wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
is a pathogenic organism that affects trees, shrubs, woody climbers and, rarely, woody herbaceous perennial plants. Honey fungus can grow on living, decaying, and dead plant material.
Honey fungus spreads from living trees, dead and live roots and stumps by means of reddish-brown to black rhizomorphs (root-... | 600 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
rapidly, or may take several years. Infected plants will deteriorate, although may exhibit prolific flower or fruit production shortly before death.
Initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushroom... | 601 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
the pathogen. It will give off a strong mushroom scent and the mushrooms sometimes extend upward. On conifers honey fungus often exudes a gum or resin from cracks in the bark.
The linkage of morphological, genetic, and molecular characters of "Armillaria" over the past few decades has led to the recognition... | 602 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
mellea" complex”. Some data suggest that North American and European "A. gallica" isolates are not monophyletic. Although North American and European isolates of "A. gallica" may be interfertile, some North American isolates of "A. gallica" are more closely related to the North American taxon "A. calvescens"... | 603 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
al. 2003).
Intersterile species of "Armillaria" occurring in North America (North American Biological Species = NABS) were listed by Mallett (1992):
- I "Armillaria ostoyae" (Romagn.) Herink
- II "Armillaria gemina" Bérubé & Dessureault
- III "Armillaria calvescens" Bérubé & Dessureault
- V "Armillaria ... | 604 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
Prairie Provinces, with I and V occurring in both the boreal and subalpine regions; I, III, V, and VII have been found in Ontario; and I, II, III, V, and VI have been found in Quebec. "Armillaria ostoyae" is the species most commonly found in all Canadian provinces surveyed (Mallett 1990). "Armillaria" root ... | 605 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
fungus must be thoroughly cooked as they are mildly poisonous raw. One of the four UK species can cause sickness when ingested with alcohol. For those unfamiliar with the species, it is advisable not to drink alcohol for 12 hours before and "24" hours after eating this mushroom to avoid any possible nausea a... | 606 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
Fungus edible, but because the health department is moving away from parboiling, they are now considered poisonous.
# Hosts.
Potential hosts include conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (P... | 607 |
157657 | Armillaria | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armillaria | Armillaria
conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (Patton and Vasquez Bravo 1967). "Armillaria" root rot enters hosts through the roots. In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted... | 608 |
157669 | List of cities in Sierra Leone | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20cities%20in%20Sierra%20Leone | List of cities in Sierra Leone
List of cities in Sierra Leone
This is a list of cities and towns in Sierre Leone".
# Largest cities.
The following table is the list of cities in Sierra Leone by population.
Other notable cities
- Wangechi
- Kalewa
- Magburaka
- Kabala
- Moyamba
- Kailahun
- Bonthe
- Kambia
... | 609 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Anna Komnene
Anna Komnene (, "Ánna Komnēnḗ"; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess, scholar, physician, hospital administrator, and historian. She was the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and his wife Irene Doukaina. She is best known for... | 610 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
brother, John II Komnenos, became the heir in 1092. Constantine died around 1094, and Anna married Nikephoros Bryennios in 1097. The two had several children before Nikephoros' death around 1136.
Following her father’s death in 1118, Anna and her mother attempted to usurp John II Komnenos. Her husband ref... | 611 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
became emperor in 1081, after usurping the previous Byzantine Emperor, Nikephoros Botaneiates. Her mother, Irene Doukaina, was part of the imperial Doukai family. In the "Alexiad", Anna emphasizes her affection for her parents in stating her relationship to Alexios and Irene. She was the eldest of seven ch... | 612 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
her mother asked Anna to wait to be born until her father returned from war. Obediently, Anna waited until her father came home.
At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, the son of Emperor Michael VII and Maria of Alania. The two were the heirs to the empire until sometime between c.1088 and 10... | 613 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Maria of Alania was implicated in an attempt to overthrow Alexios I Komnenos. Some scholars argue that Anna's betrothal to Constantine Doukas may not have ended there, as he was not implicated in the plot against Alexios, but it certainly ended when he died around 1094.
Some scholars have also now started... | 614 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
opening pages of the "Alexiad"."
# Education.
Anna wrote at the beginning of the "Alexiad" about her education, highlighting her experience with literature, Greek language, rhetoric, and sciences. Tutors trained her in subjects that included astronomy, medicine, history, military affairs, geography, and ... | 615 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Anna given by her contemporary, Georgios Tornikes. In his oration he said that she had to read ancient poetry, such as the "Odyssey", in secret because her parents disapproved of its dealing with polytheism and other "dangerous exploits," which were considered "dangerous" for men and "excessively insidious... | 616 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
beds for 10,000 patients and orphans. Anna taught medicine at the hospital, as well as at other hospitals and orphanages. She was considered an expert on gout. Anna treated her father during his final illness.
# Marriage.
In roughly 1097, Anna's parents married her to "Caesar" Nikephoros Bryennios. Nikep... | 617 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
tolerated and possibly encouraged Anna's scholarly interests by allowing her to participate in various scholarly circles. The couple had six known children: Eirene, Maria, Alexios, John, Andronikos, and Constantine. Only Eirene, John, and Alexios survived to adulthood.
