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The purpose of this activity is to help your child notice details, follow simple directions, and sort objects – all important steps toward gathering and understanding information (data collection and analysis).From the Virtual Pre-K: Ready For Math toolkit
Invite your child to help with the sorting you do every day during household chores.
Give your child encouraging words and gentle correction as he/she works to build sorting skills. For example: "I can see you're working really hard at this. I'm proud of you!" "Oops, I think a fork made it into the spoon pile. Where should we put it?" "You look a little frustrated. Can we try sorting this together?" Explain to your child how you decide what goes where. For example: "This coin is a penny and it's brown. This coin is a dime and it's smaller and silver. So I'm going to put the brown coins in this pile, and the silver coins in that one." | <urn:uuid:961e06fe-59ce-455f-a7fe-2cf6e4448ae5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pbskids.org/lab/activity/sortingathome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948835 | 198 | 4.34375 | 4 |
Reading unfamiliar text aloud in any language is a complicated process and is generally much harder than people who haven’t tried it realise. This is especially true for reading aloud in Chinese. Because of this, if someone can do it well, you can be quite sure that person is (really) good at the language. However, the opposite isn’t true, meaning that you can be bad at reading aloud while still being very proficient in almost all other areas, including reading (silently) and speaking.
Reading aloud is a very complex process that requires a whole set of skills, rather than just one called “reading aloud” or whatever. Thus, it’s a good evaluation of all these skills combined, but if says almost nothing about the component parts..
What skills are involved in reading aloud in Chinese?
The cognitive processes involved in reading have been thoroughly researched, but this is a simplified summary. You need to be able to:
- Map characters to meaning (character recognition)
- Group characters into meaningful words (vocabulary)
- Group words into meaningful sentences (grammar)
- Understand the meaning of sentences in context (pragmatics)
- Map characters to pronunciation (pronunciation recall)
- Understand how the pronunciation of one syllable influences other syllables
- Understand how meaning influences pronunciation (intonation and stress)
- Understand the writer’s intent (reading between the lines)
Naturally, you don’t need to do all these steps all the time. For instance, experienced readers seldom read individual characters, but rather read words in their entirety (this is why it’s possible to read Chinese which is printed with a font size so small that individual strokes can’t be discerned). This is true for strokes of individual characters as well, just as in English, where you don’t read the individual letters of every word. Similarly, we tend to remember the pronunciation of words (if they are common) rather than the individual characters they consist of.
Why reading in Chinese is significantly harder than reading in, say, French
Reading aloud is tricky in any language, but now I’m going to explain why it’s significantly harder in Chinese than most other languages (and when I say most, I refer to languages likely studied by readers of Hacking Chinese). The key difference is that Chinese is different kind of language altogether from, say, French.
The most obvious reason is of course that there is no systematic mapping between characters and pronunciation. Sure, if you’re well-versed in semantic-phonetic characters (see relevant article here, part 1 and part 2), you might find some clues in the characters, but the fact remains that reading aloud in Chinese is much, much harder than in any language with a phonetic writing system. This should be fairly obvious to anyone who studies Chinese, in fact it was so obvious that I forgot to write this paragraph in the first version of this article, so thanks to David Moser who highlighted this shortcoming in the comments.
The less obvious reason why Chinese is hard to read aloud
French is a synthetic language, meaning that it has a high morpheme-per-word ratio, which in normal English means that a single word carries much information. For instance, verbs in French contain much more information than in English. Not only can you see when the action took place (tense), you can also see who did it, because the verb changes according to the subject of the sentence (person). This is true for some English verbs as well, such as “to be”. This means that there is a lot of redundancy in the system, because you don’t actually have to understand both the subject and the verb of a sentence. In English, if you know the verb is “am”, the subject has to be “I”, for instance.
Chinese is at the other end of the spectrum. Languages that have a low morpheme-per-word ratio are called isolating languages and Chinese is a very good example of this. In French, we could see who did it and when, in English only when (and sometimes who), but in Chinese we can’t even see if it’s a verb or not! Most of the time, the inflections of words that allow us to see that a word is a verb, noun or adjective simply aren’t there. Boundaries between word classes are not distinct. But how is meaning conveyed in such a language? Through context, mostly, and this is the first key to understanding why reading aloud in Chinese is so hard.
The information is there even if you can’t see it directly
The fact that we can’t know if 冰 is a noun, verb or adjective simply by looking at the character (compare ice, to ice and icy in English) doesn’t mean that it doesn’t matter which one it is. In a specific sentence, it’s usually only one of these, not all three. In order to make sense of a sentence, you still need to figure out what function it has in that context. You don’t need to know what linguists call it, but you need to be able to do it in practice. This is roughly how my linguistics teacher put it:
In synthetic languages (such as French), the burden rests mostly with the writer (or speaker). He needs to write clearly and use the right tense, number and gender and so on. In Chinese (an isolating language), the burden lies mainly on the reader (or listener), who needs to figure out all these things based on context. The information is there, it’s just not encoded on the word level.
To add insult to injury, we also need to figure out which characters belong to which words. This is very easy if you only encounter words you’ve seen hundreds of times, but it’s not easy when you approach the limits of your reading ability. This adds significantly to the difficulty of reading texts aloud, because not being able to find word boundaries is more or less guaranteed to make the reading very awkward and will most likely result in restarting the sentence once you’ve figured out where the words actually are.
Reading aloud in Chinese is really hard
This actually explains why reading in Chinese is hard in general, so it follows that reading aloud is even harder, because not only do you need to remember how all the characters are read, but you also need to sort all the above things while you read. You need to do it quickly enough so that you can read and understand a sentence during the time it takes you to read the previous sentence, otherwise there’s simply no way that you can understand how the next sentence is supposed to be read. You might not need to finish the entire sentence before you start it, but you need a good enough grasp of Chinese to be able to make educated guesses on the fly.
In addition, just reading at a reasonable pace (125-250 characters per minute) is not easy, even if you don’t do it aloud! If this is your main problem, please check this article: Reading speed: Learning how to read ten lines at a glance. To put this into context, you can pass some quite advanced tests in Chinese without reading quicker than, say, 150 characters per minute, and most people who fail reading tests still fail because of a lack of speed.
Of course, you can do what most foreigners do and simply ignore anything above the character level and just pronounce the characters one by one. This is fairly easy, but you will have zero intonation and you will also fail characters that have multiple readings (为/為 being a prime example of this; you have to understand what you’re reading to get it right).
The next step would be to read word by word, which requires a much higher level of proficiency, but which is still doable for most people after studying Chinese for some time, but it still sounds very unnatural and lacks intonation. Being able to read an unfamiliar text aloud and include information on the sentence level (intonation and stress) is really, really hard. I’ve studied Chinese full-time for five years and still can’t do it well. I doubt that I will be able to do it well five years from now either.
Why all this matters
So what’s the big deal? Why publish an article like this?
First, I think many learners of Chinese have noticed that reading in Chinese is hard without understanding why or perhaps thinking that they are a bit dense because they can’t read even simple stories aloud. Don’t worry, it’s not your fault, it’s normal. You just need more patience and more practice. Reading fluency is definitely possible, but the effort needed to get there shouldn’t be underestimated. Additionally, being able to read aloud is probably not part of your main motivation for learning Chinese, even if it’s sometimes used to evaluate your ability.
Second, I want to highlight the fact that reading aloud is a very complex task and that people shouldn’t use it as the sole method to evaluate one of the component skills. For instance, if you want to evaluate someone’s pronunciation, don’t ask them to read an unfamiliar text aloud. You have no way of knowing if their errors are due to lack of character knowledge, too slow parsing speed or actual pronunciation problems. If you want to test pronunciation, many of the above hurdles can be overcome simply by previewing the text, looking up words you don’t know and practising a few times. Then you can read the text aloud.
Many native speakers find it strange that students (such as myself) can write adequate reports and papers in Chinese, listen to lectures targeted at native speakers, read novels and newspapers without using a dictionary and engage in social conversations and academic discussions without much effort, but still think it’s challenging to read texts aloud. In fact, this is not strange at all, because reading aloud in Chinese really is very hard.
Follow-up article: Since writing this article, I have experimented with improving my ability to read aloud in Chinese. You can read about both the process and the results here: Learning to read aloud in Chinese.
Share this article: | <urn:uuid:5370cdb6-77ee-4a68-ab33-0004a176864d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hackingchinese.com/reading-aloud-in-chinese-is-really-hard/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959859 | 2,160 | 2.890625 | 3 |
By Jennifer Carpenter
Science reporter, BBC News, Liverpool
Everyone, it seems, has a memory associated with Liverpool's finest
The world's largest catalogue of Beatles-related recollections will be unveiled in Liverpool this week.
The 3,000 memories, from 69 nations, could help scientists better understand how music can help humans tap into the long forgotten events of their lives.
A link between positive feelings and music could explain why tunes trigger memories, suggests the UK-based team.
The study is ongoing, and people can add their Beatles-related memory by visiting www.magicalmemorytour.com.
"For a long time people have noticed that music can help people remember events from their lives, [but] this is the first real data that shows this," said Dr Catriona Morrison, a cognitive psychologist from the University of Leeds.
Preliminary results from the study, devised by Dr Morrison and her colleague Professor Martin Conway, are being presented to the British Association Science Festival.
The research explores the vast repertoire of human autobiographical memories.
"[Autobiographical] memories are formed from the events of our lives; we need them in order to have a sense of self," the Leeds-based team explained.
The researchers invited people to recount a memory that relates to the Beatles. Participants were told to think of the first thing that came to mind - a vivid memory relating to a particular album, song, news story or even a band member.
The study found that the recounted memories are almost always positive, that people remember particular episodes very vividly - sounds, smells and sights of the memory were often recounted.
"The memories were equally split between men and women, and came from all ages - the youngest was 17 and the eldest was 87," Dr Conway told BBC News.
He explains that what he finds interesting is that there was no difference between men and women in terms of the sense of emotion that the memories evoked.
Dr Morrison explained that it was assumed that a failure to retrieve a memory was the result of that memory not being recorded properly in the first place. The fact that music cues long-forgotten events suggests the problem is not so much with storage as with retrieval, the researcher argued.
Whether certain types of music (or certain songs) can act as better aids for remembering the past remains unclear. But in a world where the UN predicts that by 2010, one in five people will be over 60, and failing memory is likely to become an important challenge for society, more rigorous research into the link between music and memory is much needed, says the team. | <urn:uuid:dff54d94-10e5-4b19-83d9-a0f557cadbbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7603286.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970245 | 530 | 2.953125 | 3 |
In January 1937 the inquiry's report was presented to Parliament. In effect there were three reports as neither assessor agreed with Sir Henry Walker's findings.
Sir Henry wrote his conclusions in guarded language. He said it was impossible to know the location and cause of the explosion without entering the Dennis section. He suspected shot firing in the area around the 24s airway in the 95s district. The colliery had inadequate ventilation. The 95s, 14s and 29s districts were dangerous and both management and inspectors had failed in their duties. However, he did not point the finger of blame.
I look with grave suspicion upon the circumstances existing in connexion with 24s airway in 95s district.
John Brass, the owner's nominee, disagreed. The owners, despite the problems caused by the geology of the mine, had done their best as regards the ventilation. The colliery officials were conscientious and the miners' testimony was unreliable. Brass's theory was that a faulty telephone had sparked a firedamp explosion at 'The Clutch'. The resultant fire at the 29s turn (see plan) had caused the loss of life. He blamed this on the lack of proper fire fighting equipment in the mine.
Joseph Jones, the miners' nominee, disagreed with John Brass on nearly every count. He saw the poor ventilation and the management culture of output at all costs as the reason the pit was so unsafe. Firedamp had built up to dangerous levels in the 14s district. The explosion happened there and was massive enough to affect the whole of the Dennis section. He called for criminal charges to be made against Bonsall and the colliery company.
The top end 14s cannot be described except as a place of great danger, pregnant with possibilities for ignition.
The report satisfied few who sought justice for the miners, but neither would the courts. In April 1937 at Wrexham Petty Sessions 42 charges were made against the colliery company, the manager and officials. In the end most were withdrawn or dismissed. William Bonsall was convicted on eight counts of breaking mining safety law. He was fined £140 with £350 costs.
Parliament debated a motion calling for improvements to working conditions in the coal mines. Sir Stafford called for much more: the nationalization of the industry. | <urn:uuid:c4757d55-5cf2-45f2-bbb8-b0f56dddabba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/heritage/gresford_disaster/aftermath.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985834 | 467 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Recruitment: The addition of new individuals to a population.
Remotely operated vehicle (ROV): An unmanned submersible connected to the research vessel by a cable, often used to carry imaging systems and sample collectors.
Salinity: The concentration of dissolved salts in water, usually measured in parts per thousand.
Scleractinians: Corals which have a hard limestone skeleton and belong to the order Scleractinia.
Seamount: Undersea mountains that are often caused by volcanic activity.
Sediment: Particles of organic or inorganic matter that accumulate in loose form on the seabed.
Soft coral: Referring to the Class Octocorallia.
Solitary corals: Corals composed of a single individual polyp.
Storm wave base: The plane or maximum depth at which surface driven waves may impact the sea bottom during severe storms.
Stylasterids: Referring to the Family Stylasteridae of the Class Hydrozoa.
Symbiosis: The close association between two organisms where there is substantial mutual benefit.
Temperate: Pertaining to the latitudinal belt between 23° 27’ and 66° 33’ north or south latitude.
Thermocline: A depth at which the temperature of the water changes significantly.
Trophic level: The level at which an organism exchanges energy: bacteria and plants constitute the lowest level, followed by herbivores and a series of carnivores at the higher levels. | <urn:uuid:e8ecaea7-56d4-4fe2-b67f-4cc065d0a813> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lophelia.org/corals/glossary/q-t | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914228 | 310 | 3.5625 | 4 |
|The dull green, branching, long and slender stem reaches between 4 and 5 feet in height. Spineless areoles produce 1 to 2 yellow short spines. In summer the bell-shaped, large dark rose flowers are borne singly on the stem tips and then produce fruit. This genus has the largest membership of sun loving species. Australia has even banned a few because of their rapid growth. | <urn:uuid:d711728e-b512-4f68-9eee-db8664e52036> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.backyardgardener.com/plantname/pda_89c1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941319 | 80 | 2.9375 | 3 |
My little one just turned three and is getting ready to start preschool later this year. Just like my oldest she loves numbers and counting, so I thought it would be fun to make a math game for her. When my oldest was this age I made this fun Matching Math game for her, so I thought this time I would make this one more spring like and do a ladybug math game.
For those of you who don’t want to do the craft part of this to make the ladybug out of felt, I added on the printable a finished colored ladybug so you can just print it out on paper or card stock to play the game.
HOW TO PLAY: There are two ways to play this game. #1 place the black dots on one side of the ladybugs back and have the child count them and pick out the correct number to place on the other side of the back. #2 place a number on one side of the back and have the child count out the dots and put them on the opposite side of the back.
Ladybug Math Game Printable
FOLLOW US ON FACEBOOK! | <urn:uuid:710ebb79-e41a-46cf-bf6c-1bba183df13e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://we-made-that.com/ladybug-math-game/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953465 | 230 | 2.96875 | 3 |
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Pediculosis capitis is an infestation of adult lice or nits (eggs) in the hair on the head. The head louse lives close to the scalp and are most visible behind the ears or at the base of the neckline. Lice depend upon human blood to exist and can only survive up to two days away from the scalp. The main symptom of a head lice infestation is itching.
Optimally, eggs hatch in a week, and the resultant lice are capable of multiplying in 8-10 days. The typical adult louse lives 20-30 days and lays 4-5 eggs a day; however, the eggs will only hatch if they are less than 1 week old and are near the scalp.
Mode of Transmission
Transmission occurs by direct head to head contact with a person with a live infestation, or less frequently, direct contact with their personal belongings that are harboring lice, such as combs, hairbrushes or hats.
Period of Communicability
A person can spread lice as long as live lice remain on an infested person and/or eggs (nits) in hair are within a ¼" from the scalp. Head lice are most common among children attending child care or elementary school.
School nurses should work with their administration and LHDs to implement a policy regarding head lice and attendance. A lack of scientific evidence hinders the ISDH from endorsing any policy; however, it should be noted that most school systems no longer support a “no-nit” policy.
Indiana State Department of Health Quick Fact Link:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Link:
Harvard School of Public Health Link: | <urn:uuid:93565b63-382c-4ba4-96b1-c0b28e5f1c2f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.in.gov/isdh/23308.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92551 | 394 | 3.75 | 4 |
Sudden changes in skin color and formation of tiny red spots are some of the common symptoms of skin cancer. Cancer can affect any body part and when it gets accumulated in the nerve paths of leg, you can get skin cancer leg. It is difficult to detect skin cancer on legs since we very often ignore them. Unlike face and arms, people scarcely take care of their legs, giving regular massages.
Formation of abnormal mole on the legs is an indication of cancer. Check for the ABCD’s formula on the legs to monitor the changes in skin on your legs. Malignant melanoma will normally begin as abnormal mole with uneven lesions and irregular borders. Sometime later, these tiny spots will change into brown or dark black color which is a sign of skin cancer. It may grow bigger in size posing risk to the affected person.
Treatment is simple and uncomplicated for skin cancer in legs. But early detection is necessary for getting the best positive results.
To prevent skin cancer on legs, wear cotton socks that let air inside and avoid exposure to sun. Apply sun protective formula cream on your legs before leaving home. Any changes in size of the mole or color should be shown to the doctor for getting his opinion. In rare cases, skin cancer on legs become fatal.
Pictures of Skin Cancer Leg :
Images, Pics, Pictures and Photos of Skin Cancer Leg | <urn:uuid:6034dfe0-aa64-40a8-9ed1-0eb228698576> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://diseasespictures.com/skin-cancer-leg/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919989 | 283 | 2.75 | 3 |
From Teaching Open Source
Appendix A: Instructor Guide
Maybe you're an instructor, and you're using this textbook for your class. Maybe you're a self-learner, and you're walking through this textbook yourself. Either way, this appendix contains additional information that you need to consider.
Lay of the Land
We discuss the notion of a "class Planet" here, but we do not yet have infrastructure to support classes making their own planets. For those instructors who wish to set up an instance of a Planet feed reader, there are detailed instructions at the Planet Planet site. We hope to provide supporting infrastructure soon.
Getting the Code
For the exercises in this chapter, students will all need access to the version control client.
Best practice, ultimately, will involve giving each student their own account. Since the overhead of that is high, though, we will simply allow students to publish with the following commit info:
- Repo: http://svn.teachingopensource.org/repos/tos/
- Userid: tosguest
- Passwd "I love open source!"
As of this version, this single account is the only account with write access. It's possible that this may change in subsequent versions if someone abuses the repo, but for now, it's the simplest approach. The goal of this repo is just to give everyone a scratch space to play with. None of the code in this repository is important.
Building the Code
By this point, it's absolutely essential to have chosen a project.
The Freeciv examples are just that: examples. The only way to learn how to build a project from source is to build it from source.
If you are an individual learner, you should choose a project that interests you. If you are an instructor, you can either allow the students to pursue their own individual projects, or you can select a single project for the class. Both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses -- but it's essential to have chosen a project by this point.
One good source for inspiration is the Open Hatch Project. They do a good job of aggregating open source projects that have tasks suitable for beginners.
Another possible exercise: figure out why a warning is being thrown during compilation. Dig around Google. What can you find? Can you figure out why this error is being thrown? Is it worth fixing this warning? Why or why not? (Note: in the example given in the chapter, googling the error itself pretty much tells you *exactly* why the error is happening, and why it's probably not worth fixing.)
A note for potential collaborators: in the Java world, Ant and Maven are as ubiquitous as are the Autotools in C/C++ projects. A completely parallel chapter could be written using a project based on Ant or Maven instead of Autotools.
Debugging the Code
Simon Tatham's How to Report Bugs Effectively is a truly outstanding work, and had we not identified it so late in the process, we may well have swiped the text for this chapter. It's licensed under the OPL; in subsequent versions, if we are able to work out licensing issues, we may choose to incorporate this text.
Explaining the Code
This chapter relies upon a wiki installation. Since we are teaching true FOSS participation, it's important that we don't think of the work as throwaway. In particular, the work done for documentation includes taking notes for the class, and those have value of team documentation throughout the class and beuond. For example, future classes can learn from and build on the wiki work done by previous classes, while still conducting a useful exercise. Templates can be borrowed, naming conventions borrowed, while writing new content.
- Wiki needed, recommendation: MediaWiki is well suited.
- You may want to run this chapter early on so the class is self-documenting from the beginning.
- Some of the exercises are best done as part of other exercises, such as documenting obtaining and testing and version controlling code.
Teach two important sections ASAP
Two of the sections in this chapter are useful for early in the class, both the information and exercises. The exercises are used throughout the class, so are useful when taught early or first.
- Explaining_the_Code#Introduction is useful for explaining how the FOSS methodology is useful in non-code situations, which is an essential point to understand. The exercise in this section is to do good code commenting and developer documentation for any code developed in this class. This is a useful exercise to begin early in the class.
- Explaining_the_Code#Documenting_technical_and_community_proceedings also shares a useful FOSS developer skill that is non-coding. The exercise is to work as a class to document the class, and so is most useful when it is begun at the earliest opportunity in the class.
Subsequent editions of the book are likely to refactor this content and move it to an earlier place in the textbook.
Notes for the 0.9 Release
It is worth reading the notes for the upcoming release to see where the writers think this current release needs fixing.
You may want to adust your usage of the textbook in the classroom based on the plans for the next release. | <urn:uuid:97c37769-b38c-4f04-bd12-ea5d07dcf772> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://teachingopensource.org/index.php/Instructor_Guide | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936177 | 1,099 | 3.0625 | 3 |
- Year Published: 1859
- Language: English
- Country of Origin: England
- Source: Dickens, C. (1859). A Tale of Two Cities. London, England: Chapman and Hall.
- Flesch–Kincaid Level: 9.5
- Word Count: 1,574
Dickens, C. (1859). Book the Third: The Track of a Storm—Chapter 11: Dusk. A Tale of Two Cities (Lit2Go Edition). Retrieved June 26, 2016, from
Dickens, Charles. "Book the Third: The Track of a Storm—Chapter 11: Dusk." A Tale of Two Cities. Lit2Go Edition. 1859. Web. <>. June 26, 2016.
Charles Dickens, "Book the Third: The Track of a Storm—Chapter 11: Dusk," A Tale of Two Cities, Lit2Go Edition, (1859), accessed June 26, 2016,.
The wretched wife of the innocent man thus doomed to die, fell under the sentence, as if she had been mortally stricken. But, she uttered no sound; and so strong was the voice within her, representing that it was she of all the world who must uphold him in his misery and not augment it, that it quickly raised her, even from that shock.
The Judges having to take part in a public demonstration out of doors, the Tribunal adjourned. The quick noise and movement of the court’s emptying itself by many passages had not ceased, when Lucie stood stretching out her arms towards her husband, with nothing in her face but love and consolation.
“If I might touch him! If I might embrace him once! O, good citizens, if you would have so much compassion for us!”
There was but a gaoler left, along with two of the four men who had taken him last night, and Barsad. The people had all poured out to the show in the streets. Barsad proposed to the rest, “Let her embrace him then; it is but a moment.” It was silently acquiesced in, and they passed her over the seats in the hall to a raised place, where he, by leaning over the dock, could fold her in his arms.
“Farewell, dear darling of my soul. My parting blessing on my love. We shall meet again, where the weary are at rest!”
They were her husband’s words, as he held her to his bosom.
“I can bear it, dear Charles. I am supported from above: don’t suffer for me. A parting blessing for our chad.”
“I send it to her by you. I kiss her by you. I say farewell to her by you.”
“My husband. No! A moment!” He was tearing himself apart from her. “We shall not be separated long. I feel that this will break my heart by-and-bye; but I will do my duty while I can, and when I leave her, God will raise up friends for her, as He did for me.”
Her father had followed her, and would have fallen on his knees to both of them, but that Darnay put out a hand and seized him, crying:
“No, no! What have you done, what have you done, that you should kneel to us! We know now, what a struggle you made of old. We know, now what you underwent when you suspected my descent, and when you knew it. We know now, the natural antipathy you strove against, and conquered, for her dear sake. We thank you with all our hearts, and all our love and duty. Heaven be with you!”
Her father’s only answer was to draw his hands through his white hair, and wring them with a shriek of anguish.
“It could not be otherwise,” said the prisoner. “All things have worked together as they have fallen out. it was the always-vain endeavour to discharge my poor mother’s trust that first brought my fatal presence near you. Good could never come of such evil, a happier end was not in nature to so unhappy a beginning. Be comforted, and forgive me. Heaven bless you!”
As he was drawn away, his wife released him, and stood looking after him with her hands touching one another in the attitude of prayer, and with a radiant look upon her face, in which there was even a comforting smile. As he went out at the prisoners’ door, she turned, laid her head lovingly on her father’s breast, tried to speak to him, and fell at his feet.
Then, issuing from the obscure corner from which he had never moved, Sydney Carton came and took her up. Only her father and Mr. Lorry were with her. His arm trembled as it raised her, and supported her head. Yet, there was an air about him that was not all of pity—that had a flush of pride in it.
“Shall I take her to a coach? I shall never feel her weight.”
He carried her lightly to the door, and laid her tenderly down in a coach. Her father and their old friend got into it, and he took his seat beside the driver.
When they arrived at the gateway where he had paused in the dark not many hours before, to picture to himself on which of the rough stones of the street her feet had trodden, he lifted her again, and carried her up the staircase to their rooms. There, he laid her down on a couch, where her child and Miss Pross wept over her.
“Don’t recall her to herself,” he said, softly, to the latter, “she is better so. Don’t revive her to consciousness, while she only faints.”
“Oh, Carton, Carton, dear Carton!” cried little Lucie, springing up and throwing her arms passionately round him, in a burst of grief. “Now that you have come, I think you will do something to help mamma, something to save papa! O, look at her, dear Carton! Can you, of all the people who love her, bear to see her so?”
He bent over the child, and laid her blooming cheek against his face. He put her gently from him, and looked at her unconscious mother.
“Before I go,” he said, and paused—”I may kiss her?”
It was remembered afterwards that when he bent down and touched her face with his lips, he murmured some words. The child, who was nearest to him, told them afterwards, and told her grandchildren when she was a handsome old lady, that she heard him say, “A life you love.”
When he had gone out into the next room, he turned suddenly on Mr. Lorry and her father, who were following, and said to the latter:
“You had great influence but yesterday, Doctor Manette; let it at least be tried. These judges, and all the men in power, are very friendly to you, and very recognisant of your services; are they not?”
“Nothing connected with Charles was concealed from me. I had the strongest assurances that I should save him; and I did.” He returned the answer in great trouble, and very slowly.
“Try them again. The hours between this and to-morrow afternoon are few and short, but try.”
“I intend to try. I will not rest a moment.”
“That’s well. I have known such energy as yours do great things before now—though never,” he added, with a smile and a sigh together, “such great things as this. But try! Of little worth as life is when we misuse it, it is worth that effort. It would cost nothing to lay down if it were not.”
“I will go,” said Doctor Manette, “to the Prosecutor and the President straight, and I will go to others whom it is better not to name. I will write too, and—But stay! There is a Celebration in the streets, and no one will be accessible until dark.”
“That’s true. Well! It is a forlorn hope at the best, and not much the forlorner for being delayed till dark. I should like to know how you speed; though, mind! I expect nothing! When are you likely to have seen these dread powers, Doctor Manette?”
“Immediately after dark, I should hope. Within an hour or two from this.”
“It will be dark soon after four. Let us stretch the hour or two. If I go to Mr. Lorry’s at nine, shall I hear what you have done, either from our friend or from yourself?”
“May you prosper!”
Mr. Lorry followed Sydney to the outer door, and, touching him on the shoulder as he was going away, caused him to turn.
“I have no hope,” said Mr. Lorry, in a low and sorrowful whisper.
“Nor have I.”
“If any one of these men, or all of these men, were disposed to spare him—which is a large supposition; for what is his life, or any man’s to them!—I doubt if they durst spare him after the demonstration in the court.”
“And so do I. I heard the fall of the axe in that sound.”
Mr. Lorry leaned his arm upon the door-post, and bowed his face upon it.
“Don’t despond,” said Carton, very gently; “don’t grieve. I encouraged Doctor Manette in this idea, because I felt that it might one day be consolatory to her. Otherwise, she might think `his life was want only thrown away or wasted,’ and that might trouble her.”
“Yes, yes, yes,” returned Mr. Lorry, drying his eyes, “you are right. But he will perish; there is no real hope.”
“Yes. He will perish: there is no real hope,” echoed Carton.
And walked with a settled step, down-stairs. | <urn:uuid:03d97371-6a9f-4334-934f-7bff035eea3e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/22/a-tale-of-two-cities/167/book-the-third-the-track-of-a-stormchapter-11-dusk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985441 | 2,249 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Definition of Genus Poncirus
1. Noun. One species: trifoliate orange.
Generic synonyms: Rosid Dicot Genus
Group relationships: Family Rutaceae, Rue Family, Rutaceae
Member holonyms: Poncirus Trifoliata, Trifoliata, Trifoliate Orange, Wild Orange
Genus Poncirus Pictures
Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Genus Poncirus Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Genus Poncirus
Literary usage of Genus Poncirus
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. Citrus Fruits: An Account of the Citrus Fruit Industry, with Special by John Eliot Coit (1915)
"It is native to Japan and China and was introduced into Europe more than one hundred years ago. This species is now by some put in the genus Poncirus, ..." | <urn:uuid:faddd2ea-059d-443f-a9ab-f4cddbbacfcc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/genus_Poncirus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.870915 | 214 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Traumatic Brain Injury: Healthy Sleep Tips
The following is a list of tips which can be used to improve sleep. For more information, visit the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention website.
- Keep regular bedtime and wakeup hours even on weekends.
- Do NOT take naps.
- Make sure your bedroom is a quiet, dark, and relaxing environment, which is neither too hot nor too cold.
- Have a relaxing bedtime routine - warm soak in the tub or warm shower, relaxing thoughts , meditation, progressive muscle relaxation exercises, or yoga.
- Use the bed for sleeping and not for other activities, such as reading, watching TV, or listening to music.
- Go to another room if sleep does not come within 20 - 30 minutes.
- Avoid bright light exposure near bedtime.
- Avoid the following 3 hours before bedtime:
- Caffeinated food or drinks
- Heavy meals, nicotine, or alcohol
- Heavy exercise
- Stop work or viewing TV at least one hour before bed.
- Consult with a health care provider before taking any over the counter medications or supplements. | <urn:uuid:aaff615d-3be5-48cf-b506-7cf9ec5d897e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.health.ny.gov/prevention/injury_prevention/traumatic_brain_injury/sleep.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879194 | 232 | 3.109375 | 3 |
The History of New York State
Editor, Dr. James Sullivan
Online Edition by Holice, Deb & Pam
|During the second and third
weeks of April, the national legislators seemed to be divided as to the
best method of raising an army. Congress deliberated on the President's
plan of selective service. The House Military Committee, on April 18th,
inserted a clause into the Army bill, committing the government to a
trial of the volunteer system before resorting to recruitment by draft.
The Senate, however, favored conscription. But few were excited over
either plan the President, apparently, though at that time that the
Allies would not ask the Untied States to send a large army overseas.
America was "to be connected with the quartermaster's
department" of the Entente; the United States was to be the immense
all-supplying storehouse for the European nations that were fighting the
Teutons. Nobody in America yet realized how desperately near the end of
the man-power resources were the Allies. It was fortunate for the world
that America was able to build a mighty army upon the nucleus she
possessed in her small Regular Army and her trained National guard. The
Selective Service Act was not passed until May was well spent, but
meanwhile the National Guard busily pursued its plan to weed out its
ineligible men--those who had dependents or were not physically fit--and
recruit or reorganize its units, so that the State troops would be
soldiers in the truest sense--helpful to State and Nation tot he utmost
degree, in military capacity. Patriotism and eagerness to serve were not
the only requirements; every willing soldier was also expected to be
able to stand the rigors of campaigning.
Immediately after the passage of the Selective Service Act, on May 16th, the President issued a proclamation calling upon all male citizens of the United States between the ages of 21 and 31, except those who were already in the United States military or naval forces, to register in their home precincts on June 5th. Six weeks later, the quotas for the States in the first call was known, and the Selective Service Act was in full swing, although the first contingents of drafted men did not leave for the National Army cantonments until the beginning of September. There had been much for the draft boards to do before they reached the point where the first contingents could be finally lined up for departure;
some of the responsibility and gravity of draft board membership may be understood by a reading of the letter of July 26, 1917, from the Provost-Marshal-General to draft board members. #4
As spring passed into summer, national guardsmen grew impatient. The Regular Army was beginning to be heard of in France, and the well-trained national guard units chafed at continued guard duty at home. The first division of the American Expeditionary Forces disembarked in France in the last week of June, and rumor followed rumor of the impending complete federalization of the militia forces of the States. This reorganization of military control, it was confidently thought, gave promise that patrol duty at home would soon end and that intensive training of National Guardsmen for overseas service would soon begin. With the certainty that an immense National Army would soon be
organized under the Selective Service Act, it seemed that home defense would naturally devolve upon this less experienced military force, and that the logical destination of the National Guard regiments would be overseas.
Since the State troops had returned from the Mexican Border, they had to all intents been under arms. Some had been federalized, others had been called into State service for patrol duty, and the remainder had been reporting at their local armories from day o day, awaiting orders. The situation brightened during July. On the 10th, President Wilson, by proclamation, provided for the drafting of the National Guard of all States into the army of the Untied States. Almost immediately some of the new York regiments left home stations for camp. Other units, not so fully enrolled, renewed their effort to reach war strength. Some of the New York militia units gathered, for federalization, at Camp Whitman, New York, on July 16th. Others were mobilized at home armories until ready for departure to Camp Wadsworth, Spartanburg, North Carolina.
All National Guardsmen were in high spirits. Esprit de corps was high, commanders making the most of the colorful history of some of the older regiments. But the men were soon to realize that this war was different to all former wars. The operations were so colossal, the need of man-power so grave, that war departments got into the habit of looking at men as man-power, and at regiments as man-power multiplied. Local pride, sentimental associations, regimental history could hardly have conspicuous place in planning troop-movements of millions of men. A division that was needed and was short of man-power must be filled to war strength from the man-power of other divisions, even though historic old regiments be plundered of their loyal soldiers, and the latter hustled without ceremony or apology into strange units drawn from other States and officered by strangers. The New York State militiamen were quite shocked by the raid made upon their units in July, to complete the organization of the 42d Division. The 69th New York Infantry, the Irish-American Regiment of new York City, was ordered to be detached entirely from the New York Division, the 17th, and to be transferred to the Rainbow Division, the 42nd. And, as a regiment in World War service was required to be expanded to about three times its normal personnel, the War Department directed that the 69th be brought to the new war strength by the transfer of 346 men from each of the other regiments of New York City. Think of it! The order robbed the New York State Division of one whole regiment, and a third of every other. The State organization was literally cut to pieces. AS General O'Ryan explains in his "History of the Twenty-seventh Division": "this detachment of men from one regiment to another on the eve of was activity was a great shock to all the regiments concerned. It was a severe blow to their morale. Each regiment treasured its own tradition. In each the men
were led to believe that their regiment was the best. Actually, and by tradition as well, the 69th infantry was an Irish or Irish-American regiment. This regiment could have been recruited to the new war strength with a week's time, after they were designated for early overseas service. None of the other regiments wished to give up men fro transfer to the 69th. To take a man away from his own regiment and place him in another is like taking a child away from its own home and placing it in the home of some other family. But so high was the standard of discipline and so strong the spirit for what was said to be the common good that these transfers were in fact made with a minimum of friction." In the consequent reorganization of the 27th Division, the place of the 69th Regiment was taken by the 14th New York Infantry. And the 69th Regiment went on to added fame with the Rainbow Division.
Some of the units of the 27th Division gathered for federalization at Camp Whitman, New York, on July 16th; others were mobilized at home armories until ready for departure to the federal cantonment, which was to be known as Camp Wadsworth, Spartanburg, South Carolina. Detachments left home station about August 1st, to assist in preparing that camp for troops. On august 23d, Major-General O'Ryan received orders to proceed to that camp, to assume command of it. At that time the bulk of the 27th division were still within the home State, but the time of their departure had almost come. During the last week of August, the units converged on New York City, a military appearance being given to most of the large parks of the metropolitan area by the encampment of these 20,000 soldiers en route to Camp Wadsworth. Troops were in Pelham Bay park, Van Cortlandt Park, Prospect park, Bay Ridge, while some were doing pioneer work at Yaphank. With the departure of the 27th division from its home State so near at hand, there was much activity among civil authorities and public workers of New York City, the general wish being to show the troops such hospitality that before they departed they would realize that behind them at home would be sincere friends who would follow their adventures with unflagging interest, and would rejoice with them upon their return, warworn but safe. The women's Auxiliary committee of New York City was especially active and some mammoth farewell dinners were served at various New York City hotels. On August 30th, the day of departure, Fifth Avenue was the line-of-march of a memorable parade. It was a glorious day. there was pathos of course, but it seemed that most of the sadness was manifested by those who witnessed the parade. The soldiers preserved a brave cheerful front, marching past almost jauntily; and those who cheered them as they passed tried to hide by their cheerfulness the thought that the parting might be forever. The bloody war that had brought death into millions of European homes could hardly be expected to leave our own soldiers unscathed. However, the cheers of the people
of New York City were ringing in the ears of the National Guardsmen long after they had entrained; and, truth to tell, the average guardsman was lighthearted, happy, glad to shoulder arms, eager to get into the fray. The thought that he might not get out of it again bothered not one man in ten; each counted himself fortunate that he was in a division which would soon be in France. It was ever so. Life was cheap when patriotism is epidemic. The war fever take such a hold of some men that they seem almost to court death. But many of the New York Guardsmen who left so jauntily in August began to wear very long faces and to give vent to disconsolate mutterings as month followed month at Camp Wadsworth, and training seemed incessant, with France and the enemy no nearer in March, 1918, than in August , 1917.
The experience of the 27th division in an American camp, or cantonment, was somewhat like that of most of the divisions organized in 1917. They seemed to be sufficiently trained for overseas service long before they were sent. The 27th division guardsmen, indeed were so far advanced in military training before they were even federalized that many of the officers and most of the men imagined that Spartanburg would be rather a centre for overseas equipping than for preparatory training. They were disappointed. It was necessary even to send the camp commandant overseas early in the preparatory period, so that h, a most efficient officer, might realize how vastly different trench warfare was from the comparatively open manoeuvres of former wars. A civil War or Spanish-American War veteran could hardly imagine it possible that armies of millions could fight desperately fro years within a stone's throw of each other and yet unseen, the entrenchment's being so deep that no troop movement along a front-line of hundreds of miles could be seen except from the skies. Twentieth century warfare is as different from that of the nineteenth century as World War trenches were from those of the Spanish or Civil Wars. A few weeks after Major-General O'Ryan had been placed in command of Camp Wadsworth, he was ordered overseas with other officers, so that they might see the conditions at the front, and adapt the training of his command at Camp Wadsworth tot h need of this trench warfare. General O'Ryan writes: "As a result of our observations and experiences abroad, the subjects of correct march discipline, unfailing ammunition, ration supply, physical endurance and determination of all ranks, through thorough preparation for battle, and a clear understanding by all of combat orders, took on a new importance."
In the reorganization of the 27th division at Camp Wadsworth, regimental sentiment and tradition were to some degree shattered. The nine
regiments of the original division passed out of existence, or rather passed into the four regiments of the new 27th, the new regiments being approximately three times as large as the old. General O'Ryan chose as the four regiments of his division the 2d, 3d, 7th, and 23d New York regiments. These regiments soon lost their ready local identification, becoming the 105th, 108th, 107th and 106th regiments, respectively, of the United States Army. Under the plan of the War Department the regiments of the Regular Army were to monopolize the regimental numbers up to 100, the federalized National Guard were to have the numbers from 100 to 300, and the great citizens' army, the National Army units, were to be numbered, regimentally from 300 up. The enlargement of the regiments released many of the higher officers, and many of the colonels of the old New York regiments went to other commands.
Life at Camp Wadsworth was made as pleasant as was possible for the soldiers in training. The welfare organizations were soon active, and what leisure periods the men had well filled by diversions organized by the Young Men's Christian Association, Red Cross, and Knights of Columbus. Quite a colony of New York people, relatives of the men, wintered in the vicinity. A hostess-house was opened, and many theatrical shows and fistic bouts among the men were entertaining. All in all the winter passed happily, though the men were impatient to get overseas, and the officers were somewhat bewildered at the. raids made upon the commissioned and enlisted personnel, to meet the requirements of other divisions. For instance, one requisition robbed the division of 532 men needed elsewhere as motor mechanics; another raid took 275 of the most intelligent enlisted men and sent them overseas, to serve as military police. When the third Officers Training Camp was organized at Camp Wadsworth, 700 enlisted men were designated for training. These, when graduated, went overseas for service with other divisions. The National Guardsmen of New York it would seen were men of high standard. This this was well recognized by the higher command may be inferred from the fact that more then 5,000 officers of the American Army during the war period were commissioned from the ranks of the New York National guard. Further depletion of the original 27th Division occurred by reason of the transfer of 2,500 men, whose earlier training made then of more value to the Nation in civilian lines than in military. It will thus be realized that the 27th Division which went overseas was very much change in personnel from that which departed from New York for Spartanburg in August, 1917.
The preparatory training at Camp Wadsworth for overseas service included courses in many military schools. There were courses in grenade throwing, bayonet fighting, physical training, musketry, automatic arms, machine gun, trench artillery, gas defense, camouflage, engineering. Patrolling and reconnaissance were particular studies, as was
the liaison and communication instruction. The infantry spent much time on the rifle range, and the artillerymen learned a little of the exact science of barrage.
Eleven months after the United States declared war General Pershing had at his disposal in France four American divisions. They were the Regulars and Marines that constituted the 1st and 2d divisions, an all-American division of National guardsmen, the 42nd (Rainbow) Division, in which was the famous Irish Regiment of New York, the old 69th, now renumbered the 165th Regiment; and a National Guard State unit, the Yankee or New England division, officially known as the 26th. The 1st division was the first American division to take front-line position, going into a comparatively quiescent sector in the Vosges Mountains in October, 1917. The first American engagement with the Germans occurred a month later, but it was of little severity. The next clash was in March, 1918, at a most critical time for the Allies. The first important clash going to the credit of the Yankee Division, though only some road-making engineers of that division had part in it.
Probably in March, 1918, it was fully recognized by the German High Command that their unrestricted submarine campaign had failed, and that they could not stop American troops from crossing the ocean. They knew what a n immense army could eventually be organized in a Nation of one hundred millions of people. They knew that that year would probably be the decisive year. They realized that if they did not win the war in 1918 they would have little change of doing so in 1919, for America's legions would not only be well trained soldiers but would be in France. Germany had little time to lose. So through the winter of 1917-1918 the Germans behind the lines worked and worked, with prodigious activity, to provide the munitions with which the German armies might make the supreme effort. There was a tense feeling among the Allied commands that something stupendous was in the making, and that the blow would fell while the American army was still in the making. Where it would fall they did not know, but the surmised that the German objective would be the Channel ports or Paris. So they prepared as best they could, Bu hey had no idea of the magnitude of the German preparations.
The German forced Bolshevist Russia into the signing of a treaty of peace in March, 1918, and at once rushed the troops from that frontier across Poland and Germany to the Western Front. On March 21st the great offensive began. Hindenburg and Ludendorff then set in motion a terrific drive, wave after wave of German troops sweeping forward along a fifty-mile front in Picardy, after an intensive bombardment by thousands of guns had almost shattered the front line of the British. The British had to fall back to their second line of defense on the first day of this battle of Picardy. Such a stupendous military movement had never
before been launched. It was the mightiest in the history of the world, though a mightier drive was destined to be launched a few months later, to be followed by a still mightier movement by the allied armies. But this spring offensive of the Germans was overwhelming in its force. On the second day the second line was broken. Nothing could stem the onrushing ride of German shock troops who advanced in mass formations, wave after wave, regardless of enormous loss of life. They submerged everything that was in their way. They even broke into the third line defenses of the Fifth British Army--tore a wide gap in this their last line. The German advance was measured only by the speed with which their immense guns and colossal necessary munitions and supplies could follow them. By comparison with the memorable achievements of lighter armies of earlier days, the thirty-five miles which the Germans gained during the first eight days of this drive seems slow progress. But on that front since 1914 hundreds of thousands of lives has been lost in vain efforts to gain even a mile. For three years the opposing armies had faced each other along a front of more than 300 miles within a few hundred yard of each other--in many places considerably less-to all intents check-mated, stale-mated, neither side able to do much more the dent the tangle of trenches and barbed wire, ten miles wide, that stretched from the North Sea to beyond Metz. Now, in a few days, the Germans had torn aside the seemingly impassable barrier. The British Army had been cut in two, and there seemed a possibility that that part of it which was on the coast side would have no way of retreating except into or across the sea after evacuating the channel ports. If they escaped irretrievable disaster, it seemed that they would be driven out of France, and that France's vital line of supply would be cut. In this desperate pass, one alert British general gathered together all the miscellaneous man-power--noncombatant as well as combatant--that could in anyway help to fill the gap torn by the Germans. Some Americans were among this material. An Engineer regiment, part of the Yankee Division, had been making roads fro the British behind their lines. They dropped their shovels and grasped the rifles that were issued to them by the British. And this miscellaneous group gave such good account of themselves that the Germans did not get far beyond the break in the line; in fact, after a few days, fighters in such numbers that the break was repaired and the German advance stopped in the eighth day. The enemy was then within a few miles of Amiens. The Channel Ports were till in grave danger, and although the eight days of fighting had taken appalling toll in German lives, it was cheering to them and unnerving to the allies to realize that the line which had been held for years had nearly been shattered. Perhaps after a breathing spell, the Germans would again come upon them with increasing force.
It cannot be said that the British spirit of resistance had been broken. Anglo-Saxons fight uphill best. They never know when they are beaten, or will not accept defeat. It was only necessary for their commander-in-chief, General Haig, to remind them that their backs were 'to the wall" to get them into a fighting posture which no battering could shatter. The British bulldog is a long-suffering animal, but when he sets his jaws in the extreme test they are locked until the end. In the first onrush the Germans had captured 90,000 men and the artillery of almost an army, as well as immense stores of munitions; but calamitous as that was for the British, it was not the end. With the aid of Americans and others, and quick reforming of their own resources, they were able to show the Germans at the end of eight days that all is not lost until spirit is gone.
