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What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people? | <text>What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?</text><reasoning>Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ... |
Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes? | <text>Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?</text><reasoning>A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Anto... |
Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy? | <text>Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?</text><reasoning>A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Fer... |
Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes? | <text>Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?</text><reasoning>A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des ... |
What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment? | <text>What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority... |
The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom? | <text>The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?</text><reasoning>There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and ... |
Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority? | <text>Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?</text><reasoning>There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual libert... |
Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith? | <text>Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?</text><reasoning>There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of express... |
Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity? | <text>Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?</text><reasoning>In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Vo... |
Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement? | <text>Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?</text><reasoning>In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a s... |
Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith? | <text>Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?</text><reasoning>In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued ... |
Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government? | <text>Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?</text><reasoning>In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousse... |
Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document? | <text>Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?</text><reasoning>In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-J... |
How was the Enlightenment known in French? | <text>How was the Enlightenment known in French?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a ra... |
Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century? | <text>Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century.... |
In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres? | <text>In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenm... |
The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment? | <text>The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in ... |
Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics? | <text>Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?</text><reasoning>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Frankli... |
Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe? | <text>Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?</text><reasoning>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to th... |
As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers? | <text>As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?</text><reasoning>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influenti... |
All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work? | <text>All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?</text><reasoning>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political... |
Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy? | <text>Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?</text><reasoning>Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influentia... |
Whose incomes did public concerts help support? | <text>Whose incomes did public concerts help support?</text><reasoning>As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized thi... |
Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work? | <text>Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?</text><reasoning>As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audienc... |
Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals? | <text>Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?</text><reasoning>As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a w... |
What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share? | <text>What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?</text><reasoning>As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized thi... |
Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere? | <text>Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?</text><reasoning>The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contra... |
Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation? | <text>Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?</text><reasoning>The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers freq... |
Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what? | <text>Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?</text><reasoning>The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their concepti... |
d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom? | <text>d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?</text><reasoning>The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their concepti... |
How can associationism be defined? | <text>How can associationism be defined?</text><reasoning>The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideolo... |
What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward? | <text>What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?</text><reasoning>The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to bei... |
Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period? | <text>Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?</text><reasoning>The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated ro... |
What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment? | <text>What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 i... |
The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes? | <text>The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?</text><reasoning>The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-fiv... |
Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year? | <text>Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?</text><reasoning>The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-fiv... |
When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published? | <text>When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?</text><reasoning>The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-... |
What year did the French Revolution begin? | <text>What year did the French Revolution begin?</text><reasoning>The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes... |
Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located? | <text>Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?</text><reasoning>Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Hall... |
Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe? | <text>Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?</text><reasoning>Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. T... |
Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies? | <text>Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?</text><reasoning>Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle,... |
Which of France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment? | <text>Which of France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier,... |
The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment? | <text>The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to ... |
Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices? | <text>Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?</text><reasoning>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to ... |
In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for? | <text>In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?</text><reasoning>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed cons... |
In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century? | <text>In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?</text><reasoning>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantiti... |
The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage? | <text>The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?</text><reasoning>The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in great... |
In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent? | <text>In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?</text><reasoning>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other w... |
The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities? | <text>The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?</text><reasoning>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections... |
Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles? | <text>Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?</text><reasoning>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." ... |
Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"? | <text>Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?</text><reasoning>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In ot... |
What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe? | <text>What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?</text><reasoning>Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections ... |
Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities? | <text>Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?</text><reasoning>Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communit... |
Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery? | <text>Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?</text><reasoning>Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for m... |
In what year was The Spectator published? | <text>In what year was The Spectator published?</text><reasoning>Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse ... |
Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters? | <text>Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?</text><reasoning>Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffees... |
The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year? | <text>The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by L... |
Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)? | <text>Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineate... |
The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies? | <text>The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as deline... |
According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully? | <text>According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?</text><reasoning>The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consen... |
For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous? | <text>For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?</text><reasoning>Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagan... |
Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated? | <text>Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?</text><reasoning>Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intelle... |
Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law? | <text>Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?</text><reasoning>Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent in... |
In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici? | <text>In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?</text><reasoning>Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mari... |
Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods? | <text>Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?</text><reasoning>The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population a... |
Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution? | <text>Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?</text><reasoning>The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasi... |
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution? | <text>The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?</text><reasoning>The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, risin... |
What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment? | <text>What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It... |
What was the goal of universal encyclopedias? | <text>What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?</text><reasoning>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge ... |
Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries? | <text>Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?</text><reasoning>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries.... |
In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined? | <text>In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?</text><reasoning>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of ... |
Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot? | <text>Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?</text><reasoning>However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to recor... |
John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist? | <text>John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?</text><reasoning>These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and... |
Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document? | <text>Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?</text><reasoning>These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American ... |
Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived? | <text>Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?</text><reasoning>These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonie... |
What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies? | <text>What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?</text><reasoning>Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some ... |
Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities? | <text>Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?</text><reasoning>Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some so... |
By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies? | <text>By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?</text><reasoning>Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained lin... |
Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century? | <text>Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?</text><reasoning>Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retaine... |
What year was the Academy of Science in France founded? | <text>What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?</text><reasoning>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It hel... |
Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?" | <text>Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"</text><reasoning>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lackin... |
What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science? | <text>What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?</text><reasoning>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scienti... |
The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group? | <text>The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?</text><reasoning>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. ... |
How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves? | <text>How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?</text><reasoning>The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped... |
According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism? | <text>According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?</text><reasoning>A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculo... |
Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men? | <text>Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?</text><reasoning>A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other mi... |
Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined? | <text>Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?</text><reasoning>A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creat... |
Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society? | <text>Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?</text><reasoning>A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the C... |
Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation? | <text>Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?</text><reasoning>Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established or... |
Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from? | <text>Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?</text><reasoning>Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals througho... |
Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment? | <text>Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said tha... |
A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members? | <text>A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?</text><reasoning>As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level... |
Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews? | <text>Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?</text><reasoning>As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were alread... |
Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially? | <text>Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?</text><reasoning>As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Wome... |
Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for? | <text>Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?</text><reasoning>As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already enga... |
What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment? | <text>What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?</text><reasoning>Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-... |
How did Habermas describe the public sphere? | <text>How did Habermas describe the public sphere?</text><reasoning>Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communi... |
The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe? | <text>The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?</text><reasoning>Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois ... |
How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution? | <text>How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?</text><reasoning>Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a s... |
Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville? | <text>Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?</text><reasoning>Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men o... |
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