# Claim to the throne.
In 1087, Ann... | 618 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
fell sick with rheumatism and could not move. He therefore turned the civil government over to his wife, Irene; she in turn directed the administration to Bryennios. Choniates states that, as Emperor Alexios lay dying in his imperial bedchamber, John arrived and "secretly" took the emperor’s ring from his ... | 619 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Anna’s "main aim" in the depiction of events in the Alexiad, according to Stankovich, was to "stress her own right" to the throne and "precedence over her brother, John."
In view of this belief, Jarratt et al. record that Anna was "almost certainly" involved in the murder plot against John at Alexios’s fu... | 620 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
to overthrow John, making Anna unable to continue with her plans. With this refusal, Anna, according to Choniates, exclaimed "that nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman." According to Jarratt et al., Anna shows "a repetition of sexualized anger." Indeed, Smythe asserts that A... | 621 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Constantinople in 1204.
In contrast, Leonora Neville argues that Anna probably not involved in the attempted usurpation. Anna plays a minor role in most of the available medieval sources – only Choniates portrays her as a rebel. Choniates' history is from around 1204, almost a hundred years after Alexios ... | 622 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Anna dedicated her time to studying philosophy and history. She held esteemed intellectual gatherings, including those dedicated to Aristotelian studies. Anna's intellectual genius and breadth of knowledge is evident in her few works. Among other things, she was conversant with philosophy, literature, gram... | 623 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
wrote the "Alexiad" in the mid-1140s or 1150s. Anna cited her husband's unfinished work as the reason why she began the "Alexiad". Before his death in 1137, her husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, was working on a history, which was supposed to record the events before and during the reign of Alexio... | 624 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
statement on how she gathered her sources for the "Alexiad", Anna wrote, “My material ... has been gathered from insignificant writings, absolutely devoid of literary pretensions, and from old soldiers who were serving in the army at the time that my father seized the Roman sceptre ... I based the truth of... | 625 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
used the imperial archives, which allowed her access to official documents.
In the "Alexiad", Anna provided insight on political relations and wars between Alexios I and the West. She vividly described weaponry, tactics, and battles. It has been noted that she was writing about events that occurred when s... | 626 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
the Byzantine elite; her husband, Nikephorus Bryennios, had fought in the clash with crusade leader Godfrey of Bouillon outside Constantinople on Maundy Thursday 1097; and her uncle, George Palaeologus, was present at Pelekanon in June 1097 when Alexios I discussed future strategy with the crusaders. Thus,... | 627 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
their places around Haemus mountains: "...on either side of its slopes dwell many very wealthy tribes, the Dacians and the Thracians on the northern side, and on the southern, more Thracians and the Macedonians". Special suspicion was reserved for crusading leader Bohemond of Taranto, a southern Italian No... | 628 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
that the lapses in some of the chronology of events can in part be attributed to errors in, or lack of, source material for those events. Anna herself also addressed these lapses, explaining them as a result of memory loss and old age. But regardless of errors in chronology, her history meets the standards... | 629 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
this be the end of my history, then, lest as I write of these sad events I become even more resentful."
# Depictions in fiction and other media.
- Anna Komnene plays a secondary role in Sir Walter Scott’s 1832 novel "Count Robert of Paris".
- Fictional accounts of her life are given in the 1928 novel "A... | 630 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Anna Komnina", in English: "I, Anna Comnena") was written by Vera Mutafchieva, a Bulgarian writer and historian.
- She is also a minor character in Nan Hawthorne's novel of the Crusade of 1101, "Beloved Pilgrim" (2011).
- Anna appears in "" video game campaigns as a Byzantine princess diplomat, under the... | 631 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
the board game Nations, Anna Komnene is an adviser in the Medieval Age.
# References.
## Primary sources.
- Niketas Choniates, "O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates" (Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1984)
- Anna Comnena (2001). Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. "The Alexiad." "The Internet M... | 632 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
University Press, 1990)
## Secondary sources.
- Carolyn R. Connor, "Women of Byzantium" (Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2004)
- Dalven, Rae (1972). "Anna Comnena". New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc.
- Frankopan, Peter (2002). "Perception and Projection of Prejudice: Anna Comnena, the "Alexiad", and... | 633 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Joseph R. ed. "The Dictionary of the Middle Ages." 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 303–304.
- Hill, Barbara (2000). "Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Anna Komnene's Attempted Usurpation". In Gouma-Peterson, Thaila. "Anna Komnene and Her Times." New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 45–62.
- Jon... | 634 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Between Two Worlds," "Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience", ed. Lynda Garland, (New Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006).
- Angeliki Laiou, "Introduction: Why Anna Komnene?" "Anna Komnene and Her Times", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson, (New York: Garland, 2000). .
- Larmour, David (2004). Margolis, Nadia; Wilson, K... | 635 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
York: Oxford University Press. .