The stoical and dogged British, however, were beginning to realize that to face the enemy and return blow for blow was not the only way that victory might ultimately be won. Coordination of effort must be established. During 1917, in the bloody Ypres salient, the British had been incessantly fighting--bleeding to no good purpose, inasmuch as France had not been able to cooperate simultaneously. Now, with this near-disaster in March, 1918, the Allied premiers and commanders resolved upon a plan which was the beginning of final victory--they decided to unify the command, to chose one man as supreme commander-in-chief of all the Allied armies. It seemed hard-perhaps, for General Pershing, before he had won his European spurs as it were, to relinquish command of the American Expeditionary Forces to a Frenchman. To his credit be it said that the did not hesitate to do so--for the common good. Marshal Ferdinand Foch, then sixty-seven years old, became commander-in-chief of all French, British, Belgian, Portuguese troops on the Western Front--the superior officer of Field-Marshal Haig, General Pershing, the King of the Belgians, and of all other commanders, great and small. He was to be in supreme control of all allied armies elsewhere also. This master strategist was to set the moves which the respective national commanders were to loyally and undeviatingly carry out. Fortunately, Foch proved to be the man for the responsibility. After the Battle of the Marne, in 1914, General Joffre had proclaimed Foch to be "the greatest strategist in Europe." Finally Foch was to be hailed as the victor of the mightiest military machine of all time. Of course, there were other contributory causes of the ultimate victory. One of the most vital was the swinging of the balance of man-power to the allies during the summer of 1918, as division after division of American troops began to pour into France.
The spring offensive of the Germans which had been checked near Amiens on March 29th got into motion again to the north of Picardy on April 9th. the new attack was almost as strong as the first, and the
battle raged with tremendous fury day after day until the month was almost spent. The German hosts were also fully spent by that time. As before, they had added some territory to their side, and were encumbered by some more thousands of prisoners, but their won man-power was getting less and less, while Time was swelling the ranks of the Allies. This was a disconcerting reflection.
As yet, the swelling of the ranks was still 3,000 miles from the Front. In France, at the moment, the balance of power was still with the Germans. To overcome this, the Allied premiers and commanders met on May 2d. General Perhsing's report of November 20, 1918, to the Secretary of War reads as follows on the subject:
. . . . . .As German superiority in numbers required prompt action, an agreement was reached at the Abbeville conference of the Allied premiers and commanders and myself on May 2, by which British shipping was to transport ten American divisions to the British Army area, where they were to be trained and equipped, and additional British shipping was to be provided fro as many division as possible for use elsewhere.
One of the ten American divisions which were to be transported in British ships was the 78th. Another New York division, the 77th, was then crossing in British ships; and American vessels were getting the 27th Division overseas. The American flow was no longer a rivulet, although not yet a torrent.
Preparations were strenuously pursued by both sides during the month of May. On the 27th o that month the Germans began what seemed to be the main offensive of that year--a very determined thrust at Paris. It was the most sanguinary attack yet delivered. Within a few days the Germans were at the Marne River. In one place they had crossed it. They were within forty miles of Paris. They were already startling Parisians periodically by firing into the capital with their very large guns, from a distance of more then seventy miles; but these guns were so huge and so few that the damage done to Paris by them was negligible. Now, however, the Germans could almost reach Paris with their heavy field artillery or naval guns. Another ten miles of advance would make Paris untenable. They could bombard it as they had bombarded Rheims. Paris had no subterranean chambers such as Rheims fortunately possessed. Already the French Government was discussing he question of evacuation. Our own war offices were to be moved. The Red Cross and Y. M. C. A. had made arrangements to transport their headquarters workers to another more desirable centre. Paris seemed doomed.
It was just at this time that American exploits came to brighten the outlook. The irrepressible men from the New World were blithely accomplishing the impossible, not by experience, but by sheer American spirit--the will to conquer. Most of the American divisions then in France or England were in training sectors, but some of the divisions
had front-line experience. The Yankee Division was with the French in the Chemin des Dames. The 42nd Division had had some exciting raiding while in the comparatively quiet Luneville sector. And most of the doughboys were probably of the same mind as the inexperienced but optimistic New York Irishmen of the 69th Regiment, who expressed his opinion in front-line tactics thus:
They're telling us that when we're out in front and we're attacked to fall back on points of resistance. Orders is orders, but to my mind that's only another word for retreating, and I don't believe in it. Now ye take myself, and you, Mike Cooney--ye know ye're spoiling for a fight though ye're smiling like an angel--and you, Peter Noonan, and you, Schmidt--you're a good man, though you're a Dutchman--and two or three other I could name and give us an extra bandolier of cartridges apiece and some of them guinea footballs (hand grenades), and let the bushes come! T'would be a fine party. I see your eyes glistening, Mike Cooney, at the thought of it. Sure, we'd be thinking we was digging the New York subway when we was burying the dear Bushes the next day.
The 1st Division, after being fathered by General Bullard through the Toul sector, had been assigned to a billeting area between Paris and the Front, as a strategic reserve during the second drive. Now they were carefully moved up to the front line in the Montdidier sector. It was quietly and quickly done. Soon they had an all-American stretch of front line without the German being aware of it. But they found it hard to curb their impatience. They wished to "jump off" and would have done so on May 25th, with a French division of either flank, to clear Montdidier Heights, so relieve the pressure upon the British, had not the High Command held them back. On the 28th, however, they were allowed "a consolation offensive," which was to be their "very own." They were permitted to take the town of Cantigny, and arrange to do it in their own way. Of course, the 1st division did not for a moment doubt that they could do it. so on the morning of May 28th they went "Over the top," full of confidence. They swept the Germans out of Cantigny, "mopped up" the town, took 350 Germans, and settled down, happy in realizing that they were now graduate soldiers--of the World War standard. It did not come to them as unusual that in meeting German veterans they should defeat them. They did not suppose that they had accomplished anything especially noteworthy. Indeed they had never been in the habit of thinking of the enemy as haughty invincible Prussians--the supermen of war. To them the Boche had been "Heinie" or "Fritz," who could never, in their estimation, reach the American standard. But there were other more discerning military men who saw in the dashing success of the 1st American Division at Cantigny a remarkably hopeful as well as novel sign. T a time when the Allied armies were not even holding their own against the German waves, a breezy American division goes jauntily by, "mops up," and comes into the liens again with a few companies of those invincible Teuton supermen.
The History of New York State, Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc., 1927
This book is owned by Pam Rietsch and is a part of the Mardos Memorial Library
Transcribed by Holice B. Young
HTML by Debbie Axtman
You are the Visitor to this USGenNet Safe-Site™ Since September 5, 2004. | <urn:uuid:b9518d41-f828-4ef1-9ef4-f04d01d28482> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newyorkroots.org/bookarchive/historyofnewyorkstate/bk11/ch8/pt2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98598 | 6,399 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Jim Rich discusses how school districts can effectively implement Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and explains the difference between 504 and IDEA.
For more information, visit:http://www.seattlechildrens.org/clinics-programs/audiology/
Executive Function in Children with Hearing Loss - Part 3
David Horn, MD and Amy Melick, PhD discuss an overview of executive function, current research on children with cochlear implants, and resources for improving executive functioning.
Executive Function in Children with Hearing Loss - Part 2
Executive Function in Children with Hearing Loss - Part 1
Life Outside the Classroom: Strategies for Community Participation
This session provides an overview of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), assistive listening devices and captioning, advocacy and a Q&A with a panel of parents and young adults with hearing...
Find out by selecting your child’s symptom or health condition in the list below: | <urn:uuid:070a7afe-460a-447d-8ade-4d9bb7b37534> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.seattlechildrens.org/videos/504-plans-children-hearing-loss/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869779 | 195 | 2.859375 | 3 |
|Full democracy countries are the ones in which to live.|
This week’s story could start and end with the above graph with almost no further explanation.
But that wouldn’t do it justice.
So, like so many of the past articles on “Graph of the Week“, a bit of analysis will be provided based on collected data and research. Starting with what is shown above, it is clear that people tend to live longer under full democracies. The range of life spans under this type of government nearly always are above 80. Compare that with other forms of government where only a select few nations have longevity near that age.
And as might be expected, authoritarian regimes have the most countries with comparatively short life expectancies.
In the first graph, the countries in blue are the ones under a full democracy and also rank very high on the democracy index scale. Using those same colors below, it is plainly obvious that these same countries spend more per capita on healthcare than do other forms of government – a lot more:
|The Nordic countries lead the way again.|
In many of these countries, there is some form of universal healthcare which accounts for much of the spending. Regarding the U.S., a significant amount is spent on Medicare and Medicaid, but there is no universal health care. There certainly seems to be a relationship between freedom, compassion and longevity in countries embracing full democracies (see previous chart showing democracy index and internet penetration). In other words, those countries that look after their own tend to live longer lives. Since humans are a social species, this isn’t a surprise.
There is usually some form of universal health care in authoritarian regimes as well. On the surface, it would appear that all things are equal until the amount of spending on health care is examined. Clearly, full democracies spend much more on their systems than the others. That, combined with the longevity factor paints a picture which suggests more spending is needed to increase life spans. It is not enough to simply have a universal health care system; rather, the quality of that system is what drives longevity.
That being said, the quality of a health care system isn’t reflected by the amount spent. It is useful to see expenditure as an indicator, but not as a cause of a quality system. To more accurately evaluate this aspect, further research would be needed and is out of the scope of this article.
Countries in which their citizens have little voice in their own destinies would do well to make changes to reverse this situation. Unfortunately, most leaders in power are loathe to give up said power due to its many perks – at the cost, health, happiness and freedom of its citizens. This is a tragedy on a global scale.
This has been the 2nd article to identify a relationship between democracy and other factors. The first showed that internet availability is much higher in countries with a high democracy index. Stay tuned for more articles in this series.
1) When might we see the highest average life span creep into the 90 year range?
2) The Arab Spring has started – will something similar happen in other authoritarian countries?
3) Has quality of life (not the same as standard of living) also been improved along with longevity?
These graphs were generated using the ‘ggplot2‘ package within the R programming language. In the future, different plotting packages will begin to be seen here, including 3d plots and trellis plots. Stay tuned!
1st graph: ggplot(health.frame, aes(x=Category, y=Life.expectancy, group=Category, fill=Category, label=Location)) + geom_boxplot() + ylab("Life Expectancy") + xlab("Government Type") + opts(title="Life Expectancy by Government Type (2009)", legend.title = theme_blank(), panel.background = theme_blank(), axis.text.x=theme_text(angle=0, hjust=0.5))
2nd graph: ggplot(health.frame, aes(x=Index, y=Per.capita.government.US, label=Location, color=Category)) + geom_point(size=0.5, colour='dark grey') + geom_text(size=3.5, angle=0, hjust=.5) + ylab("Per Capita Government Spending (U.S. Dollars)") + xlab("Democracy Index") + opts(title="Gov't Health Care Expenditures vs. Democracy Index (2009)", legend.title = theme_blank(), panel.background = theme_blank()) | <urn:uuid:6acc8a47-bc8a-41f3-ac62-4316f36485f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.r-bloggers.com/live-longer-choose-your-country-wisely-if-you-can/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935093 | 967 | 2.6875 | 3 |
This approach considers only those data that are so strongly attested historically that they are granted by nearly every scholar who studies the subject, even the rather skeptical ones... Most facts we use meet two criteria: They are well evidenced and nearly every scholar accepts them.Seems reasonable, eh? So here's the first fact:
Jesus of Nazareth died by Roman crucifixion.
This historical event enjoys plenty of attestation, so much so that John Dominic Crossan, who has made a name for himself by denying the claims of Christianity, can write
That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be.The crucifixion of Jesus is, of course, recorded in all four gospels. Non-biblical sources that confirm this as an historical event include the Jewish historian Josephus, the Greek Lucian, and Mara Bar-Serapion.
The Talmud includes the statement that "on the eve of Passover Yeshu was hanged" (a Jewish way of referring to crucifixion). And while the Talmud was written long enough after the fact as to rely upon other earlier sources, no early Jewish source denies Jesus' existence, his working of miracles, or his death by crucifixion.
The Roman historian Tacitus renders it this way:
Nero fastened the guilt [for Rome's burning] and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.So the first historical event that goes into this argument is that Jesus died by crucifixion. Interestingly, the centrality of this event to all of human history is attested to by the language we use. When we seek to describe something as of central importance, we use words like "crucial" and "crux," which, as you might guess, take their etymology from the same word as "crucifixion," that is, the Latin word for torture. The life and death of Jesus of Nazareth are so central and important that the Western world sets its calendars by them. And so to say that the crucufixion--the atoning death of Jesus on a Roman cross--is the crux of all human history (or the most crucial event in history) is, in a very real way, to be guilty of redundancy.
In the next post, I'll share the second historical fact in the "minimal facts" argument.
* Complete unanimity is not a reasonable goal in historical research; you can find folks today who seriously insist that things like the Holocaust or mankind walking on the moon never actually happened. | <urn:uuid:10caf757-5840-4303-9ad8-81bb78cef7ae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://antiochapologetics.blogspot.com/2010/03/jesus-was-crucified.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965744 | 563 | 2.953125 | 3 |
coefficient of performance (COP)
The coefficient of performance (COP) is the ratio of the work or useful energy output of a system to the amount of work or energy put in to the system as determined by using the same energy equivalents for energy in and out. COP is used as a measure of the steady state performance or energy efficiency of heating, cooling, and refrigeration appliances. It is equal to the energy efficiency ratio (EER) divided by 3.412. The higher the COP, the more efficient the device.
Related categories• HEATING
• COOLING, REFRIGERATION, AND AIR CONDITIONING
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Science • Contact | <urn:uuid:89e46061-a644-4439-990d-ba1451e2f7aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/AE_coefficient_of_performance.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.891845 | 151 | 3.0625 | 3 |
In 2006, Greenpeace launched an all-out public-relations attack on Apple. Its goal: To pressure the company into removing hazardous substances from its Macs, iPods, and other consumer gear. The powerful environmental group even created a mock Apple site where it challenged the company to “use clean ingredients in all of its products,” and to expand its recycling program worldwide.
This wasn’t the first time that green groups had targeted Cupertino. A year earlier, for instance, activists had criticised Apple for its iPod batteries, which they claimed were too hard to replace. Since Apple was charging $US100 for a replacement battery, environmentalists argued, it was essentially encouraging customers to trash their old iPods and just buy new ones.
While Apple’s environmental record at the time really wasn’t much worse—and in some areas was arguably better—than its competitors’, the activists had some valid points. Apple’s MacBook Pro laptops, for instance, then contained brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), toxic chemicals that pose health risks when electronic devices containing them are produced or destroyed. And unlike Dell, Hewlett Packard, Nokia, Sony, and some other competitors, Apple hadn’t provided Greenpeace with a clear timetable for eliminating these substances from its products.
The campaign resulted in a public black eye for Apple, and the company soon realised it needed to fight back. Nine months after Greenpeace’s missive, Apple countered with an open letter from Steve Jobs defending his company’s environmental record. The letter provided specific examples of how Apple was going green, and included a pledge to remove BFRs and PVC from the company’s products by the end of 2008.
Has Apple met those promises? Are its products environmentally friendlier than its competitors’? Has the company reduced its overall environmental footprint? To find out, we examined Apple’s product chain, from materials and manufacturing to distribution and recycling. We also talked to environmental and industry groups. The one thing we couldn’t do: Talk to Apple directly; the company declined to comment for this story. It did, however, direct us to the summaries of its environmental efforts that anyone can read.
[Jeff Bertolucci is a technology and business writer in Southern California.]
- How green is Apple?
Is Apple as environmentally friendly as it claims? The first step in examining the truth: Looking at the supply chain and manufacturing processes it uses to create its products.
In the first two parts of our series on Apple’s environmental record, Jeff Bertolucci looked at the supply chain and the chemical content of the company’s products. Now the question is: What happens to those products when they get thrown away?
The experts agree: Apple really has cleaned up its environmental act. But did it really have any choice? Jeff Bertolucci looks at the business and politics of environmental responsibility.
Are Apple’s products environmentally friendlier than its competitors’? Has the company reduced its overall environmental footprint? To find out, Jeff Bertolucci examines Apple’s product chain, from materials and manufacturing to distribution and recycling. | <urn:uuid:ac07737f-3bf7-4aaf-b558-0798f3e4dc36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.macworld.com.au/blogs/how-green-is-apple-2376/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957755 | 664 | 2.515625 | 3 |
14. January 2010 13:41
In the previous installment, we discussed the dynamics of a (very) simple network of queues, and showed how much extra capacity was required to accommodate the build-up of population inside the queue, based on two factors: the rate at which people enter and leave the queue.
Today, we will look at a related question. Last time we determined the expected queue size at equilibrium, given the flow of people into the queue. This time, we want to consider the reverse problem: if you knew how many people are in the queue at equilibrium, what population breakdown would you expect between the two queues?
The question may sound theoretical – it isn’t. If you knew the total size of a market, the relative preferences of consumers between the products, and how long it takes them to replace their product, then determining how many consumers would be using each product at any given time is equivalent to the question we are considering.
Let’s illustrate on a fictional example. Imagine there is a disease, which can be treated two ways – using a blue pill, or a red pill. Doctors prescribe the blue pill to 25% of the patients, and the red one to 75%. The blue pill treatment takes 5 weeks, and the red pill treatment 8 (which we convert to average rates of exit of 0.2 and 0.125 per week). Suppose you knew that currently, 1000 people were under treatment: how many patients would you expect to be treated with a blue pill?
(picture from www.hackthematrix.org)
8. June 2008 06:47
One of my clients recently asked me to modify an Excel model, so that the adoption of products entering the market would follow a S-curve. After some digging and googling, I came across this excellent post by Juan C. Mendez, where he proposes a clean and very practical way to use the logistic function, and calibrate it through 3 input parameters: the peak value, and the time at which the curve reaches 10% and 90% of its peak value.
The beauty of his approach is that his function is compact so it can be typed in easily in a worksheet cell, and the input very understandable. However, I found it a bit restrictive: transforming it for values other than 10% and 90% requires some recalibration, and more importantly, it cannot accomodate values that are not "symmetrical" around 50%.
So I set to work through a generalized solution to the following problem: find a S-Curve that fits any arbitrary value, rather than just 10% and 90%. | <urn:uuid:620e145f-dd16-4565-a987-ce36b024bead> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.clear-lines.com/blog/?tag=/market-share | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958353 | 542 | 2.90625 | 3 |
A Look at Wind and Monarch Migration
How we solved the problem:
1. We added pieces of paper to our postage scale until it reached 1 ounce. (We did not trust that our scale was sensitive enough to weigh less than one ounce.)
2. When the scale reached an ounce, we counted the number of pages and found that:
3. We found how to convert ounces to grams:
4. We calculated the number of grams in one page:
5. We converted grams to milligrams
6. We divided weight of the page by weight of a butterfly
A. Cut a piece of paper into 11 pieces so you can feel the weight of a butterfly. Fold one of the 11 scraps of paper into the shape of a butterfly. Then blow like the wind so you can see its power.
B. Find the weights (in milligrams) of other familiar things and compare them to the weight of a monarch butterfly. | <urn:uuid:f4605847-2b3d-4c4a-bd88-6fa824ef2a45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/monarch/FallMigrationWindObservationsA.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947383 | 194 | 3.515625 | 4 |
How to Set Your PC’s Power Button Function
You can tell your PC’s power button exactly how you want it to act when you press it by specifying the button’s function. The power button’s possible functions vary. To change your PC power button's function:
Open your PC’s Power Options.
When you're using the Control Panel Home, choose System and Maintenance. The Power Options heading appears in the window that opens. From the Control Panel Classic view, double-click the Power Options icon to display the Power Options window.
Click Change What the Power Buttons Do.
In System and Maintenance, choose the item beneath the Power Options heading. In Classic view, in the left side of the window, click the link.
In the window that appears, choose an option in the When I Press the Power Button drop-down list.
You have four choices: Do Nothing (which effectively disables the power button), Sleep, Hibernate, and Shut Down. For example, if you want the computer to just shut down when you press the power button, choose the option that reads Shut Down.
After making your choice, click the Save Changes button.
Your selection is saved. You can optionally close the System Settings window. | <urn:uuid:5558423a-4428-464f-ace5-4e1cd266dd4b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-set-your-pcs-power-button-function.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.782924 | 264 | 2.78125 | 3 |
There are currently no active quarries at the Munster Plant.
Decommissioned quarries are being revegetated using locally native species from a wide range of structures (e.g large trees, shrubs and understorey species) and functions (e.g. nutrient cycling, flowering across the year for foraging opportunities for animals). This revegetation increases the biodiversity of the site, as well as providing animal habitat, helps to reduce ambient dust, and increase visual amenity of the site.
Revegetation activities are also an important part of our quarry management. | <urn:uuid:cc54fbe9-8b1d-4bab-9e2c-014bcb23f443> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cockburncementcommunity.com.au/environment/land/quarries/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937467 | 120 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Going nowhere: humans do walk in circles
Scientists have confirmed the popular belief that without anything to guide them humans really do walk in circles.
It suggests we shouldn't trust our senses when lost.
The research, originally commissioned by a popular science TV program in Germany, is published in the journal Current Biology.
Psychologist and author Dr Jan Souman, of the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, says it's well known that people can walk in a straight line if they are in a known environment.
"But I was trying to simulate what happens when you get lost and try to find your way out," he says.
Dr Souman conducted his experiments in a forest in Germany and parts of the Sahara Desert in Tunisia.
Volunteers were dropped off, in either the desert or forest, and shown which direction to walk towards, he says.
"They walked for about four hours."
Dr Souman says those people walking in the forest, on a day when the sun was visible, were able to use it as a guide.
"They walked basically perfectly straight," he says.
But when the sun disappeared, Dr Souman says, the volunteers walked in circles.
Different in desert
Dr Souman says in the desert volunteers walking when the sun was visible didn't walk in a straight line, but instead veered slightly to the left or right.
"This is probably because in the desert there is nothing to give you a reference."
He says at night, without the assistance of the moon, the volunteers didn't walk in exact circles either.
"One guy turned completely back around on himself so he was going the opposite way he started."
Too much 'noise'
Dr Souman says he can't really explain why people don't walk in a straight line when they have nothing to guide them, but he has a hunch.
"If you are walking blindfolded the only information you've got to tell if you're walking straight comes from your body, the information from your muscle and joint movement."
But this information is 'noisy' or has errors, he says.
"Normally we don't notice these errors because we can correct them by looking where we are going."
But Dr Souman says even with sight, these errors build up over time and what we think is straight ahead isn't anymore.
No 'one side' bias
The research has been able to exclude a few explanations that have been offered in the past, says Dr Souman.
It was thought that people veered in circles because one leg is shorter than the other, or because one side is stronger, he says.
"But that would predict that people always turn in the same direction because your leg length doesn't change over time."
To test that hypothesis, Dr Souman blindfolded the volunteers while they were walking.
The experiment found that most people don't have a systematic bias to one side, he says.
"They walk to the left and to the right and then zig zag."
Souman says his experiment demonstrates some general advice for people who find themselves lost.
"Don't trust your senses because even though you might think you are walking in a straight line when you're not."
Dr Souman says it's better to use a mountain, building or GPS reciever to guide you. | <urn:uuid:c64b6791-66a5-4e12-85d4-16ed516b48a2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-08-21/going-nowhere-humans-do-walk-in-circles/1399342 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976393 | 692 | 3.359375 | 3 |
The super smart grid
Today, by far the largest synchronized power grid in the world is the synchronous grid of continental Europe. Some 24 countries, feeding 400 million customers, are all locked together via interconnectors at 50 Hz. This massive grid is basically the same as the UK grid in the video above, but the power generation and consumption has to be balanced across all 24 countries, rather than just one country rushing to make tea. (I don’t know if the continental Europe grid is controlled by one person, but I doubt it.)
The USA, forever a nation of fractured ideologies and commercial interests, doesn’t really have anything to rival the continental Europe grid — but the Eastern Interconnection, which feeds most of the deep south and some of the eastern seaboard, is pretty big. The widest or longest synchronous power grid is the IPS/UPS, which spans the ex-Soviet Union, providing power to some 280 million customers. [Read: The secret world of submarine cables.]
Europe doesn’t want to stop there, though. There are talks to synchronize the IPS/UPS with continental Europe to create a single grid that spans about 10,000 miles and 13 time zones. And then, after that, there are discussions to create the European SuperSmartGrid (SSG), which would additionally interconnect North Africa and the Middle East. This would allow Africa and the Middle East to cost effectively deploy massive solar power installations that could feed Europe during the day — and in return, Europe would return conventional power at night. As the “smart” in the name suggests, the SSG would also allow for smart grid capabilities, such as local power generation.
As you can probably imagine, though, such a super grid would cost an absolute fortune to deploy. A similar plan in the US, which would see 20% of the USA’s energy generation replaced by wind farms in the Midwest, would require $60 billion in new cabling alone. But with the human race’s energy requirements continuing to climb, and no sign of it slowing down any time soon, it’s really only a matter of time until these economies-of-scale super grids are built. Unless at-home fusion power or Solar Roadways suddenly take off in the next 10 years, of course.
- « Previous
- 2 of 2 | <urn:uuid:f522551d-f1c4-42da-8119-8e9b0aba7261> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/187089-the-secret-world-of-power-generation-and-the-arrival-of-world-spanning-super-grids/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936118 | 485 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Modern city dwellers are largely detached from the environmental effects of their daily lives. The sources of the water they drink, the food they eat, and the energy they consume are all but invisible, often coming from other continents, and their waste ends up in places beyond their city boundaries.
Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems shows how cities and their residents can begin to reintegrate into their bioregional environment, and how cities themselves can be planned with nature’s organizing principles in mind. Taking cues from living systems for sustainability strategies, Newman and Jennings reassess urban design by exploring flows of energy, materials, and information, along with the interactions between human and non-human parts of the system.
Drawing on examples from all corners of the world, the authors explore natural patterns and processes that cities can emulate in order to move toward sustainability. Some cities have adopted simple strategies such as harvesting rainwater, greening roofs, and producing renewable energy. Others have created biodiversity parks for endangered species, community gardens that support a connection to their foodshed, and pedestrian-friendly spaces that encourage walking and cycling.
A powerful model for urban redevelopment, Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems describes aspects of urban ecosystems from the visioning process to achieving economic security to fostering a sense of place.
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Rent Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Peter Newman. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Island Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:ba87077b-77a1-41ab-8eac-7e079c119f90> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/cities-as-sustainable-ecosystems-1st-edition-9781597261883-1597261882 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942995 | 336 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Siemens has entered the next phase of a project to bring its low-energy seawater desalination technology to market.
The company completed the research and development phase, and the technology is now ready for full-scale testing, the company said July 4.
Siemens began the R&D initiative in Oct. 2008 when it built a demonstration plant in Singapore to bring seawater to drinking water quality. Seawater is becoming increasingly important in replenishing the drinking-water supply in Singapore, Siemens says. But to desalinate it for potable use is an extremely energy-intensive process.
The results, which were presented at Singapore International Water Week, show the new process reduces desalting energy by more than 50%.
Siemens expects to implement a full-scale system by 2013 in cooperation with Singapore’s national water agency.
For more information, visit http://www.siemens.com/water. | <urn:uuid:cfc4fe15-f5f5-4dd0-a841-1cd405438b44> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chemicalprocessing.com/vendor-news/2011/siemens-completes-desalination-R-and-D-project/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945866 | 195 | 2.65625 | 3 |
This document describes the system for releasing Xmlrpc-c: when releases are made, what's in them, and how a user gets a release.
Releases are primarily made via Subversion. A user may download the code by checking out (or exporting) the Subversion branch from the Sourceforge Subversion repository.
Some releases are also distributed as gzipped tarballs via Sourceforge file release services.
There are four series of releases, with different levels of stability. "Stable" does not mean "without bugs." It means "unchanging." In a stable release series, we make only low risk high reward changes, and as a consequence over time it comes to have fewer bugs than a less stable release series. But it also has fewer features.
Stable release series are primarily meant for stable systems, so they maintain strict backward compatibility. But they also don't have forward compatibility, which means it you try to use a stable Xmlrpc-c release in a modern environment, it may not work. In particular, we often see the releases of the Curl library come out that are not backward compatible, so older Xmlrpc-c, including current releases of stable series, won't work with them. I.e. with old Xmlrpc-c, you have to use old Curl. There is a Subversion branch for each series. The current code in the branch is the current release for that series. You can't easily download any release but the current release in each series. However, Subversion tracks the complete history of code changes, so with a little effort, you can get any old code you want.
Except in the Development series, all releases have a name like 1.16.10. You find those numbers in the file version.mk or in the top directory of the source tree. In the Development series, releases aren't numbered. A release number uniquely identifies a release across all series. Sometimes, you find the same release number in two series, but in that case, the code is guaranteed to be identical.
Each series is a directory in the Subversion repository.
The series are:
The directory name in the Subversion repository is trunk.
This is a conventional Subversion trunk.
Releases are unnamed; we make new releases frequently, possibly minutes apart (every Subversion commit constitutes a release). These can only barely be considered releases (but they are, because the code is available for use by the public -- it has been "released.").
The current release in this series has the newest function of any release.
The code here is barely tested. It has lots of bugs. It may not even build. A user of this code should be prepared to do debugging.
Probably the main reason to use these releases is that you're doing development work and want to merge it with the latest development work done by others. If you think you might want to use this because it has bug fixes that haven't been released in the other series yet, think again. In Xmlrpc-c, bug fixes of any significance are released in all the series as soon as the fix is known.
The directory name in the Subversion repository is advanced.
This series stabilizes for about a quarter year, then gets a major update: it is updated to the then-current Development release.
"Stabilizes" means that new releases contain only low risk high reward changes from the previous release. That's typically bug fixes, but some enhancements fit the category and some bug fixes do not.
We make a new release within a few days of developing a fix for any bug. So the current release normally has no known bugs, but because of the frequent major updates, it typically has quite a few undiscovered bugs.
The minor release number changes with each major update. The point release number changes in between. So for example, assume the current release is 1.12.02 Suppose a new release comes out to fix a bug in 1.12.02. The new release is 1.12.03. Now suppose the series gets a major update so that the next release is identical to the current Development release. That release is 1.13.00.
This series has all development more than 3 months old, and few enough bugs to be generally useful.
The directory name in the Subversion repository is stable.
This is like Advanced, except that it gets updated to the then-current Advanced release instead of Development, which means the current release always has at least 3 months of stabilization.
When it is time to do a major update of the Advanced series, if the current Stable release has gone 3 months with no reported bug, we move all the current releases down one series: Stable becomes Super Stable, then Advanced becomes Stable, then Development becomes Advanced.
The release numbering in this series is just a continuation of the numbering in the Advanced series. So for example, assume the current release is 1.06.18. Suppose a new release comes out to fix a bug in 1.06.18. The new release is 1.06.19. Now suppose the series gets a major update so that the next release is identical to Advanced release 1.12.08. The new Stable release is also called 1.12.08.
The current release in this series has no known bugs and virtually no undiscovered bugs in it. It may be years behind in new function.
The directory name in the Subversion repository is super_stable.
This is a continuation of the Stable series from before the most recent major update of it. For example, assume the current Super Stable release is 1.03.02 and the current Stable release is 1.06.19. Suppose the Stable series gets rebased so the current Stable release is 1.12.08. At that time, the 1.06.19 release moves to become the current Super Stable release; the next Super Stable release is 1.06.20, and so on.
All releases in this series are available as a tarball from the Sourceforge File Release system, as well as from Subversion.
Sometimes you want to see the code for a certain release number, e.g. 1.12.03. It's fairly unusual -- normally, you want the latest code in a series -- but there are reasons. One common reason is to find out just when a certain thing changed.
For the first or last point release of a certain minor release, look in the release_number directory in the Subversion repository. There is a subdirectory under that for the first and last point release of every minor release. For example, there is 01.16.00 and 01.16.33.
For other releases, it's a little harder (but, thankfully, a lot less common). You have to find out the Subversion commit level that applies to that release. To do that, you look at the Subversion change history for the Xmlrpc-c source file version.mk. That file changes at least once for each version, usually accompanied by a commit comment saying it's a new release. In older releases, this file is called Makefile.version.
So do a svn log of version.mk in one of the series. If you're looking for 1.16.03, you could use
ROOT=http://xmlrpc-c.svn.sourceforge.net/svnroot/xmlrpc-c/advanced svn log $ROOT/version.mkIn the output, you will see the Subversion commit level that corresponds to each version:
------------------------------------------------------------------------ r1557 | giraffedata | 2008-10-16 20:25:11 +0000 (Thu, 16 Oct 2008) | 1 line Release 1.16.03 ------------------------------------------------------------------------
With the commit level in hand, you can check out the code for that release. Assuming the commit level is 1557 as shown above, the command would be
ROOT=http://xmlrpc-c.svn.sourceforge.net/svnroot/xmlrpc-c/advanced svn checkout $ROOT --revision 1557 xmlrpc-c-1.16.03
The only really hard part is that you have to guess which series to look in. In the example, we knew it would be Advanced, but in other cases, you might have to look in Advanced, Stable, and Superstable until you find it.
version.mk does not exist (neither does Makefile.version) before Release 1.13, so there just isn't a good way to find numbered releases before that.
Before 2013, Sourceforge had a feature that would make a tarball for you from the Subversion repository, but Sourceforge has withdrawn that service. | <urn:uuid:55c88dac-59b4-47dc-9bba-c59f3a36dadc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.net/release.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935465 | 1,833 | 2.625 | 3 |
From This is Cornwall: Plymouth scientists demand action over damage to coral reefs
Westcountry scientists are calling for the urgent introduction of marine protected areas after producing evidence of long-term damage to deep-sea coral reefs.
Using underwater robotic vehicles, researchers from Plymouth University recorded a diverse abundance of fish at several coral sites in the North East Atlantic – but there were also signs that reefs were being smashed by modern fishing gear.
The scientists found fishing nets on the seabed – evidence of long-term damage being done to deep-sea coral reefs
They documented more than 30 varieties of fish, including codling and northern cut-throat eels, at coral reef sites 300km (186 miles) off the coast of Ireland.
Diving to depths of one kilometre, the vehicles took pictures of thousands of fish, and thriving ecosystems, dependent upon the reef.
But the project, led by Dr Jason Hall-Spencer, of the school of marine sciences and engineering, also found evidence of damage caused by "rockhopper" trawls, which allow fishing nets to be dragged along the seabed even in rough seas.
Images of abandoned fishing gear strewn over the seabed, which would have the potential to kill wildlife, were also captured.
Dr Hall-Spencer said: "European coral reefs take thousands of years to form, and we now have ample evidence that bottom-trawling is causing long-term damage to fish habitat.
"This highlights the need to introduce protected areas as soon as possible, where destructive types of fishing are outlawed." | <urn:uuid:8a007787-5c5f-4ba5-ba9b-83b6f0e32fbb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://weareseaborn.blogspot.com/2012/02/plymouth-scientists-demand-action-over.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958342 | 324 | 3.25 | 3 |
Animal Biosafety Videos
The following videos describe the procedures animal handlers should follow when Working Safety in Animal Biosafety level 1, 2 or 3. Each video provides guidance on a wide range of topics including donning and doffing personal protective equipment, decontamination of work areas, handling of animals, working with sharps, and transporting animals.
BRI Working with Livestock in Biocontainment:
Working with Livestock in a BSL-3 Facility (Risk Assessment)(Flash Video)
Livestock Behavior and Handling in BSL-3 Facility(Flash Video)
Cattle Handling in a BSL-3 Facility(Flash Video)
Handling Sheep and Goats in a BSL-3 Facility(Flash Video)
Swine Handling in a BSL-3 Facility(Flash Video) | <urn:uuid:67c1e494-14de-497f-911e-e3d7927049f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.absa.org/resanimal.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.784327 | 173 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The Spitfire XVI was introduced in October 1944, a total of 1,054 aircraft being produced, it is in fact a Supermarine Spitfire IX but powered by the American built Packard Merlin 266 engine rather than the Rolls Royce built Merlin 66. The Packard built Merlin 266 had been modified to from the Merlin 66 deign by Packard to facilitate mass production techniques, this resulted in the engine requiring different spare parts and tools than it's UK built Merlin 66 equivalent, the RAF wisely decided that to ensure mistakes were not made when ordering spares that any Spitfire IX fitted with the Packard Merlin be designated a Spitfire XVI.
Supermarine Spitfire XVI Armament:
Twin 20mm Hispano Cannons
Single 500 lb (227 kg) or twin 250 lb (114 kg) bombs
Supermarine Spitfire XVI Specifications:
Engine: 1700 hp (1245kW) 27 Litre Packard built Merlin 266 liquid cooled V-12 piston engine
Wingspan: 32' 7 " (9.93 m)
Length: 31' 4 " (9.55 m)
Height: 12' 7 1/2" (3.85 m)
Weight empty: 5,985 lb (2,715 kg)
Maximum Takeoff weight: 8,700 lb (3,946 kg)
Maximum Speed: 416 mph (669 km/h)
The Merlin 66 engine design was optimised to perform best at low altitude and Spitfires powered by the UK or US built engines were designated "LF" or low flying fighters and were delegated to a fighter-bomber role as the Griffon-powered Spitfire XIV became the RAF's standard air superiority fighter.
There are two distinct versions of the Spitfire XVI and Spitfire IX, early aircraft have the older style cockpit and those built after February 1945 utilise a rear sliding bubble canopy with a cut down or "low back" rear fuselage, the later, as pictured above gave improved visibility and equally important was easier for the pilot to "bale-out" should it be necessary.
Terms & Limitations of Supermarine Spitfire XVI Picture use
This top picture of Supermarine Spitfire XVI was taken by Chowells in September 2006 and it's use is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5 License. These Supermarine Spitfire XVI pictures are not in the Public Domain.
Limitations of use:
1) Siteseen Ltd. must be credited as the copyright holders wherever the information on this page is used. 2) For internet use, no more than three individual pictures shall be used on any given URL or website and a link back to this site must be provided. 3) Use of pictures of which we hold the copyright, on any websites re-distributing copyright free material is strictly prohibited. Need more Information? - Visit our copyright page via our main index
Supermarine Spitfire XVI WW2 Fighter Picture and Information | <urn:uuid:00ccdb48-6ec5-4ec9-be53-6d657bf7bd9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.airpowerworld.info/ww2-fighter-planes/supermarine-spitfire-xvi.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910058 | 609 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Feedback - 360 degree
This factsheet was last updated in August 2015.
What is 360 degree feedback?
360 degree (or 3600) feedback, and sometimes simply called 360 feedback, is a performance appraisal method that gathers feedback on an individual from a number of sources. Its supporters claim that this gives managers and individuals better information about skills and performance, as well as working relationships, compared with more traditional appraisal arrangements based on line managers’ assessments.
The rationale for gathering 360 degree feedback is that, in complex organisations, managers will not fully understand the contribution of the people they manage, as they may be part of many different teams and engage in autonomous or semi-autonomous relationships with customers or colleagues. There is therefore a strong argument for obtaining wide-ranging information to form an accurate picture of performance.
In 360 degree feedback, typically between 8 and 10 people complete questionnaires or give structured feedback describing the performance of the individual under review. The reviewers represent different types of work relationships with the individual: they could be peers, direct reports, more senior colleagues, or customers – hence the term ’360 degree’ feedback.
Login or register for a free account to continue reading this factsheet and to learn about:
- What is 360 degree feedback?
- Making 360 degree feedback work
- Drawing up questionnaires and reports
- 360 degree feedback online
- CIPD viewpoint
- Further reading | <urn:uuid:5fa0ca8e-69df-4479-9dd3-d23ab83a7a7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/360-degree-feedback.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919638 | 289 | 2.515625 | 3 |
News Release Article from
Archived - Harper Government Implements Further Restrictions on Flavoured Cigars That Appeal to Youth
Today, the Honourable Rona Ambrose, Minister of Health, announced the adoption of new measuresto further restrict flavours in cigars that appeal to youth.
The changes follow the 2009 Cracking Down on Tobacco Marketing Aimed at Youth Act, which banned the use of certain additives, including flavours like chocolate and bubble gum, in cigarettes, little cigars and blunt wraps, thereby making them less attractive to youth.
Since that time, however, resized cigars in the same flavours as those that were prohibited by the 2009 legislation have emerged on the Canadian market. The regulations introduced today have targeted these products by closing the loophole that allowed manufacturers to simply change the weight of little cigars or remove their filter to continue producing them.
The amendments, published June 17, 2015, in Canada Gazette, Part II, will come into force on December 14, 2015.
Delivering on a commitment made by the Prime Minister, these regulations are an example of the Government of Canada’s commitment to take action to protect youth from the dangers of tobacco use.
- Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death and disease in Canada, responsible for more than 37,000 deaths each year.
- Canada was the first country in the world to ban flavouring additives in cigarettes, little cigars and blunt wraps that made them attractive to youth.
- Tobacco use in Canada is at an historic low overall. The latest federal numbers from 2013 show that smoking rates among youth (aged 15-19) is at 11%, representing the lowest rate recorded for this age group since Health Canada first reported smoking prevalence.
- The proposed amendments prohibit most flavours and selected additives in cigars weighing more than 1.4 grams but no more than 6 grams, as well as in cigars that use tipping paper or do not feature a wrapper fitted in spiral form.
- The Government of Canada is investing almost $5 million over five years to encourage young adult smokers aged 20 to 24 to quit smoking and stay smoke-free. The Break It Off tobacco cessation campaign is a collaboration between Health Canada and the Canadian Cancer Society.
“Our Government is committed to helping ensure the health and safety of our youth and these changes will further protect them from the dangers of smoking. These actions build on the concrete steps our Government has already taken to reduce smoking rates in Canada to record lows.”
Minister of Health
Office of the Honourable Rona Ambrose
Federal Minister of Health
Search for related information by keyword
Hon. Rona Ambrose Health Canada Health and Safety
- Date modified: | <urn:uuid:5fe18c34-6b40-44b7-bc80-c6a9a125cc54> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=988679&tp=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944343 | 541 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Earlier this year, Casa Tuscany Inn was privileged to host a group of truly dynamic women affiliated with the San Diego Natural History Museum (SDNHM). They were here to conduct a special training program for teachers using an amazing technique called Quantum Learning. The subject was teaching/learning strategies and classroom management, using the La Paz watershed as the topic. Eighty-two teachers from La Paz and surrounding areas attended this 4-day workshop. And, it wasn’t free. Each teacher paid a fee to attend, but, from what I observed, it was money well spent.
Quantum Learning Network, www.qln.com, teaches teachers how to get their students excited about learning. The emphasis is hands-on learning and action oriented activities, utilizing all the senses in the learning process. Whoever heard of playing loud, up-beat music while taking an exam? Oh no. When we went to school the room was deathly quiet. For some, like me, taking exams was a kind of death. The music is just a small example of how engaging the senses promotes learning and gets kids excited about it.
Why, you may ask, would the San Diego Natural History Museum be interested in educating people in the Baja on environmental concerns? It isn’t hard to figure out. After all, a border does nothing more than delineate where one county, state, or country ends and another begins. Environmentally, things are not much different on one side of the border to the other. The Museum’s natural history region encompasses the area between Point Conception, just north of Santa Barbara in California, to Cabo San Lucas, all of the Sea of Cortez, and out to the deep ocean. The US and Mexican border share the same bio-region, the Tijuana River Watershed. Thus, there is a keen interest in preserving this important resource for everyone. What happens environmentally on a local level can have serious consequences globally. Poor watershed management in particular impacts the Baja as well as its northern neighbors.
An organization known as PROBEA (Bio-regional Environmental Education Project), founded in 1991, worked for several years with groups on both sides of the US/Mexico border to educate people on environmental issues before merging with the SDNHM in 1997. Part of the Museum’s binational education program, is this educational arm that now assists educators in La Paz and other communities of the Baja to develop and commit to projects that benefit the environment. Teachers that participate in the training learn not only about the watershed, which they in turn teach to their students, they also learn some important teaching techniques that can be employed for all school subjects. Since the year 2000, when PROBEA was first invited to La Paz to introduce their programs to the area, training for educators have been facilitated in “Ocean Oasis”, “Schoolyard Habitats”, “Know Your Watershed”, and “Our Natural Heritage, Baja California Sur’s Pride”. All the programs are focused on the environment, are correlated to the Mexican Education Standards and require an action component within the schools and communities to reinforce the classroom learning.
The curriculum for the January watershed workshop, and others to come, is designed to educate the students on how to take responsibility for their local environment. Students work together to learn about the history and ecology of their watershed. They gain an appreciation of what an aquifer is and how the scarcity of water in La Paz impacts them. The kids work on projects to conserve water in their homes and school.
We all know about the scarcity of water in La Paz, and in spite of the heavy rains, we are reminded that we live in a desert region. Although the city turns off the water in various neighborhoods during the day, it isn’t enough. The city water infrastructure is in serious need of repair and many homes do not have water meters but tap into the water supply nonetheless. There is no revenue generated from these taps and thus no revenue to effect repairs. We must all do our part and find ways to conserve water as much as possible.
I know you join me in applauding the efforts of SDNHM and PROBEA for the work they are doing. We thank them and welcome them to the La Paz community. Since inception, over 4,600 educators received training on environmental themes and those educators in turn teach 150,000 students each year. More than 21,000 Baja California peninsula residents have participated in community events and 31,000 have been involved in the action projects of the program.
For more information, visit the Museum’s website, www.sdnhm.org and follow the links to Education/Education-Mexico.
