 사람과 유럽인이나 아시아인을 비교해 볼때 우리의 유전자 배열의 단 한 곳에서도 누가 어떤 문자를 가지고 있을것이라고 100% 정확하게 말할 수 없다는 결론이니까요. | en-ko |
And only for 12 positions can we hope to be 95 percent right. | Og for kun 12 positioners vedkommende, kan vi håbe på at have 95% ret. | en-da |
This may be surprising, because we can, of course, look at these people and quite easily say where they or their ancestors came from. | Dit kan verrassend zijn, omdat we door te kijken naar deze mensen heel gemakkelijk kunnen zeggen waar zij of hun voorouders vandaan kwamen. | en-nl |
So what this means now is that those traits we then look at and so readily see -- facial features, skin color, hair structure -- are not determined by single genes with big effects, but are determined by many different genetic variants that seem to vary in frequency between different parts of the world. | Това означава, че отличителните черти, които забелязваме толкова лесно като черти на лицето, цвят на кожата и типа коса, не се определят от единични силни гени, а от много други генетични различия, които се променят периодично в различните части на света. | en-bg |
There is another thing with those traits that we so easily observe in each other that I think is worthwhile to consider, and that is that, in a very literal sense, they're really on the surface of our bodies. | Credo ci sia un'altra cosa in quei tratti che scorgiamo così facilmente negli altri, che penso occorra considerare, ed è il fatto che, in senso letterale, si trovano sulla superficie del corpo. | en-it |
They are what we just said -- facial features, hair structure, skin color. | 즉, 얼굴모양, 머리카락 구조, 그리고 피부색이 그렇다는 말이죠 | en-ko |
There are also a number of features that vary between continents like that that have to do with how we metabolize food that we ingest, or that have to do with how our immune systems deal with microbes that try to invade our bodies. | Je také několik takových rysů, které se liší mezi kontinenty a týkají se metabolizování přijímané potravy nebo se mohou týkat toho, jak si náš imunitní systém poradí s mikroby napadajícími naše tělo. | en-cs |
But so those are all parts of our bodies where we very directly interact with our environment, in a direct confrontation, if you like. | Nhưng tất cả những bộ phận đó của cơ thể là nơi mà ta giao tiếp với môi trường một cách trực tiếp nhất. | en-vi |
It's easy to imagine how particularly those parts of our bodies were quickly influenced by selection from the environment and shifted frequencies of genes that are involved in them. | آسان است که تصور کنیم که آن اعضای بدنمان به طور خاص چه قدر سریع با انتخاب ناشی از محیط تحت تاثیر قرار می گیرند و نوسان های منتقل شده در ژن هایمان که با آنها درگیر هستند. | en-fa |
But if we look on other parts of our bodies where we don't directly interact with the environment -- our kidneys, our livers, our hearts -- there is no way to say, by just looking at these organs, where in the world they would come from. | De ha a testünk más részeit nézzük, ahol nem érintkezünk közvetlenül a környezettel, -a vesénket, májunkat, szívünket- nem lehet megmondani csupán ránézésre, hogy a világ mely részéből származnak. | en-hu |
So there's another interesting thing that comes from this realization that humans have a recent common origin in Africa, and that is that when those humans emerged around 100,000 years ago or so, they were not alone on the planet. | Υπάρχει και κάτι άλλο ενδιαφέρον που προκύπτει από αυτή τη διαπίστωση. Οι άνθρωποι έχουν πρόσφατη κοινή καταγωγή στην Αφρική και όταν εμφανίστηκαν αυτοί οι άνθρωποι περίπου 100.000 χρόνια πριν, δεν ήταν μόνοι στον πλανήτη. | en-el |
There were other forms of humans around, most famously perhaps, Neanderthals -- these robust forms of humans, compared to the left here with a modern human skeleton on the right -- that existed in Western Asia and Europe since several hundreds of thousands of years. | Bilo je drugih vrsta ljudi, možda najpoznatiji -- Neandertalci -- robustan oblik ljudi, s lijeve strane, u odnosu na moderni ljudski kostur na desnoj strani -- koji su postojali u Zapadnoj Aziji i Europi nekoliko stotina tisuća godina. | en-hr |
So an interesting question is, what happened when we met? | 所以有個有趣的問題， 那時我們相遇，發生了什麼事? | en-zh-tw |
What happened to the Neanderthals? | ¿Qué les sucedió a los neandertales? | en-es |
And to begin to answer such questions, my research group -- since over 25 years now -- works on methods to extract DNA from remains of Neanderthals and extinct animals that are tens of thousands of years old. | ولكي نجيب على هذا السؤال قمت انا وفريق بحثي منذ 25 عاماً والى اليوم بالعمل حثيثياً على استخراج الحمض النووي من بقايا " النيدرثيلس " والحيوانات المنقرضة هذه عمرها عشرات آلاف السنين | en-ar |
So this involves a lot of technical issues in how you extract the DNA, how you convert it to a form you can sequence. | Dakle, to uključuje puno tehničkih problema u tome kako izvući DNK, kako ga pretvoriti u oblik koji možete sekvencirati. | en-hr |
You have to work very carefully to avoid contamination of experiments with DNA from yourself. | Occorre fare molta attenzione ad evitare contaminazioni, durante gli esperimenti, con il proprio DNA. | en-it |
And this then, in conjunction with these methods that allow very many DNA molecules to be sequenced very rapidly, allowed us last year to present the first version of the Neanderthal genome, so that any one of you can now look on the Internet, on the Neanderthal genome, or at least on the 55 percent of it that we've been able to reconstruct so far. | また同時に大量のDNA分子の 塩基配列を超高速に 解読する技術のおかげで 昨年私たちはネアンデルタール人の ゲノム配列の第一版を公表しました 誰でもインターネット上で これまで再構築できた最低55％の ネアンデルタール人のゲノムを 見ることができます | en-ja |
And you can begin to compare it to the genomes of people who live today. | Pas kësaj, kjo mund të krahasohet me gjenome të njerëzve që jetojnë sot. | en-sq |
And one question that you may then want to ask is, what happened when we met? | Satu pertanyaan yang mungkin Anda ingin tanyakan adalah apa yang terjadi saat mereka bertemu? | en-id |
Did we mix or not? | Nós nos misturamos ou não? | en-pt-br |
And the way to ask that question is to look at the Neanderthal that comes from Southern Europe and compare it to genomes of people who live today. | وللإجابة على هذا السؤال علينا ان ننظر الى " النيدرثيلس " القادم من جنوب أوروبا وأن نقارن الجينوم الخاص به مع الجنس البشري اليوم | en-ar |
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