- Reinsch, Diether R. (2000). "Women’s Literature in Byzantium? – The Case of Anna Komnene." Translated from German by Thomas Dunlap. In "Anna Komnene and Her Times", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.
- Dion C. Smythe, "Middle Byzantine Family V... | 636 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. (This print version uses more idiomatic English, has more extensive notes, and mistakes).
- John France, "Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade", "Reading Medieval Studies" v. 9 (1983)
- Ed. Kurtz, 'Unedierte Texte aus der Zeit des Kaisers Johannes Komnenos, in "By... | 637 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
Carole, et al. "Extraordinary Women of the Medieval and Renaissance World". Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000.
- 5–6.
- Ellen Quandahl and Susan C. Jarratt, "'To recall him…will be a subject of lamentation': Anna Comnene as rhetorical historiographer" in "Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric"... | 638 |
157653 | Anna Komnene | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anna%20Komnene | Anna Komnene
ennios, Anna Komnene and Konstantios Doukas. A Story of Different Perspectives," in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (2007): 174.
- Paul Stephenson, "Anna Comnena's Alexiad as a source for the Second Crusade?", "Journal of Medieval History" v. 29 (2003)
- Dion C. Smythe, "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna... | 639 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
ASCII
ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they s... | 640 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the... | 641 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits "0" to "9", lowercase letters "a" to "z", uppercase letters "A" to "Z", and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included ... | 642 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA became the United States of America Standards Ins... | 643 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to "sticks" 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into... | 644 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
other new characters (the brace and vertical bar characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.
Revisions of the AS... | 645 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats.
# Design considerations.
## Bit width.
The X3.2 su... | 646 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphab... | 647 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shi... | 648 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high... | 649 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXB... | 650 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.
Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on "mechanical" typewriters, not "electric" typewriters... | 651 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to "9" and "0", however, because the place corresponding to "0" was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from "6" and shifting the remain... | 652 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some ke... | 653 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The "@" symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented "À" in the French variation, so the "@" wa... | 654 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
between their bit patterns.
## Character order.
ASCII-code order is also called "ASCIIbetical" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are:
- All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for exam... | 655 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.
For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". refers to control charac... | 656 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete"... | 657 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell... | 658 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warn... | 659 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.
The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose o... | 660 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace" while the key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one... | 661 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
Emacs.
Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encoun... | 662 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC gener... | 663 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typeba... | 664 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
(later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had n... | 665 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga syst... | 666 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the ... | 667 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network pro... | 668 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
text in the file. For these reasons, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is anal... | 669 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero".
Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.
## Printable characters.
Codes 20 to 7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneou... | 670 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret (5E) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5F).
]]
# Use.
ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for... | 671 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
first called the "Bemer–Ross Code" in Europe". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII".
On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII, stating:
I have also approved recom... | 672 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.
ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.
# Variants and d... | 673 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.
## 7-bit codes.
From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.
Other international standards bodies have r... | 674 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters.
Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).
It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful ... | 675 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
make their own assignments to these code points.
ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text... | 676 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as
instead of
C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers li... | 677 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches".
## 8-bit codes.
Eventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity fo... | 678 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
the ANSI standard.
Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.
The PETSC... | 679 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 termi... | 680 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the ori... | 681 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called "code points") and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-b... | 682 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.
# See also.
- 3568 ... | 683 |
586 | ASCII | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASCII | ASCII
at recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.
# See also.
- 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding
- Ascii85
- ASCII art
- A... | 684 |
157670 | Osterode (district) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osterode%20(district) | Osterode (district)
Osterode (district)
Osterode () was a district in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the southwest and clockwise) the districts of Göttingen, Northeim and Goslar, and by the state of Thuringia (districts of Nordhausen and Eichsfeld).
# History.
This part of the Harz mountains was rule... | 685 |
157670 | Osterode (district) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osterode%20(district) | Osterode (district)
ration established districts, among them Osterode.
On 1 November 2016, Osterode ceased to become a separate district and was merged with an enlarged Göttingen.
# Geography.
More than two thirds of the district's area were occupied by the southwestern part of the Harz mountains, including the sout... | 686 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle (; "Aristotélēs", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the "Father of Western Philosophy". His wr... | 687 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. Hi... | 688 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.
Aristotle's views on physical science profound... | 689 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neopla... | 690 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
Foot.
# Life.
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, a... | 691 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
with the Macedonian monarchy.
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν... | 692 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either He... | 693 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, a... | 694 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
to the "Suda", he also had an "erômenos", Palaephatus of Abydus.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, f... | 695 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
medicine, dance and theatre."
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some... | 696 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
# Speculative philosophy.
## Logic.
With the "Prior Analytics", Ari... | 697 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean "dialectics". Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the "Organon... | 698 |
308 | Aristotle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotle | Aristotle
from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the "Categories," the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in "On Interpretation", to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the "Analytics") and dialectics (in the "Topics" and "Sophistical Refutations"). The first three tre... | 699 |
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