Carol Dyer is the owner of Casa Tuscany Inn and a regular contributor to the Baja Citizen. | <urn:uuid:131ec29f-b416-4146-a27b-56d9198bcdd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bajacitizen.com/quantum-learning-comes-to-la-paz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965679 | 1,005 | 2.78125 | 3 |
1712 - 1778
The 18th Century
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a Swiss philosopher and novelist who was an important figure in the Enlightenment. In his novels and discourses he claimed that civilization had weakened the natural liberty of mankind and that a truly free society would be the expression of the “general will” of all members of that society. He influenced later thinkers on both ends of the political spectrum. | <urn:uuid:322ea752-ad78-46a8-96eb-04cbf7514633> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oll.libertyfund.org/people/3803 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970761 | 93 | 3.390625 | 3 |
HIV Can Replicate in Intestinal Lining Even After HAART Reduces Viral Load, Study Says
August 1, 2006
HIV can replicate and suppress the immune system in the intestinal lining, even after blood tests show that highly active antiretroviral therapy is reducing viral loads, according to a study published in the August issue of the Journal of Virology, London's Times reports (Lister, Times, 7/29). Moraima Guadalupe of the University of California-Davis Health System's Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and colleagues took blood and intestinal samples of 10 HIV-positive people before and after three years of treatment with HAART (Reuters, 7/29). Three of the people began HAART within four to six weeks of contracting HIV, and seven began treatment at least one year after becoming HIV-positive, BBC News reports (BBC News, 7/29). According to the study, samples from people who started HAART earlier showed less inflammation and greater revival of the mucosal immune system in the gut than the samples of other study participants (CBC News, 7/28). "We found a substantial delay in the time that it takes to restore the gut mucosal immune system in those with chronic infections," Satya Dandekar, chair of the at the UC Davis Health System microbiology and immunology department and senior author of the study, said, adding, "In these patients the gut is acting as a viral reservoir that keeps us from ridding patients of the virus" (Xinhuanet, 7/29). "If we are able to restore the gut's immune response, the patient will be more likely to clear the virus," Thomas Prindiville, a UC Davis professor and a study co-author, said. The study recommends gut biopsies for patients taking HAART and says that earlier onset of HAART and use of anti-inflammatory drugs could help revive immune function in the "gut-associated lymphoid issue," which accounts for about 70% of a person's immune system, the Times reports (Times, 7/29).
Men With Multiple Partners Behind Spread of HIV/AIDS Among Women in India, United Nations Study Says
This article was provided by Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. It is a part of the publication Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report. Visit the Kaiser Family Foundation's website to find out more about their activities, publications and services. | <urn:uuid:140b49ed-42c3-483c-886b-247c9ef6ad4c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thebody.com/content/art7873.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937018 | 497 | 2.8125 | 3 |
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Jonathan Schneck on designing an artificial cell that conducts the symphony of the immune system:
What does your lab study?
SCHNECK: We study the immune system, which is like a symphony. There are many different players in this symphony, like the strings or the winds sections, represented by the different types of white blood cells. The symphony has a conductor that tells each player when to chime in, so that you get a beautiful song and not just a bunch of sounds. The conductor in the immune system is the antigen presenting cell (APC)—a cell that displays a substance that stimulates the immune system. The APCs make contact with T or B cells (types of white blood cells) and tell them to turn on or turn off and controls their responses.
My colleague from Pathology, Mathias Oelke, and I are creating an artificial cell that can act to orchestrate the symphony, in cases like cancer where the conductor has been disabled. Cancers suppress the immune system by attacking the conductor, so that the cancer can continue to grow and spread in the body. But, if we can use an artificial conductor, then we can reactivate the body’s immune system to recognize and destroy the cancer.
Tell me more about this artificial cell.
SCHNECK: We’re designing an artificial cell that can activate or repress the immune system. The artificial cell is actually a microscopic bead that acts like an APC, and using a Lego-like approach we put on different proteins that allow the artificial cell to communicate with the T cells and tells them to turn on or off. We call this bead an aAPC for artificial Antigen Presenting Cell.
The aAPC has two protein components attached: one that activates the T cell and another that identifies a specific T cell. The beauty of the system is we can build the aAPC for whatever our goals are, whether for attacking cancer cells or preventing autoimmunity.
We are developing the aAPC technology for testing in mice and on human cells. Our goal is to effectively take the aAPC from the bench to the bedside so that we can use it like a cell therapy. We hope that one day doctors can inject the aAPCs into patients as a way to activate or suppress their immune systems. In order to reach this goal, we are working closely with the John Hopkins Technology Transfer Office to figure out how to move the project into an industrial setting where a more concentrated effort and a larger workforce can be put towards product development. The project will then need a few more years of advancements before it is ready for clinical trials.
Did you always plan on developing new translational therapies?
SCHNECK: As an M.D., Ph.D., even in my training I had the strong desire to impact on clinical medicine, but not necessarily by primary clinical care. But, I knew that if I studied basic science and was successful (and had a lot of luck too) that I could do medicine on a different level. From the beginning I had a desire to create new technologies, but that was never my focus. I always concentrated on learning the basic science of how the immune system works with the hope that we can use that information to better the human condition. However, my clinical training taught me to not miss an opportunity when I saw one, like the artificial cell idea.
I started by doing a wide analysis of the immune system, and I needed certain tools to make the studies progress. In the process of developing these tools, I realized that we were forming some of the basic components of the immune system that eventually led to the concept of my artificial cell. And that’s how the research eventually took us into technology development.
You’ve been a faculty member at Johns Hopkins for 20 years, Why did you decide to join ICE?
SCHNECK: I joined ICE for two reasons really. Thematically, it makes a lot of sense to develop my project of making artificial cells in the Institute for Cell Engineering.
Also, Stephen Desiderio approached me about forming a program project that would cross-fertilize the ideas of the immunologists in ICE under a large funding mechanism. Shortly thereafter, we received a P01 project grant that was the largest basic immunology grant that Johns Hopkins has ever been awarded. As the science brought us together through the program project, then it made more sense for me to be physically closer with my peers and collaborators.
Jonathan Schneck on creating an artificial conductor to direct the immune system symphony: | <urn:uuid:320fa588-1da3-4077-bab0-7f6d25056cd5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/institute_cell_engineering/experts/meet_scientists/jonathan_schneck.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949759 | 992 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The Great Crash and the Onset of the Great Depression
NBER Working Paper No. 2639
This paper argues that the collapse of stock prices in October 1929 generated temporary uncertainty about future income which caused consumers to forego purchases of durable and semidurable goods in late 1929 and much of 1930. Evidence that the stock market crash generated uncertainty is provided by the decline in confidence expressed by contemporary forecasters. Evidence that this uncertainty affected consumer behavior is provided by the fact that spending on consumer durables and semidurables declined immediately following the Great Crash and by the fact that there is a negative historical relationship between stock market variability and the production of consumer durables in the prewar era.
Document Object Identifier (DOI): 10.3386/w2639
Published: Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 105, pp. 597-624, August 1990. citation courtesy of | <urn:uuid:4435cead-62a6-427e-9f6e-734e2d7af7f3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nber.org/papers/w2639 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904013 | 182 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Grade Exam Music
This product includes pieces featured in grade exams. Click on a grade to view the full syllabus.
|ABRSM Violin 2016–2019||8|| |
|LCM Violin 2011-2016||6|| |
Whilst still on a study visit to the Conservatory in Leipzig in 1879, Leos Janacek began writing works for violin and piano.
He composed at least seven Romances, but only one has survived, quite a simple piece, with the piano frequently doubling the violin part. It is described in the manuscript as Romance No. 4. From the same period comes the Dumka , a passionate work which was soon reworked, and which some scholars have suggested may be one of the Leipzig Romances. The composition par excellence scored for these instruments is the four-movement sonata.
It was composed during Janacek’s most brilliant period of creativity between 1914 and 1922, when he reached his maturity. The works from these years demonstrate Janacek’s striving for maximum concentration of musical thought, precise modulation of form and balance between the individual parts of the work.
- Urtext from the Janacek Complete Edition
- All available sources have been taken into consideration
- New and detailed foreword by Jiri Zahradka (Czech, English, German)
Published by Baerenreiter. | <urn:uuid:27b71e8e-8804-49d0-a0c9-441af24e7989> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.boosey.com/shop/prod/Jan-cek-Leo-Works-for-Violin-and-Piano/2000415 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956846 | 288 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Almond Board :: Healthful Snacking
Everyone gets snack attacks. They're often triggered by stress rather than hunger and people grab what's nearest - nibbling on candy and other junk food. Keeping a handful of almonds in your pocket, recycling an empty mint tin like Altoids® and filling it up with almonds, or carrying a plastic sandwich bag in your purse, briefcase or glove compartment is a wholesome and satisfying solution to your next snack attack. Susan Lord, MD, assistant professor of family medicine at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. offers advice on healthful snacking and explains why almonds are such a terrific option.
Q. When should you snack and what should you snack on?
A. Your body needs fuel on an ongoing basis - about every four hours. If you find yourself going six to eight hours between meals, you need a snack. You want to have a steady stream of fuel throughout the day in order to keep your blood sugar levels on an even keel.
It's nice if you can come up with a snack that has a little bit of fat, a little bit of carbohydrate and a little bit of protein. That is going to sustain you the best until you get to the next meal.
Q. Why are almonds a snack of choice?
A. Almonds have all three of the macronutrients -- carbohydrates, protein and fat. That's one of the reasons almonds are a good snack. Almonds are also very high in micronutrients --- they have a lot of vitamins and minerals and they also have fiber.
In particular, almonds have a lot of vitamin E and high levels of manganese and magnesium, two very important minerals. Magnesium is good for sleep, preventing leg cramps, good for your heart, and may promote a healthy blood sugar level. It is very important and it is often deficient in people.
Q. Aren't almonds fatty?
A. A lot of people are afraid of almonds (and nuts in general) because they have a high fat content. Most of the fats in almonds are what we consider good fats. The good fats or unsaturated fats help keep your heart healthy and your cholesterol down. They also make up all your cell membranes.
I recommend my patients eat almonds because it is a good way for them to get these fatty acids.
Q. Do women need snacks more than men?
A. No. But women tend to snack more than men and so it is important for them to think about healthy snacking. The fatty acids and vitamin E in almonds are all good things for your skin (another benefit of almonds that might appeal especially to women.)
Q. How many almonds should you eat daily?
If someone is at an ideal body weight, I suggest that they try to listen to their body about how many almonds to eat. If someone wants to lose weight, I suggest they limit the almonds they eat to about an ounce or 23 almonds a day.
Almonds are very convenient -
you can just stick a handful in your pocket or, as the Almond Board recommends, fill an empty mint tin with almonds, or carry a plastic sandwich bag of natural or roasted almonds in your purse, briefcase or glove compartment.
It is best to eat whole natural, unsalted almonds or roasted almonds. Other good snacks are almond butter on carrots, celery or a banana. Almond butter is very satisfying so a little bit goes a long way. | <urn:uuid:1290dde8-efd5-4a37-8789-d21aa691fd22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodfit.com/centers/almond/healthsnack.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953157 | 707 | 2.59375 | 3 |
How does technology affect our sleep?
There are many advantages of current technology, such as keeping in touch, working on the move and even being able to shop and date online, but some scientists are considering what implications this technology has on lives.
Technology and Sleep
One of the main concerns around technology is its impact upon sleep, especially with many people suffering from poor sleep or lack of sleep. For those who spend most of the night tossing and turning on their comfy double mattress, trying to identify why their sleep is bad, it is doubtful that many will consider that technology could be the cause.
The Body Clock
Many people now go to bed watching TV, surfing the web and using a smart phone or an eReader, not realising the potential that these have to disrupt sleep. Sleep disruption occurs because the body clock is affected. This body clock, or to give it its scientific name, circadian rhythms, is regulated by hormones.
People have biologically adapted over many years so that their lives are coordinated with the 24-hour rotation of the Earth. The body clock aligns to this clear night and day routine. These circadian rhythms do not just regulate sleep patterns, as they also regulate metabolism and behaviour.
The hypothalamus in the brain controls circadian rhythms and it seems that light is one of the biggest controllers of the body clock. When sunlight wanes at the end of the day, the hypothalamus sends a message to the pineal gland to secrete a hormone called melatonin. Melatonin not only reduces activity, but also causes the feelings of sleepiness.
One of the easiest ways to disrupt the body clock is with jet lag. Those who are blind from birth or those who work night shifts also suffer with body clock disruption.
The Impact of Technology on the Body Clock
Not only do people going to bed often feel mentally alert, because they have just spent an hour sorting emails or chatting online, but the light generated from devices such as phones and laptops is confusing the body clock.
This artificial light not only causes the body to wake up, but it also reduces the release of melatonin. This means that both the body and the brain think that they need to stay awake, rather than prepare for sleep.
A number of people not only check messages or emails before going to sleep, but also leave devices switched on overnight, increasing the risk of being woken up when a message comes through.
Minimising the Impact of Technology on Sleep.
People should try to avoid using technology in their beds and switch off devices some time before, using the spare time for unwinding. Some devices also have the ability for dimming, preventing as much light from being emitted from the screen. Leaving the phone downstairs at night is a good way to minimise the impact of technology, particularly for teenagers, who tend to message during the night.
Because light is important for controlling the body clock, when waking up on a dark morning, a light should be switched on immediately. Some people also set a light on a timer to come on before they wake up. All of this can help to keep the body clock working as it should be. | <urn:uuid:296a18ea-ec7d-429f-ae6c-628a262f4a7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.easier.com/99486-how-does-technology-affect-our-sleep.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958341 | 638 | 3.53125 | 4 |
The cloud of acid rain that's been hovering over Western North Carolina for decades may turn out to have a silver lining after all.
A seven-year lawsuit against the Tennessee Valley Authority ended in a negotiated settlement last June. In 2004, North Carolina joined Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky and Tennessee in suing TVA over air pollution emitted by its coal-fired power plants. The settlement consolidates complaints filed by environmental groups over the last two decades asserting that the federally owned corporation had failed to control emissions of greenhouse gases and particulate matter. Besides endangering human health and the environment, this was a contributing factor in those states running afoul of federal clean-air requirements.
In December, the North Carolina Energy Office held public meetings in Murphy, Waynesville and Boone, seeking input on how to spend the state’s $11.2 million share.
The money, which will be received in installments over the next five years, will support energy-efficiency and renewable-energy projects chosen by the state. Preference will be given to projects in WNC, where most of the North Carolina impact of TVA’s emissions is felt.
Examples of projects that might be funded include solar and geothermal building installations; wind- or solar-energy production facilities; projects that reduce motor vehicle miles traveled and idling time; and energy-conservation efforts in both new and existing structures, including efficient lighting, appliances, weatherization and similar measures meeting Energy Star or LEED standards.
Acid rain is created when fossil fuels are burned to produce electricity or power vehicles. Airborne pollutants such as sulfur dioxide combine with water to produce sulfuric acid. And the fine particles coal-burning power plants release can lead to increased respiratory illness and premature death when people inhale them.
Meanwhile, the clouds that form over our high peaks are abnormally acidic. Rime ice (clouds frozen on trees) has been measured at a pH of 2.1 at Grandfather Mountain, placing it somewhere between the acidity of lemon juice and battery acid. Such conditions render local streams and forests more vulnerable to other environmental stresses and can produce the kind of general die-off clearly visible at Mount Mitchell State Park.
TVA has agreed to invest up to $5 billion to clean up 11 coal-fired power plants in Alabama, Kentucky and Tennessee whose emissions affect Western North Carolina’s air quality. The agency will install new or upgraded pollution controls to reduce smog and acid-rain-forming emissions by more than two-thirds. In addition, the agency must spend $350 million on clean-energy projects, including North Carolina’s $11.2 million.
Nearly 200 people attended the December meetings, according to Assistant Secretary for Energy Jonathan Williams. “There’s no shortage of good ideas, motivation or opportunities to put those funds to good use,” Williams wrote. The state, he noted, had heard from “a broad cross section of citizens who offered their thoughts on how best to do lasting good.”
Based on that input, the state is now developing a specific spending plan. Seth Effron, communications director for the N.C. Energy Office, says the goal is to boost local programs delivering high-impact, long-term air-quality improvements. One possibility being considered is establishing a trust fund that would generate money to support future clean-air initiatives.
Meanwhile, the state is also eyeing efforts such as Green Opportunities, which has a track record of promoting conservation and clean energy. The Asheville-based program teaches at-risk youth how to install energy-efficiency technologies, creating jobs while improving local homes and commercial buildings.
Maggie Ullman, the city of Asheville’s energy coordinator, met with state officials recently to discuss establishing a revolving loan fund that would finance green home improvements that reduce electricity consumption. The settlement money would leverage additional funding to offer Ashevilleans low-cost loans.
And over at the Land-of-Sky Regional Council, Patrick Harper is promoting Evolve Energy, a partnership between business and community leaders that aims to support green work-force development and entrepreneurial efforts, leveraging and augmenting existing regional assets.
Whichever projects eventually get funded, however, the settlement’s impact on WNC will extend far beyond North Carolina’s $11.2 million. TVA’s multibillion-dollar power-plant cleanup will significantly improve local air quality; the agency will also spend about $290 million on yet-to-be defined environmental cleanup projects within its service area.
Environmental groups say the settlement has been a long time coming. “Coal-fired power plants are among the biggest sources of air pollution humans have ever devised,” says attorney John Suttles of the Southern Environmental Law Center. “We need to abandon this outdated, inefficient technology. We’re starting to move in a much better direction: This is a big deal.”
— Susan Andrew can be reached at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:57eb6fd1-99ae-40f8-9c8d-ec527e83c305> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mountainx.com/news/environment/020812green-scene-environmental-antacid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940369 | 1,029 | 3.015625 | 3 |
The First Two-Way Long Distance Telephone Conversation
Posted by: NorStar
N 42° 21.784 W 071° 05.717
19T E 327459 N 4692214
Quick Description: This marks the location of the northern terminus of a two-way long distance telephone conversation by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas G. Watson.
Location: Massachusetts, United States
Date Posted: 4/9/2006 1:03:40 PM
Waymark Code: WMA50
The sign says:
"From this site on October 9, 1876 the first two-way long distance telephone conversation was carried on for three hours. From here in Cambridgeport Thomas G. Watson spoke over a telegraph wire to Alexander Graham Bell at the office of the Walworth Mfg. Co. 69 Kirby Street, Boston, Mass.
"This plaque presented to the City of Cambridge by the North Council Thomas Sherwin Chapter Telephone Pioneers of America November 1, 1961"
Agency Responsible for Placement: Other (Place below)
Agency Responsible for Placement (if not in list above): Telephone Pioneers of America
Year Placed: 1961
City/Town Name: Cambridge
Relevant Web Site: Not listed
When logging a Massachusetts Historic Marker, we ask that you not only describe your visit, but to upload a picture from it. The picture does not have to be of the marker - one picture of the marker is enough. But a photo of you standing next to the marker or a photograph the subject of the marker - those are examples of possible photographs to upload.
|There are no logs for this waymark yet. | <urn:uuid:0f3accd4-06e7-43b4-a8fa-8843c363d614> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMA50_The_First_Two_Way_Long_Distance_Telephone_Conversation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868788 | 343 | 2.765625 | 3 |
South Korean shipbuilding company Daewoo, one of the largest in the world, says its shipyard workers will soon start using robotic exoskeletons for lifting heavy objects.
Exoskeletons are wearable motorized appendages for arms and legs that give the wearer superhuman strength.
Daewoo engineers tested a 28-kilogram prototype of a flexible frame, made of carbon-reinforced plastic, aluminum and steel, that allows the wearer to move at a normal pace while carrying a 30 kilogram load. They say the workable model now being developed will allow workers to lift and carry much heavier objects - up to 100 kilograms.
The battery powered exoskeleton is strapped to the wearer’s legs, arms and chest, while the frame incorporating hydraulic joints and electric motors bears the actual load. The whole system responds to natural movement of the person wearing the exoskeleton.
South Korean shipyards are already highly automated, using robots for tasks such as welding and cutting and grinding steel parts, which helps them build some of the world’s biggest ships. | <urn:uuid:28ada586-fdb2-4377-8bf6-744aa0830db1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.voanews.com/content/south-korean-firm-embraces-exoskeletons-to-help-shipbuilders/1972317.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910641 | 222 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Singaporean cuisine is an example of diversity and cultural diffusion, with influences from Chinese, Indian, Malay and Tamil cuisine. In Singapore's hawker centres, traditionally Malay hawker stalls selling halal food may serve halal versions of traditionally Tamil food. Chinese food stalls may introduce indigenous Malay ingredients or cooking techniques. This continues to make the cuisine of Singapore a significant cultural attraction.
Singaporean sportsmen have performed in regional as well as international competitions in sports such as table tennis, badminton, bowling, sailing, silat, swimming and water polo. Athletes such as Fandi Ahmad, Ang Peng Siong, Li Jiawei and Ronald Susilo have become household names in the country.
Around 78,000 people work in the media in Singapore, including publishing, print, broadcasting, film, music, digital and IT media sectors.
National Stadium, Singapore, located in Kallang was opened in July 1973 and was used for sporting, cultural, entertainment and national events until its official closure on 30 June 2007 to make way for the Singapore Sports Hub on the same site.
The architecture of Singapore is varied, reflecting the ethnic build-up of the country. Singapore has several ethnic neighbourhoods, including Chinatown and Little India. These were formed under the Raffles Plan to segregate the immigrants. | <urn:uuid:58f712dc-5a52-4260-8b13-f09995f5b8d3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sexy-bikini-girl.blogspot.com/2011/04/hot-sexy-singapore-girls-hot-london_4400.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964231 | 271 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Descendants of Solomon "Moneymaking Sol" Mullins
40. Solomon Mullins b. 23 Feb. 1782 on the Broad River, North Carolina - d. 25 Aug. 1858 Big Creek, Boone County, Virginia (later West Virginia) md Sarah Greenfield Cathey b. ca 1788 South Carolina - d. Jan. 1871 Boone County, West Virginia. Solomon Mullins and his brother-in-law Samuel Cathey moved from Burke County, North Carolina to Floyd County, Kentucky and are listed in the 1810 and 1820 censuses. Samuel Cathey's 200 acre Burke County, North Carolina farm was sold at a sheriff's sale. Samuel and Alexander Cathey are listed in the 1800 Burke County, North Carolina Census. Solomon Mullins signed as a witness on the consent paper for his sister Nancy to marry Thomas Kelly on 7 Jan. 1808. Solomon served in Capt. David Gooding's Company of Kentucky Volunteer Militia during the War of 1812. On 29 Aug. 1825, Solomon received a land grant for 50 acres on the Trace Fork of Shelby Creek in Pike County, Kentucky. He is listed in the 1830 Pike County, Kentucky Census. By 1837, he had joined his father and two brothers in Russell County (now Dickenson County), Virginia. James had settled near the Breaks of the Mountain, John Jr. had settled on Holly Creek. "Solomon moved to the waters of Holly Creek, about two miles northeast of Clintwood, where he lived for several years. He owned several slaves, mostly women, who worked in the fields and hunted in the woods. He was known as "Moneymaking Sol" because he made counterfeit money for several years under a cliff near Holly Creek." [The Mullins Family in Dickenson County by E.J. Sutherland] known as "Sol's Cliff's", in the laurel bottoms near Low Gap at he mouth of a branch below where Isaac Mullins later lived. Solomon's nephews Isaac and John Mullins helped him "strike" the money. In 1837, Solomon and sons Peter and Spencer were charged by the Russell County, Virginia court for making counterfeit twenty-five cent pieces, half dollars, and dollars. Solomon sold three tracts of land on Shelby Creek in Pike County, Kentucky on 7 Nov. 1837. He and son Peter left Russell County, Virginia and moved to the Sequatchie River in Marion County, Tennessee, where he lived near his brother-in-law Samuel Cathey. Solomon and son Peter purchased land in Jasper, Marion County, Tennessee, on 8 July 1840 and stayed there until the winter of 1841-1842 when hey moved to Logan County, Virginia (later West Virginia). When Solomon came to Logan County he brought his three granddaughters---Mahala, Rhoda Jane, and Elvira. On 15 Aug. 1846, he bought land from Edward Chapman on the Trace Fork of Big Ugly Creek in Logan County (this section became part of Boone County in 1847). His son Peter Mullins lived on Harts Creek. Solomon Mullins and his wife Sarah Greenfield Cathey are buried on the farm of Wallace Alvin Hill on the Ellis Fork of Big Creek. Their graves are at the edge of the road. Solomon and Sarah had the following children:
163. i. Eli Mullins b. ca 1804 North Carolina md 1) Elizabeth Short, 2) Elizabeth Rose
164. ii. Peter Mullins b. ca 1804 NC - d. 16 Sept. 1889 Logan Co., WV md 1) Jane Mullins
165. iii. Alexander Mullins b. 4 Oct. 1810 Burke Co., NC - d. 1896 KY md Margaret "Peggy" Fleming
166. iv. Jennie Mullins b. ca 1810 KY - d. ca 1837 KY md 1) Hartwell Newsome, 2) Jacob Johnson?
167. v. Matilda Mullins b. ca 1813 KY - d. ca 1887 Pike Co., KY md William Johnson Jr.
168. vi. Dicey Mullins b. ca 1816 KY - d. after 1880 WV md Joseph Adams
169. vii. Spencer Mullins b. ca 1820 KY md Lydia Eveline Adkins
170. viii. Margaret Mullins b. ca 1825 KY md David Thomas
To send additional information or corrections click the following link: email@example.com
Deeds, Wills, and Estate Settlements
Census Records and Court Orders
Marriage Bonds, Consent Papers, and Marriage Records
Bible Records and Cemetery Records
County and State Maps | <urn:uuid:9f0e2fec-707b-4d40-9a60-8237e36ca9d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://members.tripod.com/cornelius_carroll/Mullins/id32.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934675 | 950 | 2.578125 | 3 |
We have mentioned how the entire church building is centered around the altar table. The altar table does not merely symbolize the table of the last supper. It is the symbolic and mystical presence of the heavenly throne and table of the Kingdom of God; the table of Christ the Word, the Lamb and the King of the ever-lasting life of God’s glorified dominion over all of creation.
The Book of the Gospels is perpetually enthroned on the altar table. It is on the altar table that we offer the &rldquo;bloodless sacrifice” of Christ to the Father. And from the altar table we receive the Bread of Life, the Body and Blood of the Lord’s Passover Supper. This table is the “table of God’s Kingdom” (Lk 13.29).
In Orthodox Tradition the altar table is often carved wood or stone. It is usually vested with colorful material to show its divine and heavenly character. It should always be a simple table of proportional dimensions, often a perfect cube, and is always free-standing so that it may be encircled.
On the altar table one always finds the antimension. This is the cloth depicting Christ in the tomb which contains the signature of the bishop and is the permission for the local community to gather as the Church. “Antimension” means literally “instead of the table.” Since the bishop is the proper pastor of the Church, the antimension is used instead of the bishop’s own table which is, obviously, in his own church building, the cathedral—the place where the bishop has his chair (cathedra).
The antimension usually contains a relic (normally a part of the body) of a saint which shows that the Church is built on the blood of the martyrs and the lives of God’s holy people. This custom comes from the early Church practice of gathering and celebrating the eucharist on the graves of those who have lived and died for the Christian faith. Usually, a relic of a saint is embedded in the altar table itself as well.
Also on the altar table there is a tabernacle, often in the shape of a church building, which is a repository for the gifts of holy communion that are reserved for the sick and the dying. Behind the altar table there is usually a seven-branched candle stand which comes from the Old Testamental tradition of the Jewish temple. Generally speaking, the Jerusalem temple is highly valued in the Orthodox Christian tradition of worship and church construction as a “prototype” of the true worship “in spirit and truth” of the Kingdom of God (Jn 4.23). | <urn:uuid:e141c13e-500a-48ae-b210-7f052878efa5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/worship/the-church-building/altar-table | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9466 | 559 | 2.796875 | 3 |
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released last Friday the most comprehensive ever study on global warming. The landmark report, prepared by more than 200 scientists over two years, concludes that global temperatures could rise by up to 4.8 Celsius (8.6 Fahrenheit) by the end of this century compared to pre-industrial levels, but could potentially still be held to 0.3 C (0.5 F) with deep, speedy cuts in emissions.
This is hugely significant because all countries have agreed that temperature rises should be restricted to no more than 2C, thus increasing prospects of preventing so-called dangerous or runaway climate change. The study also concluded that it is "extremely likely" (at least 95% probability) that human activity, not climate variations, has caused much of the increase in global temperature in recent decades.
The report downplays the fact that global average surface temperatures have risen more slowly in the past 15 years, contrary to earlier IPCC predictions, saying there were substantial natural variations that masked a long-term warming trend. This point will nonetheless be seized upon by climate change sceptics.
Despite the controversy it will cause with sceptics, the IPCC report will be welcomed by many across the world, and comes during a period when it may seem hard not to be pessimistic about the global battle to manage the huge risks of climate change. For instance, the last annual UN international climate change summit in Doha in December made only modest progress toward securing a comprehensive, global deal.
Moreover, climate change sceptics appear to be winning the battle for public opinion across much of the world. Earlier this month, for instance, one study showed that the percentage of British people who do not think the world's climate is changing had increased by a staggering four-fold in less than a decade.
However, far from being the hopeless situation some suggest, there are signs that we may be reaching a point when the tide turns on tackling climate change. To be sure, much more needs to be done, but if one takes a step back and examines what is already happening at national and sub-national level across the world, a relatively encouraging picture is emerging.
That is, domestic laws and regulations to address climate change are being passed at an increasing rate -- in stark contrast to the pace of progress in UN-driven international negotiations. In 2012 alone, as described in a report published by GLOBE International, 32 of 33 surveyed countries (which account for over 85% of global greenhouse gas emissions), including the United States and China, have introduced or are progressing significant climate or related legislation and regulation.
This is nothing less than a 'game-changing' development:
• China, after the publication of its 12th five year plan in 2011, has proceeded with more detailed implementation guidelines including rules for its emissions trading pilots, progress with drafting its climate change law and publication of an energy white paper. Moreover, at the end of October 2012, sub-national legislation was passed in Shenzhen to tackle climate change - the first such legislation in China.
• Mexico has passed a general law on climate change - a comprehensive legislative framework packaged together with the first Redd+ readiness legislation to tackle deforestation.
• South Korea passed legislation to begin a nationwide emissions trading scheme by 2015.
• South Africa has proposed a carbon tax.
• There has also been progress in the developed world. For instance, the European Union passed a new directive on energy efficiency, and Germany strengthened legislation relating to CCS and energy efficiency.
As these examples underline, it is mainly developing countries, which will provide the motor of global economic growth in coming decades, which are leading this drive. Many are concluding it is in their national interest to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by embracing low-carbon growth and development, and to better prepare for the impact of climate change.
They see that expanding domestic sources of renewable energy not only reduces emissions but also increases energy security by reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels. Reducing energy demand through greater efficiency reduces costs and increases competitiveness. Improving resilience to the impacts of climate change also makes sound economic sense.
Many governments and companies have recognised that a green race has started, and they are determined to compete. They also acknowledge that, over time, those that produce in 'dirty' ways will be increasingly likely to face border adjustment mechanisms which take account of the subsidy associated with their taking advantage of any unpriced pollution.
It follows, therefore, that advancing domestic legislation on climate change, and experiencing the co-benefits of reducing emissions, is a crucial building block to help create the political conditions to enable a comprehensive, global climate agreement to be reached. Domestic laws give clear signals about direction of policy, increasing confidence and reducing uncertainty, particularly for the private sector which can drive low-carbon economic growth.
With negotiations on a post-2020 comprehensive global deal scheduled to conclude in 2015, it is unlikely that an agreement, with necessary ambition, will be reached unless more domestic frameworks are in place in key countries. Sound domestic actions enhance the prospects of international action, and better international prospects enhance domestic actions.
Given this outlook, and as negotiators prepare for the next annual UN climate change summit in Poland in November, a potential danger is that some countries might lower their long-term ambition. This would be ill-timed. Indeed, now is the right moment for countries to invest more in tackling climate change, in order to help expedite the creation of conditions on the ground that will enable a comprehensive global treaty to be reached. | <urn:uuid:800b0271-81a9-432c-b46d-d9bd276135ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/andrew-hammond/as-ipcc-launches-landmark_b_4018783.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951045 | 1,120 | 3.453125 | 3 |
A Brief Guide On Commercial Fire Extinguishers
Everyone knows that a bucket or two of water is enough to kill a simple camp fire but many people are not aware of the fact that there are many different types of fire and there is a specific method of extinguishing each type of fire. For instance, trying to kill an electrical fire with water may cause a lot of damage and put lives at risk. Therefore, it is important to be aware of these different types of fire and the best way to put them out with the help of commercial fire extinguishers.
Here is a brief guide on different types of fire and what type of commercial fire extinguishers should be used to kill those fires.
There are a total of five different classifications of fire as follows:
Fires that are fueled by organic combustible materials such as paper, cloth and wood are classified as Class A. These types of fires usually start when combustible materials such as rubber, clothing, paper and dry wood are exposed to extreme heat in the right conditions. This type of fire can be easily extinguished by water.
This refers to fire fueled by various flammable liquids and gases such as propane, paint thinner, gasoline and acetylene among others. Since oil and gasoline float on water and continue to burn, water is not effective in killing these fires. Therefore, it is better to cut the oxygen supply using carbon dioxide.
This class refers to the electrical fire. Water should not be used as it may put human lives at risk of electrocution.
This class refers to fires fueled by burning of combustible metals. Various metals such as potassium, magnesium and sodium burn hotly when exposed to heat. This type of fire needs fire extinguishers labeled D. These fire extinguishers contain sodium chloride.
This class refers to kitchen fires that involve cooking oils and fats. Throwing water on these fires usually spread the fire around the kitchen as cooking oils float on the water surface. A fire extinguisher containing dry chemicals or carbon dioxide should be used for killing a kitchen fire.
Types of Commercial Fire Extinguisher
ABC Fire Extinguishers
As the name suggest, this type of extinguisher can be used for dousing Class A, Class B as well as Class C fires. It uses a dry chemical agent known as Mono Ammonium Phosphate. This chemical agent is corrosive and therefore, it must be scrapped off after use. Though these fire extinguishers are good for killing electrical fire, a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher is better for protecting sensitive electrical equipment.
K Class Fire Extinguishers
These are great for commercial kitchens. These contain a mix of Potassium Citrate and Potassium Acetate. This combination is highly effective for dousing fires fueled by cooking oils and grease. This type of fire extinguishers sprays a fine mist to prevent splashing of oils and works by creating a barrier between oxygen and external heat source to prevent fire from reigniting.
Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishers
As the name suggests, this type of extinguisher contains carbon dioxide that works by displacing oxygen in the affected area for killing the fire. These are ideal for fires caused by electricity. As these contain CO2, these should not be used in confined spaces.
Purple K Fire Extinguishers
This type of fire extinguisher uses special dry chemical component for killing Class B and Class C fires. It is highly effective against flammable liquids such as solvents, alcohol, oil based paints as well as flammable gases.
All commercial fire extinguishers come with a UL rating that signals the effectiveness of a fire extinguisher. The rating tells you about the water equivalency of extinguisher, area that can be covered by the fire extinguisher and the type of fire that can be killed by using it.
It is in the form of 4-A:10:B:C
The number before A refers to water equivalency of the fire extinguisher. A represents 1.25 gallons of water which means that for a fire extinguisher with the above rating has an equivalent of 5 gallons of water. Similarly, the number in front of B refers to the square footage that can be covered by the fire extinguisher. The last letter refers to the type of fire where this extinguisher may be used.
In addition to the above-mentioned classification, you also need to invest in various accessories to ensure that the commercial fire extinguishers can be easily accessed when needed. Some of the important accessories include brackets, covers, labels, signs, recessed and surface mount cabinets among others.
Finding the Best Fire Suppression Systems Available
There are few things that are more devastating to a business than a major fire, and that goes with businesses of all sizes. In fact, an unchecked fire can outright wipe out a business. No matter how good the insurance is, when you lose records, an office area, production capability, all of those things will be filled by someone else. Because of this, it’s important to make your business areas as fire proof as possible, or at least have a way of containing and minimizing the fire damage until the fire department can respond to an emergency call to get there.
Introducing the Fire Suppression Systems
These are designed as full area or full building systems. The best way to think of them is like a sprinkler system (which is certainly one example of an early fire suppression system). They are pipe and sprinkler head systems that can use water, dry chemical, wet chemical, or a variety of different specific mixtures to put out the most likely type of fires in an area or (at the very least) make the area extremely unfriendly to spreading fire to help keep the problem contained in one small area.
Commercial fire suppression systems come in a wide variety of different forms. The first patents for these go all the way back to 1863 but obviously the options and efficiency of the systems have changed dramatically since then. Whether you need to make sure electrical, combustible, chemical, or liquid combustible fires are put out, there are systems that can take care of every potential need that pops up.
Automatic Systems for Greater Safety
While many older fire suppression systems would kick in once someone pulled an alarm or set them to go off, most modern systems are automatic in nature for a faster and more effective response. This also provides protection for times when no one is going to be in the office to trip it. Automatic systems will look for clear signs like smoke, temperature, or chemical reactions in the air. Good systems can tell a person smoking a cigarette when they shouldn’t be from a fire that is actually getting started in a building.
Automatic systems have the ability to cut the problem down and contain any fires as they break out. This is crucial to keep any place of business safe and to protect from the massive damages and down time that a fire can cause.
The 3 most common automatic systems are:
– Conventional sprinkler system
– Indoor gas-based fire suppression system
– Automatic condensed aerosol fire suppression
Which one is right for you and your business? That is one of those questions that needs to be answered on a case by case basis. For many people the traditional sprinkler system might be enough, but that also can damage computer equipment in a large office setting. If the biggest potential issues are electrical, then you might want to look at the aerosol or gaseous options and see which one gets the job done without dealing a boat load of collateral damage to the office equipment.
You should meet individually with local professionals who can look at your office area or business area, determine what the most likely fire dangers are, and help you with choosing a system that will help out accordingly. The needs of an office building are going to be far different than a restaurant which will be far different than other buildings. Follow their advice to help find an automatic fire suppression system that will do the best job for your specific situation.
What This All Means
When it comes to keeping you, your family, or your employees safe, you need to look at the type of fire suppression system that is perfect for your very specific needs. While there is not one size fits all system, the truth is that a qualified installation specialist will be able to help you find the right system for your specific needs and be able to figure a custom solution to installing it into your building so it works around your specific custom needs. Do a little bit of homework up front and you will be able to get the fire protection that you deserve.
All The Reasons Why When You Vent A Hood In Your Kitchen You Should Use Professionals
If you’ve ever owned or worked in a restaurant anywhere in North America, you know that not only is it mandatory to have a vent hood on your stove, but it most likely was inspected regularly to make sure that cleaning and maintenance was up to regulations. The reason that the laws are so strict is that excess grease, dirt, and accumulated grime is a major cause of fires in restaurants. In fact, insurance companies will refuse to cover any restaurant that doesn’t take hood cleaning and maintenance seriously. Once grease has caught on fire and reached certain high temperatures, it acts almost like gasoline, burning at incredible temperatures, enough to melt metals.
It’s Highly Important That You Use Professional Installers
There are a million places in a business that you can cut a few corners and never get caught, or endanger your clientele, but when you pay contractors to vent a hood over your stove, you only want the best. They’ll need to have special certification showing they’ve passed mandatory classes and are accredited.
In order to install kitchen hood vents a person will have to belong to one of several organizations like Kitchen Exhaust Certification and Training Association. These types of organizations offer hands on training to teach installers exactly how the kitchen vents need to be installed based on years of experience with fire inspectors, lawmakers, hood cleaners, and of course, insurance companies.
Cleaning Your Kitchen Exhaust Hood Has To Be Done By Certified Pros Too
When it comes to cleaning your exhaust hood, you can do some of the regular maintenance yourself. However, when the inspectors stop by, randomly in most areas, they’ll want to see a regular maintenance schedule with the signature of the certified cleaner that did the work. It will have to follow the Exhaust Cleaner Certification Protocol, and their company will have to be registered with the local municipality as well.
When you apply for insurance, the underwriter that decides whether or not they’ll even cover you, and what your rate will be, will also want to see a few years of regular inspections and cleanings of the kitchen vent. This is because they know how important it is to keep it clean and maintained to prevent fires.
The Business Itself Will Have A Regular Grease Trap Cleaning Protocol
While the major cleaning will be best left to the professionals, there are also grease traps on the hood that should be checked and cleaned regularly as well. This will need to be documented each time, and the inspectors, insurance companies, and fire marshals will want access to this information on each visit.
Failure to keep up the paperwork, even though the work has been done, can result in large fines, closing of the business, or cancellation of insurance polices, so attention to detail is quite important.
Many Insurance Companies Will Offer Discounts For Vent Fire Suppression Systems
Vent hood grease fires are so destructive and common that many insurance companies will offer a discount for restaurants that install automated fire suppression systems. One of the biggest problems with grease fires Is that once they reach a critical temperature, the grease nearly explodes and the rages out of control.
By installing the proper fire suppression system that monitors temperature, smoke, and fire electronically, then activates automatically, you reduce the lag time between discovery and action considerably. The suppression systems can cover the hood alone, or be designed to cover the entire kitchen area, as there are many sources of possible fires in a commercial kitchen.
Complete Vent A Hood And Fire Suppression Systems Are Best Installed Together
While many systems can be upgraded, and made safer by adding extra safety features, the best hood systems are installed as a complete package that was designed from the bottom up to be integrated together. This is the best way to know that every part of the system will work seamlessly if a problem does arise. Like you always hear “Safety Is No Accident.”
When you vent a hood in your kitchen it’s important to do your research, use only the best products and the most experienced installers. Then, make sure that good records are kept at every stage of the process to ensure that there never will be a problem, and the regulators and insurance companies know that as well. | <urn:uuid:79e7b2b4-c886-4197-aadb-9ba55229010a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wdetstar.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946631 | 2,624 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Comprehensive DescriptionRead full entry
BiologyInhabits shallow reefs or rocky areas. Found in loose aggregations (Ref. 9710). Mainly diurnal. Ingests sand when feeding on algae (Ref. 13442). The spine on both sides of the caudal peduncle may inflict painful wounds (Ref. 5217). Minimum depth reported from Ref. 27115. Larvae are planktonic (Ref. 47377). At Fernando de Noronha Archipelago in southwestern Atlantic, juveniles hold cleaning stations together with the blue tang (Acanthurus coeruleus) and sergeant major (Abudefduf saxatilis) and graze algae as well as pick molted skin and parasites from green turtles (Chelonia mydas). This behavior is preceded by a characteristic inspection usually followed by feeding nips on the turtles skin (head, limbs, and tail), as well as on the carapace. The most inspected and cleaned body parts are the flippers (Ref. 51385). | <urn:uuid:d7b712f0-ffd9-41e8-8e01-a54a19018293> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eol.org/pages/207119/hierarchy_entries/20745120/overview | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893916 | 212 | 2.984375 | 3 |
January 24, 2013
Effect Of Taking Smaller Bites Outweighs Tendency To Eat More When Distracted
Smaller bites reduce food intake even during distracted eating
Eating while distracted generally makes people eat more without being aware of it, but reducing bite sizes may be able to counter this effect, according to new research published January 23 in the open access journal PLOS ONE by Dieuwerke Bolhuis and colleagues from Wageningen University, Netherlands.Previous studies have shown that taking smaller bites helps people eat less. Other research has also shown that people tend to eat larger meals if eating while distracted.
In this new study, the authors assessed whether taking smaller bites or sips of food affected meal size if eaters were distracted during their meal. Participants in the study were given a meal of soup as they watched a 15 minute animation film. Two groups ate in pre-measured volumes of either 'small' or 'large' sips, and the rest were allowed to take sips of whatever size they liked. All participants could eat as much as they wanted, and were later asked to estimate how much they had eaten.
The authors found that people who ate pre-specified 'small' bites of food consumed about 30% less soup for their meal than those in the other two groups. The latter two groups also under-estimated how much they had eaten. Across all three groups, distractions during the meal led to a general increase in food intake, but even when distracted, people who ate pre-specified small sips of soup consumed less food than the others. According to the researchers, their results suggest that reducing sip or bite sizes during a meal may help those trying to lower their food intake, even if they are eating while distracted.
On the Net: | <urn:uuid:b8f2cd95-b120-4715-996b-a55808dc0eae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1112770281/effect-of-taking-smaller-bites-outweighs-tendency-to-eat-more-when-distracted/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986201 | 363 | 3.25 | 3 |
- Posted April 25, 2012 by
Laguna Beach, California
Approximately 400 billion gallons of water are used in the United States per day.
For Earth month Wyland (Artist of the Sea) created a friendly conservation competition between cities across the nation. www.mywaterpledge.com drives to save energy, reduce landfill waste, and encourage overall resource conservation by reducing their "water footprint."
Check out my video interview with Wyland about his program. www.mywaterpledge.com
A few water facts
* Taking a bath requires up to 70 gallons of water. A five-minute shower uses only 10 to 25 gallons.
* A running toilet can waste up to 200 gallons of water per day.
* At 1 drip per second, a faucet can leak 3,000 gallons per year. | <urn:uuid:2d4de7ba-3abc-4097-ba3f-aa64a4f7f09e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-781118 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881356 | 171 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Here you can discuss all things Ancient Greek. Use this board to ask questions about grammar, discuss learning strategies, get help with a difficult passage of Greek, and more.
where did homos originate and latin word homo
are they related to each other somehow?
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The various sorts of peat vary exceedingly in their value as a fuel. The flaw [surface] peat affords but a very weak fire, burns rapidly away, like a parcel of dry sticks or straws, and leaves as few ashes behind.. The heather peat, and the spongy brown peat, formed by the decay of herbaceous plants, are somewhat better, being a little more lasting. But the solid black peat, formed from wood, and which lies deep, is much preferable to these, and makes the best fuel. The mosses in which birch timber prevails, afford a peat more inflammable than those which only contain oak...
Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, 1803
Many years ago, as doubtless some of our oldest citizens will recollect, peat, in its crude, unmanufactured state, was sold in Boston in considerable quantities. It is extensively used in many places in New England...and I have heard of those who have laid in considerable quantities of it in Newton, Heading, Lynn, and in numerous places on the Cape.
Thomas Hooker Leavitt, Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel, 1865
Kay Shaw Nelson, The Scottish-Irish Pub and Hearth Cookbook: Recipes and Lore from Celtic Kitchens
from Amazon.com or Amazon UK
The smoke of peat being exceedingly acrid and disagreeable, it is in some countries charred before it is used as fuel. The Dutch, who use a great deal of peat, char what they put into the pans with which they keep their feet warm at home and at church. It is first burned in the kitchen, and when it is red hot, they take it off the fire, and stifle it in an earthen pot by covering it up with a wet cloth. This charred peat they also use for cooking...
Webster and Parkes, An Encyclopædia of Domestic Economy, 1855
From 24 to 30 cart-loads of peat [per year] is considered sufficient for a cottager's family, having only one constant fire. Where peats are used as fuel, it is a prudent precaution in a rainy climate, to have peats sufficient for the consumption of two years. Peats a year old are much freer [burn better], and the quality is in every other respect superior.
General report of the agricultural state...of Scotland, 1814
Turf fires - burning peat
Cooking and living with peat fires
There used to be many areas of northern Europe better supplied with peat bogs than with trees. Peat, also called turf, was a convenient household fuel when there wasn't much firewood around. Some regions of North America made use of peat for domestic fires in the 1700s and 1800s - and a few still do. (See quote lower left column.) It's been used for cooking, heat, and what we would now call background lighting for longer than history has been written.
