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308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
treatise we know by the name "Metaphysics". Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative ("theoretikē") philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his "Metaphysics" (1026a16):
### Substance.
Aristo... | 700 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the "potential" house, while the form of the substance is the "actual" house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is ... | 701 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a fo... | 702 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals.... | 703 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
he defines in his "Physics" and "On Generation and Corruption" 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
- 1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
- 2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
- 3. alteration, which is change in quality.
The coming to be is a change where nothing ... | 704 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
plant in the soil is potentially ("dynamei") plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' ("poiein") or 'be acted upon' ("paschein"), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being ac... | 705 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
does one of the activities that plants do.
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to pot... | 706 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
and the actual one (form) are one and the same.
## Epistemology.
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) ... | 707 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextens... | 708 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
## Physics.
### Five elements.
In his "On Generation and Corruption", Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qual... | 709 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
motion", such as of a falling object, in "On the Heavens" (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as ... | 710 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.
In the "Physics" (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is fallin... | 711 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Ea... | 712 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assump... | 713 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term "aitia" is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.
- Material ... | 714 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A s... | 715 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over... | 716 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.
### Optics.
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in "Problems", book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture th... | 717 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.
## Astronomy.
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was m... | 718 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nil... | 719 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in "History of Animals", "Generation of Animals", "Movement of Animals", and "Parts of Animals" are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by trave... | 720 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound ... | 721 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct... | 722 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
extinct.
### Scientific style.
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term "pepeiramenoi" to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In "Generation of Animals", he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see th... | 723 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (te... | 724 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.
### Classification of living things.
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the "History of Animals" in a graded scale of perfection, a... | 725 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
"animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled mollusc... | 726 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
data as an expression of formal design.
## Psychology.
### Soul.
Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise "On the Soul" ("peri psychēs"), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the... | 727 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers... | 728 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimu... | 729 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experi... | 730 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until t... | 731 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
time passed.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A for... | 732 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the... | 733 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, du... | 734 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they becom... | 735 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream beca... | 736 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
experiences.
# Practical philosophy.
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
## Just war theory.
Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Ari... | 737 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
to rule non-Greeks'".
Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to b... | 738 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
the "Nicomachean Ethics".
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function ("ergon") of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function mu... | 739 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
requires a good character ("ēthikē" "aretē"), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a la... | 740 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled "Politics". Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be p... | 741 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according t... | 742 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
In "Protrepticus", the character 'Aristotle' states:
## Economics.
... | 743 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In "Politics", Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people ... | 744 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnat... | 745 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes to on state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".
## Rhetoric and poetics.
Aristotle's "Rhetoric" pro... | 746 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: "enthymeme" (proof by syllogism) and "paradeigma" (proof by example).
Aristotle writes in his "Poetics" that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, s... | 747 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For e... | 748 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
While it is believed that Aristotle's "Poetics" originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-str... | 749 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen s... | 750 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his "Rhetoric" that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.
# Influence.
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential pe... | 751 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in "The Classical Tradition", observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and polit... | 752 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the "History of Plants", a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from "carpos", fruit, and pericarp, from "pericarpion", seed chamber.
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pr... | 753 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle'... | 754 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the b... | 755 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."
## On Byzantine scholars.
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the ex... | 756 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponso... | 757 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The ti... | 758 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
translation of the "Organon" made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moer... | 759 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to... | 760 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
says of Aristotle in "The Divine Comedy":
## On Early Modern scientists.
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree... | 761 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
thinkers.
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (vir... | 762 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
## Modern rejection and rehabilitation.
During the 20th century, Aristotle's w... | 763 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from thei... | 764 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
"In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attemp... | 765 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
a role for the "Poetics" in Hollywood.
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mecha... | 766 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition ("Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica", Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
## Loss and preservation.
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are ... | 767 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus... | 768 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens", in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the archit... | 769 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
of time."
## Eponyms.
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book "Meteorology", the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it "Antarctica". Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classica... | 770 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments", Trafford Publishing
- Bolotin, David (1998). "An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing." Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scienti... | 771 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
"Essays in Ancient Philosophy". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). "Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima", Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
- Gill, Mary Louise (1989). "Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity". Princeto... | 772 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science").
- Knight, Kelvin (2007). "Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre", Polity Press.
- Lewis, Frank A. (1991). "Substance and Predication in Aristotle". Cambridge University Press.
- Lord, C... | 773 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Conference", Parmenides Publishing.
- [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). "Articles on Aristotle" Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
- Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). "Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship". Cambridge University Press.
- Reeve, C. D. C. (2000).... | 774 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
istotle and the Philosophy of Friendship". Cambridge University Press.
- Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). "Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics". Hackett.
- Scaltsas, T. (1994). "Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Cornell University Press.
- Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's "Politi... | 775 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
Battle of Malakoff
The Battle of Malakoff was a French attack against Russian forces on the Malakoff redoubt and its subsequent capture on 8 September 1855 as a part of the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. The French army under General MacMahon successfully stormed the Malakoff redoubt, w... | 776 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
were dedicated to the protection of the harbour entrance, the city itself and its naval base and were positioned close to these features. The construction of fortifications in the surrounding hills had been planned as early as 1837, but at the time of the battle only basic facilities and roadways had... | 777 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
known that the tower was built some time before the start of the war, the historical records do not show exactly when this occurred, and no mention of this is made in the contemporary descriptions of the siege itself. Additionally, there are different spellings and translations into or from Russian, ... | 778 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
marked all landmarks in and around this ridge as "Fort Malakoff". This included several large grave mounds and the same ridge lying in front known as Mamelon ("vert Mamelon"). The name "Fortmortal Malakoff" (or French "Fort Malakoff", Russian "Mal'akhoff") was retained after the war in Western litera... | 779 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
suburb, flanked on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works marked by a flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner harbour.
Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Totleben, the Russian chief engineer, had begun work on these sites early... | 780 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
reasons against them doing so at the time, and it was not until 17 October that the first attack took place.
# Battle.
Throughout 17 October, a tremendous artillery duel raged. The Russian artillery was initially successful, the French corps fell under siege and suffered heavy losses. The advancing... | 781 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
improved the damaged works.
For months the siege of Sevastopol continued. During July the Russians lost on an average of 250 men a day, and finally the Russians decided to break the stalemate and gradual attrition of their army. Gorchakov and the field army were to make another attack at the Chernay... | 782 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
only lost 1,700. With this defeat the last chance of saving Sevastopol vanished.
The same day, a determined bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the result that Marshal Pélissier planned the final assault. At noon on 8 S... | 783 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
the Flagstaff Bastion (left of the Great Redan) were repelled. With the failure of the French attacks in the left sector but with the fall of the Malakoff in French hands further attacks were cancelled. The Russian positions around the city were no longer tenable.
Throughout the day the bombardment ... | 784 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
had fallen on the final day and with the capture of Sevastopol the war was decided. No serious operations were undertaken against Gorchakov who, with the field army and the remnants of the garrison, held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. But Kinburn was attacked by sea and, from the naval point of vie... | 785 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
of the Reserve Corps (GdB Jonquière) attached - 15th and 95th Line, and the Chasseurs of the Guard also attached
- Curtain wall between Malakoff and Little Redan: 4th Division (GdD La Motte Rouge) - 4th Chasseurs, 49th, 86th, 91st and 100th line, with Imperial Guard infantry brigade (GdB Uhrich) att... | 786 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
of the Great Redan)
French left sector (French 1st Corps under GdD La Salles)
- Bastion du Mat (Flagstaff bastion): 1st Division (GdD D'Autemarre) - 5th Chasseurs, 19th, 26th, 39th and 74th Line, with Cialdini's Sardinian brigade attached
- Central Bastion: 2nd Division (GdD Levaillant) - 9th Chas... | 787 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
no first success, however crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed, the mere capture of Sevastopol would not have been strategically decisive. However, as the Tsar had decided to defend it at all costs and with unlimited resources, it became an unpleasant defeat, especially as the Allies had r... | 788 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
defenders evacuated the entire city on 8 September 1855, bringing a climax to the war.
As the fortress enabled the control of the Black Sea port of Sevastopol, the Russian forces destroyed all of their equipment and withdrew, leaving Russia with no more military fortifications on the Black Sea. The ... | 789 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
Russia. The Russians lost many men and horses in bringing supplies to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which were damaged every day during the siege by the fire of a thousand guns, and had to be rebuilt every night, required large, unprotected working parties and the losses a... | 790 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the almost daily ordeal of manning the lines, under shell-fire, against an assault which might or might not come.
Among the seven surviving defenders of a stone tower on the Malakov Kurgan, which were found by French troops among the dead, was the serio... | 791 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
a number of stone mining towers in the Ruhrgebiet, the so-called caponier Fort Malakoff in Mainz, and the yellow sandstone Malakoff Tower in the city of Luxembourg. In addition, the Malakoff cake was named after the Duke of Malakoff, as was a cheese dish in parts of Switzerland. In France, the battle... | 792 |
157665 | Battle of Malakoff | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Malakoff | Battle of Malakoff
ke was named after the Duke of Malakoff, as was a cheese dish in parts of Switzerland. In France, the battle was officially commemorated in a rare way: apart from the Battle of Magenta (in the Italian Campaign), it was the only one of Emperor Napoleon III's exploits to result in the awarding of a vic... | 793 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
Physiological plant disorder
Physiological plant disorders are caused by non-pathological conditions such as poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, and affect the functioning of the plant system. Physiological disorders are distinguished fr... | 794 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
(or disease) can be difficult, but there are many web-based guides that may assist with this. Examples are: "Abiotic plant disorders: Symptoms, signs and solutions"; "Georgia Corn Diagnostic Guide"; "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Kentucky); and "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Virginia).
Some ge... | 795 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
a group of plants of the same type growing together. In the case of a deficiency all of the plants should be similarly effected, although distribution will depend on past treatments applied to the soil.
- Soil analysis, such as determining pH, can help to confirm the presence of physiologi... | 796 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
of plants. Leaves and stems may turn black, and buds and flowers may be discoloured, and frosted blooms may not produce fruit. Many annual plants, or plants grown in frost free areas, can suffer from damage when the air temperature drops below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius). Trop... | 797 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
Avoid planting susceptible plants in frost pockets, or where they will receive early morning sun. Protect young buds and bloom with horticultural fleece if frost is forecast.
Cold, drying easterly winds can also severely inhibit spring growth even without an actual frost, thus adequate she... | 798 |
157664 | Physiological plant disorder | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiological%20plant%20disorder | Physiological plant disorder
rains, particularly after prolonged dry periods, can also cause roots to split, onion saddleback (splitting at the base), tomatoes split and potatoes to become deformed or hollow. Using mulches or adding organic matter such as leaf mold, compost or well rotted manure to the soil will help t... | 799 |
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