Well into the mid-20th century there were places where peat fires were kept alight all year on the floor of a cottage. You can also burn turf, or sod, on open hearths, and in well-engineered fireplaces with grates. Natural, locally-dug peat is still used for domestic heating in Scotland and, famously, in Ireland where the slices of peat are always called turves and the fires are turf fires - even when manufactured peat briquettes are used. In the 19th century cutting peat for fuel was an important part of life in Scandinavia, and in fenland or moorland regions of England, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany.
In Ireland, Scotland and parts of England it was considered very important to keep the fire burning all the time. At bed-time a peat block and/or ashes would be arranged to "smother" the fire without extinguishing it, so it would stay gently smouldering overnight. Then in the morning it would be blown into life again. Because of the significance laid on never letting the hearth go cold it's hard to find descriptions of anyone lighting a domestic peat fire. There would surely have been varied local customs for building the pile of turves, the use of kindling etc. - just as there were different tools and customs for cutting peat. Peat quality varies too, depending on its depth, colour, age, and more.
...on the hearth, the ashes, instead of being inconvenient, are extremely useful to poor people in various processes of their cookery. Hot peat ashes are excellent for roasting fish, eggs, etc.; and likewise for stewing, and any kind of cookery that requires a mild heat. In this respect it approaches to charcoal.
Webster and Parkes, An Encyclopædia of Domestic Economy, 1855
How do you cook over a fire in the middle of the floor? You can have a chain and hook hanging from the roof above. In Scottish croft houses like the blackhouse in the photo (top right) this could hold a potful of porridge or broth, an iron kettle boiling water, or a griddle for baking bannocks or flat oat bread.
Even simpler is to just place a cooking pot on the pile of burning turves. If it's a cauldron with three little legs it will balance even better, but a well-made heap of peat, with ashes, can hold an iron pot quite steady - probably better than wood (or coal). Putting glowing turves on the lid adds all-round heat for a more "oven-like" style of cooking. You can even bake "turf cake" in a well-sealed pan or Dutch oven surrounded by hot peats and insulating ashes. This method was still in use in 1930s rural Scotland - probably in Ireland too. Potatoes were placed in embers and hot ash to bake in their skins, as an alternative to boiling them in a stew-pot. Peat is a very "ashy" fuel.
Baking was ‘down under’, in the fire’s heart using a ‘baking iron’ ....a flat circular piece of cast iron approximately 1⁄2in thick and 2ft diameter ...set on a bed of hot ashes. ... biscuits or yeast cake were placed...on the iron and covered by the baker, a flattened cast-iron dome. The join was sealed with ashes, more hot ‘coals’ and new turves were heaped over it, and the whole was left for an hour or so or until an ear placed to a poker reached in to touch the baker could hear the food ‘frizzin’...(Cornwall)
Peat smoke has a pungent "peat-reek", and the smell gives a special flavour to fish or meat hanging from the ceiling or fireplace to be preserved by smoking. The distinctive aroma comes through in some whiskies too.
Cutting turves, digging peat, drying, carrying, stacking, storing
Getting peat ready for burning all year round in the home involves the same basic approach everywhere - and yet there are many varied styles of tool, and many different ways of organising the job. Will it be one person alone cutting off the top turves, digging the lower layers, and stacking? Or a team of men? Or men digging and women taking over the next stages? Families or communities working together, or a few professional peat-cutters planning to sell the peat?
Start by removing the top few inches, then dig out some slices or bricks from the darker layers lower down. You may use a knife to get started. A sharp spade with a wing at right angles (above right) helps make neatly-shaped peats. Someone has to lay them out in a formation that allows them to dry in the air (photos left, below right, drawing above left), and they'll probably stay there a week or two. They may be beaten or trodden to make them more compact.
Next they have to go into storage that will last through the winter - maybe near your peat bank or strip, preferably near home. They may be carried in nets or baskets, on sledges, wheelbarrows, carts, or animals. They must be stacked so simple heaps will shed rainwater. Better still, the stack can be thatched, or sheltered in a farm building.
There is a lot of information on the web about traditional peat harvesting. For English-speakers it's mostly about Ireland and Scotland. Before links to further information and pictures, here's some extra vocabulary to help anyone googling for more detail.
UK and Ireland regional names for turf or peat
spades (some for top layers, some for deeper digging): peat-iron, turfing-iron,
tusker, tushker, tarasgeir, slane, sleaghdn, flaughter, flachter, scraw-cutter,
bullin spade, breast spade
Peat carriers: kishies, meshies, creels, currachs
Places to dig: peat bank, peat hill, turbary, peatery, turf stead, trench, moss, peat-delf
Stack: rick, dyke, daek, peat-bing
- The Turf Spade - EU Cultural Landscape Project
- Peat-cutter's equipment from Belgium
- Video of peat cutting
- Antique tools including several peat spades
- German peat-cutting
15 June 2009
You may like our new sister site Home Things Past where you'll find articles about antiques, vintage kitchen stuff, crafts, and other things to do with home life in the past. There's space for comments and discussion too. Please do take a look and add your thoughts. (Comments don't appear instantly.)
For sources please refer to the books page, and/or the excerpts quoted on the pages of this website, and note that many links lead to museum sites. Feel free to ask if you're looking for a specific reference - feedback is always welcome anyway. Unfortunately, it's not possible to help you with queries about prices or valuation. | <urn:uuid:5ec279b8-385e-4f00-a596-bf96cc5ab7e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oldandinteresting.com/peat-fire.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949167 | 2,320 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Hello Webquesters! Today is February 12th! Did you know that today is the birthday of a very important American? That's right, today we celebrate the birthday of Abraham Lincoln. How much do you know about the man known as "Honest Abe"? By the end of this assignment, you will be able to answer all kinds of questions about Mr. Lincoln. You will find out about his childhood, his family life, and some of the important things that Abraham Lincoln accomplished when he was our 16th president. Hopefully you will find out why our state, Illinois, is known as "the land of Lincoln". Well, what are you waiting for? Follow the steps below, and get working!!!
1. Click here to print out your Abraham Lincoln Scavenger Hunt Sheet. You will need to print this out before you can continue. Make sure you print all 3 pages!
2. Read through the questions. Use the following websites to find the answers. Use the back button to get back to this page. If you can't find the answer on one website, try the others. Don't give up! You and your partner will earn points for each question you find the answer to.
Abraham Lincoln Biography for kids (You'll have to click on the "Next" button to turn the page. There are 12 page total to read.)
Lincoln Timeline (Illustrated by children)
3. Now that you've completed your scavenger hunt, test your knowledge by taking this online quiz. Click on the graded paper to continue.
4. Great job, Webquester! If you have any time left, you could print out these fun worksheets to complete.
Abe Lincoln Crossword Puzzle (click on the picture)
Created by: J. Shileny for the 2nd graders at Riverdale School
February 11, 2007
Click here to return to the Blast from the Past homepage. | <urn:uuid:c2d3d6da-d2fc-4724-85d0-bf6c79cb7565> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://aam.govst.edu/projects/jshileny/lincoln_webquest.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948542 | 395 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Treating cancer is a bit like shooting in the dark. Sometimes it works. Sometimes it doesn't. There's no way to predict. That's because while scientists have some crude ideas about how to disable cancer cells, the inner workings of cancer are a mystery for the most part.
Perhaps not for long. Researchers have just sequenced the entire DNA code of one type of breast-cancer tumor. The team, led by scientists at Washington University School of Medicine, began the project using tumor samples from 50 women enrolled in another of their studies. All the women had breast tumors that contained estrogen receptors, but only about half the patients had responded to drugs that targeted the receptors. To figure out why, the researchers sequenced the whole genomes of the breast cancers of all 50 women.
The genetic maps provided some intriguing clues: the patients' tumors harbored more than 1,700 genetic mutations, most of which were unique to the women in whom they originated. Of the few gene mutations shared by many of the women, some were familiar--previously associated with cancer in other studies--and some were completely new. Those aberrations could help explain why the women responded differently to the drugs. And although the sheer number of genetic abnormalities suggests that cancer may vary from one person to the next, most of the changes actually fed into common pathways of tumor development. These, say the authors, could become targets of broadly useful new drugs. Indeed, there are already drugs on the market that address six of the mutations, and doctors are eager to test their effectiveness against breast cancer.
A similar genetic dossier from dozens of tumors exists for one other cancer, multiple myeloma. Together, these sets of genomes represent a new era in cancer treatment, in which doctors may finally be able to match each patient to the best possible treatment.
Scientists Identify Five New Genes
In a genetic analysis of more than 50,000 people, researchers have discovered five new genes that raise the risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease. The additions, which bring the total number of known risk genes to 10, are associated with the disorder's most common form, which affects up to 50% of people over age 80.
Experts are excited because the newly revealed genes involve things that scientists have long suspected of playing a role in Alzheimer's but have never been able to confirm: high cholesterol, inflammation and the way cells ferry molecules around. Already existing genetic risk factors are generally related to the formation and accumulation in the brain of the disease's hallmark amyloid plaques.
The new genes together may account for only about 35% of late-onset Alzheimer's cases, but the novel processes they implicate could provide fresh targets for better drugs. Currently, the best medications can only alleviate, not prevent, the main symptom, memory loss. It's a long way from genes to therapy, but the new discoveries are an important step in that direction.
Fasting for Your Heart
Starving yourself isn't healthy, but periodic fasts may actually be good for your ticker. | <urn:uuid:1513bc12-59ca-46e2-97cf-e4d126f118ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2063851,00.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958439 | 618 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Study reveals ancient greenhouse gas emissions
The burning of plant matter to cook food, clear cropland and process metals released millions of tons of methane gas into the atmosphere each year during several periods of pre-industrial history, according to the study, published Thursday in the journal Nature.
Although the quantity of methane produced back then pales in comparison with the emissions released today - the total amount is roughly 70 times greater now - the findings suggest that man's footprint on the climate is larger than previously realized. Until now, it was assumed by scientists that human activity began increasing greenhouse gas levels only after the year 1750.
"The quantities are much smaller, because there were fewer people on Earth," said study leader Celia Sapart, an atmospheric chemist at Utrecht University in the Netherlands. "But the amount of methane emitted per person was significant."
Sapart's conclusions were based on an analysis of ice core samples from Greenland. The layered ice columns, which date back 2,000 years, contain tiny air bubbles from different periods of history, and provide scientists with a view into the atmosphere's changing chemistry.
The first period of methane production captured in the ice cores - roughly from the years AD 1 to 300 - encompassed the tail ends of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, when charcoal was the preferred form of fuel. The second period of elevated methane emissions occurred during what's known as the Medieval Climate Anomaly, from roughly 800 to 1200, and a third was found during the Little Ice Age between 1300 and 1600.
Methane is one of a few gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming. It forms naturally when plant and animal matter decomposes in airless environments, and it's also released when vegetation burns. However, when methane is produced by burning, it contains heavier carbon isotopes than methane generated through decomposition.
By using a mass spectrometer to study the air trapped in the ice cores, Sapart and her colleagues were able to determine the ratio of methane produced by burning and by decomposition. The study notes that not all cases of burned vegetation were the result of human activity; forest fires, particularly in times of drought, would also contribute to so-called pyrogenic methane production. The research team used mathematical models to account for this naturally burning vegetation and other fluctuations in atmospheric methane content.
"The results show that between 100 BC and AD 1600, human activity may have been responsible for roughly 20-30 (percent) of the total pyrogenic methane emissions," the authors wrote.
The research appeared to be the result of very careful and very difficult examination of carbon isotopes and could impact global warming estimates for the pre-industrial period, according to Ed Dlugokencky, a methane expert at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo.
"The study gives further evidence for a contribution to the global methane burden from anthropogenic sources," said Dlugokencky, who was not involved in the study.
Sapart said that though the study helped answer questions about the past, there were still plenty that remained about the future. Of particular concern is the melting of permafrost in the Arctic regions, where methane trapped in the frozen earth and ice is allowed to escape into the atmosphere.
"To date, we do not know how natural methane sources will evolve together with human-induced climate change, but it is likely those natural sources will increase," she said.
FREEPRESS wrote on Oct 5, 2012 6:34 AM:
More National stories
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- Dead prisoner had issues at Gitmo | <urn:uuid:7a06b2ec-c6e6-4225-8efa-90cb9c61e37c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rep-am.com/articles/2012/10/10/news/national/674412.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951024 | 1,045 | 3.5 | 4 |
Ant Course in Uganda was phenomonal. There’s nothing like having 40 keen sets of eyeballs out searching for ants in an understudied tropical forest for 10 days. Under such intense effort, all sorts of rare material turns up, including species that are almost never seen alive, much less photographed.
This particular oddity I can actually claim to have found on my own, a tiny ant less than 3 millimeters long running around under a rotting log. I brought her back to the lab to photograph so I wouldn’t lose the specimen.
So little is known about this ant that no one even knows what it eats. Bob Taylor (1965) kept a colony once but the ants refused everything he tried to feed them. Yet, Probolomyrmex is widespread in the tropics and occurs in the undercollected deep soil habitat, so it may be one of those animals that ends up being more common once myrmecologists figure out how to look for it.
*update (9/27): Wait! Stop the Presses! Roberto Keller points us to this photograph from Donat Agosti’s 1995 revision of the South American species:
- Jack Longino discusses Probolomyrmex in Costa Rica
- Bob Taylor’s 1965 revision of the genus
- Probolomyrmex at Antweb | <urn:uuid:2fe19ddb-f00b-46d6-8ffc-ef06a1aeed9e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.myrmecos.net/2012/09/26/the-first-live-photographs-of-probolomyrmex/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935837 | 280 | 2.875 | 3 |
On a quiet little island attached by a narrow strip of land to Seaside Park in Bridgeport, Connecticut, stands the Black Rock Harbor Lighthouse, established in 1808. The most remarkable personality of the lighthouse’s long history is Catherine “Kate” Moore, who lived for over 60 years at the light station. An 1889 article in the New York Sunday World described Moore as “hale and hearty” at the age of 94, with bright hazel eyes and “an intellect as quick as if she were thirty.” Her faced was lined with “ten thousand curious wrinkles,” although she still had delicate, brown hair.
Kate’s father had become keeper at Fayerweather Island in 1817. Stephen Moore’s health increasingly failed, and Kate performed all the duties of keeper from a young age. She never had the official title, however, until after her father died at 98 in 1871.
Over the years Kate Moore maintained a garden and cared for a number of animals, including a flock of sheep. She also carved and sold duck decoys and had a thriving oyster business. When an outsider trespassed on her oyster beds, Moore would grab her shotgun and tell them, “I represent the United States Government and you’ve got to go.” She was matter-of-fact about her unique life:
“You see, I had done all this for so many years, and I knew no other life, so I was sort of fitted for it. I never had much of a childhood, as other children have it. That is, I never knew playmates. Mine were the chickens, ducks and lambs and my two Newfoundland dogs.”
“Sometimes there were more than two hundred sailing vessels in here at night,” said Kate, “and some nights there were as many as three or four wrecks, so you may judge how essential it was that they should see our light.” Kate was considered an expert rower and often went to the aid of boaters in the worst conditions.
Kate had many visitors at her island home, around a thousand in 1877 by her own count. She never went to school, but during her years at Fayerweather Island she kept a library of around 100 books and many paintings, including an original Reubens. An 1878 article reported that hundreds of rules and regulations for lighthouse keepers and the lifesaving service hung about the home, and Kate “learned them all by heart.”
Keeper Kate was credited with 21 lives saved during her years on the island, but said she wished it could have been twice that many as so many others died in wrecks nearby. After she retired in 1878 Kate summed up her life by the ocean, saying, “The sea is a treacherous friend.”
The present (1823) octagonal stone lighthouse on Fayerweather Island has been recently restored, and the Bridgeport Regional Vocational Aquacultural School’s 56-foot research vessel is named the Catherine Moore in honor of their local heroine, who died in 1900 at the age of 105.
This story appeared in the
March 2004 edition of Lighthouse Digest Magazine. The print edition contains more stories than our internet edition, and each story generally contains more photographs - often many more - in the print edition. For subscription information about the print edition, click here.
All contents copyright © 1995-2016 by Lighthouse Digest®, Inc. No story, photograph, or any other item on this website may be reprinted or reproduced without the express permission of Lighthouse Digest. For contact information, click here. | <urn:uuid:5a513840-c2a8-475d-ab42-33517cb96635> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lhdigest.com/Digest/StoryPage.cfm?StoryKey=1903 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984171 | 758 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Jucker, Andreas H (2008). Communicative tasks across languages. Movie narratives in English, in English as a foreign language and in German. In: de los Angeles Gómez González, Maria; Mackenzie, J Lachlan; González Alvarez, Elsa M. Languages and cultures in contrast and comparison. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 247-274.
Full text not available from this repository.
In cooperation between the California State University, Long Beach and the Justus Liebig University, Giessen narratives were elicited from different groups of speakers (native speakers of English and native speakers of German who contributed either narratives in English or in their native language). The narratives were elicited with the help of a silent Charlie Chaplin movie in order to contrast how the different groups of speakers solve several narrative subtasks, i.e. the sequencing of narrative episodes with the appropriate choice of tense, the introduction of individual characters, and the reporting of characters’ thoughts and utterances. The results indicate that there are a number of subtle differences in how such tasks are solved in English and in German and that German speakers tend to adopt pragmatic strategies from their native language in spite of their generally excellent command of English.
|Item Type:||Book Section, not refereed, original work|
|Communities & Collections:||06 Faculty of Arts > English Department|
|Dewey Decimal Classification:||820 English & Old English literatures|
|Deposited On:||30 Oct 2008 11:07|
|Last Modified:||08 May 2016 13:05|
|Series Name:||Pragmatics & Beyond. New Series|
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Net Neutrality 101
Untangling the Wires
Tomorrow’s House Judiciary Committee hearing on net neutrality and free speech on the Internet brings the controversial issue back into congressional crosshairs. The net neutrality debate resurfaced after the introduction of the Internet Freedom Preservation Act last month, which includes language mandating net neutrality. It sparked a great deal of discussion on what net neutrality even means and how it should be governed, if at all. To help make sense of the controversy, Science Progress and the Center for American Progress have put together this net neutrality 101, a beginner’s guide to understanding the debate that could alter the very future of the Internet.
At the most basic level, net neutrality is the principle that Internet users should be in control of what content they view and what applications they use on the Internet; all content on the Internet is equally accessible, and once a person pays for access to the Internet, they alone get to choose how they use it. This means that providers should not be allowed to block access to certain sites or applications, or charge different customers different amounts for services.
Net neutrality proponents argue that without regulation that prevents Internet providers from regulating their services, telecom companies could control Internet traffic to serve their vested interests. Craig Newmark, founder of craigslist.org, explains this position, saying, “Imagine if you tried to order a pizza and the phone company said AT&T’s preferred pizza vendor is Domino’s. Press one to connect to Domino’s now. If you would still like to order from your neighborhood pizzeria, please hold for three minutes while Domino’s guaranteed orders are placed.”
Net neutrality was brought to public attention recently when it was reported that Comcast, a large Internet service provider, was blocking file-sharing traffic to ensure quality of service to its consumers. Although Comcast suffered widespread condemnation and is currently under investigation by the Federal Communication Commission, sides began to form among the various stakeholders, each formulating its own perspective on the ramifications of regulating net neutrality.
To understand the net neutrality debate, it is helpful to be familiar with some of the stakeholders who have a variety of interests in any regulatory deliberations on net neutrality. Internet users and their advocates generally favor net neutrality, while telecom companies see it as a threat to their use of their own property. Pressure is mounting for Congress to decide how it will or will not regulate the industry.
The key government players in the net neutrality debate are the Federal Communications Commission, which is charged with regulating all non-governmental use of the radio spectrum, including the Internet; and the Federal Trade Commission and Department of Justice, which enforce antitrust law.
The FTC urged policymakers in June 2007 to “proceed with caution in evaluating proposals to enact regulation in the area of broadband Internet access” because of possible unintended consequences to consumers. But then in February, 2008, FCC Chairman Kevin Martin said that he is “ready, willing and able” to prevent broadband internet service providers from interfering with access to any specific content. The FTC and DOJ could conceivably prosecute telecom companies under any net neutrality laws, if enacted.
Internet Users, Websites, and Big Media Companies
Big media and entertainment companies, which controlled information, knowledge, and culture for much of the twentieth century, are not happy that the Internet enables a wider variety of people to participate in cultural production. Stanford Law School professor Lawrence Lessig, an influential spokesperson for Internet users and creativity, argues that net neutrality policies are important for empowering users. Net neutrality policies could prevent telecom companies from restricting access to blogs, wikis, and independent podcasts, for example. CAP fellow Mark Lloyd has also suggested that net neutrality policies would benefit public education, health, and safety because it ensures that everyone has equal access to the Internet’s contents.
Companies that own the physical pipes of the Internet argue that they have the right to control the use of those pipes in such a way that is most profitable to them. David Farber, a computer scientist at Carnegie Mellon University, has also argued that giving telecom companies the freedom to experiment, without the restrictions of net neutrality policies, could encourage unanticipated innovations on their part, which might benefit other stakeholders. The telecom companies also complain that government regulation may hinder return on investments, deterring them from expanding the broadband infrastructure.
Congress will have to address these competing views as the net neutrality debate begins to intensify in the coming months. The new net neutrality bill, which is backed by Internet giants such as Google and Amazon, is garnering more attention in the public sphere than previous legislation attempts, and could signal a new battle between net neutrality advocates and detractors.
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Music 162, Spring 2008
American Popular Song
A. First Roots
1. Texas Gladden: "The Four Marys"
Texas Gladden is from the mountains of Virginia, and recorded this selection in 1941 for folklorist Alan Lomax (who considered Gladden America's "finest traditional ballad singer"). In the previous version, "Mary Hamilton had a wee wain [baby] / To the highest man in the toon," which presumably refers to the King (though in some variants it is the Prince). In Gladden's version, no mention is made of an illegitimate birth, in fact no reason for Mary to murder her child is given. It is common for American versions of British ballads to omit sexual references (especially taboos such as incest and illegitimacy), as well as supernatural elements (e.g., ghosts and miracles). The tendency to avoid sexual content has led to the existence of many ballad texts in which someone murders their brother, sister, sweetheart, or child for no given reason. These two versions of "Mary Hamilton," one from each side of the Atlantic, have the same basic melody, though some variants of this ballad are performed to different tunes.
Word has come from the
Down came the old Queen,
"Oh, Mary, put on your
robe so black
"Oh, Mary, put on your
robe so black
She didn't put on her robe
She didn't put on her robe
As she passed through the
As she passed through the
As she went up the
"Oh, bring to me some
red, red wine,
"Oh tie a napkin o'er
"Oh tie a napkin o'er
"Last night I washed
the old Queen's feet
"Last night there were
2. Tommy Jarrell (fiddle) Fred Cockerham: "Soldier's Joy"
The five string banjo and the fiddle represent the most popular duo in the South Eastern United States. The fiddle primarily carries the melody, while the banjo reinforces it and provides rhythmic support. Both instruments contribute to the drone-like sound which underlies this very American musical expression. The banjo Fred is playing is simple in construction and has no frets which allows for a sliding bluesy sound.
The tune Soldier's Joy was originally a very popular hornpipe in Ireland and Scotland. Hornpipes are common in Old Time banjo and fiddling traditions but since the associated dance was lost in America they are played at the faster tempos preferred by cloggers.
3. Reverend C. H. Savage and Group: "Let Me Ride"
Recorded by the great folksong collector, Alan Lomax, in 1941, this is an example from the African-American tradition of spirituals. Lomax recorded the Reverend C. H. Savage with a small congregation of singers following a powerful service in Savage's church. The singers gathered around to sing spirituals they remembered from their youth, some of which were old enough to be related to ring shouts (religious gatherings of African Americans during slavery). The Reverend relates that he remembers his grandmother singing this song around the fireplace in his youth.
The religious intensity of the song is evident in this recording, and is a common characteristic of Southern religious music in both white and black communities. Some of the verses are sung in a kind of call and response, in which Savage calls a phrase likes "Oh Jesus" to which the congregation replies "Oh let me ride". The promise of heavenly reward may have been one of the features of Christianity that was so attractive to the African slave populations that adopted the religion in America. The glory promised in Heaven was seen as reward for the sufferings endured as slaves.
B. The 19th Century
4. Stephen Foster : "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair"
Stephen Collins Foster, born in Pennsylvania in 1826, was probably the first person in the United States to make his living as a fulltime professional songwriter. His repertoire included various popular song styles to which he was exposed as a young man -- Italian light opera, Irish and German songs, and "Ethiopian" Minstrel songs. Foster was a master at creating the simple but compelling melodies and texts that later popular composers would refer to as "hooks" (i.e., the basic idea or motif that "hooks" the listener's ear). Although Foster was not the most financially successful popular song composer of the mid-19th century, he was certainly the most influential.
"Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" is an example of Foster's sentimental "Irish" style. It is a prototypical example of the AABA form that would become the dominant framework for popular song in the early 20th century.
5. Charles K. Harris : "After the Ball"
Charles K. Harris was a self-taught banjo player from Wisconsin who could not write music and, like many songwriters of the late 19th century, dictated his melodies to a professional musician, who put them down on paper. "After the Ball," popularized during the 1890s by touring lyric theatre companies and by John Philip Sousa's band, was the first American popular song to surpass the five-million mark in sheet-music sales. Its success helped to stimulate the emergence of dozens of small music publishing firms around the turn of the century.
"After the Ball" has three long verses and a refrain. The verses play a dramatic function, establishing the narrative theme of the lyric. The refrain, in a faster tempo, is a repeated phrase ("the hook" of the song). This distinction between the dramatic verse and the sung refrain (often regarded as "the song") became increasingly important in the early 20th century. The refrain of "After the Ball" represents the last burst of popularity of the waltz song, a form which had produced large sheet-music sales in the 1890s, and was a staple of the touring lyric theater and vaudeville productions which succeeded minstrel shows as the most popular form of public entertainment in the late 19th century.
C. Vaudeville / Ragtime
6. Sophie Tucker [NYC, 1911]: "Some of These Days" (Shelton Brooks)
Until phonograph recording, radio, and the talking picture supplanted them in the late 1920s, live performers were crucial to the process of making the public familiar with new songs. Vaudeville, the successor to minstrelsy, provided the music trade for many years with its chief means of exploitation. Sophie Tucker was typical of her generation of popular singers: a Russian Jewish immigrant who got her start in vaudeville, often performing in blackface. By 1911, she was one of the biggest draws on the vaudeville circuit. Tucker's vocal style clearly indicates the influence of black music, via ragtime, on mainstream popular song, e.g., syncopation of the melody, vocal "breaks." This song, written by an African American composer, reflects changes occuring in American popular music during the first decades of the 20th century. Its form is ABCD, with each section introducing new melodic ideas, avoiding the strophic forms of much previous popular music. The band plays a slow march-like 4/4 rhythm.
7. Bert Williams [NYC, 1913]: "Nobody" (B. Williams)
African American performers also worked in vaudeville, often playing roles derived from the 19th century minstrel show. Bert Williams (1876-1922) was one of the most popular comedians during the first decade of the 20th century. With his partner George Walker he began to work the vaudeville circuit in 1895, and later starred in all-black theatrical productions such as Abyssinia (1906). Williams wrote many compositions, the most popular of which was "Nobody" (1905), a wry, fatalistic song of complaint. Although "Nobody" is historically related to the racist "coon" songs initially popularized by minstrel performers, William's tragicomic performance lends human dignity to the character of the narrator. While on the surface the song played to stereotypes of black life held by many whites, African American listeners interpreted the lyric on another level: as a lament about the injustices of a racially segregated society.
8. Scott Joplin [NYC, 1916]: "Maple Leaf Rag" (Joplin)
Ragtime was one of the first internationally popular genres in popular music, sweeping the world from around 1897 to 1930. The origins of ragtime music cannot be dated precisely, although it is generally believed that it co-evolved with the "cakewalk," a strutting dance step used by minstrel performers. Ragtime also appears to have been infuenced by Latin American rhythms, particularly the Cuban habanera. Ragtime music features regular march-like patterns in the bass and syncopated ("ragged") rhythms in the melody. This performance, recorded on a paper piano roll, is by Scott Joplin (1869-1917), the best-known ragtime composer. "Maple Leaf Rag" was recorded by the U.S. Marine Band and sold over a million copies in sheet music. The form of "Maple Leaf Rag", which presents a succession of new melodic and harmonic materials, is related to march music.
Form: A-A-B-B-A-C-C-D-D (16 measures each)
D. Tin Pan Alley
9. Al Jolson [NYC, 1921]: "April Showers" (DeSylva and Silvers)
Al Jolson (1886-1950), film, stage, and recording superstar of the 1910s and '20s, made use of performance techniques derived from vaudeville, including blackface makeup and minstrelsy songs. A Lithuanian immigrant brought up in the Jewish ghetto, he was one of the most important forces in 20th century American popular singing. Jolson's vaudevillean vocal style, declamatory rather than lyrical, strongly influenced other singers. His wide appeal was further reinforced by a starring role in the first "talkie" film, The Jazz Singer (1927). This song, from a successful musical comedy (Bombo), has a 32-bar ABAC form.
10. Gene Austin [NYC, 1927]: "My Blue Heaven" (Whiting and Donaldson)
Gene Austin (1900-1972), unlike Sophie Tucker or Al Jolson, developed an intimate vocal technique depending upon on electrical recording and the microphone. His career began in the mid-1920s, and he was one of the first singers to be called a "crooner." 32-bar AABA form.
11. Bing Crosby [NYC, 1932]: "How Deep is the Ocean" (Irving Berlin)
Irving Berlin (born 1888 in Russia) was one of the most prolific of Tin Pan Alley composers. His best-known songs include "Alexander's Ragtime Band," "Blue Skies," "Cheek to Cheek," "White Christmas," and "God Bless America." Bing Crosby (b. in Tacoma in 1904) was the first singer to master the use of the microphone and was important in introducing into the mainstream of American popular music an African-American conception of song as a lyrical extension of speech. He was the most popular singer of his generation; sales of his records have been estimated at more than 300 million. 32-bar ABAB form.
12. Ethel Merman : "I Got Rhythm" (Gershwin/Gershwin)
Written by George and Ira Gershwin, "I Got Rhythm" is more than just a standard Tin Pan Alley song. It is an example of the influence jazz music had on the music of the Gershwins. Structurally, the song is in a typical AABA' form, common to Tin Pan Alley songs. The influence of jazz is heard in the highly B>syncopated rhythm of the chorus. When the singer sings "I Got Rhythm", the beats do not fall on downbeats, but rather on offbeats, the beats that are between the downbeats. This creates an impression that the rhythm is slightly out of place and serves to create a feeling of movement and excitement. "Playing off the beat" is common in African-American music and in many other genres of music.
Ethel Merman first sang this song in 1930 for the stage show "Girl Crazy". It was a sensation and went on to be recorded by numerous artists, including Merman herself. This recording was made in 1947 but captures the style and arrangement of the 1930 stage version. Merman's singing is similar to Al Jolson's in the power and clarity of her vocal performance. This may be because broadway shows were not electrically amplified until the latter half of the twentieth century, requiring a singer to "belt" out songs to large audiences. Merman's singing shows the lasting importance of stage musicals and the style of singing associated with them.
Dance Orchestras (1910s-1930s)
13. Europe's Society Orchestra [NYC, 1914]: "Castle House Rag" (James Reese Europe)
James Reese Europe (1881-1919) organized the first band specializing in syncopated dance music in New York in 1910. He was hired as musical director by ballroom dance stars Irene and Vernon Castle in 1913, and signed a Victor recording contract in 1914, the year of this recording. Europe was the first black bandleader to make recordings, and the first to introduce syncopated dance music to France (with his 369th Infantry Band). Europe was popular enough to be greeted by a million people in New York upon his return from France.
Europe composed and arranged this ensemble rag. The instrumentation includes cellos and violins as well as brass band instruments. This performance is regarded as the earliest recorded example of collective orchestral ragtime extemporization. "Castle House Rag" is both an East Coast parallel to New Orleans jazz style and a precursor of later developments in syncopated dance band music.
14. Paul Whiteman and his Orchestra : "Side by Side"
Paul Whiteman brought jazz-tinged ballroom music into the musical mainstream during the so-called "Jazz Age." Whiteman, whose public relations title was "The King of Jazz," popularized a style of mildly syncopated dance band music. When World War I began, Whiteman secured a post as a musical director with the navy, organizing a forty-piece band that was the precursor of his later civilian groups. His first recording for Victor was "Whispering," which sold a phenomenal 1,800,000 copies in 1920. The rich arrangements played by the Whiteman band were widely imitated by both black and white bands. Between 1920 and 1934 he had 28 #1 hit records.
"Side by Side" is typical of Whiteman's sound during the late 1920s. The vocal is by the Rhythm Boys, a trio which included Bing Crosby. The band plays in a two-beat feel, and the ensemble texture is smooth. The "cutesy" vocal arrangement is also typical of the period. The Paul Whiteman group included Bix Beiderbecke (an Indiana-born trumpeter generally regarded as the first important white jazz musician), trombonist Tommy and saxophonist Jimmy Dorsey, and pioneer dance band arranger Bill Chalis.
15. Don Azpiazú & his Havana Casino Orchestra : "El Manicero / The Peanut Vendor" (Moises Simon)
Music played by Latin bands like Xavier Cugat's Waldorf Astoria Orchestra and Don Azpiazu's Havana Casino Orchestra was intended mainly to accompany ballroom adaptations of Latin American dances. "El Manicero" was composed by Moises Simon, a Cuban pianist, as a rumba. Though rumbas are traditionally dances associated with complex African drumming systems involving intricate interactions between drummer and dancer, the name rumba has become attached to the kind of Cuban music that was popularized in America in the 1920s and 30s. Much of this music would be more accuretly referred to as son. American rumbas were intended to present Cuban music as exotic, in tourist shows and in American clubs and movies.
In "El Manicero", each percussion instrument plays a rhythmic pattern that is carefully arranged to interlock with the rhythmic patterns of the other percussion instruments. The percussion is led by the rhythm of the claves which can be heard in the opening of this track. Claves are two sticks of dense wood that make a loud "clack" when struck together. This style of rhythm in which various instruments interlock rhythmically and are led by one loud, high-pitched percussion instrument is very common in African drumming from the West Coast of Africa and in African music somewhat generally.
16. Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB) : "Tiger Rag"
The Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB) was the first jazz group to record, the offer having been previously declined in 1915 by New Orleans cornetist Freddie Keppard's all-black jazz band because Keppard was afraid other players might steal his style through the recordings. The ODJB were a 5 person strong all-white jazz band hailing from New Orleans, but trying to make a name for themselves in the North. They were not immediately popular and audiences had no idea how to understand their music. They were led by cornetist Nic Larocca, a son of a Sicilian immigrant to New Orleans, a city known for its hatred of Italians and its vicious race riot against them in 1891.
The ODJB players were young kids, the oldest being 28, eager to make a name for themselves and to get out of the grinding poverty of New Orleans. They did not improvise, as most New Orleans jazz bands did, but rather worked off of arrangements that sounded similar to African-American bands of the time. None of them were great players, but their energy and spirit were infectious, and their recordings, the first of which were made in 1917, were wildly popular.
In this recording of the ever popular Tiger Rag, listen to the interplay between the instruments, and listen for their use of "stop-time". Stop-time occurs when the instruments stop their continual playing and move to playing choppy chords. As ODJB does it and as King Oliver would as well, this stop-time served to emphasize solos from one of the players.
After touring England, the band broke up and Larocca had a nervous breakdown, returning to the construction business and foresaking music. He was to become famous in later years for his insistence that African-Americans had nothing to do with the creation of jazz, which he insisted was achieved entirely by white marching bands and by the ODJB.
"Race" Records and "Hillbilly" Music: 1920s-1930s
1. King Joe Oliver's Creole Jazz Band: "Dippermouth Blues" [Richmond, IN, 1923]
The music that came to be known as jazz developed in New Orleans around 1900. It drew upon a variety of sources, including white and black popular song traditions, ragtime, brass band music, black church hymns and funeral dirges, field hollers, and blues. Since the activities of recording companies were largely confined to large cities in the North and Midwest before the late 1920s, there is limited evidence as to what early New Orleans jazz sounded like. The first recording with the term "jazz" on its label was made by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, a white group, in 1917. The ODJB recording exemplfies the influence of African-American musical sensibilities on white musicians, and started a jazz craze among middle-class whites, but it is not a good example of New Orleans style.
The first representative recordings of jazz were made by the cornettist King Joe Oliver (1885-1938) and his Creole Jazz Band in 1923. Like many other southern black musicians, Oliver moved north after World War One in order to make a better living. In 1923 he summoned the brilliant young musician Louis Armstrong (1901-1971) to Chicago to play second cornet in the band, which also included Honoré Dutrey on trombone, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, Lil Hardin Armstrong on piano, Baby Dodds on drums, and, on this cut, Bill Johnson on banjo and vocals.
The King Oliver band was a collection of individuals who knew each other's playing so well that they could perform a kind of polyphonic group improvisation. In New Orleans style, the trumpet or cornet states the melody (with embellishments), the clarinet improvises a counter-melody above and around the trumpet, and the trombone improvises a simpler melody, often hitting the roots (bass notes) of the chords below the trumpet. Solos were usually backed up by riffs (repeated patterns) played by the other instruments. In the earliest recordings, it is difficult to find a place where all of the instruments are not playing some role.
Form: 12-bar blues.
2. Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five : "West End Blues"
By 1925, Louis Armstrong had left King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in Chicago and Fletcher Henderson's band in New York and was ready to strike out on his own. His fiery solos and unbelievable use of the upper reaches of the cornet and trumpet were becoming known and he was achieving stardom through his playing.
Okeh Records agreed to record him and any band he had in 1925, and Armstrong assembled four of his friends, Johnny St. Cyr on banjo, Lil Hardin on piano, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, and Kid Ory on trombone to record the first of his Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings. Absolutely seminal in the history of jazz, these recordings were a watershed in his career and a turning point for jazz in general. Moving beyond the aesthetic of "collective improvisation", these recordings focused on Armstrong as a soloist. Jazz was thus turned from a collective ensemble art to an art that focused on the ability of soloists to improvise off of known melodies. Armstrong also introduced scat singing to jazz and his gruff singing style and clever phrasing influenced many jazz singers that came after him.
The solo that opens "West End Blues" is a feat of great technical mastery and has stumped and discouraged many great musicians since. This recording is from 1928, after the original members of his Hot Five had been replaced with new players. Armstrong really comes out as the star soloist in this, though other members of the band get solos as well. After the introductory solo, one would expect a blazing tune, but Armstrong chooses to cool down the tempo while never laying off the rhythmic pressure. The result is a slow-burning song of great rhythmic intensity despite the crawl that it moves at. His scat singing can also be heard in the middle of the piece.
3. Bessie Smith (1898-1937): "St. Louis Blues" (W.C. Handy); [1925, New York]
The first appearance of the blues on gramophone records was the so-called "classic blues" style, performed by black female artists such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith. Smith was born in Chattanooga, Tenneessee, and began recording in 1923. She was stylistically a blues singer even when performing novelty and vaudeville numbers, and had a majestic voice and imposing presence. Smith sold millions of records, performed in New York stage shows, and attained a celebrity comparable to modern popular singers; she was the centerpiece of Columbia's "race record" catalog. On this recording she is accompanied by New Orleans jazz virtuoso Louis Armstrong on cornet.
African-American composer and music publisher W.C. Handy (b. Florence, Alabama) was largely responsible for popularizing blues among middle-class white Americans during the 1910s and 20s. Handy's "blues" were actually ragtime-like compositions with several themes and blues tinges. "St. Louis Blues," his most successful piece, is an excellent example of the incorporation of selected elements of southern blues styles by professional popular composers. Although Handy complained about the monotony of rural blues, cleaned-up, commercialized blues were actually often more predictable, avoiding the irregularities of "downhome" performances.
Form: Ragtime-like structure with three themes; A, a 12-bar blues ("I hate to see..."; "Feelin' tomorrow..."); B, 16-bar section in minor key ("St. Louis woman..."); and C, another 12-bar blues ("I got those St. Louis Blues...").
4. Gertrude "Ma" Rainey [Chicago, 1928]: "Black Eye Blues"
Called "The Mother of the Blues", Gertrude "Ma" Rainey was a seminal artist in the history of blues and jazz. Born Gertrude Pridgett in 1886, Ma Rainey got her start singing with The Rabbit Foot Minstrels, a popular traveling minstrel show in the South which also starred her husband, William "Pa" Rainey. Ma Rainey made her first recording for Paramount Records in 1923 as part of their efforts to record black artists for "race" records. Targeted to African Americans, these "race" records proved a lucrative market for record companies, and many early blues and classic blues singers were recorded in the 1920s and 1930s. J. Mayo Williams, a black talent scout, was responsible for making Paramount Records one of the earliest recording companies to capitalize on the "race" record market, and was responsible for discovering Ma Rainey. Rainey's distinctive and powerful vocal style was matched by her commanding presence as a performer. Her influence on the classic blues style, in which blues were melded with Tin Pan Alley and early jazz influences, can be heard in the similar singing style of Bessie Smith, the most famous classic blues singer.
In this song, "Black Eye Blues", recorded in 1928, Rainey presents a powerful perspective on domestic abuse. Though not an uncommon subject in blues songs, her portrayal of an angry and vengeful victim of domestic abuse is rare indeed. Female classic blues singers like Rainey and Bessie Smith presented images of powerful and opinionated women, and when Rainey sings of Miss Nancy's wrath at her abusive husband, this power and authority is certainly present. Rainey is accompanied by "Georgia Tom" Dorsey on piano and Tampa Red on guitar, two black vaudeville/classic blues artists.
5. Meade "Lux" Lewis: "Honky Tonk Train Blues" [Chicago, 1927]
"Boogie-woogie" or "barrelhouse" piano blues originated in the border zone of Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, where pianists entertained men who worked in the lumber and turpertine camps. The style had to be played loudly to be heard, and pianists had to have great strength and endurance. Boogie-woogie piano style involves setting up an ostinato bass pattern in the left hand, and playing improvised passages with the right hand. As in ragtime compositions, much of the interest was created by the rhythmic interplay between the left and right hands. However, the barrelhouse style was generally not a written-down form, and was more closely linked than ragtime to African-American musical sensibilities.
In this performance, the most famous of boogie-woogie compositions, the barrelhouse blues master Meade "Lux" Lewis creates an evocation of a train in motion. Much of the piece's original meaning had to do with the significance of trains and travel to southern black people in the 1920s and 30s. Some of the rhythmic effects are created by playing three attacks in the right hand in the same time that it takes to play two attacks in the left. This two-against-three technique creates a feeling of elasticity in time (an important component of "swing"), and is a common technique in some kinds of West African instrumental music.
Form: 12-bar blues.
6. Robert Robert Johnson [San Antonio, 1936]: "Come On In My Kitchen" (R. Johnson)
Robert Johnson (b. Hazelhurst, Mississippi) has become one of the most famous and iconic figures of the Delta blues. Charismatic and larger than life, he was a legend in his own time and after. Johnson was a guitar virtuoso, making great use of the slide or bottleneck technique, and had a vocal quality which was lighter and more nasal than most Delta bluesmen. Johnson traveled extensively, both in the South, and in the North up to Canada. He recorded for the Vocalion label in 1936 in San Antonio, Texas, and 1937 in Dallas, Texas. He recorded 29 songs altogether, of which some alternate takes have also been found. He died tragically at the young age of twenty-four, poisoned by a jealous audience member.
As a songwriter, Johnson was without peer. His haunting imagery and poetic genius are a large reason for his lasting appeal. Furthermore, the emotional intensity of Johnson's singing gives his songs a lot of power. In his song, "Come On In My Kitchen", Johnson renders a strikingly intense performance, from his opening of quiet humming to his declarations of "Oh, can't you hear the wind howlin'?". The visual imagery of this song is also very striking, as Johnson's tableau of images jump into the mind.
Verse 1. Humming
Chorus: You better come on
2. Ah, the woman I love
3. Oh-ah, she's gone
Spoken: Oh, can't you hear
the wind howl 'n' all?
4. When a woman gets in trouble
5. Winter time's comin'
7. Robert Johnson [San Antonio, 1936]: "Cross Road Blues" (R. Johnson)
Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues" is one of his best-known songs. It was famously covered by Eric Clapton and Cream in 1969, and has been covered by other musicians as well. This song speaks to the legend that Robert Johnson sold his soul to the devil to be able to play and sing as well as he did. Johnson's mentor, Son House, who knew Johnson when he was a kid, recalls that Johnson originally played harmonica, and that his guitar playing was quite poor. Johnson left town at some point in his youth and disappeared for six months to a year. When he returned, he had become an amazing guitarist, a feat that greatly surprised Son House. What Johnson did in this mystery period of his life is anyone's guess, though the legend that he went down to a crossroad to sell his soul has become the most popular answer. Stories about crossroads as magical or supernatural places are common in many cultures, and these stories in African American culture may have some root in transplanted African religions such as Vodun. It has even been suggested that Johnson was inducted into the Vodun priesthood during this mystery period. It may also have been that Johnson simply left town and spent his time diligently practising everything he'd absorbed from listening to Son House,
Johnson himself capitalized on his mystique, writing songs like "Me and the Devil Blues" and "Hellhounds on My Trail". Whether he believed it himself or not, the supernatural imagery of these songs, together with his intensely emotional performances, leave us with some of the most eery and powerful music ever recorded.
1. I went to the crossroad
3. Standin' at the crossroad, baby
8. Blind Lemon Jefferson : "Black Snake Moan" (Jefferson)
Blind Lemon Jefferson was the first southern country blues recording star, and represents the Texas-Arkansas style of blues. Jefferson first recorded in 1926, and was one of the most influential blues performers, his recordings being copied more or less exactly for several decades after their release. Jefferson's recordings were advertised as being old fashioned blues at the time, contrasting with the more modern recordings of "classic" blues singers.
Jefferson's song "That Black Snake Moan" is an example of the flexibility of the blues form. It is a blues song because of its use of blue notes (notes that do not fit into the Western scale) and the form of the text (AAB). It does not have a heavy rhythmic pulse and it does not follow the 12-bar blues progression. This is also an example of the use of sexual imagery in blues. A very prevalent practice, many blues songs use double entendres, seemingly unrelated images that can be seen as very sexual, to portray graphic sexuality. The blues singer, Bo Carter, practically made his career off of recordings of sexual blues like "Please Warm My Weiner" and "Banana in Your Fruit Basket". In this case, the black snake is clearly a metaphor for the penis, as Jefferson sings:
Aay, ain't got no mama now
Mmmm, black snake crawlin'
in my room.
Mmmm, black snake crawlin'
in my room.
Oow, that must be the bedbug
- you know a chinch [small insect] can't
Oow, that must be the bedbug
- you know a chinch [small insect] can't
Mama, that's all right,
mama, that's all right for you.
Mama, that's all right,
mama, that's all right for you.
Mmm, what's the matter now?
Mmm, what's the matter now?
Well, wonder where is the
black snake gone?
Well, wonder where is the
black snake gone?
9. Nehemiah "Skip" James: "Hard Time Killing Floor Blues" (N. James)
Nehemiah "Skip" James was one of the most creative and innovative of the Delta blues singers. Born and raised in Mississippi, James' father was a Baptist preacher, giving him a connection to religion that remained throughout James' life. James played both piano, which he had learned as a child in church, and guitar, being versatile on both. He was a gifted songwriter and a talented arranger, skilled at creating an overall sound to his music that was distinctly his own. He was flexible in his use of the blues idiom, often not using the 12-bar blues form. All of his early recordings (18 in number) are from one three-day recording session in Grafton, Wisconsin. James never saw any money from these recordings, as the company that recorded him went out of business shortly afterwards.
"Hard Time Killin' Floor Blues" is one of the few blues songs from the Delta to make a hard social statement. It is a dirge about poverty, brought on by the Great Depression, haunting in its tone and frightening in its lyrics. The song was later recorded by the young blues singer Chris Thomas King in the movie "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" by the Coen brothers. Skip James was rediscovered in the 1960s by blues fans and was introduced to the concert stage at the Newport Festival of 1964. He recorded a number of new albums before passing away in 1969.
Hard time here and
everywhere you go
And the people are driftin'
from door to door
And the people are driftin'
from door to door
Hear me tell you people,
just before I go
Hear me tell you people,
just before I go
Well, you hear me singin' my
Well, you hear me singin' my
If I ever get off this
If I ever get off this
No-no, no-no, I'll never get down this low no more
And you say you had money,
you better be sure
And you say you had money,
you better be sure
Sing this song and I ain't
gonna sing no more
Sing this song and I ain't
gonna sing no more
10. Memphis Jug Band: "Cocaine Habit" (Will Shade); [Memphis, 1930]
Memphis, like St. Louis and Atlanta, was a crossroads in the black migration from country to city, south to north. The populations of these cities increased dramatically from 1910-1930, and each served as a crucible for distinctive blues styles. Memphis blues was closely related to the Mississippi Delta style, but the urban environment, in which migrants and musics from various areas were thrown together, led to the development of new styles. Jug bands were flexible ensembles, often featuring kazoo, jug, harmonica, guitar, and homemade one-string washtub bass. These bands provided work for some of the best black musicians in the city, and provided an alternative to blues, mixing elements of minstrelsy, medicine shows, blues and vaudeville traditions.
11. A.C. "Eck" Robertson and Henry Gilliland [NYC, 1922] : "Sallie Gooden" (Traditional)
This is the first documented commercial recording of a Southern white folk performer. The so-called hillbilly music market (a southern white parallel to the race record market aimed at blacks) began in 1922 when A.C. "Eck" Robertson of Amarillo, Texas and Henry Gilliland of Virginia, hopped a train to New York. They showed up at Victor Records' office, one dressed in a Confederate uniform and the other in a cowboy suit, carrying two fiddles and demanding to be recorded. To get rid of them, a Victor employee sat them down at an acoustic microphone and recorded their versions of "Sallie Gooden" and "The Arkansas Traveller." The record was issued and sold well enough in the South for Victor and other companies to begin sending talent scouts out in search of other hillbilly performers. On this recording Eck Robertson plays a series of variations on a simple Anglo-American folk theme, an ability he had honed in fiddle contests throughout the South.
12. Vernon Dalhart [NYC, 1924]: "The Prisoner's Song" (Guy Massey)
This was the first hillbilly hit, a million-seller that contributed to the success of the fledgling industry. "The Prisoner's Song" is a composite of earlier song fragments. After the success of this record, Dalhart (b. Marion T. Slaughter in Jefferson, Texas) forsook the popular and light opera music that had been his main repertoire, and recorded only hillbilly songs. Dalhart recorded under many pseudonyms for almost every record label in the country, and did more to popularize early country music than any performer except Jimmie Rodgers.
13. Carter Family : "Gospel Ship"
Born in the isolated foothills of the Clinch Mountains of Virginia, the Carters were one of the most important groups in the history of country music. A.P. "Doc" Carter (1891-1960) collected and arranged the music, and sang bass. His wife Sara (1899-1979) sang lead and took the majority of vocal solos, and sister-in-law Maybelle (1909-1978) sang harmony, played steel guitar and autoharp, and developed an influential guitar style, in which she played melody on the bass strings and brushed the treble strings for rhythm. The trio first recorded in Bristol, Tennessee in 1927, the same week as country music pioneer Jimmie Rodgers (example 13).
"Gospel Ship", a traditional song, demonstrates the importance of sacred music in southern culture. Religious songs were popular sellers among recordings of the time.
14. Jimmie Rodgers [Atlanta, 1928]: "Waiting for a Train" (J. Rodgers)
If the Carter Family represented the stability of home, family, and traditional values, Jimmie Rodgers (1897-1933) conveyed the image of the wanderer, a man who had seen the world and tasted its temptations. These two images still continue to dominate country music lyrics. The ex-railroad brakeman from Meridian, Mississippi celebrated the allure of the open road and chronicled the lives of men who forsook the benefits of a settled existence: ramblers, rounders, hoboes, gamblers, convicts, and footloose lovers. Rodger's devil-may-care personality and his early death from tuberculosis contributed to his charismatic mystique, a sort of white parallel to black bluesman Robert Johnson. He was country music's first recording star.
His style was strongly influenced by Afro-American blues and field hollers, as well as by Anglo-American folk songs, hillbilly music, and sentimental popular ballads. "Waiting for a Train" is an adaptation of an old folk song. It is a hobo song, and its dour mood, reinforced by Rodger's lonesome yodel, seemed to listeners to presage the Great Depression. This was Rodger's biggest hit. He introduced many new instruments and styles into country music: on this recording we hear a Hawaiian steel guitar, a jazz band, Jimmie's famous train whistle imitation, and his unique "blue yodel."
15. Roy Acuff and his Crazy Tennesseans [Chicago, 1936]: "Great Speckled Bird" (Reverend Guy Smith)
Roy Acuff was born in 1903 in the mountains of east Tennessee. His professional career began in 1933 when he joined a travelling "medicine show." He was the dominant country music star of the World War Two era, and subsequently hosted the Grand Ole Opry, ran for governor of Tennessee, and had a minor hit in 1974, making him the oldest performer to have a record on the charts in the history of American popular music. His sound featured a heartfelt, earnest approach to singing, and the dominance of the Dobro (acoustic steel guitar with a metal resonator), played by Beecher Kirby, a.k.a. "Bashful Brother Oswald."
16. Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys [Ft. Worth, Texas, 1940]: "New San Antonio Rose" (B. Wills)
Western Swing, another style of country music which reached its peak during the Depression, was a dance-hall music which combined cowboy ballads, hillbilly music, blues, and jazz, with touches of Mexican and Cajun music. Bob Wills (b. 1905 in west Texas) is regarded as the father of the style. His first bands were named after radio sponsors (the Light Crust Doughboys). During an 8-year stay in Tulsa, Wills established and refined his sound, drawing heavily upon the peripatetic "territory" swing bands of the southwest. The core of the band is fiddle, guitar, steel guitar, banjo, drums and string bass; from the big swing bands he incorporated piano, saxophones and clarinets, and trumpets. This song became an even bigger hit when crooner Bing Crosby recorded it in 1941. Note the electric pedal steel guitar, a modern version of the bottleneck guitar style pioneered by Afro-American and Hawaiian musicians.
Swing Era (1935-1945) and Post-War Popular Music
A. Swing Bands
1. Benny Goodman and his Orchestra : "King Porter" (Music, Ferdinand "Jelly Roll" Morton; arranger, Fletcher Henderson)
Benny Goodman was born in a Chicago ghetto in 1909, the son of a Russian immigrant. He made his first records under his own name in 1927, and worked as a free-lance musician during the Depression years. Goodman's career as a bandleader was boosted by wealthy promoter John Hammond, who also helped Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday, Count Basie, and Bruce Springsteen. Hammond arranged the Goodman band's first recording dates and set up the purchase of a group of Fletcher Henderson's best arrangements. Although initial audience reaction was not enthusiastic, the band went on a national tour in 1935, culminating in spectacular successes in California. The Goodman band had appeared regularly on a national live radio show called "Let's Dance"; because they always played last, more West coasters were up to hear them, and the band had become very popular.
This band started the swing craze, and Goodman became known as the "King of Swing." Goodman's band was the first to give current Tin Pan Alley hits a jazzy treatment. It was also the first white band to include black musicians, beginning with pianist Teddy Wilson. "King Porter" was first recorded by Fletcher Henderson's band in 1932 as the "New King Porter Stomp." Goodman's success was in part based upon emulation of the arranging techniques and swinging pulse of black dance bands. The riffs and call-and-response patterns between reeds and brass are well-rehearsed, and the rhythm section plays a steady 4-beat pulse with emphasis on the second and fourth beats. Goodman plays the clarinet solo, Bunny Berigan the trumpet solo. Gene Krupa is the drummer.
2. Duke Ellington and his Famous Orchestra : "The New East St. Louis Toodle-O" (Music and arrangement, Edward Kennedy Ellington)
Edward Kennedy Ellington (1899-1974) was a major force in twentieth century American music. Born in Washington, D.C., he came from a urban middle-class background. His first band, the Washingtonians, played syncopated dance music in New York in the early 1920s. His band held engagements at a number of New York clubs, most notably the Cotton Club in Harlem (1927-1931). Ellington's highly individualistic approach to writing for big band included the creation of rich tone colors (often by writing for unusual combinations of instruments, or putting instruments in extreme registers) and dissonant chord voicings. Another hallmark of the Ellington style was his practice of writing to emphasize the strengths of particular members of his band, some of whom were with him for half a century.
"The New East St. Louis Toodle-O" has an AABA form, played twice through. The plunger muted trumpet solo is by Cootie Williams. Notice Ellington's creative use of instrumental tones, including the plunger reponses by the trumpet section during the first bridge (B section), and Barney Bigard's liquid clarinet responses to the trombone-led variations in the second chorus, followed by his domination of the bridge.
3. Count Basie and his Orchestra : "One O'Clock Jump" (Music by Count Basie)
Kansas City, a frontier town which served as an entertainment center for cattlemen, farmers, and railroad men, was the crucible for a big band style based primarily upon riffs. Influenced by recordings of New Orleans jazz and New York bands such as Fletcher Henderson, black musicians in Kansas City began in the 1920s to develop a distinctive style of dance music based upon blues and the boogie-woogie piano tradition.
The band of William "Count" Basie, firmly in the Kansas City tradition, developed the use of the "head riff" in call-and-response format between reeds and brass sections into a fine art. Arrangements were often worked out in an ad hoc fashion, with individual players suggesting riff patterns which were then picked up and harmonized by other players in a section. The compelling swing of this recording is generated by Walter Page's "walking" bass, the drumming of Jo Jones, and the 4-beat pulse of Freddie Green's guitar. The tenor saxophone solo is played by Lester Young, whose cool style was to influence a later generation of jazz musicians. On this recording, listen for Basie's carefully considered piano introduction, followed by a series of short horn riffs. The technique of riffing in effect turns the whole band into a rhythm section, and generates a great deal of momentum.
4. Glenn Miller and his Orchestra : "In the Mood" (Music, Joe Garlan; lyrics, Andy Razaf. Arranged by Glenn Miller, et al, based on an Eddie Durham arrangement)
From 1939 until its leader joined the Army in 1942, The Glenn Miller Orchestra was the most popular dance band in the world. The Miller band broke records for record sales and concert attendance, and has become the quintessential symbol of the Swing Era for many listeners. Born in Iowa in 1904, Miller had worked as a trombonist on numerous recordings before launching his own band in 1937. Like other bandleaders, his popularity was boosted by live radio broadcasts from hotels and dance halls. Glenn Miller developed a style that appealed not only to urban audiences but small-town, midwestern audiences as well. Though he died during World War Two, several versions of the Miller band are still touring the country, staffed by young players, and performing at big band revival concerts and dance halls.
"In the Mood," perhaps the best-known arrangement from the Swing Era, is a 12-bar blues with a 16-bar bridge. The blues phrase is based on a simple riff that had been used by many previous arrangers. Miller left room for some improvised solos in the middle, and added the famous fade-away suprise ending.
5. Ella Fitzgerald : "A-Tisket, A-Tasket" (Fitzgerald/Feldman);
Ella Fitzgerald & Billie Holiday often get set up in opposition to each other: To some people, you're either an Ella fan or a Billie fan. And if Billie is constructed as the Jazz Martyr, then Ella is sort of the elder stateswoman of jazz. While this is probably a false dichotomy, Ella certainly had better luck or at least more career stability than Billie. She got her start by winning one of the Apollo Theatre talent contests and then joined the Chick Webb Orchestra. She recorded "A-Tisket, A-Tasket" at age 17 while headlining for Webb. The song was Fitzgerald and Al Feldman's adaptation of the 1879 nursery rhyme and became an immediate hit with jazz fans. Upon Webb's death, Fitzgerald became the leader of his band at the young age of 23 before going solo. After initially floundering a bit on her own, Fitzgerald eventually became known for several things as a solo artist: her Songbook recordings of standards by Cole Porter, Rodgers and Hart, and the Gershwins and her scat singing and vocalizing of bebop-style jazz. In this sense, Fitzgerald's joyful, melodic swing is quite different stylistically from Holiday's rhythmically oriented minimalism. And while Fitzgerald's life was certainly longer and not nearly so fraught with the drugs and tragedy as Holiday's, she had her share of health problems, including near-blindness and the amputation of both her legs, before her death in 1996. Fitzgerald herself often rebelled against her status as a shy, "ordinary" legend, saying it made her "feel like a relic."
6. Billie Holiday : "Strange Fruit" (Lewis Allen); [1939, New York]
Billie Holiday has, especially in recent years, been portrayed as something of a jazz martyr, a tragic victim of drugs, men, and bad luck. According to many sources, however, Holiday was a strong, independent woman who liked "operating like 'one of the boys'" and wanted to challenge the racial and gender restrictions placed on her. In keeping with that objective, Holiday's recording of "Strange Fruit" is often considered the first song of the Civil Rights Movement. The lyrics were written by a leftist Southern schoolteacher named Lewis Allan (rather than by Holiday herself, as legend would have it). They so graphically depict the horrors of lynching in the Jim Crow South that Holiday's label at the time, Columbia, refused to let her record the song, forcing her to go to the smaller label Commodore for this recording.
Southern trees bear a strange fruit,
Holiday is famous for her artistic phrasing and unique timbre, both of which have established her recording of "Strange Fruit" (which has been recorded many times by other artists) as the most famous. Holiday's emotional rendering of the song and her perseverance in getting it recorded exemplify her strength as an artist.
7. Benny Goodman / Helen Forrest : Taking a Chance on Love (Vernon Duke)
"Taking A Chance on Love" is based on an arrangement by Fletcher Henderson. When Goodman was forming his first band, he had purchased a number of arrangements from the influential swing band leader Fletcher Henderson. Henderson's arrangements had given Goodman a unique sound and by the time of this recording, Henderson himself had joined Benny Goodman's orchestra.
"Taking A Chance On Love" was written by Vernon Duke, a Tin Pan Alley songsmith. Tin Pan Alley songs were an important part of the repertoire of many swing bands who arranged them into highly rhythmic swing tunes. This song has an AABA form, typical to the songs of Tin Pan Alley. The inclusion of a male or female crooner is also an important aspect of swing. In this case, the crooner is Helen Forrest, a popular female vocalist of the time.
B. Rhythm & Blues and Urban Blues
8. Louis Jordan and the Tympany Five : "Choo Choo Ch'Boogie" (Vaughn Horton, Denver Darling, Milton Gabler)
Jordan was the most successful black recording artist of the post-War period, with a string of hit rhythm & blues records. This is a classic jump band, consisting of a three horn front line (alto sax, tenor sax, and trumpet) and rhythm section piano, guitar, bass, and drums. Jordan, who sang and played alto sax, was a polished entertainer, and his up-beat lyrics and smooth vocal quality provided urban black audiences with a alternative to the Delta-based Chicago blues style of Muddy Waters, Sonny Boy Williamson, etc. This recording was his first million-seller, a cross-over hit with both black and white audiences. Producer Milt Gabler was later involved in the production of Bill Haley and the Comets, a rock 'n'and roll band which drew upon the jump band sound.
9. Billy Ward and his Dominoes : "Have Mercy, Baby" (Billy Ward)
During the late 1940s and early 1950s the potential connection between the emotional approach of gospel singing and the personal experiences of adolescent singers occurred to various singers, record companies, and composers. The first deliberate use of gospel-trained singers in secular music seems to have been in 1950, when a New York gospel singing instructor, Billy Ward, formed a rhythm and blues group, the Dominoes, with four of his students. Ward's move into popular dance music was made all the more controversial by hits such as the provocative "Sixty-Minute Man." "Have Mercy Baby" was a #1 R&B; hit, a highly-charged, up-tempo shuffle, with an energized tenor saxophone solo, handclapping, and raucous shouting. The ending, with lead singer Clyde McPhatter wailing and crying, is suggestive of emotionialism found in many gospel settings. 12-bar blues form.
10. Muddy Waters: "Hoochie-Coochie Man" (Willie Dixon); [1953, Chicago]
Muddy Waters (b. Rolling Fork, Mississippi) was "discovered" in the Mississippi Delta by folk song collectors John and Alan Lomax, who recorded him for the Library of Congress. Two years later, in 1943, he left for Chicago, part of a massive movement of blacks from the South. In 1948 Muddy recorded for the Chess label, playing electric guitar with bass accompaniment by Big Crawford. Though still clearly rooted in Delta blues style, Muddy's early Chess recordings marked the beginning of electric blues in Chicago. Sold at first through record stores, groceries and barbershops in South Chicago, his records became popular both in the city and in the South, and launched Muddy's career.
The evolution of Muddy's band during the late 1940s and early 50s reflects changes in the Chicago electric blues band style. On this cut (one of Muddy's signature tunes) the band includes two electric guitars, piano, bass, drums, and amplified harmonica (pioneered by Muddy's sideman, Little Walter). Muddy, along with other southern migrants such as Howlin' Wolf, set the standard for Chicago urban blues during the post-War period. The electrification and expansion of blues ensembles helped musicians play dance music in noisy urban bars. In this song Muddy continues an old blues tradition: the bold assertion of personal power in the face of adverse circumstances:
"I got a black cat bone; I got a mojo too; I got a Johnnie Conkaroo; I'm gonna mess wit' you; I'm gonna make you girls; lead me by my hand; Then the world'll know; I'm a hoochie-coochie man"
Form: 16-bar blues (8 bars of "stop time," then 8 bars to finish).
11. Ruth Brown : "Mama, He Treats Your Daughter Mean" (Wallace, Lance, Singleton)
Ruth Brown was Atlantic Record's first major R and B star, beginning in 1949. Her father was a preacher and she sang spirituals as a child. Her recordings were sung with inflections that came from the church and the blues, and were in part aimed at the expanding white audience for R and B. Note Brown's use of upward vocal glides, and the prominence of the tambourine, associated with revivalist church meetings. This song is a 16-bar blues (like a 12-bar blues, but AAAB).
12. Joe Turner [NYC, 1954]: "Shake, Rattle and Roll" (Jesse Stone and Charles Calhoun)
Big Joe Turner's roots were also in the Kansas City shouting style, and he developed his technique singing with swing bands and boogie-woogie piano players. This is a 12-bar blues, with swing-band style riff patterns. In the mid-50s this song was covered by Bill Haley, who cleaned up the lyrics to produce a version acceptable to white-controlled AM radio stations (Turner's description of himself as "a one-eyed cat peepin' in a seafood store" admiring "dresses the sun comes shinin' through" were censored). Turner's success was generally restricted to the black R & B audience; Haley's version was a big pop hit.
13. Big Mama Thornton : "Hound Dog"
13. Big Mama Thornton : "Hound Dog" (Lieber/Stoller)
Thornton was born the daughter of a Baptist minister in Alabama in 1926. She began her musical career in black vaudeville shows, playing different instruments and singing. Thornton's forceful personality and intimidating physical presence leant a distinctive feel to her music. She moved to Los Angeles in the 1950s and started working with Johnny Otis, a Greek-American nightclub owner and R & B promoter. Otis hired two white college students, Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, to write a couple of songs for Thornton. After hearing her sing, they came up with the song "Hound Dog", which they felt fit her personality and singing style. The song became one of the top-selling R&B records of 1953 and was the first major songwriting hit for Leiber and Stoller, the songwriting team that would later write songs for Elvis and other rock 'n' roll stars.
"Hound Dog" is most famous today as an Elvis song, but Thornton's version is most definitely her own. From the first line: "You ain't nothin' but a hound dog", it is clear that Thornton owns this song. The combination of the lyrics and Thornton's delivery create a powerful image of female authority.
14. Bill Monroe and his Blue Grass Boys [Nashville, 1947]: "It's Mighty Dark to Travel" (B. Monroe)
Bill Monroe (b. 1911 in the "bluegrass" region of Kentucky) is known as the father of bluegrass music. He was influenced early by his uncle (a fiddler) and a black guitarist, fiddler, and railroad worker named Arnold Schulz, who gave Monroe's music a distinctive bluesy quality. This recording is from a period when bluegrass was coalescing into the sound we know today, characterized by rapid tempos and virtuoso interplay among guitar, banjo and mandolin. This particular group, which included stars Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, is generally regarded as the archetypical bluegrass band, setting a style and standard of performance for subsequent groups to follow.
15. Lester Flatt, Earl Scruggs, and the Foggy Mountain Boys : "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" (E. Scruggs)
Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs stand out as two of the seminal seminal figures in bluegrass music. Flatt was an excellent guitarist and singer, while Scruggs practically invented the bluegrass banjo technique. Both musicians had been members of Bill Monroe's bluegrass boys from 1945 until 1948, during which some of the best and most enduring bluegrass was recorded. The two left Monroe's band in 1948 to form their own band, the Foggy Mountain Boys, named after a Carter family song "Foggy Mountain Top". Fiddler Chubby Wise, one of the great early bluegrass fiddlers, joined their band at this time. The group played mostly songs, with a few instrumentals like "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" thrown in.
"Foggy Mountain Breakdown" is the most famous example of Scruggs' five-string banjo technique. Inspired by a local banjo player from his home state of North Carolina named Snuffy Jenkins and possibly by the syncopated rhythms of ragtime, Scruggs picked the banjo using a three-fingered pattern of "rolls". His amazing level of virtuosity completely astounded audiences of the time and begat a lifetime of imitators and devotees. His banjo technique has become the definitive style of banjo playing used in bluegrass. This recording of "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" was used in the Hollywood movie "Bonnie and Clyde" and served to catapult bluegrass into the mainstream.
16. The Soggy Bottom Boys (2000): "I Am A Man of Constant Sorrow"
Directed by the quirky filmmaking team of Joel and Ethan Coen, the movie "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" was an retelling of Homer's epic, the Odyssey, set in the Deep South during depression-era 1930s. Music was essential to the film, and the film's soundtrack, produced by T-Bone Burnett, read as a who's-who of bluegrass music. The soundtrack album won numerous Grammy awards and caused a national sensation for bluegrass. Curiously, the music featured in the movie is not typically bluegrass, it is rather an exploration into Depression-era country music, the roots of bluegrass. The movie was set in the early 1930s, a period that predates most bluegrass artists (Bill Monroe started playing bluegrass in the late 1930s). However, the use of prominent bluegrass artists to record the music and to play onscreen, vaulted bluegrass music back into the mainstream.
The song "I Am A Man of Constant Sorrow" is one of the reasons for the popularity of the soundtrack. Sung by Dan Tyminski of Alison Kraus' Union Station band, this song has a long history of recordings. Dating from around 1913, Man of Constant Sorrow has been recorded many times over the years, most notably by the Stanley Brothers (Ralph Stanley won a Grammy for his song "Oh Death" in Oh Brother). Jerry Garcia also recorded Man of Constant Sorrow, and Bob Dylan has recently recorded it as well. The catchy rhythm and excellent lyrics made "Man of Constant Sorrow" a cornerstone to the movie.
17. Alison Kraus : "Every Time I Say Goodbye" (John Pennel)
Alison Kraus is one of the biggest names in bluegrass and country music today. A prodigy fiddler from an early age, she won her first fiddle contest at age 8 and secured a recording contract with Rounder Records by age 14. She is also an excellent vocalist and leads the stellar bluegrass band, Union Station. She is very talented at making crossover recordings: combining traditional bluegrass, modern country music, pop music, and collaborating with all kinds of musicians. Kraus and her band Union Station were featured prominently in the movie "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?", with guitarist Dan Tyminski from Union Station singing the lead on "Man Of Constant Sorrow", and Kraus lending vocals and harmony on songs like "Down to the River to Pray".
Women have always had an impact on bluegrass music, though they were often excluded from early bluegrass bands. From Sally Ann Forester, the first woman to record bluegrass (playing the accordion in Bill Monroe's band), to Hazel Dickens and Alice Gerrard, singers from the 1960s folk revival, to the plethora of female bluegrass bands and bluegrass singers on the scene today, women have played essential roles in the history of bluegrass music. Though Alison Kraus usually receives the most press, other women bluegrass artists, like Laurie Lewis and Gillian Welch, are leading lights in the modern bluegrass scene.
D. Country and Western
18. Hank Williams [Nashville, 1952]: "Your Cheating Heart" (H. Williams)
Honky-tonk music - sometimes called "hard country" or "beer-drinking music" - conveys the sound and ethos of the social arena that spawned it, the roadside beer joint. Post-war honky-tonk music reflected changes in the experience of the southern audience that had patronized hillbilly music during the 1920s and 30s, including increased rural-urban migration, the emergence of a southern white working-class in cities such as Atlanta and Nashville, and the increased instability of male-female relationships. The typical band was small, including a fiddle, a steel guitar and "takeoff" or lead guitar (both amplified), string bass, and piano (but rarely a drummer).
Hank Williams (b. 1923 in Alabama) was the quintessential honky-tonk singer. His recordings mark the emergence of modern country music, a style appealing to a wider mainstream audience. When musicians today talk about returning to "good old country music," they usually mean the honky-tonk style, not "hillbilly" or traditional mountain music. Williams' success peaked in the late 1940s and early 50s; he died at the age of 29, a tragic hero in the pattern of Jimmie Rodgers.
19. Hank Thompson and his Brazos Valley Boys [Hollywood, 1951]: "The Wild Side of Life" (Warren and Carter)
Hank Thompson (b. in Waco, Texas, 1925) mixed the styles of Western swing and honky-tonk music. This song, based upon composer William Warren's personal experiences with a "honky tonk angel" who found the "glitter of the gay night life" too hard to resist, reflects a major theme of honky-tonk: the dislocations of urban working-class life, and the transience of male-female relationships. The melody of "The Wild Side" has a long history, having previously been used in "The Great Speckled Bird" (cd 2) and other songs.
20. Kitty Wells [Nashville, 1952]: "It Wasn't God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels" (J.D. Miller)
Kitty Wells (b. Nashville, Tennessee) was the female response to male domination of urban beer hall culture, in which the unattached "honky-tonk angel" was both a lure and a threat. Interestingly, the song was written by a commercially astute male composer as a response to "The Wild Side of Life" by Hank Thompson. Well's reserved, soulful style emphasizes the lyric content of the song. She set a paradigm for female country superstars, and was a major force in the emergence of Nashville as a recording center.
21. Patsy Montana : "I Wanna Be a Cowboy's
21. Patsy Montana : "I Wanna Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart"
This was the first big hit by a woman country singer and a yodel piece that set the standard by which all other women yodelers were judged. The song's jaunty melody is somewhat similar to that of Stuart Hamblen's "Texas Plains" and the polka rhythm, undoubtedly familiar to people of Central European extraction, may help to explain why "Cowboy's Sweetheart" was so popular in the northern Midwest. Patsy Montana was born Ruby Blevins in Hot Springs, Arkansas. She acquired her stage name in the early 1930s when she toured with a troupe led by rodeo cowboy/performer Monte Montana. During her long career, she was associated with some of the most famous names in country music, including Jimmie Davis, for whom she played fiddle on a couple of early records. This song, recently recorded by performers such as LeeAnn Rimes and the Dixie Chicks, has become a standard for women country musicians.
22. Blind Wille Johnson : "God Moves On The Water"
Blind Willie Johnson was born in Texas around 1902, the son of a farmer. Due to an unfortunate childhood accident, he was rendered completely blind and took to music as a profession. Obviously a highly religious person, all of his songs deal with religion in some way. Playing and recording during a time of transition and change, as the country blues style started to form, and as African-American spirituals moved towards gospel music, his music stands out as a unique expression of religious faith. Johnson took existing spirituals, religious hymns sung in African-American churches, and transferred them to the blues idiom. He wrote his own songs, but even on songs taken from the tradition of spirituals, his arrangements are completely unique.
The traditional song "God Moves on the Water" was written about the sinking of the Titanic in 1912. In the publicity for the Titanic, it was claimed that this was a ship that God himself could not sink. After the Titanic sank, some people saw this as a punishment from God for excessive hubris. A number of religious songs were written on this theme. In this song, Johnson displays his dazzling skill on the slide guitar, playing full melodic lines and employing a complex fingering technique. Indeed, Johnson was one of the best slide guitarists that ever lived. He used a penknife as a slide on the guitar, a practice that has been observed in certain forms of African music. Johnson also demonstrates his characteristic way of completing sung verses on the guitar. Notice that he never actually sings the line "God moves on the water", but rather sings "God moves " leaving his guitar to finish the line.
23. Golden Gate Quartet : "The Sun Didn't Shine" (Roosevelt Fennoy)
This gospel quartet was recorded by the Okeh and Columbia labels. Note the strong steady pulse; call-and-response; percussive approach; interlocking vocal parts; use of special vocal effects, such as rhythmic breathing; the importance of the bass vocal lines; background vocal "pads" (sustained "oooohs" and "aaahs"); and an emphasis upon direct communication of emotional experience.
Rock 'n' Roll: 1954-1959
1. Bill Haley and the Comets [NYC, 1954]: "Rock Around the Clock" (J. DeKnight and M. Freedman)
A former disc jockey and country-and-western bandleader from Chester, Pennsylvania, Haley was the first white musician to achieve major success by emulating R&B.; This song is considered the first big rock 'n' roll hit (#1 on the pop charts in 1955), partly due to its association with Blackboard Jungle, a film about high school juvenile delinquents. Haley's band featured Rudy Pompilli on sax, and Haley on electric guitar and vocals. "Rock Around the Clock" is a country-tinged version of the jump band sound of Louis Jordan, and is a 12-bar blues. After several hits in the 1950s, and a successful tour of Europe in 1957, Haley's career went into decline. He died in 1981.
2. Bill Haley and the Comets [NYC, 1954]: "Shake, Rattle, and Roll" (Jesse Stone)
It is important to compare Bill Haley's version of "Shake, Rattle, and Roll" to Joe Turner's version from CD #3. Composed by Jesse Stone, a black producer for Atlantic Records in 1954, Big Joe Turner's recording from the same year was in a jump blues R&B style. Bill Haley, former leader of a country and western band, recorded a cover version of this song in 1954 as well. His version differs from Turner's in that he emphasizes the guitar over Turner's saxophones, and his rhythm is derivative more of Western Swing than of jump blues R&B. Significantly, the highly erotic lyrics of Turner's are partially censored in Haley's version. Whereas Turner sings: "Well you wear those dresses, the sun come shinin' through, I cain' believe my eyes all that mess belong to you", Haley sings "Wearin' those dresses, your hair done up so nice. You look so warm, but your heart is cold as ice". Interestingly, the line "I'm like a one-eyed cat, peepin' in a seafood store" was retained in Haley's version, a double entendre that likely went right over the censor's head.
Unlike later cases of white artists covering songs from black artists and generating huge profits, both recordings of "Shake, Rattle, and Roll" sold well. The difference was that Turner's version made both the pop and the R&B charts, while Haley's version never made it onto the R&B charts. Black audiences appreciated Turner's jump band approach over Haley's approach. This song was one of the first of many future hits for Haley, while it marked the beginning of the end of Joe Turner's career. Though obviously influential in early rock 'n' roll, Turner's time had passed and he was forced to take a backseat in the rock 'n' roll explosion.
3. The Chords [NYC, 1954]: "Sh-Boom" (James Keyes, Carl and Claude Feaster, Floyd McCrae, and William R. Edwards)
The Chords were a vocal R&B; group from The Bronx. This performance was recorded as the B side of a cover of a popular Patti Page song, "Cross Over the Bridge." "Sh-Boom" reached #3 on the R&B; charts, #9 on the pop charts, and is regarded as one of the first rock n' roll hits. Recorded by the indie label Atlantic, which specialized in rhythm and blues recordings during the early 1950s, the slick vocal sound of this group represents a conscious attempt to create a cross-over hit attracting a racially mixed audience.
The structure of the song is AABA, with the A-section chords based on the classic I - VI minor - IV - V pattern common to much vocal group music of the period. The vocal lead and choral "pads" or backgrounds are also typical of the style. The record was produced by Atlantic Records founder Ahmet Ertegun.
4. The Crew Cuts [Chicago, 1954]: "Sh-Boom" (same as previous)
Major record label Mercury specialized during the mid-1950s in covering rhythm & blues hits, with white groups performing sanitized, less rhythmically complex versions directed at the mainstream pop audience. The Crew-Cuts were a Canadian group, modeled on The Four Lads. The Crew-Cuts and other performers specialized in covering rhythm & blues songs. Such groups generally had little or no understanding of the texture and rhythmic momentum of black popular music, and the results often seem awkward and amusing today.
This is a classic example, complete with a tympani solo replacing the swinging tenor sax solo, and a cleancut vocal performance by the Canadian group Crew-Cuts (reminiscent of bandleader Paul Whiteman's attempt to "make a lady out of Jazz" some 30 years earlier). The Crew-Cuts' version of "Sh-Boom" far surpassed the original in sales, and reached #1 on the pop charts.
5. Fats Domino [New Orleans, 1955]: "Ain't That a Shame" (Antoine Domino and Dave Bartholomew)
Starting in the late 1940s, Fats led a New Orleans-based R&B; band. His distinctive piano style (based upon local boogie-woogie and Latin-influenced piano traditions), good-natured, relaxed singing, and excellent sidemen (e.g., co-leader Dave Bartholomew, a former member of Duke Ellington's big band) contributed to his success. This and other early recordings feature tenor sax solos by Lee Allen. Fats was the consummate crossover artist, and was able not only to generate a series of big hits with young white audiences, but also to fight off cover attempts by Pat Boone and other white artists who recorded simplified, "cleaned-up" versions of his originals.
6. Little Richard [New Orleans, 1955]: "Tutti-Frutti" (Richard Penniman)
Born in Macon, Georgia, Richard Penniman was washing dishes in a bus station restaurant just months before he became one of the first recording stars of rock and roll. He recorded with Fats Domino's dance band in New Orleans, but his vocal style and stage presence was markedly different from Fats' cool and relaxed style. Little Richard was wild, exciting, and extroverted, and he introduced many of the characteristics we now associate with rock n' roll performance.
Richard's career was temporarily cut short in the late 1950s when he renounced rock and roll and became a minister. Since then he has veered back and forth between these two roles - the rock and roller and the preacher - most recently combining the two. "Tutti Frutti," originally a suggestive novelty song opening with the phrase "a-wop-bom-a-lubop a-lop-bam-boom," charted at #2 R & B in late '55, #17 pop in early '56. The song was covered by a variety of artists, including Elvis Presley and Pat Boone (see next example).
7. Pat Boone: "Tutti Frutti" [NYC, 1956]
During the first few years of his career Pat Boone (b. Jacksonville, FL, 1934) made highly successful cover versions of R&B; hits, which led to him being labeled as a rock n' roll singer. In fact, Boone's approach was that of a square mainstream pop singer attempting to make sense of black musical styles that were essentially alien to him. His first #1 hit was a cover version of "Ain't That a Shame" by Fats Domino (1955), and he also recorded covers of songs by Louis Jordan, the Drifters, Big Joe Turner, and Bill Haley. Boone's version of "Tutti Frutti" did much better than Little Richard's recording, scoring in the Top Ten on the pop charts.
8. Bo Diddley [Chicago, 1955]: "Bo Diddley" (Elias McDaniel)
Born in McComb, Mississippi in 1928, Elias McDaniel moved to Chicago as a child. His stage name, Bo Diddley, is derived from the term for a one-string southern black folk instrument. His sound centered upon an African-derived rhythm pattern, played with a thick, fuzzy sound and strong triplet pulsations produced by the mercury-bubble tremelo unit built into many guitar amplifiers of the time. The lyrics of his songs derived from African American traditions, including children's game songs and urban blues. The band on this track includes harmonica, guitar, drums, and Otis Spann from Muddy Waters' band on piano. The record was produced by the Chess Brothers, who had pioneered in the emergence of Chicago urban blues. The Bo Diddley rhythm pattern was much imitated in the early days of rock and roll (e.g., Johnny Otis' "Hand Jive") and is found in rock music through the 1960s, '70s, and '80s, including the Rolling Stones' "Not Fade Away" and Bruce Springsteen's "She's the One."
9. Chuck Berry [Chicago, 1955]: "Maybelline" (Chuck Berry, Russ Fratto, and Alan Freed)
Chuck Berry, who also recorded on the independent label owned by the Chess brothers, was one of rock and roll's foremost innovators, both as an electric guitarist and as a songwriter adept at dealing with the concerns of his teen-aged audience. An R&B; musician who played clubs in East St. Louis while earning a living as a cosmetician by day, Berry moved to Chicago in an attempt to break into the big time. He landed a contract with Chess through his friend Muddy Waters. Berry's simple, direct style and clearly enunciated lyrics about cars, high school romance, and the glories of rock n' roll reached a wide audience. He had a string of hits from 1955 to 1958, though his recordings did not dominate the pop charts to the same extent as those of Presley, Domino, Little Richard and others. In fact, his first #1 pop hit did not come until 1973, with the novelty song "My Ding-a-Ling."
This song is a modified 12-bar blues with a country-and-western influenced beat. It was originally known as "Ida Red," and had been recorded by a number of country musicians, including western swing bandleader Bob Wills. Berry revised the song, putting Ida Red into a car, and (because "Ida Red" was a public domain song, which meant it couldn't be copyrighted, and couldn't generate royalties) renaming her "Maybelline," a term drawn from his beauty shop days. The song was purportedly co-written by white rock n' roll disc jockeys Freed and Fratto, although their major contribution was to promote the song on their radio shows.
10. Elvis Presley [Memphis, 1955]: "Mystery Train" (Junior Parker)
As far as middle-class America was concerned, Elvis was the performer that established rock n' roll as the dominant popular music nationwide. Born in Tupelo, Mississippi, and raised in Memphis, Elvis was working as a truck driver when he was discovered by record producer Sam Phillips. Phillips had previously specialized in recording black blues performers, and said that if he could find "a white man with the Negro sound and the Negro feel," he could make "a million dollars." Elvis Presley filled the bill.
This recording was made for Phillip's Sun Records in 1955, and represented the emergence of a new blend of country music and R&B;, later dubbed "rockabilly." This style used blues songs such as this one (first recorded by Junior Parker), and added a simple accompaniment of electric guitar (played here by Scotty Moore), bass, and later drums. Presley strummed acoustic guitar and sang in an unaffected manner incorporating aspects of country and blues style. In 1954 and 1955 Presley created a sensation performing African-American-derived music for white audiences in concerts and via the expanding medium of television.
11. Elvis Presley [Nashville, 1956]: "Don't Be Cruel" (Otis Blackwell and Elvis Presley)
This was Elvis' first recording for RCA, and it was a very big crossover hit, reaching an unprecedented #1 position on the pop, country, and R&B; charts. This recording demonstrates a more polished and highly produced studio sound, with a more artificial, self-conscious vocal style, a slick vocal back-up group (the Jordannaires), and professional Nashville studio musicians under the direction of country music star Chet Atkins. Rather than drawing upon blues and country songs, Elvis began to sing songs written for him by professional tunesmiths. Later, under the guidance of RCA recording moguls, he began to record ballads such as "Love Me Tender" and pop songs of all kinds, and starred in a series of commercially successful motion pictures. Elvis said that this is what he always wanted to be: a film star and not a rock n' roller. Today Elvis' image, that of the poor southern boy metamorphosized into wealthy (though troubled) superstar, is enshrined at Graceland. a museum-amusement park visited by hundreds of thousands of fans each year.
12. Jerry Lee Lewis [Memphis, 1957]: "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' On" (Jerry Lee Lewis)
Sam Phillips, having sold Presley's contract to RCA, invested the money in other budding rock and rollers. His first post-Elvis success was Carl Perkins with "Blue Suede Shoes," but Phillips had even better luck with Jerry Lee Lewis, a piano player from Louisiana. His background was in country music, but after Presley's success he decided to give rock and roll a try. Lewis performances are wild; he pounds his arms, feet, etc. on the keyboards, and often ends up atop the piano. This song is a 12-bar blues, drawing upon boogie-woogie piano style. The Sun Records stable of artists also included Johnny Cash, Charlie Rich, and Roy Orbison; most Sun performers moved in the direction of country music after the peak of 1950s rock and roll.
13. The Everly Brothers [Nashville, 1957]: "Bye, Bye Love" (B. and F. Bryant)
Don and Phil Everly were born in rural eastern Kentucky, and began their careers performing brother duet style country music on their parents' radio show in Iowa. "Bye, Bye Love," composed by professional Nashville tunesmiths, became an instant hit on both the pop and country charts. The Everly Brothers' two-part harmonies are modeled upon the 1930s "hillbilly" records of brother duets such as the Monroe Brothers and Blue Sky Boys, to which they added a strong rock n' roll dance beat. After performing separately during the 1970s, the Everly Brothers reunited in 1983, and have been touring and recording together again.
14. Buddy Holly and the Crickets [Clovis, New Mexico, 1957]: "That'll Be the Day" (J. Allison, N. Petty, B. Holly)
Buddy Holly's strong influence on rock n' roll was disproportionate to the length of his career (1957-59); he was killed in a plane crash at the age of 21. Holly was born in Lubbock, Texas, and was a teen-ager during the first years of rock n' roll. He took aspects of the styles of Hank Williams, Chuck Berry, and Elvis and created an individualistic style. Holly was a pioneer of modern studio techniques, over-dubbing instrumental parts, arranging and producing his own recordings, and popularizing what was to become the standard modern rock band line-up of two electric guitars (lead and rhythm), bass and drums.
Many groups have covered Buddy Holly songs, including the Rolling Stone's version of "Not Fade Away" (1964) and Blind Faith's version of "Well All Right" (1969). His group, the Crickets, inspired the Beatles to adopt a "bug" name, and his innovations influenced them strongly. Paul McCartney heard Holly on a U.K. tour in 1958, and bought the rights to all of Holly's music in the 1980s and has sponsored Buddy Holly week in London every year since 1976. In 1978 a film about Holly's life was made, starring Gary Busey.
15. Coasters : "Yakety Yak" (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller)
The Coasters (the name refers to the group's West Coast origins) came into being after an early vocal R&B; group called the Robins broke up. The Coasters worked under the creative direction of Leiber and Stoller at Atlantic Records. "Yakety-Yak" was an R and B song with a sense of humor. Its satirical rendering of intergenerational conflict demonstrates Leiber and Stollers' remarkable ability to incorporate aspects of adolescent experience into their work, an important element in their long-lived success as producer-songwriters. The line "Take out the papers and the trash, or you don't get no spending cash!" is the epitome of teenage frustration.
The tenor saxophone solo is by "session man" King Curtis, who influenced many later soul music horn players with his gritty tone and expressive playing. Once again Leiber and Stoller created a simple musical structure (8 bars repeated over and over with variations) and a lyric that appealed to the expanding teen audience. "Yakety Yak" peaked at #1 on the pop charts, #1 R & B.
16. Ritchie Valens (L.A., 1958): "La Bamba"
Richie Valens was a Chicano (Mexican-American) musician brought up in the barrios of East Los Angeles who did a great deal to introduce Latin influences to mainstream rock and roll. "La Bamba," released on the indie label Del-Fi in 1958, is a rock n' roll version of a Mexican folk song. It was the B side of the #2 pop hit "Donna." Although it reached only #22 on the pop charts, "La Bamba" was very influential and became a quintessential party song. Richie Valens died before his 18th birthday, in the plane crash that also killed Buddy Holly and the Big Bopper. The 1987 film based on Valens' life featured covers of his music by Los Lobos, who scored a #1 hit with "La Bamba."
17. Dion and the Belmonts [NYC, 1959]: "A Teenager in Love" (Jerome "Doc" Pomus and Mort Shuman)
By 1959, a number of antiseptic white stars had been created to satisfy the expanding teen music market, including Frankie Avalon, Paul Anka, Bobby Darin, Fabian, and Dion. Dion DiMucci (b. 1939) started singing at age five, and appeared at age fifteen on "T.V. Teen Club," hosted by Paul Whiteman. His early musical experiences included listening to his father's Al Jolson records, the honky-tonk music of Hank Williams, and vocal group R&B.; The Belmonts were named after an thoroughfare in the Bronx, where members of the group grew up. Dion and the Belmonts were the most successful, and the most authentic, of the many white "doo-wop" groups that emulated the sound of black vocal R&B; in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
"A Teenager in Love," released on the indie label Laurie, was Dion's first big hit (#5 on the pop charts in 1959). It is a gentle love ballad, a blend of R&B; harmonizing and the romanticism of pop vocal groups such as the Four Lads. Dion later developed a sexier, more threatening tough-guy image with hits like "Runaround Sue" (#1, 1961) and "The Wanderer" (#2, 1961).
The Early 1960s
A. The Twist
1. Chubby Checker [Philadelphia, 1960]: "The Twist" (Hank Ballard)
The Twist was the first major dance craze of the rock 'n' roll era. Its success came largely through the influence of Dick Clark, perhaps the most powerful person in the music industry at that time, who had already created several "teen idol" stars (including Frankie Avalon and Fabian) through his television show American Bandstand.
"The Twist" was written and first recorded in 1959 by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters, and became a moderate rhythm & blues hit. The following year Dick Clark recruited a Philadelphia singer named Ernest Evans to record the song as Chubby Checker (a name inspired by Fats Domino), and both the song and the hip-gyrating dance of the same name were heavily promoted on Clark's show. The song went to #1 on the pop charts twice, first in 1960 and again in 1961, inspiring other "twist" songs, twist dance clubs, and other dance fads. Dick Clark reaped most of the profits from the success of "The Twist," while Hank Ballard and Chubby Checker got relatively little.
B. Surf Music
2. The Surfaris [LA, 1963]: "Wipe Out"
instrumental piece by the Surfaris is a surf-rock classic (#2 pop in 1963), and
was also made popular by the Ventures, the most successful of the instrumental
rock 'n' roll bands of this era. "Wipe Out" is a term from surfing
sub-culture that describes getting knocked off your surfboard by a wave. The
form is 12-bar blues.
3. The Beach Boys [LA, 1963]: "Surfin' USA" (Wilson)
The Beach Boys were the first group to score a lasting national success with the California surf music style pioneered by groups such as guitarist Dick Dale and the Del-Tones. The group was formed in suburban L.A. by three teen-aged brothers - Carl, Brian, and Dennis Wilson - their cousin Mike Love, and neighbor Al Jardine. Surf music combined 1950s rock 'n' roll electric guitar style with smooth harmonies derived from vocal groups such as the Four Freshmen. Brian Wilson is the major songwriter, arranger and producer of the group. This song is a note-for-note cover version of Chuck Berry's "Sweet Little Sixteen," with new surf lyrics added.
4. The Beach Boys [LA, 1963]: "Surfer Girl" (Wilson)
This song is the title track (inspired by the Disney song "When You Wish Upon A Star") from the album "Surfer Girl". "Surfer Girl" was the groups' first ballad and it became #7 on the Pop charts and #18 on the R&B charts. It was created in the standard ballad form (I VI iv V) with a 6/8 waltz tempo.
This surf ballad is a love song, written for Wilson's girlfriend of the time. The words are touching (Little surfer, little one, make my heart come all undone) and this song takes the group in a new direction, building on lush harmonies and difficult vocal melodies. This is the sound of the Beach Boys at a quintessential point in their careers, a time when the group had matured and meshed into the sound which is still associated with the group today.
C. Urban Folk
5. The Kingston Trio [San Francisco, 1958]: "Tom Dooley"
The urban folk revival style, pioneered by the Weavers in the early 1950s, experienced its first big commercial breakthrough in the late 1950s, with this recording. The Kingston Trio were a more polished, non-politicized alternative to groups such as the Weavers. Their audience was primarily middle-class and college-educated, and they performed primarily in coffee houses and on college campuses. This song is an adaptation of a strophic Appalachian folk song, a tragic tale very much in the Anglo-American ballad tradition. The Kingston Trio's version juxtaposes the tragic content of the lyric with a happy, up-beat presentation, characteristic of their carefully honed 'show-biz' approach to performing folk music.
6. Peter, Paul, and Mary [NYC, 1963]: "Blowin' in the Wind" (Bob Dylan)
Peter, Paul, and Mary were the most popular acoustic folk group of the mid-1960s. They were also the first to bring the general public's attention to Bob Dylan; this cover of a Dylan song went to #2 on the pop charts. Rooted in the Greenwich Village folk club scene, the trio specialized in "protest songs" (e.g., "If I Had a Hammer" by Pete Seeger, #10 in 1962) and love ballads ("Leavin' on a Jet Plane", #1 in 1969). Peter Yarrow, Paul Stookey, and Mary Travers shared the political commitments of the Weavers, and were active in many Civil rights marches and anti-war demonstrations in the 1960s.
7. Bob Dylan [NYC, 1963]: "The Times They are a Changin'" (Dylan)
Bob Dylan, born Robert Zimmerman, was brought up in Duluth, Minnesota. Influenced by Depression-era folk-singer Woody Guthrie and black blues singers such as Blind Lemon Jefferson, Dylan wandered the country as an itinerant singer, and finally ended up in the coffee house folk music scene of Greenwich Village in the early 1960s. Writing and performing his own songs, he encouraged other urban folk singers to augment their traditional repertoires with original material. His songs of social criticism and protest became anthems for the Civil Rights and anti-War movements. This song is in triple meter; its form, typical of Anglo-American traditional ballads, is strophic.
8. Joni Mitchell: "A Case of You"
Joni Mitchell helped define the image of the intimate singer-songwriter when she came out with her album Blue in 1970. The album explores issues of adoption, relationships, and being a woman. In "A Case of You", she deliberately sets up a conversation where the listener becomes the second person in the song. This set the trend for the "confessional" lyric style, and the idea of the songwriter as expressing him or herself as a person in dialog with the listener.
A Case of You
By Joni Mitchell
Just before our love got
lost you said
On the back of a cartoon
On the back of a cartoon
Oh I could drink a case of
Oh I could drink a case of
Oh I am a lonely painter
Oh I am a lonely painter
I remember that time you
told me you said
I remember that time you
told me you said
Oh I could drink a case of
Oh I could drink a case of
I met a woman
9. Smokey Robinson and the Miracles : "You've Really Got a Hold on Me" (Smokey Robinson)
Producer Berry Gordy, working out of Detroit, applied the techniques of mainstream pop production to R&B; music, and created a dominant crossover sound during the 1960s. In 1960 Gordy gave up a job on an auto assembly line and borrowed $600 to start his own label, Tamla Records (later Motown). Motown was the first black-owned record company since the Depression. Gordy fostered a corporate image, a set of stylistic characteristics that immediately identified the Motown Sound. Gordy combined the emotional intensity of gospel-based R&B; with the careful orchestrations and arrangements of the Brill Building sound. Borrowing from the Tin Pan Alley tradition, he also maintained a permanent stable of producers and song writers.
Robinson, the songwriter, producer, and expressive interpreter of lyrics for
the Miracles, made them one of Motown's most distinctive and consistent groups.
Listen for gospel influence in the piano introduction and in Robinson's vocal
style. His singing swoops from mid to high range, attempting notes that are
nearly out of his range. The call-and-response sections and the intensity of
Robinson's performance evoke the emotional involvement of black church music.
One of the "hooks" of the song is the guitar line introduced at the
very start and repeated during the chorus. This song reached #8 pop, #1
R&B; in 1963.
10. The Supremes : "Stop! In the Name of Love" (Eddie and Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier)
The Supremes were Motown's greatest commercial success, the most popular female group of the 1960s. They had a dozen #1 hits on the pop charts between 1963 and 1970, a record bettered only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley. The Supremes projected an image of wholesome maturity instead of the little girl appeal or the street-tough sensuality of earlier groups. Lead singer Diana Ross emerged as the groups visual focal point and was very successful despite her somewhat limited vocal capabilities. "Stop! In the Name of Love" was the Supremes' fourth #1 pop single in row, and reached #2 on the R&B; charts. Note the elaborate arrangement and orchestral accompaniment, influenced by the innovations of Phil Spector. The Holland-Dozier-Holland song writing and production team was responsible for many of Motown's most successful recordings.
11. The Temptations : "My Girl" (Smokey Robinson)
Performing in a style derived from vocal R&B; quartets, The Temptations were the most successful male vocal group of the 1960s and early 70s. Their success was based on Motown's efficient promotion machine, and on a combination of David Ruffin's rough-edged lead vocals, the group's urgent harmonies, and precise choreography. "My Girl" went to #1 on the pop and R&B; charts in 1965. On this recording a basic drum pattern, bass part, and guitar riff (in this case acting as the song's hook or signature) combine to form the musical core, over which are added layers of vocals, strings, and horns. Notice how the snare-drum, rhythm-guitar, and finger-snaps accent beats 2 and 4 of each measure, maintaining a compelling dance rhythm, even at a slow tempo.
12. Martha and the Vandellas : "Dancing in the Street" (Stevenson/Gaye/Hunter)
This group (Martha Reeves, Annette Sterling, Rosalind Ashford, and Gloria Williamson) first recorded together unsuccessfully for Chess Records as the "Del-Phis" while they were still in high school. Martha Reeves later got a job at Motown Records and so began their relationship with the renowned record company. Martha and the Vandellas are a group that exemplifies the Motown sound, style, and image. The group was based out of Detroit and is one of the "hit-making" superstars created and promoted by Berry Gordy of Motown Records. The group had several hits and "Dancing in the Street" was perhaps their best known hit and a song that identified them as part of the hit-team for Motown Records.
13. Diana Ross : "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" (Ashford/Simpson)
This number one hit from 1970 is an example of one of many songs taken to the top of the charts by Diana Ross after she left the Supremes to pursue a solo career. Ross paved the way for solo female artists and also took her career to Hollywood where she starred in the movie "Lady Sings Blues" (1972), a movie based on the life of Billie Holiday. Never praised for her vocal abilities, Ross based her career on the image of a pop superstar and claimed the stage and recording studio as a centre for female power and agency.
The 1960s -- British Invasion and Folk Rock
A. British Invasion
1. The Beatles : "I Want to Hold Your Hand" (John Lennon and Paul McCartney; George Martin, producer)
The impact of the Beatles - not only on popular music but on Western mass culture in general - is incalculable. They were the first of the British Invasion groups, and opened the door for many young U.K. bands. The Beatles helped reintroduce elements of 1950s R & B and rock 'n' roll into the increasingly bland American popular music mainstream. They also helped to establish the idea of the singer-songwriter. The group's origins lie in John Lennon's skiffle group, the Quarrymen, formed in Liverpool in 1955. Skiffle was the British equivalent of America's late-1950s folk revival, an imitation of New Orleans jazz and jug band styles. Paul McCartney and George Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1957, after meeting Lennon at a church picnic. The band, with drummer Pete Best, played in Hamburg, Germany 1960-61, developing their stage act and incorporating Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Buddy Holly songs into their repertoire.
The Beatles (a name chosen in homage to Buddy Holly's Crickets) debuted at the Cavern Club in Liverpool in 1961, and soon developed a local following. Their manager, Brian Epstein, was able to land a contract with major record company EMI after being rejected by nearly every label in Europe. Producer George Martin auditioned and signed the group in 1962, and soon thereafter Ringo Starr joined. Their first EMI single ("Love Me Do") was released in October 1962, and soon became a top 20 hit in England. After their first #1 hit ("From Me To You"), the British record industry applied the term "Merseybeat" to the Beatles and other groups from Liverpool (e.g., Gerry and the Pacemakers).
EMI's American label, Capitol, had not released the 1963 recordings, which George Martin had licensed to indie labels without much success. They finally released the fourth Beatles single, "I Want to Hold Your Hand," and the LP Meet the Beatles in January 1964, and invested $50,000 for promotion in the U.S. On February 7 screaming mobs met the Beatles at Kennedy Airport, and more than 70 million people watched each of their appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show on Feb 9th and 16th. By April they had monopolized the top five positions in the Billboard pop charts.
2. The Beatles : "Can't Buy Me Love" (John Lennon and Paul McCartney; George Martin, producer)
Released in the U.S. in April 1964, this recording consolidated the Beatles' hold on the pop charts: as of April all of the top five singles and 14 of the top 100 were Beatles records (an achievement never equaled). "Can't Buy Me Love" is a good example of Lennon and McCartney's innovative approach to pop songwriting. The A section is 12 bars long, like a blues in a minor key, and the B section, in a major key, is 8 bars long.
3. The Kinks : "You Really Got Me" (Ray Davies)
The Kinks' 'power chords' and rough sound influenced the punk and heavy metal movements of the late 1970s and 80s. Ray Davies, a former art student, emerged as an important songwriter with their third single, "You Really Got Me" (#1 in the U.K. and #7 in the U.S.). Davies' songs are introspective, cynical, and melancholy, based on British places and people, and often express the disenchantment of the middle-class. From 1965-69 the Kinks were banned from touring in the U.S. because of their "unprofessional conduct." In the late 60s and early 70s they started making "concept albums" and using theatrical staging influenced by British music-hall traditions. By the mid-1970s they were a cult band with a devoted following.
4. The Rolling Stones : "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" (Mick Jagger and Keith Richard)
Regarded as the "bad boys" of the British Invasion, the Rolling Stones parlayed a style and image based on black American music into a 30-year career. Formed in 1962 in London, their earliest materials consisted of Chicago blues, black R and B, and rock and roll covers (the group was named after a Muddy Waters song). Mick Jagger developed a sullen, overtly sexual stage presence and Keith Richard contributed Chuck Berry-derived rhythm guitar patterns. In 1969 Andrew Loog Oldham became their manager, and decided to promote the Stones as a less wholesome, more rebellious version of the Beatles. Their first US #1 hit, "Satisfaction," established Jagger-Richard as a successful songwriting team.
The group's menacing image, stressed in album titles such as Their Satanic Majesty's Request, was further reinforced by the arrest of Jagger, Richards, and lead guitarist Brian Jones on drug possession charges; the death by drowning of Brian Jones; and a stabbing death committed by Hell's Angels at a free concert at Altamont Speedway. The Rolling Stones continued to record and tour into the early 1990s.
5. The Who : "My Generation"
Not really a British Invasion band (they had little commercial success in the U.S. until 1967), the Who featured power chords, adolescent rage, and wild stage performances. Pete Townshend, Roger Daltrey, and John Entwistle grew up in working-class areas around London. Managers Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp changed the band name from the High Number to the Who, and promoted them as a Mod band. The Mods were a British urban youth sub-culture characterized by neat haircuts, stylish Elizabethan-type dress, and a preference for black American music. The Who's early repertoire included James Brown and Motown covers.
"My Generation," #2 in UK (only #75 in US), became an anthem of the 60s youth culture: "Hope I die before I get old." By 1966 they were hugely popular in Britain, though their stage act of smashing their instruments had placed them heavily in debt. Their appearances at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 and Woodstock in 1969 established them as one of the top live acts in both sides of Atlantic. The Who later produced a series of complex "concept albums," including The Who Sell Out (1967), and the rock operas Tommy (1969) and Quadrophrenia (1973).
6. Bob Dylan [N.Y., 1965]: "Like a Rolling Stone" (Dylan)
In 1965 Dylan enraged many of his fans by turning his back on folk "purism" and developing a new electrified rock-influenced sound. His performance at the Newport Folk Festival that year, backed by the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, drew boos and catcalls. A month later, he performed with a back-up group including Levon Helm and Robbie Robertson, later known as the Band. Dylan persevered, recorded with this new group, and "Like a Rolling Stone" became his first major hit (#2 pop). It is one of his most powerful and enduring songs, in Anglo-American-derived strophic form, as were many of his songs during his earlier acoustic period. Dylan later switched styles again, this time to country music, recording Nashville Skyline with Nashville session players in 1968.
7. The Byrds [L.A., 1966]: "Turn, Turn, Turn"
Responding to the success of the British Invasion groups in 1964 and 65, some American folk and country musicians formed rock groups. One of the first post-Beatles bands in this genre was the Byrds, led by singer and 12-string guitarist Jim (later Roger) McGuinn. Made up of musicians with experience in the folk coffee house scene and country music, including David Crosby (later of Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young), this band pioneered folk-rock. This style used "folk songs," both from traditional oral sources and songwriters like Bob Dylan and Pete Seeger, as well as new songs composed by the band in a folkish vein, and accompanied them with rock rhythms played by an electrified rhythm section. The Byrds' trademark was McGuinn's electric 12-string guitar sound and their distinctive harmonies. "Turn, Turn, Turn" was their second big hit, following a cover of Bob Dylan's "Mr. Tambourine Man" in 1965. The group stayed together through the 1970s, and recorded several important country-rock albums with singer Gram Parsons.
8. The Lovin' Spoonful [N.Y., 1966]: "Do You Believe in Magic?"
This group emerged out of the same Greenwich Village club milieu that nurtured the urban folk movement in the 1950s. Leader John Sebastian began as a solo folk performer whose main instruments were harmonica and autoharp. This song is typical of their light, non-controversial style, and became their first Top Ten hit. Sebastian has pursued a fairly successful solo career since the break-up of the group in the late 1960s, including the theme song for the television series Welcome Back Kotter.
C. Late Beatles
9. The Beatles : "Norwegian Wood" (John Lennon and Paul McCartney; George Martin, producer)
The Beatles managed to combine unprecedented popularity with artistic growth during the mid-1960s. Their first two movies, A Hard Days Night (1964) and Help (1965), directed by Richard Lester, departed from the typical pop-star movie tradition, and were acclaimed by critics. The 1965 concert at Shea Stadiam in N.Y. attracted 56,000 people, the largest audience for any popular musical event until that time. The album Rubber Soul (1965) included more political and personalized songs inspired by the folk-rock movement, especially Bob Dylan. "Norwegian Wood," never released as a single, is a good example of their new musical direction. The mood is relaxed and contemplative; the enigmatic lyrics, written by John Lennon, invite speculation and interpretation; and George Harrison's use of sitar -- a stringed instrument from North India -- creates a shimmering metallic sound more suggestive of the Byrds than of Chuck Berry.
10. The Beatles : "A Day in the Life" (John Lennon and Paul McCartney; George Martin, producer)
It took four months and $75,000 to record Sgt. Pepper Lonely Hearts Club Band. The release of this album, June 1, 1967, is considered a major event in the history of rock music. The album cover includes some sixty figures whom the Beatles admired, including Lewis Caroll, Edgar Allan Poe, Bob Dylan, Marilyn Monroe and Karl Marx. All the lyrics were printed on the back cover, setting a precedent. Sgt. Pepper is regarded as one of the first "concept albums," in which individual songs are like chapters of a novel. The amalgam of eclectic styles - rock 'n' roll, folk, Indian classical music, vaudeville, psychedelic, electronic and aleatoric (chance) music - was recorded on a four-track tape recorder, primitive by today's technological standards.
"A Day in the Life" is actually a combination of two separately conceived songs: Lennon's surreal reading of the "news" and McCartney's prosaic account of a typical daily routine. The crescendo of the middle and ending part of the song was played by a symphony orchestra, the members of which were instructed to perform a gradual collective glissando (slide) from the lowest pitch on their instruments to the highest. This song was the first Beatles song to be banned from British airplays: surreal fragments such as "blew his mind," "went into a dream" and "I'd love to turn you on" were regarded by censors as pro-drug propaganda.
The Late 1960s
A. Psychedelic Rock
1. Jefferson Airplane [San Francisco, 1967]: "Somebody To Love" (Grace Slick)
San Francisco, and more particularly the Haight-Ashbury district, became a major counter-culture and music center in the mid-1960s, and Jefferson Airplane was the first of the Bay Area groups to have hits on the pop charts and to be signed by a major label (RCA). They started as a folk-rock group, fronted by former folk singers Marty Balin, Paul Kantner and Signe Anderson (from Seattle). Grace Slick joined the group in 1967, bringing with her songs she had performed with her previous group, The Great Society. "Somebody to Love" and "White Rabbit" were the two first Top Ten singles to come out of the Haight-Ashbury scene, and the LP on which they appeared, Surrealistic Pillow, sold over a million copies. The Jefferson Airplane pioneered a unique psychedelic style, a synthesis of elements from folk, pop, jazz, blues, and rock, with lyrics dealing with love and drugs.
2. The Grateful Dead [San Francisco, 1970]: "St. Stephan/The Eleven" [excerpts] (Garcia, Hunter, and Lesh)
The Dead, a former jug band that played around the Bay area, became one of the first groups associated with the new S.F. hippie/drug-culture. They performed at free festivals in the parks and at dances called "acid tests". Led by guitarist Jerry Garcia, they were a community-based band who lived and played democratically. Dead concerts featured long jams or group improvisations based loosely on folk, country, and/or blues structures. Their marathon concerts and spontaneity garnered them a devoted network of fans, many of whom follow them from concert to concert. They were pioneers in the use of large, hi-tech sound systems for concerts, and are still touring.
3. Janis Joplin with Big Brother and the Holding Company [San Francisco, 1968]: "Summertime" (Heyward and Gershwin)
Big Brother and the Holding Company was among the most influential of the San Francisco/Haight Ashbury bands (others included Quicksilver Messenger Service, Steve Miller Band, Moby Grape, Santana, and Sly and the Family Stone). Their focus was Janis Joplin (b. 1943, Port Arthur, Texas), the premier white blues singer of the 1960s. Like the Who and Jimi Hendrix, Joplin and Big Brother became well-known through their appearance at the Monterrey Pop Festival in the summer of 1967 ('The Summer of Love'). The 1968 album Cheap Thrills, which contains this version of George Gershwin's "Summertime", sold a million copies. As Joplin's reputation grew, she left Big Brother and started the Kozmic Blues Band, and later the Full Tilt Boogie Band. Her career was cut short by a heroin overdose in 1970. This example, a version of Tin Pan Alley composer George Gershwin's "Summertime", demonstrates her blues-rooted style, inspired by such singers as Bessie Smith and Big Mama Thornton.
4. The Doors [Los Angeles, 1967]: "Light My Fire" (Jim Morrison and the Doors)
Los Angeles produced a number of new bands concurrent with the San Francisco musical explosion. The most successful of these was the Doors, a name suggested by charismatic lead singer/lyricist Jim Morrison, from William Blake via Aldous Huxley's book on mescaline, The Doors of Perception. Morrison's sinister "Lizard King" persona and erratic, exhibitionist stage performances were framed by Ray Manzarek's unadorned organ sound and Robby Krieger's jazz-influenced guitar. Morrison died under mysterious circumstances in Paris in 1971; some fans still refuse to believe that he is dead. The LP version of this song, the first #1 pop hit by the Doors, includes long instrumental solos, edited out on the single.
B. Soul Music
5. Ray Charles [Miami, 1954]: "I've Got A Woman" (Ray Charles)
Ray Charles is a seminal force in American popular music. Starting out as an R&B singer and jazz crooner, moving into Rock 'n' Roll in the 1950s, and then into soul music in the 1960s, his presence has been felt by countless artists and fans throughout the years.
Born in the Deep South during the Great Depression, Charles was blinded at age six and orphaned by the time he was sixteen. From an early age Charles was musically omnivorous, absorbing styles as diverse as jazz, blues, gospel, country, classical piano, and boogie-woogie piano. Charles got his start in Seattle in the late 1940s, recording jazzy crooning numbers. After he left Seattle in 1950 he formed a band of his own and began singing hard-driving R&B songs as well as deeply soulful songs adapted from the gospel tradition. Charles pioneered the combination of secular gospel and R&B that was to become soul music.
The song "I Got A Woman", written by Charles, was his first #1 hit on the R&B charts. Powerful gospel inflections can be heard in Charles voice, and the beat of the song sounds like a driving R&B beat. Charles got into trouble combining sacred and secular music like this, but he stood by his sound and by his belief that he should be able to play all different kinds of music.
6. James Brown : "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" (James Brown)
James Brown (a.k.a. The Godfather, The Hardest Working Man in Show Business, Soul Brother Number One) started singing gospel as a teen living in Georgia. From gospel he moved to secular music, copying popular R & B groups of the late 40s and early 50s. He and his group, the Famous Flames, had their first hit in 1956 with "Please, Please, Please." James Brown has always had a distinctive sound, a raw intensity in his voice that combined singing with elements of preaching. Nevertheless, up until the mid-1960s the overall style was still heavily R&B; influenced. With "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" Brown initiates a sound that is distinctly rhythmic and percussive, with short, punchy horn riffs. It's a move towards making the whole band part of the rhythm section, something that Brown said he had started "hearing" in the early 60s. The overall effect later came to be known as "funky" and influenced countless groups, both white and black the world over. "Papa's Got A Brand New Bag" is a 12-bar blues. Listen for the use of stop-time at the end of each chorus, and for the "chanka" style of guitarist Jimmy Nolan, who strikes the strings in a short, percussive manner. This became the signature style for many soul and funk guitarists.
7. Otis Redding : "Can't Turn You Loose" (Otis Redding)
Redding recorded for Stax Records, a soul label based in Memphis, Tennessee. On this cut he is backed by the Stax "house" rhythm section, consisting of Steve Cropper on guitar, Duck Dunn on bass, and Al Jackson on drums, and an in-house horn section called the Mar-Keys. "Can't Turn You Loose" is a good example of hard-hitting Memphis soul (#11 R&B;, 1965). Redding's biggest hit was "(Sittin' on) the Dock of the Bay," which went to #1 on the R&B; and Pop charts in 1968. It was a posthmous hit; Redding died in a plane crash in 1967.
8. Aretha Franklin : "Respect" (Otis Redding)
After touring as a gospel singer in her teens, Aretha Franklin ("Lady Soul") spent five frustrating years with major record label Columbia attempting to define her sound. In 1967 she signed with Atlantic Records and began working with producer Jerry Wexler. Her gospel background is evident in her strong voice and impassioned delivery. The saxophone solo is by King Curtis, an important session musician during this period. Aretha had 13 top ten hits between 1967 and 1974, and scored a comeback during the 1980s.
9. Marvin Gaye : "I Heard it Through the Grapevine" (Whitfield, Strong)
Marvin Gaye was another Motown stalwart who had moved from gospel and R & B in the late 50s to soul in the 60s. He sang in churches and street-corner "doo-wop" vocal groups before forming his first group in 1957. This song, recorded after his move to Motown, was his biggest solo hit of the 1960s. He had a strong and expressive voice with a preacher's intensity. By 1971 Gaye moved to take over artistic control of his material and make a more personally philosophical album. The result was "What's Goin' On" which spawned three top ten singles in 1971.
C. Guitar Virtuosos
10. Cream [London, 1969]: "Crossroads" (Robert Johnson)
After leaving the mid-1960s "rave-up" group The Yardbirds, which included a number of influential rock guitarists, Eric Clapton played with British bluesman John Mayall, and then formed Cream, the prototypical guitar-bass-drums power trio. Drummer Ginger Baker, using two bass drums, and bassist/vocalist Jack Bruce, playing an unusual 6-string bass, provided a solid background for the virtuoso blues-derived guitar solos of Eric Clapton. This live performance captures some of Cream's approach to extended improvisatory playing, a development from the Yardbirds' "raveups". This supergroup (a term coined by the recording industry) was unstable, and broke up in 1970 after recording only three albums. This song, a twelve-bar blues, is attributed to Delta bluesman Robert Johnson.
11. Jimi Hendrix [London, 1967]: "Purple Haze" (J. Hendrix)
Born in the northwest and raised in Seattle, Hendrix was one of the most important figures in the development of electric guitar technique (others include T-Bone Walker and jazz guitarist Charlie Christian, who played with Benny Goodman's band). He pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source, turning feedback effects and "distortion" into a controlled sonic vocabulary, and influencing all rock guitarists after him. As a teenager, Jimi taught himself to play guitar by listening to Muddy Waters, B.B. King, and Chuck Berry. He began his career on the rhythm and blues circuit (playing behind Sam Cooke, Little Richard, Wilson Pickett, and many others), and was "discovered" by ex-Animals bass player Chas Chandler, who brought him to London. The Experience, with Noel Redding on bass and Mitch Mitchell on drums, was a success in England first; they first appeared in the U.S. at the Monterrey Pop Festival (at the insistence of Paul McCartney) in 1967. This cut is from his first LP, Are You Experienced?, released in England in 1967. Note the influence of blues style on Hendrix's guitar playing, and his innovative use of electronic techniques to create textures.
12. Led Zepplin : Stairway to Heaven
The British hard rock band Led Zeppelin is often credited with originating the sound of heavy metal in the early 1970s. Made up of the virtuosic guitarist Jimmy Page, the drummer John Bonham, bass/organ player John Paul Jones, and lead singer Robert Plant, Led Zeppelin pioneered the sound of heavy metal drumming, while the high tenor voice of Plant set the standard for later heavy metal singers. Zeppelin drew its influences from varying sources, from urban blues to the virtuosity and sound design of Hendrix, and from San Fransisco psychedlia to British folk music.
This song, Stairway to Heaven, from the album "Led Zeppelin IV", is Led Zeppelin's most famous song and has become an infamous standard for amateur guitarists. It is also an example of a seeming paradox in heavy metal music: the link between acoustic folk sensibilities and hardcore rocker mentalities. These two seemingly opposing themes run throughout heavy metal, for example, slow ballads are a staple of many heavy metal groups. Zeppelin expressed their folk music influences through the use of Celtic mythology and imagery in their lyrics and albums.
The 1970s (I)
A. Mainstream (AOR) Rock
1. Carole King : "It's Too Late" (Carole King)
Singer-songwriters (e.g., James Taylor, Joni Mitchell, Randy Newman) formed another category of mainstream 1970s pop. Carole King -- former Brill Building songwriter -- scored the biggest success with her LP Tapestry, which was the #1 pop LP, spawned four top singles, appeared for 301 weeks on the charts, and eventually sold over 13 million copies. At the 1971 Grammy ceremonies, she won awards for Best Album, Best Female Vocalist, Record of the Year, and Song of the Year. Like most of the cuts on Tapestry, "It's Too Late" is a song about a highly personal experience (carefully designed to appeal to millions of listeners), framed with an intimate arrangement which focuses attention on King's voice and piano. Two weeks after the Rolling Stone's "Brown Sugar", "It's Too Late" moved into the #1 spot on the pop charts.
2. Elton John : "Crocodile Rock" (Elton John and Bernie Taupin)
Elton John was the preeminent rock superstar of the 1970s, producing 15 gold albums, 23 singles in the Top 40, and 5 that reached #1. The son of a trumpeter in the English Royal Air Force band, Reginald Dwight won a piano scholarship at the age of 11. At age 17 he began playing with a London-based blues band called Bluesology; his stage name is derived from the names of two members of that band (Elton Dean and John Baldry). In 1967 he began his successful partnership with lyricist Bernie Taupin. Elton's distinctive nasal tenor voice, gospel-chorded piano (inspired by Neil Sedaka), wild stage performances (derived from Jerry Lee Lewis), and extravagant public image (including a $40,000 collection of eyeglasses) propelled him to massive success. "Crocodile Rock", John's first #1 single, represents the rise of 50s nostalgia, packaged in a slick form befitting corporate rock of the 1970s. In order to evoke the 1950s, John uses doo-wop style singing and a strictly recreated (and therefore exaggerated) rock 'n' roll dance beat.
Stevie Wonder is an African American singer/songwriter who got his start in Motown in the 1960s. Breaking with the constraints of Motown in 1971, he renegotiated his contract to give him full artistic control over his music. Wonder was able to do many of his recording and composing work himself, as we can see in his song, "Superstition". Wonder plays most of the instruments himself, through the process of overdubbing. A studio technique pioneered by Buddy Holly, overdubbing allows instruments and vocals to be added to an original master recording seperately and independent from each other.
4. Eagles : "Hotel California"
The 1970s saw the emergence of a new category designating slickly produced rock music aimed at a wide (mainly white) audience: AOR (Album Oriented Rock). Los Angeles, center of the film and television industries, became an important center of rock production, and several L.A. bands had huge successes during the mid-late 1970s. The Eagles, a southern California band with roots in folk-rock and country-rock, were formed 1971 by drummer Don Henley and guitarist Glenn Frey. Guitarist Joe Walsh joined in 1975. They were very successful, scoring 16 Top 40 hits during the 1970s. The Eagles' sound was based upon tight vocal harmonies, careful arrangements and studio production, and fine guitar work. The LP Hotel California won the Album of the Year Grammy in 1977, and sold 11 million copies worldwide. The single "Hotel California" combines aspects of rock, country music, and reggae (particularly noticeable in the rhythm guitar parts). The lyric presents a surrealistic portrayal of cut-throat life in Hollywood, with images derived in part from horror movies. Many music critics hated them for their AOR success, and the band split up in 1981.
5. Fleetwood Mac : "Go Your Own Way" (Stevie Nicks)
L.A.-based band with massive AOR success in the late 1970s was Fleetwood Mac,
which began life in 1967 as a British blues band. Founding members included
Mick Fleetwood (drums) and John McVie (bass); McVie's wife Christine Perfect
joined as vocalist/guitarist in 1970. The band moved to L.A. in 1975, where the
came into contact with singer-songwriter duo Lindsay Buckingham and Stevie
Nicks. By the time of their great commercial success in the late 1970s, the
band had three strong songwriters (Buckingham, Nicks, and C. McVie). Fleetwood
Mac's 1977 LP Rumours sold over 15 million copies, and maintained the #1
position of the pop charts for 31 weeks. It was also the first LP to produce 4
Top Ten hits, including "Go Your Own Way", a carefully crafted song
with a syncopated vocal line, memorable chorus, sweet vocal harmonies, and
slick studio production.
B. Art Rock and Glam
6. Emerson, Lake and Palmer : Excerpts from "Pictures at an Exhibition" (Moussorgsky; arr. Emerson)
Although it is now often derided by rock critics for its pretensiousness, art rock (sometimes called "progressive rock") was an important branch of pop music in the early 1970s. The quintessential art rock band -- with all of the strengths and weaknesses of the genre -- was Emerson, Lake and Palmer (ELP). Keyboardist Keith Emerson, bassist Greg Lake, and drummer Carl Palmer formed ELP in 1969. They became enormously popular in the early 1970s. Emerson, a classically-trained pianist and former member of the early art-rock group The Nice, had a reputation for technical virtuosity and acrobatic stage performances. Lake, who wrote the acoustic ballads that were the group's biggest hits, had worked with King Crimson. ELP made their debut at the 1970 Isle of Wight festival, playing Emerson's arrangement of Moussorgsky's composition Pictures at an Exhibition, later made into an LP. The band's success was based in large part on its concert performances, featuring elaborate stage props, pseudo-symphonic music, and bombastic special effects.
7. David Bowie : "Ziggy Stardust"
The glam-rock movement of the early 1970s, featuring androgynous stars in high-fashion costumes, actually included a variety of groups: the proto heavy metal of T. Rex; "glitter punks" like the New York Dolls; and the theatrical experiments of U.K. rock singer and composer David Bowie. Bowie's early performances included work with a mime troupe and several television commercials. Introduced to the glam scene by his friend Marc Bolan of T. Rex, Bowie invented a dramatic character for himself, the doomed pop icon Ziggy Stardust. The live show The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars featured Bowie in futuristic costumes, orange hair, and glittery makeup. The LP Ziggy Stardust sold a million copies, and got Bowie's long career as a pop star started.
8. Donna Summer [Munich, 1975]: "Love to Love You, Baby" (Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellote)
Discos or discotheques--places where people danced to recorded music--were already well established in the early 1960s, when they helped to popularize the Twist and other dance steps. They were driven underground by a change of taste during the 1960s, in which mainstream pop music came to be intended for listening rather than dancing, and the live concert became the standard evening's entertainment for pop audiences. When discos re-emerged in the early 1970s they featured a more specialized dance music derived primarily from black styles, but featuring a lush, smoothed-out sound and a thudding bass drum stroke on all four beats of the measure. The real stars of this music were neither the composers nor performers, nor even the producers, but the "disc jockeys" who carefully chose sequences of records with compatible tempos and moods that could segue smoothly into each other and build a feeling of communal ecstasy on the dance floor. Many of the records used were made by ad hoc assemblages of studio musicians and were either purely instrumental or had vocals with minimal lyrical content expressing nothing but pleasure.
The de-emphasis of meaningful lyrics and of audience identification with star performers meant that disco was more open to influences from continental Europe than the Anglo-American mainstream had been. This influence appeared in the form of "Eurodisco" groups like Kraftwerk, and also of the then unknown Donna Summer, who ironically turned out to be the one enduring star that the disco scene produced. Though African American by birth she had been living in Munich since 1968 when she appeared there in the German production of the counter-culture musical Hair. Summer's debut single, "Love to Love You, Baby," was released in various versions, of which the one on this cd is the shortest. It reached American discos in several extended forms and set a precedent for 12-inch singles as the medium in which disco records could sustain a dance groove through a number of contrasting sections: notice the part, for example, where Summer's voice is accompanied only by a cymbal. The record was notorious also for Summer's moans of sexual pleasure, singled out by detractors of disco (who were numerous) as typical of the lyrical inarticulateness of the genre.
9. The Village People [New York, 1978]: "Y.M.C.A." (Jacques Morali, Henri Belolo, and Victor Willis)
In the early 1970s, the rock 'n' roll core of the music industry was becoming more and more exclusively white and male-dominated, and those who felt shut out--women, blacks, and gays--often found the disco scene a suitable outlet. In particular, the gay culture played a special role in developing both the social ethos and the musical style of disco, and there was undoubtedly an element of homophobia as well as racism in the "disco sucks" backlash that marked the end of the decade. At a time when many gays were no longer in the closet but were not very welcome out of it, and before the emergence of AIDS brought the "party" to an end, the casual, anonymous encounters that discos encouraged often seemed safer than a visible, long-term relationship. The group that came to define this homoerotic aspect of disco was the Village People, who took their name from Greenwich Village, New York City.
Greenwich Village was already known as the hub of the urban folk music scene during the 1960s; its importance to the gay culture was brought to the public eye in 1969 when a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in the neighborhood, sparked a riot which became a turning point of the gay rights movement. Some years later, when producer Jacques Morali spotted a group of "macho men" dancing together in a Greenwich Village bar, he had the idea of turning them into a singing and dancing disco group with a touch of camp. Though the Village People's image was based on a gay vision of masculinity, featuring cartoon-like male stereotypes of the cowboy, the construction worker, the "leatherman" and so on, they also appealed to heterosexual women and could be enjoyed as a novelty act even by those who did not understand their "in jokes" about the gay possibilities inherent in masculine organizations such as the Navy and the Y.M.C.A. These organizations were not always happy about getting the kind of publicity that the Village People gave them, but the songs enjoyed a brief popularity which succombed eventually to the tension between appealing to a broad audience and maintaining the gay subtext.
10. Chic : "Good Times"
Chic was formed around the work of guitarist Nile Rodgers and bassist Bernard Edwards in the late 1970s. Their first hit in disco came in 1977, while 1978 and 1979 saw two huge hits: "Le Freak" and "Good Times". Following the disco craze, Rodgers went on to produce albums for artists like David Bowie and Madonna.
"Good Times" is a prototypical disco album in many ways. Centered around a powerful beat, it is clearly a track cut for dancing and partying. Every beat is covered by the bass and the drums, making a hypnotic, thumping rhythm that propels the song from start to finish. What disco rhythm lacked in syncopation it made up for in sheer tenacity. The concepts of beginning and end had little meaning in discotheques, as disco DJs were remarkably adept at switching to a new record as soon as one record was over. Using two turntables linked together and controls that varied the speed, the DJs were able to match the tempo (speed of the beats) of the record being played with the tempo of the next record in the queue. This meant that they could switch from record to record without ever skipping a beat. Some of the great discotheques provided a wonderworld of endless dancing, partying, drugs, and euphoria.
11. The Bee Gees [New York, 1977]: "Night Fever" (Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb)
It was no accident that disco rose from its sub-culture origins to become a mass phenomenon through the medium of film, since the instrumental emphasis and dramatic sectional forms of records like Donna Summer's "Love to Love You, Baby" often had the quality of a movie soundtrack. In 1977, when John Travolta starred in Saturday Night Fever as a working-class Italian American boy in search of glamour through disco dancing, the movie and its music reached as wide an audience as any of its competitors. It was filmed in a real disco, the 2001 Odyssey in Brooklyn, and severed itself from any gay associations by making its central characters aggressively heterosexual and homophobic (as well as racist and sexist); apparently these attitudes did not alienate too many viewers. The soundtrack double album by the Bee Gees sold more copies than any album up to that time, and has since been surpassed only by Michael Jackson's Thriller.
The Bee Gees were three brothers (B.G. stands for "Brothers Gibb") born in Manchester, England, who had been teenage stars in Australia during the 1960s. Their hallmark was the somewhat androgynous breathy high-pitched vocals featured in "Night Fever" as well as other hit songs from the movie including "Jive Talking," "Stayin' Alive," and "How Deep is Your Love?" They were never able to approach the popular success of this album again, though their moment of glory had been longer than that of many disco artists, and at the present time they are among the many groups from the seventies attempting a come-back.
The 1970s (II)
A. Punk and New Wave
1. Velvet Underground : "I'm Waiting for the Man"
Although the Velvet Underground never sold many records, their intentionally crude sound and alienated lyrics influenced many important figures in the Punk/New Wave movement of the 1970s. Pop-artist Andy Warhol discovered the group in 1966 at the Cafe Bizarre in NYC, and produced their first album (with a peelable picture of a banana on its cover). Guitarist/vocalist Lou Reed and viola player John Cale, former students of classical music, were the key members. Their style combined a loud, repetitive, minimalist sound -- deliberately designed to be 'uncommercial' -- with lyrics focused on alienation, sado-masochism, drug addiction, and violence. "I'm Waiting for the Man" is a description of Reed's journey to Harlem to buy heroin from a pusher.
2. The Ramones : "I Wanna Be Sedated"
Ramones' quintessential punk sound -- simple, high-speed, energetic guitar
chords without solos -- influenced London punk groups and also became a blue
print for L.A. hardcore bands. Although they project a street-tough image, all
are from middle class Queens families. Their manager Danny Fields had
previously worked with MC5, Iggy Pop and the Stooges, and Lou Reed. The Ramones
gained popularity playing at CBGB&OMFUG; (Country, Bluegrass, Blues and
Other Music for Urban Gourmets), a Bowery bar that was a center of the NYC
alternative music scene in the mid-1970s. They were one of the first of the
CBGB bands to sign a record contract, with the indie label Sire. The Ramones'
1976 tour of England inspired many London Punk musicians. Their style was
influenced by the Stooges, bubblegum music and surf music. "I Wanna Be
Sedated" is a parody of the Beach Boys' style.
3. Talking Heads : "Psycho Killer"
Talking Heads, formed in 1975 by design-school graduates David Byrne and Chris Frantz, represents the more self-consciously "artsy" side of the New York new wave club scene. They played their first shows at CBGB&OMFUG (Country, Bluegrass, Blues and Other Music for Urban Gourmets), a Bowery bar that was a center of the N.Y. punk scene in the mid-1970s. Their sound -- featuring Byrne's trembling high-pitched voice and eclectic songwriting -- is very different from that of the Ramones, with whom they toured in the early days. Talking Heads have drawn the elements of funk, minimalism, and African rhythms, creating some of the most adventurous and danceable new wave music. Brian Eno produced three of their albums.
4. The Sex Pistols : "Anarchy in the UK"
The owner of a London "anti-fashion" boutique, Sex, Malcolm McLaren had first managed a glam-rock group, the New York Dolls, in 1975. McLaren conceived the idea of a Rock and roll band that would challenge the mainstream pop music industry. Glen Matlock (bass), Paul Cook (drums) and Steve James (guitar) were regular customers at the shop, and they were looking for a singer. McLaren found Johnny Rotten (who had never sung before), and formed the Sex Pistols in 1975. England's biggest and most conservative record label signed Sex Pistols in October, 1976, and they released the first single, "Anarchy in the UK," in December. That month, Rotten uttered an obscenity during a TV interview, and in January '77 EMI terminated their contract. In March, Matlock was replaced by Sid Vicious. A&M; signed up the Pistols only to drop them the next week. In May, Virgin signed them and released their second single, "God Save the Queen." Despite being banned from airplay, the song went to #2 on the British charts (cited as a blank). The Sex Pistols broke up in January 1978, during their only U.S. tour.
5. The Clash : "I'm So Bored with the U.S.A."
Joe Strummer, the son of a British diplomat, quit school and formed a pub-rock band called The 101'ers. After seeing the Sex Pistols, Strummer formed the Clash. While Sex Pistols were nihilists, the Clash were more explicitly political, performing songs about racism and police brutality. The Clash were also more ambitious musically, incorporating elements of reggae, rockabilly, zydeco and other styles into a rock 'n' roll format. British CBS signed the Clash in 1977. Although their debut album was not offically released in the U.S., it was the biggest-selling import album up to that time, selling 100,000 copies. The Clash has continued to be active in political causes and have performed benefit concerts for Rock Against Racism. "I'm So Bored with the U.S.A." is a response to American domination of popular culture in Europe; its main lyric line is a parody of songs like the Beach Boys' "Surfin' U.S.A.".
6. X-Ray Spex : "Oh Bondage! Up Yours!" (Styrene)
This song became a punk classic and was part of a movement which reclaimed punk and the punk stage for women. The song begins with a girl-power manifesto and then immediately enters into a hard punk sound with crazy imagery that appealed to a lot of people. Poly Styrene was the leader and singer of the group and along side her was Lora Logic on saxophone. Together these two women set the sound for punk music in the British scene, stretching the idea of what women should and do sound like. The other members of the band were Jak Airport Stafford on guitar, Paul Dean on bass, and B.P. Hurding on drums. Although Poly was basically the front for an almost all-male band her music would inspire a new generation of all-girl punk rock. Poly broke the band up when she realized it had become a commodity as a part of the mass-marketed punk rebellion.
7. The Slits : "Instant Hit"
The Slits formed in London in 1976. The original line up featured Kate Chorus (aka Korris) on Guitar (later replaced by Viv Albertine), Suzi Gutsy on Bass (later Tessa Pollit), Ari Up (aka Arianna Forster) on vocals, and Palmolive (aka Paloma Romero) on drums. They were the first all girl Punk band. Their music was influenced by rock, jazz, reggae, punk, funk, and African music. They would often come on stage with outrageous costumes, sometimes covered in mud in only their underwear. Their music was sometimes referred to as "primal punk" and the band members often talked about "natural rhythms" and "primal consciousness". The group aimed to break down boundaries between punk and rock music by experimenting with sounds, rhythms, and musical genres not usually associated with the British punk scene.
This song comes off of the "Peel sessions" album, recorded over two years (1977-78) but not released as an album until 1987, well after the band had split up. The Slits struggled to score a record deal. By the time they signed to Island Records in late '78 Palmolive had left the band to form The Raincoats & had been replaced with Budgie (later to become part of Siouxshie and the Banshees). The Slits broke up at the end of 1981, still largely a cult band.
8. Patti Smith : "Gloria" (Smith/Van Morrison)
Patti Smith emerged from the underground music scene in New York in the mid-1970s. She was well-known as a resident poet of the CBGB club in New York City, the birthplace of the American punk rock movement.
This song opens with the line "Jesus died for somebody's sins but not mine", perhaps one of the most shocking lyrics at the time. This performance is based on the 1964 Van Morrison song which Smith re-worked for her own band, creating a montage of church and Van Morrison. She took a classic American rock song and transformed it for the punk stage, with creative musical arrangements and new lyrical content which brought out the issue of gay relationships. Smith is singing about a lesbian sexual encounter (Morrison's version was a boy-girl encounter).
9. Sly and the Family Stone : "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Again)"
Sly and The Family Stone helped to establish funk music, a genre which simultaneously reached down into basic principles of African American music -- repetitive patterns, interlocking rhythms, call-and-response, and rhythmic momentum or "groove" -- and extended out to incorporate aspects of rock music. Sylvester Stewart's family moved from Texas to San Francsico in the 1950s. He began his musical career as a gospel singer, studied music theory and composition in college, and became a popular disc-jockey on a local soul station. Sly formed his band in 1966, and created a style that blended jazz, R&B;, San Francisco psychedelia, and lyrics with social messages. The band's popularity was boosted by a fiery appearance at the Woodstock Festival in 1969. "Thank You..." was a #1 single on the pop and R&B; charts in 1970. It features Larry Graham's prominent bass line -- a profound influence on later funk bands -- an approach to arrangement which brings the whole band into the rhythm section (an idea pioneered by James Brown), and jazz-influenced horns.
10. Parliament : "Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof Off the Sucker)" (Clinton-Collins-Worrell)
The apotheosis of funk music was a loose aggregate of musicians called Parliament (a.k.a. Funkadelics), led by George Clinton (a.k.a. Dr. Funkenstein). Clinton, an ex-Motown vocal group leader, hung out with hippies, listened to Iggy Pop, and changed style radically in the late 1960s. Enlisting some ex-members of James Brown's band (e.g., bassist Bootsy Collins), he developed a mixture of compelling polyrhythms, psychedelic guitar, jazz-influenced horn arrangements and R&B; vocal harmonies. Clinton expressed an alternative black sensibility, embodied in street talk and science fiction-derived images of intergalactic travel. He took stereotypes and stood them on their heads, reconfiguring funk -- a term originally used to describe unpleasant odors -- as a positive human quality. "Give Up the Funk..." (#5 R&B; #15 pop) was Parliament's biggest hit. It exemplifies Clinton's brand of "deep funk": heavy bass; interlocking rhythms; a strong groove; jazz-influenced horn solos; and verbal mottoes designed to be performed by fans: "Free Your Mind, and Your Ass Will Follow".
11. Parliament : "Flashlight" (Clinton-Collins)
This piece exemplifies the use of the synthesizer as a bass instrument and the groups heavy reliance on "the one" or the downbeat. This performance features George Clinton on vocals and Bootsy Collins on bass. Flashlight is polyrhythmic with a cyclical form. The band used extravagant costumes and stage sets and this tune usually was accompanied by the landing of "the mothership" with Dr.Funkenstein (George Clinton, the leader of the group) entering the stage from inside the spaceship. Flashlight was recently covered in the hit movie "Muppets From Space", which featured a duet between George Clinton and Pepe the King Prawn.
12. Skatalites : "Guns of Navarone" (C. Dodd)
Ska was an early form of Jamaican popular music that led to the development of reggae. Deriving from the popularity of American jazz and R&B records in Jamaica, ska combined the orchestration of swing bands with traditional Jamaican rhythms and R&B rhythms. The crossover of ska music to England and eventually America is the beginning of Jamaican music's international appeal. Millie Lane, a popular singer from Jamaica, had a huge hit in England and the US with her song "My Boy Lollipop" in 1964. This paved the way for other Jamaican artists to start crossing over. Ska music itself has recently been experiencing periodic revivals in the US.
The Skatalites were formed in 1963 from a conglomeration of excellent studio session musicians. Among their ranks was the brilliant but crazy trombonist Don Drummond. They were mainly a studio band and recorded songs that are considered classics of ska music. The song "Guns of Navarone" is an adaptation of the main musical theme from the Hollywood movie of the same name from 1961. Many ska hits were instrumentals and vocals were generally not as important in ska music as instrumental melodies. The ska rhythm, as can be heard in this recording, is characterized by sharp offbeats played by the horns, giving the music a jumpy feel. This rhythm would later develop into the characteristic rhythm of reggae music. Indeed, the name "ska" comes from the harsh and choppy sound of the ska offbeat rhythm.
13. Jimmy Cliff (Kingston, 1972): "The Harder They Come"
As the star of the film The Harder They Come and its soundtrack album, Cliff helped popularize reggae outside of Jamaica. Like Ivan, the character he portrayed in the film, he left his rural home for Kingston when he was barely a teenager. He arrived in the city in 1962, and recorded his first record within a year. Working with producer Leslie Kong, he generated a series of Jamaican top ten hits during the mid-1960s. While performing at the N.Y. World's Fair, Cliff met Chris Blackwell of Island Records, who convinced him to move to London in 1965. After working as a backup singer and scoring a few hits on the European charts, he returned to Jamaica in 1969 and recorded "Many Rivers to Cross", which inspired director Perry Henzel to offer him the lead role in The Harder They Come. The film debuted in the U.S. in 1973, starting a reggae craze. The rebellious spirit of the music and its associations with Rastafarianism and ganja smoking appealed to college students. "The Harder They Come" exemplifies reggae style of the early 1970s: moderate tempo; strong up-beats on guitar; gospel-influenced singing; and a lyric about resistance to oppression.
14. Bob Marley and the Wailers (Kingston, 1973): "Get Up, Stand Up" (Marley)
Tremendously popular in their native Jamaica, where leader Bob Marley is regarded as a national hero, the Wailers were reggae's most effective international ambassadors. Marley's songs of determination, rebellion, and faith, rooted in Rastafarianism, found a worldwide audience. The son of a British naval officer who left when he was 6 years old, Marley came to Kingston from the rural parish of St. Ann at the age of 14. His career reflects the economic precariousness of the music industry in a Third World setting. After a few singles for producer Leslie Kong, Marley formed the Wailers (including Peter Tosh) in 1963, and signed with Coxsone Dodd's studios. Following a long period with little financial success (including a year of factory work for Marley in Wilmington, Delaware), the Wailers signed with Lee Perry, who added Aston and Carlton Barrett, a masterful bassist-and-drummer "riddim" section.
In 1972 Chris Blackwell signed the Wailers to Island Records and advanced them the money to record themselves at their independent Tuff Gong studio in Jamaica. Their recognition abroad was boosted by the success of Eric Clapton's cover of "I Shot the Sheriff" from their second Island LP. Marley expanded the rhythm section of the group and added a female vocal trio, the I-Threes. They had a series of U.S. Top Forty hits during the mid-late 1970s, including "No Woman No Cry", "Exodus" and "Jamming". Wounded in a politically-motivated assassination attempt in 1976, Marley died of cancer in 1981, at the age of 36.
15. Eric Clapton (London, 1974): "I Shot the Sheriff" (Marley)
This song became a big comeback hit for British guitarist Eric Clapton. Although there were earlier attempts to introduce Jamaican influence into mainstream pop (e.g., Johnny Nash's "I Can See Clearly Now", #1 in the U.S. in 1972, and Paul Simon's "Mother and Child Reunion", a #4 U.S. hit recorded in Kingston in 1972), Clapton's recording was the most influential, introducing reggae to a wider rock-oriented audience.
CD # 10
1. Eurythmics (1983): "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)"
The Eurythmics, a Scottish group, exemplifies MTV's early commitment to including white rock acts from nations other than the U.S. (while still excluding artists of color, of course). But vocalist-songwriter Annie Lennox and songwriter-musician Dave Stewart managed to use the position to create a musical image that tested and played with politics and gender conventions. Featuring a techno-pop sound and Lennox's haunting melodic hooks, the video for "Sweet Dreams" features Lennox in drag in order to play with androgyny and power. In Eurythmics' subsequent hits, Lennox continued the costume trend, dressing as everything from a platinum "floozy" to a postmodern Elvis. Her tactic was to use the over-the-top glamour and excess of video to garner serious clout as an artist and to make some sort of social commentary, a technique she has continued as a successful solo artist.
2. Michael Jackson (1983): "Beat It"
With "Beat It" and "Billie Jean," from the album Thriller, released almost simultaneously, Michael Jackson became the first artist of the 1980s to have two songs on the Billboard top five at the same time. MTV had previously billed itself as a rock channel, refusing to play videos from or feature Black artists or genres, in one of the most insidious displays of racism since the payola scandal. But Michael Jackson's enormous mainstream success forced the station to begin including African-Americans. Michael consequently made MTV famous and became one of the first and biggest video stars. A great innovator, he pushed the limits of the video medium by spending relatively large amounts on production and hiring a film director to shoot his fifteen-minute mini-movie "Thriller." The video for "Beat It" depicts a gang fight in the form of ensemble dance and features professional dancers as well as actual L.A. gang members. Rocker Eddie Van Halen is the guitarist and also serves as evidence of the influence of rock as well as funk and dance music on Jackson's sound. Michael's skill as a dancer and vocalist, as well as his charismatic (if sometimes shocking or troubled) personality, are demonstrated here.
3. Madonna (1984): "Like A Virgin"
Madonna, a former dancer, club star, and dance/disco diva, used the medium of video to become a rock/pop star and to challenge conventional notions of morality and propriety. Starting with songs from Like a Virgin (the album), Madonna had 12 top ten hits in a row between 1984 and 1987. Her emphasis on sexuality and her penchant for Christian iconography have made her a shockingly disturbing figure for parents and shockingly tantalizing for their kids. This ability to generate controversy has served Madonna well over the years and, along with her inimitable talent for reinventing herself to fit the times, can be credited with establishing her prolific (and apparently never-ending!) career. Madonna's performance of "Like a Virgin" at the MTV Video Music Awards, during which she wore a modified bridal gown and writhed sexually, demonstrated the goal of both Madonna and the song to play with the opposition between the images of virgin and whore as a metaphor for starting over and recreating oneself.
4. Cyndi Lauper (1983): "Girls Just Want To Have Fun" (Hazard)
Cyndi Lauper is a singer/songwriter from NYC who has been performing and touring since the early 80s. In 1983 she released her first solo album "She's So Unusual" which had four top five singles (including Girls Just Wanna Have Fun), a first for a female artist on the pop music charts. Lauper was always interested in having total control of her image and sound. Her music represents a girl/woman-positive image that challenges the sexist ideas that continue to permeate the pop music industry.
The song "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" was originally written by Robert Hazard. When Lauper first heard the song she despised it because of its misogynistic lyrics. She decided to perform the song with new lyrics which she wrote, working off of Hazard's original song. The song was transformed and became a song about reclamation, a place where "girl" things were now viewed in a positive light. Lauper's new version destroyed stereotypes and challenged the idea that girls simply wanted to have fun. The video debuted on MTV in 1983 and was filmed at Lauper's childhood home with her own mother making a guest appearance. Lauper quickly became an MTV favourite and "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" became a girl-power classic. Lauper was recognized with several music awards for this album including a Grammy for best new artist, she continues to record and tour today.
Example of original lyrics:
My father says, "My
Lauper's new lyrics:
My mother says, "When
B. Heavy Metal
5. Deep Purple (1972): "Smoke On The Water"
Deep Purple's two great instrumental talents, Ritchie Blackmore (guitar) and Jon Lord (organ) were both classically trained. For this and other reasons, Deep Purple-as well as Led Zeppelin and others-represents the links in the evolutionary chain between progressive rock and heavy metal. What began to make the music "heavy" can be heard here-a thick, studio-produced timbre; a rich bass sound; a simplicity more akin to punk than progressive rock; and, when played as it was meant to be played, sheer volume. "Smoke on the Water" became a hit single; although the title conjures up images of marijuana use, the song is actually about the band's near disastrous concert with Frank Zappa.
6. Judas Priest (1982): "You've Got Another Thing Comin'"
Led by vocalist Rob Halford and the power guitar duo of K.K. Downing and Glenn Tipton, Judas Priest ('Priest' or merely 'JP' to their fans) were ten-year veterans of Britain's metal scene when they hit it big in the early '80's. What allowed the band to break through was MTV: Halford's black-leather-and-studs appearance and screaming vocals and the duels of Downing and Tipton made the band instantly recognizable and defined the imagery of early-'80's European metal. "You've Got Another Thing Comin'" was as close as Judas Priest ever got to having a hit single. Its' video boasted exploding guitars AND an exploding British businessman. The song also represents an important genre within metal: the 'anthem,' a moderate-tempo piece with strong, simple lyrics of rebellion, likely to bring the crowd to a frenzied response in concert.
C. Rap and Hiphop
7. Sugar Hill Gang: [New York, 1979]: "Rapper's Delight" (Nile Rodgers, Bernard Edwards)
This was the record that moved rap from a local music founded in the Harlem and Bronx sections of New York City to a national audience. The rappers, "Big Bank Hank," Jackson, Guy "Master Gee" O'Brien and "Wonder Mike" Wright borrowed rhymes from another rapper, Grandmaster Caz, and recorded them over the rhythm track to the song "Good Times," by the seventies funk group Chic. Chic founders Rodgers and Edwards sued the newly formed Sugar Hill Records for stealing their music, which was recorded by a live studio band, and the case was settled out of court. The infectious rhythmic groove and bravado party lyrics helped the record sell a million copies in the United States and another million world-wide. Sugar Hill Gang never had another hit, but the song launched rap as a new American popular musical genre.
8. NWA: [Los Angeles, 1988]: "Fuck Tha Police" (Ice Cube, MC Ren)
This was the song that sparked the rise of hardcore gangster rap and put West Coast rap on the musical map. NWA hailed from the tough city of Compton, near Los Angeles. The group's first single was 1986's "Boyz N' The Hood, and their debut album "Straight Outta Compton," reached platinum status with virtually no radio airplay. "Fuck Tha Police" was the album's top single, and prompted protests by police departments across the country because of its controversial, violence-laden lyrics. The sonically dense music was both powerful and polished, and showed sophisticated studio techniques by producer Dr. Dre. Ice Cube, the group's lead lyricist and Dre went on to become major entertainment impresarios. The group's founder, Eazy-E, who also started Ruthless Records, died of an AIDS related illness in 1995.
9. Public Enemy [New York, 1989]: "Fight the Power" (ChuckD, Flavor Flav, Prof. Griff, Terminator X)
Public Enemy, led by the powerful rapping and presence of Chuck D, was one of the most influential groups of the 1980s and was the most visible proponents of a radical, black nationalist hip hop tinge. Albums like "Yo! Bum Rush the Show (1987)," "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold us Back (1988)"and "Fear of a Black Planet (1990)" remade the hip hop soundscape. With studio production by the Hank Shocklee and the Bomb Squad, the group produced layered dense rhythms, samples and loops, creating sonic textures not heard before in rap music. This song features Terminator X's hard, funky beats and incendiary lyrics by Chuck D, the group's front man.
10. Queen Latifah: "U.N.I.T.Y." (1993)
By the end of the 1980s, rap was being roundly chastised for bigotry, sexism, and/or violence by its (often conservative) detractors. Women's voices in hip-hop, with the exception of a few artists such as Roxanne Shanté, had thus far been fewer and farther between than men's, in a pattern not unlike most of the pop music genres we have studied in this class. As female artists like Salt-N-Pepa and MC Lyte began to criticize the absence of women's voices and demand a place for women in rap with their music, critics and hip-hop detractors tended to portray women rappers as a female corrective to adolescent male sexual ranting. But the issue was much more complex than a simple opposition between male/sexism and female/feminism. Issues of racism and racial solidarity in the face of a racist mainstream music industry complicated the position of women in hip-hop. The woman who best managed this conflict was Queen Latifah. Latifah presented herself as a strong, independent African-American woman. Her forceful, skilled rhymes established her as a talent equal of male MCs, while her pro-woman and pro-Black themes, evidenced in songs like "U.N.I.T.Y.," called for respect for everyone.
11. Nappy Roots : "Awnaw"
A group of hip-hop artists hailing from Bowling Green, Kentucky, Nappy Roots represent the growing field of Southern rap. Their debut album release, "Watermelon, Chicken, & Gritz" was the top selling hip hop album of 2002. Their fame started local, however, and continues to be local as well as international. The governor of Kentucky named a day in 2002 "Nappy Roots Day", a move reminiscent of the popularity of Bill Monroe's song "Blue Moon of Kentucky", which was later made the state song. Could it be that "Awnaw" is on its way to becoming the new state song of Kentucky? Only time will tell.
Nappy Roots lyrics focus on images of southern country life, and their videos reflect this as well. The video for "Awnaw" was shot primarily in a barn, and features visuals of the rappers hanging out in fields and around shotgun shacks in the South. The lyrics of "Awnaw" reference stereotypes of rural Southern living, like smoking blunts on the back porch, the "country boy" lifestyle, hot temperatures, and the traditional song lyric "Jimmy Crack Corn". Nappy Roots also have outside influences, as evidenced in the Jamaican ragga sound of MC R. Prophet, the track "Headz Up" from the same album features a sitar sample. Though they have expressed a desire not to be pigeonholed as merely Southern rappers, they clearly have made their mark by presenting Southern culture to the mainly Northern world of American hip hop.
12. Sudden Rush : "Hi'ilawe"
A stellar example of the use of hip hop as a marker of identity, the group Sudden Rush is one of the founders of Na Mele Paleoleo (Hawaiian hip hop). Led by "Radical Rob" Onekea, the group combines hip hop with other musical forms from the islands. Though Sudden Rush originally used the Hawaiian language as the language of choice in their lyrics, their CD "Ea" from 2002 features mostly English language rap and lyrics. They haven't left behind their culture or their politics, however, as the message of the group is still one of solidarity and independence in a land ruled by American culture. Through their music, they hope to speak out against American dominance of the islands and for Hawaiian sovereignty, an often contentious subject. Popular music in Hawaii is often dominated by the "Jawaiian" sound, a mixture of reggae, dancehall, and Hawaiian themes, and as a result, Sudden Rush were originally an underground sensation. With the release of "Ea", however, they are moving into the mainstream of Hawaiian and even "world" music.
The track "Hi'ilawe" is built around a sampled song of Gabby Pahinui's. Gabby Pahinui and his large family ('ohana) are masters of the Hawaiian slack-key guitar (a style of guitar playing unique to the Hawaiian Islands). Though Pahinui died in 1980, Sudden Rush resurrected this track, "updating" it with strong beats and rap lyrics both in English and in Hawaiian, all with the express permission of the Pahinui family. The single was very popular in Hawaii and helped Sudden Rush establish themselves as the leaders in Hawaiian hip hop.
1. R.E.M.: "The One I Love" (1987)
When four undergraduates at the University of Georgia-Michael Stipe, Peter Buck, Mike Mills, and Bill Berry-decided to form a band in 1980 and play a few parties, the little college town of Athens, Georgia, was becoming a hip local music scene, already having spawned the B-52's. Their idiosyncratic blend of folk, rock, and pop landed them first on the tiny Hib-Tone label then on the more widely distributed IRS. For the next few years R.E.M. toured hard, became the darlings of college radio, and garnered impressive reviews. Their stature on the charts also increased, and in 1987 their album Document cracked the Top Ten, and the song "The One I Love" hit #9. The next year the band landed a major-label contract with Warner Bros. The band is often credited for pushing (in its own subtle way) "indie rock" into the mainstream, and although now reduced to a trio R.E.M. continues to be a strong presence in American popular music.
2. Nirvana: "Smells Like Teen Spirit" (1991)
Nirvana (est. 1987) might have just been another punk band from the tiny logging town of Aberdeen, Washington. Instead they first got signed by Sub Pop, the Motown of Seattle's music scene, and then were the subject of a major-label bidding war that landed them a contract with the David Geffen Company. With release of Nevermind and the hit song and video "Smells Like Teen Spirit," Kurt Cobain, in a way reminiscent of Dylan 30 years before, suddenly was being called 'spokesperson of a generation' and the embodiment of the disillusionment of "Generation X." Seattle, meanwhile, became for some time the most hyped music scene in the US. Yet Dylan could handle success, if by casting off his reputation; Cobain never wanted fame, and he was driven to a suicide in 1994 that was at once bemoaned wildly by his huge fan base and once again hyped by the media.
3. Hole: "Violet" (1994)
3. Hole: "Violet" (1994)
The band Hole of this particular recording consists of Courtney Love, vocals and guitar, Eric Eriandson, guitars, Kristen Pfaff (who later passed), bass, and Patty Schemel, drums. The song "Violet" comes from their second album titled "Live Through This". Courtney Love, the forerunner of the band, has garnered much media attention for her often boisterous persona. The music of the band has often been overshadowed by the music industries continuous focus on Love's often volatile image and her marriage to Nirvana's Kurt Cobain. Love has said "I put as much thought into the way we sound as Pavement or Sonic Youth do but no one ever asks about the music. It's like my persona - boom, knocks everything else out". The band Hole was a force in the alternative music scene outside of Love's continuous media attack and their music challenged notions of embedded misogyny within the music industry. The songs from "Live Through This" address a number of issues ranging from rape, to bulimia, femininity, and the music industry. Courtney Love's mixed image, of aggression and extreme femininity, challenges listeners to look beyond image and traditional ideas of beauty. Love attacks traditional female stereotypes in the music industry through the musical and lyrical content and ingenuity of Hole's music.
4. Bikini Kill: "Suck My Left One" (1992)
Spreading manifestos and testimonials through records, support groups, and fanzines, Bikini Kill helped spearhead the 1990s Riot Grrrl movement of women reclaiming punk's radical energy for their own catharsis and general social revolution. Bikini Kill, formed in 1991 in Olympia, was a mixed-gender group made up of drummer Tobi Vail, guitarist Billy "Boredom" Karren, bassist Kathi Wilcox, and singer Kathleen Hanna. The band and especially Hanna often executed in-your-face stage antics, including sending the men to the back of the mosh pit and Hanna performing shirtless with the word "slut" written across her stomach, to the tune of a grunge/punk blend of loud guitars. Their songs were equally as intense; "Suck My Left One" is an angry diatribe against a father who molests his daughter. Both Sonic Youth and Joan Jett took Bikini Kill under their wings in their early years, but the band itself had a significant influence on other girl punk bands (such as Tribe 8 and the Butchies) and on the Riot Grrrl movement. Tobi Vail, actually coined the term "grrrl" as a parody of the term "womyn" in the 1970s women's movement: This was not your mother's feminism; these were women with loud voices and loud guitars who were often very angry about their own subjugation and not afraid to do something about it. Unfortunately, however, the Riot Grrrl movement in its original form was short-lived: As the mainstream media got hold of and distorted it, many of its proponents became disillusioned. Its influence lives on in the music of bands like Sleater-Kinney and the Gossip.
5. 7 Year Bitch: "Dead Men Can't Rape" (1992)
This band originated in 1990 in Seattle, WA. This song comes from their first album titled "Sick 'Em". The original members of the band were: Stephanie Sargent on guitar, Elizabeth Davis, bass, Valerie Agnew, drums, and Selene Vigil, vocals. Sargent passed away in 1992 and was replaced by Roisin Dunne and later Lisa Faye Beatty.
In 1994 the band released their second album "Via Zapata" as a tribute to Mia Zapata, the lead singer of the Seattle band "The Gits" who was raped and murdered outside a music club in Seattle in 1993. Members of the band 7 Year Bitch later created Home Alive (http://www.homealive.org), a Seattle-based collection of artists and musicians that provides affordable self-defence instruction primarily for women. They created this non-profit organization after the murder of Zapata as a tribute to their colleague and friend. 7 Year Bitch have also been involved with several other non-profit projects such as supporting breast cancer research and pro-choice organizations.
The band has since broken up but their music is representative of the early stages of the riot grrl movement. 7 year bitch gained considerable success in the US and Europe, signed with Atlantic records, and toured with the band "Nirvana". In this song they address the issue of rape, using "tell it how it is" lyrics as a call to action for listeners.
You ain't got the right
tellin' me I'm uptight
You're getting sucked into
You're getting sucked into
You ain't got the right
tellin' me I'm uptight
You ain't got the right
tellin' me I'm uptight
This song comes from the bands first album titled "Fist City" on the Alternative Tentacle label. Tribe 8 is an all-lesbian band from San Francisco which was originally formed in the early 1990s. The band today consists of: Lynn Breedlove, vocals, Leslie Mah, guitar, Mama T, bass, and Jen Rampage, drums. Silas "Flipper" Howard (rhythm guitar), Slade Bellum (drums), Lynne Payne (bass) were all former members of the band who can be heard on this original recording.
Although this band is not part of the "riot grrl" movement per say it does represent women in punk music and the "in your face" aesthetic often associated with the music and antics of the riot grrl movement. This song addresses the issue of date rape and it was originally recorded for a recording to raise funds for Home Alive, the Seattle based non-profit organization started by members of 7 Year Bitch.
Lynn Breedlove's not-so-subtle lyrics and onstage theatrics have landed the band amidst much controversy much of which is addressed in the recent film: Rise Above: the Tribe 8 Documentary.
7. Sleater-Kinney: "#1 Must-Have" (2000)
Sleater-Kinney was founded in Olympia, WA in 1994 by Brownstein (Excuse 17) and Tucker (Heavens to Betsy). Today the band consists of Carrie Brownstein, vocals and guitar, Corin Tucker, vocals and guitar, and Janet Weiss, vocals and drums. Inspired by Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, and other riot grrrl bands, their sound has evolved into the definition of riot grrrl rock. Sleater-Kinney has been a force in the American music scene proving that riot grrl music was not simply a passing phase. Their music continues to use a feminist approach to address political and social agendas. This band is still touring and is still based out of the Northwest. Sleater-Kinney are signed to the Kill Rock Stars label. Rolling Stone magazine has labelled Sleater-Kinney as one of the most popular indie-bands in the US today.
Bearer of the flag from the
And I think that I sometimes
might have wished
And I think that I sometimes
might have wished
I've been crawling up so
long on your
I've been crawling up so
long on your
And for the ladies out there
And for the ladies out there
8. Ravi Shankar : Live At Monterey Pop Festival
Ravi Shankar's performance at the Monterey Pop Festival was not his first performance in the West. Having toured as a dancer with his older brother, Uday's, troupe as a young boy, Ravi had lived in Paris and traveled throughout the US and Europe. In the late 1950s he began touring as a solo musician on the sitar, an Indian instrument with a unique and wonderful sound. Having toured the US and Europe a number of times in the 1950s and 1960s, and having taught workshops at various universities, Ravi was becoming more and more known in the West. He met George Harrison for the first time in 1966 and they formed a friendship that would last the rest of their lives. Ravi was asked to play at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, which was the first major exposure he had to the hippy movement and the counter culture of the 1960s. He played for over two hours in the afternoon and initiated many people into the beautiful world of Indian classical music. Following his performance at Monterey, Ravi continued playing rock and pop festivals, culminating with his performance at Woodstock in 1969, but he was swiftly growing sick of the scene. Ravi didn't feel that Indian classical music had a place at rock concerts. He preferred to play for silent audiences who listened intently with clear minds to his playing. The drug dazed festivals of the 1960s counterculture only served to turn him off. Following Woodstock he ceased playing rock festivals and returned to his path of educating Western audiences about the complexities of Indian classical music, a path he continues on to this day.
These tracks are samples from his Monterey Pop performance. I recommend that those interested in hearing more get the CD: "LIVE: Ravi Shankar at the Monterey International Pop Festival".
1. Alap in Raga Bhimpalasi: The alap is traditionally the first part of an Indian classical music concert. Entirely improvisatory in nature, the alap follows the outlines of the specific raga (a raga is a prescribed set of notes, somewhat like a musical scale, that also carries a set of values with it: such as time of day to play the raga, specific emotion the raga should evoke, and the two most important notes in the raga). Raga Bhimpalasi is a very old raga, possibly five hundred years old or more. In the alap section, Ravi explores the outlines of this raga, explaining it aurally to the audience. The tabla (set of tuned drums) do not play during the alap section and there is usually no rhythmic structure in the alap.
2. Tabla Solo in Ektal: The tablas are a set of two drums, one of which is lower in pitch than the other, which are usually used to accompany Indian classical music. The tablas were originally only accompaniment instruments, and tabla players were much lower than vocal or instrumental soloists in the hierarchy. The collaboration of Ravi Shankar with the great tabla master, Ustad Alla Rakha, has introduced the idea that tabla players are virtuosos in their own right who deserve time in the spotlight. Accordingly, Ravi often features tabla solos in his concerts and recordings. Ustad Alla Rakha, who was Ravi's tabla player throughout much of the 1960s and during the Monterey Pop Festival, is featured on this track. Ravi explains the tala (rhythmic structure that the performance is based on) as ektal, a tala of 12 beats. These 12 beats are divided into 4 beats, 4 beats, 2 beats and 2 beats (4-4-2-2). Towards the end of the track, Alla Rakha vocalizes the tabla beats. A method for learning tabla, the rapid, virtuosic vocal sounds are a favorite part of most tabla solos.
3. Dhun: Ravi concludes this part of his performance at Monterey with a dhun ( a light classical composition based off of a folk melody). His speed and virtuosity are well evidenced on this track as well as the tight relationship he has with Alla Rakha's tabla playing. The two of them frequently feature call and response passages, in which Alla Rakha exactly copies on the tablas something Ravi plays on the sitar. This is a crowd-pleasing feature introduced by Ravi Shankar.
9. Paul Simon with Ladysmith Black Mambazo: "Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes" (1986)
Singer-songwriter Paul Simon bears much of the burden for the rise of "world music," from its popularity to its controversy. The album Graceland, from which this track is taken, was a collaboration between Simon and many different artists, from Los Lobos to several groups from South Africa. "Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes" is perhaps one of the most truly collaborative songs on Graceland, co-written by Simon and Joseph Shabalala, leader of the South African vocal group Ladysmith Black Mambazo also heard here, and recorded together in New York. Yet while Simon gives writing co-credit to Shabalala, copyright remains completely with Simon, and although Simon later produced an album for Ladysmith, he had to break a UN cultural ban against South Africa to record them. Thus Simon embodies not only the star power frequently necessary to bring international music to popular attention but also the legal and cultural problems involved.
10. Ali Farka Toure & Ry Cooder: "Diaraby" (1994)
Ali Farka Toure was born in 1939 near Timbuktu, Mali. He picked up the guitar at age 10, and by the '70s Toure was alternately touring throughout Africa and elsewhere or living in his village amongst friends, family, crops and livestock. Ry Cooder was born in 1947 in Los Angeles and had made a name for himself as a bottleneck-slide blues guitarist by the late '60s, even playing on The Rolling Stones' Let It Bleed. Yet Cooder also had a knack for "discovering" talent and subsequently exposing the regional styles behind them, from the Hawaiian slack-key guitar of Gabby Pahinui to the Tex-Mex accordion of Flaco Jiménez. Toure and Cooder first met in London in 1992 and found they shared a common language in the blues, not only because of the blues' historical connection to West Africa but also because Toure himself had been exposed to American greats like John Lee Hooker. Two years later Toure and Cooder released Talking Timbuktu, from which this track is taken, an album that became ubiquitous on "World Music" radio shows and won a Grammy. Toure continues to be a strong "World Music" artist, while Cooder went on to create a new Cuban music craze with Buena Vista Social Club in 1997.
11. The Chieftains: "Drowsey Maggie" (1988)
The Chieftains are the main cultural ambassadors of traditional Irish music. A branch off the Celtic music family tree, traditional Irish music is highly visible in the United States and has been so for many years. Brought over by the first immigrants, it has remained an important contributor to the Irish-American community. Large numbers of Irish-American and Irish musicians live in the New England states, and a fair amount live here in the Northwest and Seattle as well. Formed in the 1960s, The Chieftains have traveled the world several times over bringing arranged Irish music to the concert stage. Like Ravi Shankar for Indian music, they are the group most often associated with traditional Irish music.
This track is from their fourth album, and is features the traditional dance tune "Drowsey Maggie". All the members of the band play together on this tune, and the members then take turns presenting solos to highlight their instrument and ability. The first solo is taken by the founder of the group, Paddy Moloney, who plays the uilleann pipes (insanely complicated Irish bagpipes). The next solo is from the group's flute player; his solo is followed by one of the band's fiddlers, then its pennywhistle player, and finally the second fiddler.
12. Ashley MacIsaac: "Sleepy Maggie" (1995)
Ashley MacIsaac is a fiddle virtuoso who hails from the island of Cape Breton in Canada. Cape Breton Island was settled primarily by Scottish refugees in the 1700s and 1800s. Due to the isolation of these Scots on the island, they conserved their language and music to a degree unheard of in Scotland. For this reason, Cape Bretoners are often thought of as being more Scottish than the Scots. The fiddle is of prime importance in Cape Breton music, and the music played on it is primarily a music for dancing and dancing hard. This is not music to sit and listen to, but music to rock out to. It challenges the belief that traditional or folk music can't kick ass.
Ashley MacIsaac got his start as a child prodigy of the traditional Cape Breton fiddle style, and grew up playing all over the island. At 18 he started touring internationally with The Chieftains, and in 1995 he released a breakthrough album, "hi how are you today?". The album combines his fiddling with hip hop, punk, rock, grunge and electronica influences, and sparked a controversy when it was released. Traditionalists felt he was moving too far from his roots, but others felt that he was revitalizing the tradition and bringing it into the mainstream. However you choose to look at it, it is certainly a daring statement.
The track "Sleepy Maggie" was a hit single from his 1995 album, surprising in that the vocals are all in Gaelic, sung by Mary Jane Lamond. The album went triple platinum in Canada and established MacIsaac's career as an international crossover artist. It is not the same tune as "Drowsey Maggie", played by The Chieftains, but the tunes he plays on the track are heavily influenced by his time with the Chieftains and by Irish traditional music in general.
13. The Prodigy: "Firestarter" (1997)
The Prodigy emerged from England's rave scene, and its track "Charly" in 1991 marked the emergence of the rave into mainstream consciousness...at least in Britain. The group is led by Liam Howlett, who grew up in a low-class London suburb and performed as a hip-hop DJ before turning to samplers and keyboards. The image of the band, however, is defined by Keith Flint, a raver with a pierced nose and multi-colored, winged hair (or at least he did); he is not a musician but prefers to call himself an "instigator," drawing the crowd into a frenzy with his dancing and simple lyrics. Since 1994 and the U.S. release of their album Music for the Jilted Generation, Prodigy has been the most hyped group as British rave music has been marketed as "electronica." The video for "Firestarter," from the hit album The Fat of the Land, was the way many in America discovered The Prodigy, the punk-kid antics of Keith Flint leaving a long-lasting visual impression as Howlett's beats and bass represented an exciting new musical style.
14. Moby: "Find My Baby" (1999)
Electronic dance music is as much about mining the past as it is about the future, equally about utilizing existing recordings as creating new sonic landscapes. In this track we hear what has become of the blues at the end of the century that began with the birth of the recording industry itself. Moby, a nickname of Richard Melville Hall since his childhood, has been active in dance music since the first days of rave in the early '90's. On the Grammy-nominated album Play, he draws inspiration and samples from some of the earliest sound collectors, the Lomax family of folklorists, whose field recordings first allowed rural folk and blues to gain mainstream attention. Yet while Moby remains respectful, it can also be said that there is a sort of double appropriation-first by the academic Lomaxes, then by the sampler/DJ. This tension between giving credit where credit is due and combining elements into new, fresh mixes will be at once a source for creativity and one of the main ethical issues to be faced in the early 21st century.
CD12 Latin music
1. "Manicero," Don Aspiazu 1930
This song sparked the rumba craze in the U.S. in the 1930s. The rumba originated as an Afro-Cuban folk dance with complex interaction between drummer and dancer. This song, though represents a Havana nightclub version of the rumba, performed by light-skinned musicians and dancers, and closer in musical style to the son than to the real rumba. Nonetheless, its polyrhythmic texture, anchored by the constant rhythm of the clave, introduced American audiences to a Caribbean approach to song structure and rhythm.
2. "Mayeya," Septeto Habanero , 1930s
Cuban Counterpoint: History of the Son Montuno, Rounder CD 1078
The instrumentation, rhythmic structure, vocal harmony, and above all the form of the Cuban son have been extremely influential in Latin popular music. This is a "septeto", seven musicians: guitar, tres, bass, trumpet, bongos/cowbell, maracas, clave. The basic form of the son is an instrumental intro, a pre-composed section, and an improvised call & response coro or montuno section. ("Son montuno" is actually the most accurate description for this type of performance; early sones did not have the call & response section). In recordings this call/response section was of limited length, but since it was improvised, it could be extended in live performances as long as dancers wanted to dance.
Listen for the claves, a pair of wooden sticks that are struck together to play a repetitive rhythm (the rhythm is also referred to as "clave"), to which other parts relate. The texture formed by this interlocking of repeating and contrasting rhythms is called "polyrhythm."
3. "Mambo Gozon," Tito Puente 1950s
The Essential Tito Puente
This is a New York style mambo. The "mambo" was first by conjuntos in Cuba (the conjunto was an expansion of the septeto, including piano, congas, and multiple trumpets). Mambo was popularized internationally by bandleader Perez Prado, a Cuban who relocated to Mexico City and made influential recordings. But at the Palladium Ballroom in New York in the 1950s, the mambo took a harder edge, including jazz harmonies and instrumentation. The polyrhythmic texture of the mambo is rooted in the rhythm section of the Cuban son, with piano, bass, congas, and other percussion instruments all playing fixed rhythmic patterns that are linked to the guiding rhythm of the clave (not heard here, but implicit in the rhythmic structure of the other parts). The call and response improvisations of the singer, exciting breaks, changing horn lines, and solos provide variety. One of Tito Puente's important innovations was to foreground the percussion, especially the timbales, on which he plays brief solo near the end.
4. "Oye Como Va," Tito Puente (1963)
The Essential Tito Puente
This is a cha cha cha, a dance genre that swept the U.S. and the world in the 1950s. The cha cha cha was introduced in Cuba in the 1940s and played by an ensemble called the charanga. Charanga instrumentation includes piano, violins, flute and timbales (a miniature version of the orchestral tympany drums). Although the instrumentation of this band is closer to a jazz big band, you can hear the flute playing the melody, and Tito Puente leads his ensemble playing the timbales.
5. "Farmer John" The Premiers 1964
The song "Farmer John" added lyrics to the Romancer's tune "Slauson Shuffle" and was the first breakthrough Billboard hit for a Chicano band from the East side of Los Angeles. This was the beginning of what would be called the Eastside sound. Both tunes inspired countless Mexican Americans teenagers to play the "Eastside sound." Not be denied, the girl fans of the Chevelle's car club made their presence known. The sound of the girls screaming and clapping became another instrument that created the Eastside sound.
6. "Land of a Thousand Dances" Cannibal and the Headhunters 1965
Who could forget the words to "Land of 1000 Dances?" Frankie Garcia did. Frankie, as the lead singer of east L.A.'s most famous vocal group, Cannibal and the Headhunters, covered this slip-up with an improvised and contagious "nah, na, na, na, nah." His deep and wide mariachi-influenced vibrato made rock n roll history in 1965 and led to a tour with the Beatles. As the song opens, imagine a train. Frankie, as lead singer, starts the train moving with "you got to know how to pony." He's immediately answered by the group's vocal train whistle "whoo, whoo." the screams and shrieks of the young women make sure they won't be left behind as young Chianas and Chicanos hop the barreling civil rights train, struggling towards a more promising future.
7. "Bang Bang," Joe Cuba (1968)
Bang Bang / Push, Push, Push - Single
This song hit the charts on both English and Spanish radio in 1968. Its pure fun includes the sounds of a house party, with children shrilly shouting the chorus. The mixture of Latin rhythms with a strong African American backbeat represents a conscious connection between those two communities, as does the naming of similar foods, like chit'lins (the singer says "chitterlins") and cuchi fritoAfrican American and Puerto Rican dishes, respectively, that are made from pig intestines.
8. "El Loco" René Touzet
This cha cha cha recording by Cuban bandleader René Touzet was the inspiration for Richard Berry's song, "Louie Louie," which was most famously recorded by the Kingsmen in 1963.
9. "You're Still a Young Man" Tower of Power (1972)
Tower of Power is a horn-heavy funk band led by Chicano tenor saxophonist Emilio Castillo. The Oakland California band made a name for itself nationally with hits like this one in the 1970s. Many of their fans did not know of their connections to the Chicano community and to political causes like Cesar Chavez' United Farmworkers Union. They also had musical connections to Mexican American R&B bands in San Antonio, like the Jesters and the Sunliners, who style was influenced by the horn arrangements of the orquesta tejana tradition.
10. "Conmigo," Eddie Palmieri, 1962
Pianist Eddie Palmieri played with the big band of Tito Rodriguez, a rival to Tito Puente at the Palladium Ballroom in New York in the 1950s. In the early 1960s Palmieri started his own smaller ensemble, La Perfecta. La Perfecta was modeled on a Cuban charanga ensemble, and specialized in a dance style called the "pachanga" that the charanga bands had made popular (this song is a pachanga). But Palmieri substituted trombones for violins, to create an ensemble that his brother Charlie jokingly called a "trombanga." This instrumentation became popular with New York Latino dancers, and the trombone later became one of the signature instruments of salsa music.
11. "Esta Navidad," Willie Colón
This early 1970s recording was part of a salsa Christmas album (Asalto Navideño), in which Willie Colón integrated aspects of Puerto Rican jibaro music (rural folk music, roughly speaking) with the urban energyof salsa. It was a huge seller in New York and Puerto Rico, where dancing and singing are enjoyed at house parties throughout the Christmas season. Jibaro elements include the sound of the cuatro (a Puerto Rican guitar with 5 courses of strings), the lyrical trombone lines (the melodies, not the instrument, are borrowed from the jibaro style of aguinaldo), and the vocal sound and phrasing of singer Hector Lavoe. After three verses in which these jibaro elements are prominent, the song transitions into a coro, "Esta navidad, vamos a gozar," more typical of modern salsa, with call and response improvisation and a polyrhythmic texture, including piano (and cuatro) guajeo and conga tumbao.
12. "Siembra," Ruben Blades with Willie Colón
Salsa's sound and lyrics spoke to the experience of urban life throughout Latin America. Panamanian singer Ruben Blades, salsa's most celebrated poet, began his career with Willie Colón in New York, writing songs of struggle and hope that fostered pan-Latino solidarity. The title of this 1978 song (and the album it was on), "Siembra," means to plant or sow. Blades encourages Latinos everywhere to sow the seeds of a better future. The chorus, "con fe, siembra y siembra y tu verá," means, "with faith, sow, sow, and you will see."
13. "Before the Next Teardrop Falls" Freddy Fender (1975)
Born Baldemar Huerta in South Texas, Freddy Fender took his show name from his guitar stock. He started as a rock and roll singer, and performed in many styles throughout his career. This song was a #1 country and western hit.
14. "Tiburon" (English version), Proyecto Uno (mid-1990s)
20 Exitos (disc 2)
The success of Proyecto Uno, young New Yorkers of Dominican descent, drew attention to the market for Spanish language rap in the 1990s. This song includes elements of Dominican merengue, including the rapid piano licks and the razor sharp scratching of the güiro. Many Latino rappers were shut out of a record industry that was trying to market hip hop as a "black" music. Spanish rap gave them new opportunities, and this is one song that even crossed over to English radio.
15. "Gasolina," Daddy Yankee (2004)
This 2004 hit crossed over even to English speaking audiences, and put reggaeton on the cultural radar of many Americans. Daddy Yankee got his start in the "underground" scene in Puerto Rico, a mixture of hip hop, reggae, and electronic music that got distributed on cassette tapes outside the mainstream marketing channels. Reggaetón had important roots in hip hop and Jamaican dance hall, and was especially influened by Spanish language dance hall from Panamá. The constant drum rhythm that you hear in this song is known as "Dem Bow," named for a song by Jamaican dance hall singer Shabba Ranks. The dem bow rhythm is one of the defining feature of reggaetón generally.
16. "Viva Tirado" El Chicano (1970)
By the late 1960s, when the Vietnam War had changed the hopeful mood of East Los Angeles, a band called the V.I.P.s became El Chicano, changing their name to reflect their Mexican American roots. Their 1970 hit "Viva Tirado" takes a jazz instrumental and adds an intense interplay of drums, conga, bass, and the signature Eastside Hammond organ. The original jazz instrumental by pianist Gerald Wilson was inspired by Mexican bullfighter Jose Ramon Tirado.
17. "No Hay Manera" Akwid (2003)
Many children of recent Mexican immigrants love to mix hip hop with mexican music. Akwid's 2003 song "No Hay Manera" mixes hip hop vocals with brass instruments from Banda Sinaloense, in a style called banda rap. Listen to the off-beat horn punches, the bass line played by a tuba, and the mariachi-influenced trumpet.
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Last modified: 7/01/2008 11:35 AM | <urn:uuid:fa9ccfbe-6fdd-4bd6-af5b-22a688aaae88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://faculty.washington.edu/dudley/Music%20162-08/Listening_Notes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967763 | 43,783 | 2.734375 | 3 |
On November 11, 2011, the US Patent & Trademark Office published a patent application from Apple that reveals one of the next chapters for Apple's mini media players such as the iPod shuffle and iPod nano. Apple's proposal is to add a speaker to the media players attachment clip. Apple points out how they may use a space age material in the design of the speaker that was once used in NASA's Apollo lunar module. I guess that Apple wants to give their fans a unique out-of-this-world experience. Oh those Crazy Ones of Cupertino are at it again.
About Apple's Speaker Clip
Apple is thinking that a speaker clip for the iPod shuffle and nano would be a natural evolutionary step for their media players. Being that most of us are aware of these mini media players, we'll just jump right into the details of Apple's proposed speaker clip.
The Recessed Region
One of the key patent figures in the first group illustrated below is that of FIG. 4. The clip 102 of figure 2 may be milled to remove material in order to create a recessed region 148. The recessed region may generally have a size and shape that is at least the size and shape of an acoustical member that is to be installed within the attachment member. The recessed region may also have a size and shape designed to affect the sound outputted by the acoustical device.
For example, the size of the recessed region may influence a frequency response of the recessed region. Additionally, indentations holes or other features may be provided within the recessed region to direct reflections of sound waves, or increase the movement of air within the recessed region or the amount of air moved within the recessed region, for example. Within the recessed region there may be one or more guide/support structures.
The guide/support structures may be configured to help orient the acoustical device within the aperture when assembling the media player. Additionally, guide/support structures help to align the acoustical element and provide a bonding area to attach a cover to the attachment member with an adhesive. In some embodiments, the guide/support structures are integral to the attachment member.
About the Speaker
The acoustical device may be any suitable acoustical device. In one embodiment, the acoustical member is a piezoelectric speaker, as illustrated in FIG. 4. The illustrated piezoelectric speaker 160 includes an electrical conduit 162 that may couple the speaker with components in the main housing. The electrical conduit may be any suitable electrically conductive member such as a coaxial cable, flex microstrip (as shown), fine gage wire, or the like. The electrical conduit may flex and bend to move with the attachment member and may pass through or alongside the hinge block 120 and into the main housing of the media player. .
One or more additional layers may be provided over the piezoelectric speaker to secure the speaker in place, protect the speaker, and/or to provide aesthetics.
The Mesh Layer
The cover layer 172 provides rigid support and protection for the piezoelectric element while allowing sound to pass therethrough. In some embodiments, the cover layer may have a solid surface to seal the cavity from the environment. In other embodiments, the cover layer may include a plurality of perforations so as to not block sound. Additionally, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the cover layer may be configured to hold a mesh layer 173 having perforations 175 to allow for sound to pass therethrough. The mesh layer generally is thinner than the cover layer and may have smaller perforations than those in the cover.
The smaller holes still allow for sound to pass through but limit dust and moisture intrusion. The mesh layer may be made from materials different from those of the cover. For example, the mesh layer may include materials such as fabric woven from plastic, metal, or natural fibers.
The New Attachment Clip May use a Kapton Film Layer
Apple's patent FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view of the attachment clip 102 along line AA in FIG. 1 above. The total thickness of the attachment clip may be approximately 1.33 mm thick or less (e.g., approximately 1.15 mm thick). An outer wall of the attachment clip may be less than 0.5 mm at its thinnest point (e.g., approximately 0.35 mm where the piezoelectric speaker is positioned).
In some embodiments, the thin layer 180 may be an approximately 0.05 mm Kapton film layer that is only in a few small spots such as under the electrical attachment point. Kapton is a polyimide film developed by DuPont which could remain stable in a wide range of temperatures, from -273 to +400 °C (-459 - 752 °F / 0 – 673 K). Kapton is used in, among other things, flexible printed circuits (flexible electronics) and thermal micrometeoroid garments, the outside layer of space suits. Kapton was used extensively in the Apollo program. It was used as thermal insulation on the Lunar Module. You know Apple; they just love to give their consumers an out-of-this-world experience – ha!
In some embodiments, the cover plate 172 may have a particular shape to provide specific acoustical effects. For example, the cover plate may have a domed feature 174, as illustrated in FIG. 6 below, or other geometric shape. The domed feature may be used to increase the volume of air that may be displaced by the diaphragm of the speaker and/or may also provide for improved frequency response at lower frequencies. Other geometric shaped may be used to direct the sound output from the speaker and/or amplify the sound. For example, the cover may have a horn or fan shape that would help to amplify the volume of the sound.
In some embodiments, an interior surface of the recessed portion 148 of the attachment member 102 and/or the interior surface of the cover layer 172 may be dimpled, as shown in FIG. 7. The dimpling may be configured to provide increased air space without sacrificing the structural integrity of the surfaces. As such, the dimples may have a depth, diameter and spacing that preserves the strength of the surfaces. In some embodiments, the dimples may be arranged randomly while in other embodiments, the dimples may be arranged in a grid pattern or other pattern that may be determined to provide an improved sound quality.
Apple's patent FIG. 8 illustrates an exploded view of the attachment member in accordance with an alternative embodiment.
Obviously there are times when you want to hear your music while you're walking but need to be aware of your surroundings for safety reasons. Apple's solution will provide that option that parents may appreciate for their kids.
Apple's patent application was originally filed in Q2 2010 by inventors John Filson, Eugene Whang and Matthew Rohrbach.
Notice: Patently Apple presents a detailed summary of patent applications with associated graphics for journalistic news purposes as each such patent application is revealed by the U.S. Patent & Trade Office. Readers are cautioned that the full text of any patent application should be read in its entirety for full and accurate details. Revelations found in patent applications shouldn't be interpreted as rumor or fast-tracked according to rumor timetables. Apple's patent applications have provided the Mac community with a clear heads-up on some of Apple's greatest product trends including the iPod, iPhone, iPad, iOS cameras, LED displays, iCloud services for iTunes and more. About Comments: Patently Apple reserves the right to post, dismiss or edit comments.
Here are a Few Great Community Sites covering our Original Report
MacSurfer, NY Times Scuttlebot section, MacVolPlace University of Tennessee, Houston Chronicle's TechBlog, UnWire Hong Kong China, Applelinkage Taiwan, StockTwits, Mac&Egg Germany, Twitter, Facebook, Apple Investor News, Google Reader, UpgradeOSX, TechWatching, Macnews, iPhone World Canada, Technabob, and CBS MarketWatch.
MacRumors, Mac4Ever France, iFun Germany, iPod Info Poland, iClarified, iGuides Russia, MacTechNews Germany, Apfelzone Austria, 9to5 Mac, Wired Gadget Lab, Mac Life Germany, Geek.com, KMUG Korea, MacDailyNews, RakunaMac China, UkrainianiPhone, Ukraine, FrostyPlace China, Melamorsicata Italy, AppleSpot Netherlands, Macerkopf Germany, TheAPPera, PCMag, Sevenmac Germany, macnews Germany, Tech2, MacLife Greece, and more.
Note: The sites that are linked to above offer Apple community members with an avenue to make comments about this report in many original languages. Additionally, many of these sites provide our guests with different takes on any given patent, concept or lawsuit that is presented in our reports to make it more fun, interesting and/or personal. If you have the time, join in! | <urn:uuid:e5d20e9c-464d-401d-8ffc-380232510975> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.patentlyapple.com/patently-apple/2011/11/whats-next-for-the-ipod-shufflenano-a-speaker-clip-of-course.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921984 | 1,865 | 2.6875 | 3 |
A quick look at a painful subject
Although the recession technically ended in 2009, district budgets are not expected to regain their pre-recession (2008) funding levels until late in the decade, for a number of reasons:
- Reduced local revenues from real estate taxes. Home prices are unlikely to get back to their 2006 highs for several years.
- Lagging state budgets. State revenues might recover to pre-recession levels by 2014, taking inflation into account, but the cost of providing the same services will have risen at a significantly higher rate, due to increased demand for Medicaid and other state programs with high cost increases. Most states will also have to increase their contributions to state employees’ retirement funds, which are substantially underfunded.
- Reduced funding from federal stimulus programs. State Fiscal Stabilization Funds (SFSF) from the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) have helped districts limit their budget cuts, but those funds are expected to run out by 2011. The new Education Jobs Fund could mitigate part of the blow in 2011 and 2012.
Just how bad is it?
Since the average school district receives about half (47 percent) of its funding from state coffers—ranging from 31 percent in Illinois to 86 percent in Vermont—districts are directly impacted by the health of state budgets (FEBP 2010). And “states are facing a protracted budget crisis like none seen in the last 30 years and perhaps not since the Great Depression” (Thomasian 2010).
In 2010, every state except Montana and North Dakota faced budget shortfalls totaling $200 billion, or about 30 percent of state budgeted general expenditures—the largest gap on record (McNichol and Johnson 2010). Such a large drop in revenues called for dramatic spending cuts. States spent nearly $75 billion less in 2010 than in 2008—an almost 11 percent decrease.
When such drastic cuts are made, no area goes unscathed, including education. In fiscal year 2011, 33 states and the District of Columbia cut their K-12 funding (Johnson, Oliff and Williams 2010) to help balance their budgets. The cuts were broad and deep, affecting even the most essential budget areas (Oliff and Johnson 2010, Thomasian 2010):
- General funds to districts
- Funding for books and classroom supplies
- Programs for gifted and talented
- Pre-K and after-school programs
- Funds for teacher preparation and training
- Aid for school construction
- Allocations for administration staff
- Aid targeted to charter schools
These painful cuts undermine reform initiatives many states are undertaking with encouragement from the federal government (Roza and Frank 2010). Worse, many states have slashed the rest of their budgets to the bone and exhausted their reserve funds, which means there’ll be nothing left to shield schools the next time states wield the budget cleaver.
A triple whammy
Meanwhile, the unprecedented drop in housing values means that property tax revenues, which make up most local school funding, are down sharply and will stay down, since most experts don’t see a rebound in the housing market until 2013. And federal stimulus funds, while helpful, are short-term and have made up for the loss in district and state revenues.
Taken together, these trends constitute a triple whammy. And districts are reeling from the effects. In 2009 and 2010, many school districts were able to cut their expenditures with minimal impact on students by adjusting thermostats, deferring maintenance and construction projects, laying off central office administrative staff, and eliminating nonessential travel. But for the current school year (2010-11), most districts have had to make cuts that affect students more directly. These cuts included:
- Laying off teachers, which in turn increases class size
- Cutting extracurricular activities
- Cutting courses not required for graduation
- Eliminating summer school
- Adopting a four-day school week
- Eliminating field trips
- Cutting instructional programs
- Cutting professional development for teachers and staff.
According to a study by the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), budget cuts are noticeably more significant this school year than they were in either 2008-09 or 2009-10. AASA’s April 2010 survey found that 78 percent of districts cut budgets in 2010-11, up from 64 percent the previous year. Not only were more districts cutting, but they were making more dramatic cuts. For the current school year, 30 percent of districts slashed their budgets between 11 and 25 percent, up from 21 percent of districts in 2009-10 (Ellerson 2010).
With 60 to 80 percent of school funds dedicated to personnel (Roza 2007), budget cuts mean it’s inevitable that jobs will be lost. Nearly all districts (90 percent) said they expected to cut positions this school year, an increase from 68 percent a year earlier (Ellerson 2010). Some of these personnel cuts will come through attrition, but 60 percent of districts are expected to lay off staff this year, up from 33 percent in 2009-10 and 12 percent in 2008-09 (Ellerson 2010).
What’s more, in the effort to balance budgets, many districts are considering and making cuts they never have before. They’re closing schools, reducing health care benefits, cutting back on pensions, and freezing salaries.
Although the recession technically ended in late 2009, states are not likely to see any budgetary relief until 2013 or 2014. And the sluggish housing market is not projected to recover until then as well. In fact, some experts think it will take until the end of the decade for states to recover to pre-recession levels.
Cut now, pay later
Nothing makes cutting budgets easy, especially when there’s little left to cut. As school boards monitor this year’s budget and plan for next year’s, research can point the way toward which cuts will have the least negative impact. For instance, research shows where smaller class sizes are most effective. Before making decisions that may increase class sizes, districts should examine their student demographic and achievement data to pinpoint which classes need to remain small and which may be able to absorb more students without undermining achievement.
But what will be the long-term impact of this unprecedented budget crunch? Just think: Today’s primary school children may graduate from high school before their districts can afford to reinvest in quality teachers, small classes, and proven educational programs.
It’s a case of cut now, pay later. Cuts to health care and pension benefits will make it difficult to attract and retain good teachers. Layoffs will lead to larger classes. Cuts in early education programs will mean fewer students enter school ready to learn. And the list goes on.
Clearly, the current system of school funding isn’t working. For schools to succeed in the long run, school boards, policymakers, and the public need to reexamine how public education is funded at the local, state, and federal levels. Federal ARRA and Education Jobs funds are simply tourniquets for hemorrhaging local and state education budgets. We need a new system that will stop the bleeding permanently by providing reliable and sustainable funding for public education. What that new system looks like should be the subject of a serious national conversation that leads to a real solution.
Districts need to communicate how severe the long-term outlook is and work to ensure that students who are just starting school now will be able to compete with their international peers when they graduate from high school. Asking schools to do more with less does not make sense. How much less can schools have before they are unable to do more? How much erosion in the quality of public education can the nation sustain?
Published October 2010. © 2010 Center for Public Education.
This study was written and researched by Jim Hull, Center for Public Education's Senior Policy Analyst. | <urn:uuid:0a5369cf-6f5b-4ce1-ab94-8fcaf8ef46ef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Public-education/Cutting-to-the-bone-At-a-glance/default.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957432 | 1,611 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The yellow and orange colors on the map above indicate wind speeds greater than the seven meters per second needed for economically viable power generation. The large amount of area with this high offshore wind energy resource potential in the Northeast U.S. makes it attractive for offshore wind development.
MarineCadastre.gov is a website that supports offshore renewable energy development in U.S. waters by providing the best available geospatial data, decision-support tools, information, and partnership opportunities in an accessible online format. It integrates legal, physical, ecological, and cultural data to inform decision making on a range of ocean issues.
MarineCadastre.gov is an initiative that currently maintains and automatically updates more than 100 authoritative data sets with mapping information from 19 different federal and state agency partners. The combination of marine cadastral and regionally specific data provides users with the spatial context needed to address issues such as alternative energy siting and to aid comprehensive coastal and marine spatial planning, management, and conservation.
Developed by the NOAA Coastal Services Center in partnership with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, MarineCadastre.gov offers a comprehensive, visual approach to data analysis. Data are available through both an online viewer, which allows users to visually analyze and explore geospatial data for marine spatial planning activities and by direct download from the site.
The data on MarineCadastre.gov are served using the latest Web service technology that allows them to be integrated by other organizations and applied to a myriad of issues. This "serve once, use many times" model saves resources and allows for quick application development. In addition, users can create interactive regional maps—known as "mashups"—that allow them to pan, zoom, and activate various data layers at will, to spot ocean-use conflicts more easily.
The data viewer in MarineCadastre.gov is intended to be used as a planning and screening tool to inform decisions on ocean uses. It is not intended to be used for precise site selection. Instead, this tool provides the spatial context needed to make decisions about where suitable areas exist for offshore activities and where a more detailed look at potential conflicts is needed.
For example, MarineCadastre.gov was used by the North Carolina Wind Energy Task Force to help identify suitable offshore areas for wind energy siting and by the National Marine Fisheries Service to determine that a proposed wave energy project would have conflicted with a major shipping lane and two national marine sanctuaries.
In November, MarineCadastre.gov received the 2011 Success through Collaboration award from the Center for Environmental Innovation and Leadership. All CEIL award-winning projects were developed by military and federal teams and programs to improve environmental quality, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, or increase use of renewable energy and bio-preferred products.
MarineCadastre.gov is constantly evolving and growing to include relevant issue-driven data, and in the future, the team will focus on strengthening the biodiversity and human use data as well as building decision-support tools to support coastal and marine spatial planning. | <urn:uuid:af5dfb21-a3f4-4de5-9ab7-537cc145391b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/features/dec11/marine-cadastre.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911149 | 632 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Dr. Bruce Peabody, Fairleigh Dickinson University - American Heroism
"Big Data" is being mined to glean all sorts of information.
Bruce Peabody, professor of political science at Fairleigh Dickinson University, is studying trends as they relate to our understanding of heroism in America.
Dr. Bruce Peabody is a professor of political science, the pre-law & legal studies director, and the Florham Institute for Lifelong Learning Director at Fairleigh Dickinson University in New Jersey. He conducts research on American politics and law, and along with Krista Jenkins, is the co-author of the forthcoming book Where Have All the Heroes Gone? The Changing Nature of American Valor (Oxford University Press). He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin.
Dr. Bruce Peabody - American Heroism
In recent years, popular interest in heroism has been fueled by the September 11th attacks and the return of military veterans from Afghanistan and Iraq. But scholars have long been interested in what it means to be a hero and whether the U.S. has more or fewer heroes than in the past.
An emerging tool, “big data” analytics, gives us new opportunities to address these questions. Many researchers believe that by combining separate drops of information into pools and even oceans, we can better understand everything from why people vote, to where epidemics are most likely to break out.
So what does big data teach us about heroism? In my research with a colleague, we have uncovered patterns in how thousands of book and magazine writers talk about heroes and heroic deeds.
Perhaps not surprisingly, wars have often driven “hero talk.” One year after the end of the American civil war, references to heroes reached their historic peak, but we have also experienced upticks following both world wars.
Some commentators have argued that the emergence of celebrity culture has crowded out heroism, but our research finds that this is not the case—at least not yet. In books, references to heroes still far exceed references to celebrities. Martin Luther King, for example, was mentioned more often than Michael Jordan, Elvis Presley, and all of the Kardashians—combined.
That said, American attitudes towards heroism are changing. In today’s books, we talk about heroes at only 60% of the top rate from the 19th century. And we are much more likely to look to sports heroes and local rather than national figures. While the health of American heroes may not be as robust as in the past, the reports of their demise are certainly exaggerated. | <urn:uuid:a66f5bed-2bb4-4723-a502-4480c285738d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wamc.org/post/dr-bruce-peabody-fairleigh-dickinson-university-american-heroism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955752 | 529 | 2.609375 | 3 |
From Sylvester in Looney Tunes to Mr Mistoffelees in the 1980s musical, some of the most famous (albeit fictional) cats share a distinctively sharp appearance thanks to their black and white tuxedo-style coats. Cats with skin and fur marked by white patches in this way are known as "bicolour" or "piebald". Piebaldism is also common in a range of domestic and farm animals including dogs, cows and pigs, deer, horses and appears more rarely in humans. It is caused by a mutation in a gene called "KIT".
Our team of researchers from the universities of Bath, Edinburgh and Oxford have been working to unlock the mystery of how these animals get their distinctive patterns. We have discovered that the way these striking pigment patterns form is far more random than originally thought. Our findings have implications for the study of a wide range of serious embryonic disorders in humans, including diseases affecting hearing, vision, digestion and the heart.
Piebaldism usually manifests as white areas of fur, hair or skin due to the absence of pigment-producing cells in those regions. These areas usually arise on the front of an animal, commonly on the belly and the forehead. Piebald patterns are among the most striking animal coat patterns in nature.
Although the effects of piebaldism are relatively mild, it is one of a range of more serious defects called neurocristopathies. These result from defects in the development of tissues and can manifest as heart problems, deafness, digestive problems and even cancer. The diseases are all linked by their reliance on a family of embryonic cells called neural crest cells. By understanding piebaldism better, we can improve our understanding of these related and more serious diseases.
Animals acquire piebald pigmentation patterns on their skin when they are still developing embryos. Piebaldism arises when the precursors of pigment-producing cells spread incorrectly through the embryo. In normal development, pigment cells start near the back of the embryo and spread through its developing skin to the belly. As the cells spread they also multiply, creating more cells, some of which are left behind to ensure all the skin is pigmented.
With piebaldism, however, the darkly coloured pigment cells don't make it as far as the belly in time to pigment the hair and skin. This results in distinctive white patches of fur and skin, usually around the belly of the animal, the furthest point from where they started. It has long been thought that pigment cells migrate directly from the back to the front and that the lack of pigmentation at the front is due to pigment cells not moving fast enough.
However, our findings, published in Nature Communications, paint a different picture. We found that, if anything, cells in piebald animals migrate faster than in normal animals, but that they don't divide as often. This means that there simply aren't enough cells to pigment all the areas of the developing embryo.
Chimaeric animals develop from a fusion of two early-stage embryos. If the original embryos would have been differently coloured (for example, black and white), the chimaeric animal often has striped or patchy coat patterns, a mix of the two colours. Previously, the predominant theory was that each stripe was created by a small number of initiator cells that spread from back to front.
Our study used a combination of biological experimentation and complex mathematical modelling to demonstrate that pigment cells migrate randomly. Rather than moving in a specific direction like the sprinters in a 100-metre race, the cells move with little or no persistence, like drunks staggering out of the local bar at closing time. The striped patterns seen in some chimaeric mice may simply be the result of several groups of cells of the same colour coming together by chance.
Using our mathematical model, we can explore and evaluate a huge range of possible alternative biological hypotheses for pattern formation. This gives us a deeper understanding that would be impossible with experiments alone. It also means we could reduce the number of animals used in experiments in this important research area.
Excitingly, there is now the potential to use the same mathematical model to investigate other cell types during early development. This creates a new opportunity to learn more about medical conditions linked to early cell positioning, including those that give rise to certain types of cancers of the nervous system and other debilitating diseases such as Waardenburg syndrome, Hirschsprung disease and Ondine's curse, a respiratory disorder that is fatal if left untreated. | <urn:uuid:12f6edc7-154f-48c9-be57-19b28854ff8c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/how-cat-got-its-coat-other-furry-tails-1536388 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952089 | 927 | 3.578125 | 4 |
There are concerns that Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) may fail to deliver potential biodiversity cobenefits if it is focused on high carbon areas. We explored the spatial overlaps between carbon stocks, biodiversity, projected deforestation threats, and the location of REDD+ projects in Indonesia, a tropical country at the forefront of REDD+ development. For biodiversity, we assembled data on the distribution of terrestrial vertebrates (ranges of amphibians, mammals, birds, reptiles) and plants (species distribution models for 8 families). We then investigated congruence between different measures of biodiversity richness and carbon stocks at the national and subnational scales. Finally, we mapped active REDD+ projects and investigated the carbon density and potential biodiversity richness and modeled deforestation pressures within these forests relative to protected areas and unprotected forests. There was little internal overlap among the different hotspots (richest 10% of cells) of species richness. There was also no consistent spatial congruence between carbon stocks and the biodiversity measures: a weak negative correlation at the national scale masked highly variable and nonlinear relationships island by island. Current REDD+ projects were preferentially located in areas with higher total species richness and threatened species richness but lower carbon densities than protected areas and unprotected forests. Although a quarter of the total area of these REDD+ projects is under relatively high deforestation pressure, the majority of the REDD+ area is not. In Indonesia at least, first-generation REDD+ projects are located where they are likely to deliver biodiversity benefits. However, if REDD+ is to deliver additional gains for climate and biodiversity, projects will need to focus on forests with the highest threat to deforestation, which will have cost implications for future REDD+ implementation.
Topic: deforestation, ecosystem services, degradation, protected areas
Publication Year: 2015
Source: Conservation Biology 29(5): 1434-1445
DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12500Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. | <urn:uuid:c042ca97-ce72-4b4c-99ca-ef60b20b417c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cifor.org/library/5549/spatial-patterns-of-carbon-biodiversity-deforestation-threat-and-redd-projects-in-indonesia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930629 | 410 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Before the creation of the Computer Science Department, formal programming courses were taught through the Math Department and the Information Science Center/Computer Center (both names were used during this period). As course offerings grew during the 1960s, computer science became an integral part of the education of not only computer scientists, but also undergraduate and graduate students in business, psychology, engineering, and the sciences. When Computer Science was recast as a department in 1971, it was already offering 35 undergraduate and graduate-level courses. The courses conformed to the Curriculum 68 Guidelines of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and CS was the 5th largest of IIT's 25 academic units.
Computers were first making their way into schools, and computer education required pioneers. Director Peter Lykos hired fellow Ph.D. chemist Robert Dewar, who began thinking about the problem of introducing programming to beginners. With others, Dewar created the IITRAN language. (See The IITRAN Programming Language, R. Dewar et al., CACM 12(10):569-575 (Oct 1969).) Based on a subset of PL/I, IITRAN had comprehensive diagnostics, a novel set of control structures, and even supported complex numbers. Charles Bauer (then with Lane Tech High School), Tony Peluso, and associates of theirs wrote self-instruction texts first for IITRAN and later for a number of programming languages. These books enabled college-level and high school-level students to learn to program without taking formal computer science courses.
IIT also advanced computer education through the Saturday High School program, a non-credit program for high school students and their teachers. Instructors for the program came from IIT and from industry, with IBM providing Edison Schroeder as a full-time instructor. In ten years, 15,000 high school students and 1,200 teachers studied under this program, which was eventually led by Tony Peluso and Charles Bauer (and after Peluso's untimely illness and passing, by Charles Bauer alone).
Under another program, for Secondary School Computer Science Education (SSCSE), 800 high school teachers and 300 high school students took CS courses for credit at IIT and some high schools. IIT also offered computer support: In 1969, IIT began offering high schools remote access to an IIT computer, and in 1970, the Comp-U-Tel program enabled high schools to connect to IIT using ASR-33 teletype machines.
IIT also worked in undergraduate curriculum development and regional network development. IIT was one of a group of nine colleges and universities granted $885,000 by the National Science Foundation in 1968 to jointly investigate these areas. IIT was the lead institution in setting up the Chicago-based regional computer network, the largest regional center in the U.S. In 1969, IIT participated in a conference on the Impact of Computers on College Curricula. Topics included the use of computers to enhance curricula in various disciplines and the evolution of computer science as an undergraduate discipline.
The introduction of formal degree programs made IIT a leading institution for undergraduate and graduate computer science education in the Chicago area. The first degree program, the M.S. in Information Science, was offered by the Information Science Center in 1969 and still forms the core of the modern computer science program. The M.S. for Teachers in Information Science was started a year later and was supported by graduate courses created by Charles Bauer.
The next step, the creation of a Department of Computer Science, was lobbied for heavily by the Director of the Information Science Center, Peter Lykos. His efforts succeeded in 1971.
Thanks to professors Charles Bauer, Martha Evens, Peter Greene, Peter Lykos, Ed Reingold, and Jim Vandendorpe for contributing their memories. | <urn:uuid:16dfcdbe-05a8-4545-99eb-5c23cfc66420> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://science.iit.edu/computer-science/about/history/history-computer-science-department-1960s | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961696 | 787 | 2.9375 | 3 |
The popularization of FPGAs for the hobbyist market means a lot more than custom LED controllers and clones of classic computer systems. FPGAs are also a great tool to experiment with computer architecture, creating new, weird, CPUs that don’t abide by the conventions the industry has used for 40 years. [Victor] is designing a new CPU that challenges the conventions of how to access different memory locations, and in the process even came up with a bit of example code that runs on an ARM microcontroller.
Most of the time, the machine code running on your desktop or laptop isn’t that interesting; it’s just long strings of instructions to be processed linearly. The magic of a computer comes through comparisons, an if statement or a jump in code, where the CPU can run one of two pieces of code, depending on a value in a register. There is the problem of reach, though: if a piece of code makes a direct call to another piece of code, the address of the new code must fit within an instruction. On an ARM processor, only 24 bits are available to encode the address, meaning a jump in code can only go 16 MB on either side of its call. Going any further requires more instructions, and the performance hit that comes along with that.
[Victor] decided a solution to this problem would be to create a bit of circuitry that would be a sliding window to store address locations. Instead of storing the literal address for jumps in code, every branch in the code is stored as a location relative to whatever is in the program counter. The result is an easy way to JMP to code very far away in memory, with less of a performance hit.
There’s an implementation for this sliding window token thing [Victor] whipped up for NXP’s ARM Cortex M3 microprocessor, and he’ll be working on an implementation of this concept in a new CPU over on his git. | <urn:uuid:96cb76b6-bc6b-41cd-a423-ea972bb38548> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hackaday.com/2013/03/11/building-new-weird-cpus-in-fpgas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939224 | 404 | 3.796875 | 4 |
- Multicultural Toolkit
- Asian Americans (Information Please)
Provides an alphabetic listing. 10-04
- -07-19-07 Chinese May See Other Views Better Than Americans (MSNBC News)
"Rugged American individualism could hinder our ability to understand other peoples' point of view, a new study suggests."
"And in contrast, the researchers found that Chinese are more skilled at understanding other people's perspectives, possibly because they live in a more 'collectivist' society." 07-07
- AIDS - Vaccine for AIDS Works (USA Today News - Sternberg)
"Nearly two decades after the discovery of the AIDS virus, researchers Monday report for the first time that an AIDS vaccine can prevent infection but with sharply different success rates depending on race."
"The first full-scale human trial of the vaccine, AIDSVAX, indicates that although the vaccine failed to protect whites and Hispanics, it appears to be effective in Asians and blacks. Blacks account for half of all new infections in the USA, federal statistics show."
"Jose Esparza, director of AIDS vaccine research for the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), called the finding 'probably the most important accomplishment in vaccine research in 15 years. This is the first time anyone has shown protection (against HIV) in humans, not monkeys.' "
"Although the vaccine failed to provide protection overall, it was 78.3% effective in blacks and 68% effective in Asians." 2-03
- Asian American Culture (About.com - Lio)
Provides information on films, museums, events, and other sources of information related to Asian Americans. Also spelled Asian-Americans. 3-01
- Asian American Studies Center
Provides articles and reviews of interest to Asian Americans. 1-00
- Test Bias - Examples (NWREL - Kuykendall)
Provides examples of test bias for persons of diverse minority groups. 3-02 | <urn:uuid:eb3257ab-24a5-4eb2-8f4d-0ada87d39dc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.awesomelibrary.org/Classroom/Social_Studies/Multicultural/Asian_American.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.890703 | 409 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Ten Steps For Staying Healthy
by Joseph D. Tabora, M.D.
This article starts below.
An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. But how do you go about staying healthy and preventing a heart attack, stroke or cancer? Here are ten simple steps for you to do.
- Exercise. Aside from giving you a better sense of well-being, regular exercise may give your heart the chance to prevent a heart attack in the future.
Learn more »
- Be conscious of your diet. What you eat and drink may help you prevent heart disease, colon cancer, and kidney stones.
- Get a tetanus booster. Tetanus may afflict anybody who has a contaminated wound. Prevent this potentially lethal infection by getting a tetanus booster. Learn more »
- Do an occult fecal blood test and other tests for colon cancer. Being one of the few cancers that can be detected before symptoms occur, colon cancer screening should be done in all persons who are at risk. Learn more »
- Check your blood pressure. This simple procedure will help you prevent heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke in the future. Learn more »
- Know your cholesterol count. Keeping your cholesterol level normal prevents the obstruction of blood vessels going to the heart, brain, and other vital organs. Know your cholesterol count to avoid future cardiovascular disease and cerebrovascular accident. Learn more »
- Get a shot for influenza. More severe than the common cold, influenza may cause unnecessary absence from work and hospital stay for the healthy adult and elderly. Protect yourself from this virus by getting the vaccine. Learn more »
- Quit smoking. The list of health hazards associated with smoking is lengthy but its benefit is nil. You have everything to gain by quitting smoking. Learn more »
- Get a pneumococcal vaccine. Pneumonia in the elderly may lead to prolonged hospital and ICU stay. Minimize the risks by getting a pneumococcal vaccine. Learn more »
- Do a mammography and learn the early detection methods for breast cancer. Breast cancer may be detected in its early and treatable stage by mammography and other simple methods. Learn the methods of early detection of breast cancer, a common cancer among women in the Philippines. Learn more » | <urn:uuid:8624588c-a6c4-4ec8-9012-0dd076617037> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthypinoy.com/health/articles/steps.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.894495 | 465 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Our Territory (Our Lands)watch a preview
Non-profit, K-12, and Individual pricing also available
See pricing information and conditions
Land rights are the principal source of tension between Indians and whites in Brazil. Conflicting concepts of ownership and use of resources mean that many white settlers believe that "the Indian has too much land." Our Territory records the individual battles of the Ashaninka, Baniwa, Kaingang and Kaiowas as they try to assure their cultural survival. Land demarcation helps to keep settlers out of Indian-protected areas, which also serve as vital forest reserves. However, government agrarian reforms can dispossess indigenous people of their home territory, destroying their collectivity and restricting the space needed to support a growing population. Most TV news about Indians in Brazil in the last 20 years has dealt with this problem, making land the issue that most shapes familiar perceptions of indigenous people.
other films from the Indians in Brazil series:
The First Contacts
Who Are They?
Have a Nice Trip, Ibantu!
When God Visits the Village
A Different Story
Children of the Land
From the Other Side of the Sky | <urn:uuid:bc71ed3c-0a67-4f10-8bf5-f448efd774df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.der.org/films/our-territory.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934747 | 243 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic, Hebrew, or Greek?
by James J. DeFrancisco, Ph.D.
This article is in response to the article of a similar title, Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic or Hebrew? by Brian Knowles published by ACD. While we essentially agree with the thesis of Mr. Knowles in that Jesus spoke primarily a Semitic language we do not agree with the conclusion that it was Hebrew rather than Aramaic. In this article we will provide background information that leads us to our conclusion.
The claim in the second paragraph of Mr. Knowles article in which he states that recently an expanding circle of scholars has rejected the notion of Aramaic as being the dialect spoken by Jesus and the disciples is essentially true. However, this claim is also somewhat of an exaggeration in the context of his article. He evidently forms this position based primarily on the work of several scholars: M. H. Segal, Shmuel Safrai, David Biven, and Roy Blizzard. To support his thesis he utilizes the work of two other scholars (Flusser and Lindsey) but ignores the position and importance of the Aramaic language in their writings. In addition, by not looking closely at the work of Biven and Blizzard, he overlooks at least one major misunderstanding in their quotation of the renowned Aramaic scholar, Matthew Black. The fundamental error is to overlook the fact that all of these scholars did their work in comparison with the Greek New Testament. The importance of the Aramaic language is not given justice and Aramaic versions, i.e. Old Syriac and Peshitta are not even mentioned.
Although there may be an expanding circle of scholars who have or who are rejecting the notion of Aramaic as being not only the dialect spoken by Jesus and His disciples this group is still a small percentage of scholars. In fact, the majority of scholars accept the notion that the primary language of Jesus and His disciples was Aramaic. Biven and Blizzard, while presenting useful information in their book, perhaps stretch the facts a bit to de-emphasize Aramaic in their effort to focus on Hebrew. They also seem to misunderstand and perhaps quote Matthew Black out of context in their attempt to support their thesis.
Knowles, Biven, and Blizzard have somewhat misused the work of Flusser and Lindsey in their de-emphasis of Aramaic because neither Flusser nor Lindsey do this in their own writings. In fact, Flusser and Lindsey often speak of Hebrew and Aramaic interchangeably as they emphasize the Semitic languages over Greek. Also, the Jerusalem Perspective Online website (www.JerusalemPerspective.com) contains articles that emphasis the importance of Aramaic, e.g. “Matthew’s Aramaic Glue” by Randall Buth indicates that “a knowledge of the Gospels’ Semitic background can provide a deeper understanding of Jesus’ words and influence the translation process.” Buth then goes on to state that “Matthew shows a specifically Aramaic influence” and that Matthew’s gospel “uses an Aramaic conjunction as the glue to hold stories together.”
In The Jesus Sources (Hkesher, 1990), Lindsey states that “. . . Mark is a Gospel of equivalents. He had what you might call a ‘targumist’ mentality.” Targums were traditionally written in Aramaic. In A Hebrew Translation of the Gospel of Mark, Lindsey uses “Hebrew or Aramaic” in several sentences that group these two languages together (perhaps interchangeably) since they are closely related cognate languages. Unfortunately, he may be mistaken in his interpretation of the Aramaic words, “My God, my God . . .” in Mark 15:34 as being a direct quotation of the targum of Psalm 22. Several Aramaic commentators have taken another position on these words of Jesus as early as the 9th century (Ishodad of Merv). Since these words were spoken in Aramaic, the evidence of Aramaic experts should be taken into consideration. Also, it is interesting that Jesus would use Aramaic just moments before his death if it was not his primary language. If He was reciting Holy Scripture, why didn’t he recite the Shema in Hebrew instead?
Regarding the expression, “son of man,” Lindsey is clear that “the original is Aramaic . . . and so far as we know Jesus and the people of his day knew the text only in Aramaic.” (The Jesus Sources, p. 72). The text being referred to here is Daniel 7:13 which is written in Aramaic – in the Hebrew Scriptures.
Other citations of Aramaic in The Jesus Sources include:
“We have chosen to use Kepha, for it is perfectly clear that Jesus uses this
Aramaic form in naming Simon.” (p. 74)
Lindsey refers to “the Hebrew word ‘Amen’” (p. 74). This word is identical
in Aramaic. . . as are many other words.
In Jesus, Flusser uses Palestinian Hebrew and Aramaic interchangeably for the term “fox” (p. 52, n. 28). He uses Hebrew and Aramaic together in reference to the writings from the time of Jesus (p. 128). Although he doesn’t specifically mention it regarding his section on the “Chamber of Hewn Stone and Caiaphus,” he is actually demonstrating the use of an Aramaic word, “Caiaphus” is a Latinized form of “Kepha.” This obviously shows that the common names of people and places utilized Aramaic. This is demonstrated also with “Gabbatha” (p. 254) and “Golgotha” (p. 255) as well as “mamona” (Aramaic) in comparison with “mammon” (Hebrew) showing the close similarity of these two languages (p. 94, n. 5).
Bivin and Blizzard, unfortunately, make comparisons exclusively using Greek texts (Codex Sinaiticus, Bezae, and Alexandrinus) with a focus on Hebrew as more original than Greek. Aramaic is de-emphasized, omitted, and referred to with little understanding in their book Understanding the Difficult Words of Jesus, which doesn’t totally live up to its name.
In Understanding the Difficult Words of Jesus, on pages 12-14, for example, in quoting Matthew Black they suggest that Black supports their position. The statement however is actually used by Black in an argument in which he opposes the Hebrew gospel position and it is further qualified by his beginning the sentence with the word “If . . .“ Black also qualifies it with a footnote in reference to page 16 of his book where he states, “Jesus must have conversed in the Galilean dialect of Aramaic, and His teaching was probably almost entirely in Aramaic.” He actually judges the emphasis of using Hebrew as a gospel language as an “extreme position” and goes on to explain that it “has found little if any support among competent authorities” and is “absurd.” To the contrary, Black in fact, states that “these Scriptures were provided with a targum for the benefit of the Aramaic speaking masses who could no longer understand Hebrew. The use of the term ‘Hebrew’ to refer to Aramaic is readily explicable, since it described the peculiar dialect of Aramaic which had grown up in Palestine since the days of Nehemiah and which was distinctively Jewish . . .” The reader is referred to page 48 of An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts by Black.
Professor Safrai has provided a detailed overview of languages used in Israel. Much valuable information is available on the www.JerusalemPerspective.com website. A major portion of one of his articles on this subject is presented at some length below:
“Prof. Safrai presents an overview of the three languages used in the land of Israel during the days
of Jesus, and concludes that Hebrew was the primary language spoken by the Jewish residents at that time.
The land of Israel was under the influence of Greek culture from the time of its conquest by Alexander the
Great at the end of the fourth century B.C.E. Although scholars have divergent views regarding the influence
of Hellenism on religious works, literature and everyday life in first-century Israel, it is generally accepted
that the Greek language was used by many of the inhabitants.
“The Role of Aramaic
Aramaic was quite widespread in Jerusalem and in other parts of the land, as can be seen from the large
number of Aramaic inscriptions which have been discovered dating from the Second Temple period. The
use of Aramaic is also evident from the literature created in that language. The Genesis Apocryphon, the
Targum of Job and portions of several other Aramaic works were found in the ancient library of the Essenes
at Qumran, and Jewish sources of the period mention additional non-extant works.
“Aramaic also had a strong influence on Mishnaic Hebrew, and Aramaic words are found in the New Testament
and in the writings of Josephus. Unlike in countries such as Egypt where Aramaic almost disappeared when the
country came under the influence of Hellenism, Aramaic remained a vibrant language in the land of Israel and
Syria even during the centuries of Græco-Roman rule until the Arab conquest at the beginning of the seventh
“Aramaic was the language of communication between Jews and those non-Jews not connected with the
government or living in Greek cities. An ordinary non-Jew mentioned in rabbinic literature is referred to
as an Aramean and generally has an Aramaic rather than a Greek name (Tosefta, Pesahim 1:27). It is possible
that some Roman officials who served long periods of time in the land of Israel learned Aramaic, and Jews may
have been able to converse with these officials in Aramaic.
“However, the role of Aramaic in everyday life should not be exaggerated. Many scholars who admit the widespread use of Hebrew in the last few generations of the Second Temple period claim that Temple
services were conducted in Aramaic. While there were a number of Aramaic words and phrases associated with the administration of the Temple and Temple area, the vast majority of references relating to Temple life reflect the use of Hebrew there. The Mishnah preserves many descriptions of various aspects of everyday life in the Temple, including statements of Temple officials which almost always are in Hebrew. Moreover, to date all of the inscriptions found in the Temple area are written in Hebrew, except for two Greek inscriptions, originally part of a balustrade surrounding the inner Temple, which warned Gentiles not to go beyond that point.
“Tannaic and amoraic sources state that it was customary in the synagogue to translate the readings from the Torah and the Prophets into Aramaic. Rendering the Scriptures into Aramaic offered an opportunity to introduce into the readings elements of the Oral Torah in popular form. This was done for the benefit of religiously uneducated people who may not have completely understood Biblical Hebrew. One rabbinic source explicitly states: "…and he translates [into Aramaic] so that the rest of the people, and the women and children, will understand it" (Tractate Soferim 18:4).However, the custom of translating the readings of the Torah and Prophets into Aramaic is not mentioned in any source before approximately 140 C.E. Sources from the second Temple period and the era immediately following the destruction of the Temple do not reflect this custom. The phenomenon of sages understanding Biblical Hebrew while the rest of the population required a translation is the reality of a later period and was not the situation during the first century C.E.
Either Hebrew or Aramaic was used in the synagogue or at other communal gatherings, but there are a number of questions concerning the relationship of these two languages in the land of Israel. The Torah and Prophets were undoubtedly read in Hebrew, as were prayers, but what was the language of Torah instruction in the synagogue? In what language did people speak in the marketplace and within the family circle? In which tongue did the sages address their students? Was there a difference between Judea and Galilee?
“Most scholars since the beginning of the nineteenth century have concluded that Aramaic was the spoken language of the land of Israel during the Second Temple period. Even when scribes of that period or later attest that they wrote or transmitted traditions in Hebrew, scholars have persisted in claiming that this "Hebrew" was actually some type of Aramaic dialect then prevalent among the Jews of the land. It has even been claimed that the Hebrew in which the Mishnah was written was an artificial language of the bet midrash, house of study, which was a translation from Aramaic, or at the very least heavily influenced by Aramaic.
“However, some seventy years ago a number of Jewish scholars in Palestine (later the State of Israel) began to see that the Hebrew of the Mishnah had been a living and vibrant language, spoken in the house of study, synagogue, on the street and at home. Mishnaic Hebrew does not deal only with matters of religion, but mentions, for instance, the names of dozens of implements used at the time, and records thousands of events and sayings about mundane, secular aspects of life. . .
“The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the documents from the period of the Bar-Kochba revolt (132–135 C.E.) conclusively settled the question of whether Mishnaic Hebrew had been an artificial or a living language. Hymns, prayers and biblical works written in Hebrew were discovered, as well as documents composed in the Mishnaic Hebrew dialect. Among them were letters containing Hebrew slang and abbreviated Hebrew forms characteristic of everyday speech . . .
When the Jewish writers of the Second Temple period referred to Hebrew, they meant Hebrew and not Aramaic. They did not confuse the two languages, but distinguished quite clearly between Hebrew and Aramaic, referring to the latter either as "Aramaic," "targum" or "Syriac" (sursit). The sages also clearly differentiated between the Hebrew and Aramaic sections of the Bible. . .
“One cannot fulfill the obligation of reading from the Torah scroll unless the text is written in square script in
Hebrew and in a book [some manuscripts read "on parchment"] and in ink. (Tosefta, Megillah 2:6)
In other words, the Torah scroll must be written in square Hebrew script and not in the old archaic Hebrew script, nor in Aramaic. . . (NOTE: Aramaic also includes the usage of “Hebrew” square script which is
called in Hebrew, “Ktav Asshurim,” i.e “Assyrian Letters” –JJD)
“II Kings 18 tells of the Assyrian general Rabshakeh’s advance on Jerusalem and his attempt to persuade the
beleaguered inhabitants of the city to surrender. The leaders of Jerusalem requested that he speak Aramaic and "not the language of Judea" so that the rest of the city’s inhabitants would not understand (v. 26). Josephus
relates the story in the following manner:
“As Rabshakeh spoke these words in Hebrew, with which language he was familiar, Eliakim was afraid that the people might overhear them and be thrown into consternation, and he asked him to speak in suristi, [Syriac, i.e., Aramaic]. (Antiquities 10:8)
“Galilee and Judea
There is an oft-repeated claim in scholarly literature that a high percentage of the Galilean population was
religiously uneducated, and that the people consequently knew and used less Hebrew. Literary sources,
however, provide no indication that this claim is correct.
“There are a number of "anti-Galilee" statements in rabbinic literature, but one can find similar barbs
directed against residents of other regions of the land. What the sources do indicate is that Galilee belonged
to the accepted cultural milieu of Judaism at that time, including the world of Torah study, and that culturally
and spiritually Galilee may have been closer to Jerusalem than Judea.
“There is a statement in rabbinic literature that the Judeans retained the teachings of their Torah scholars
because they were careful in the use of their language, while the Galileans, who were not so careful with
their speech, did not retain their learning (Babylonian Talmud, Eruvin 53a–b; Jerusalem Talmud, Berachot 4d,
et al.). While this saying is sometimes considered to be evidence for the dominance of Aramaic over Hebrew
in the Galilee because some of the examples discussed are in Aramaic, it actually only refers to the Judeans’
feeling that Galileans mispronounced the guttural letters het and ‘ayin and dropped the weak letters ‘alef and hey. This in no way reflects on the cultural status of Galilee, nor does it show that the use of Hebrew was less common there than in Judea or Jerusalem.
“The New Testament
When Paul spoke to the Roman commander, he used Greek (Acts 21:37). When he addressed the people,
however, he spoke to them "in the Hebrew language" (Acts 21:40).
“Hebrew-speakers commonly referred to Jews as yisrael, Israel, in contrast to Ioudaioi, Jews used by Greek
speakers and yehuda’in, Jews used by Aramaic-speakers. In literary works written in Hebrew, Jews refer to
themselves as yisrael, Israel or bene yisrael, sons of Israel, while non-Jews refer to Jews using the Aramaicized
“When the author of the Book of Acts refers to Jews he normally uses the term Ioudaioi, Jews. However, when
he relates the words of Jesus or of Peter and his companions, he has them refer to Jews as yisrael, Israel
(Acts 1:6; 2:22; 2:36; 3:12; 4:10; 9:15). The author of the Book of Acts also relates that Rabban Gamaliel
addressed the Sanhedrin as "Men of Israel" (5:35).
“Jesus probably spoke Hebrew within the circle of his disciples, and since the thousands of parables which have survived in rabbinic literature are all in Hebrew, no doubt he likewise told his parables in Hebrew.
The view that Aramaic was the language of conversation in first-century Israel seems to be supported by the
Aramaic words found in the New Testament. Many scholars have seen Jesus’ words to Jairus’ twelve-year-old
daughter, "Talitha kumi" (Mk. 5:41), as proof that he spoke Aramaic. Yet, even if Jesus spoke to her in Hebrew,
he could have said "Talitha kumi." One must not forget that many Aramaic words in various forms found their way into Hebrew in the Second Temple period. The command to "get up" kumi is the same word in Hebrew
and Aramaic. . .
Hebrew was certainly the language of instruction in schools, as well as the language of prayer and Torah reading. The language of instruction in the house of study also most certainly was Hebrew, and this was likely the case regarding instruction in the synagogue. It would seem that Hebrew was spoken in the marketplaces of Jerusalem (Jerusalem Talmud, Pesahim 37d), but there is not enough information to determine whether this also was the case in other cities. It is not impossible that there were religiously uneducated people who did not understand Hebrew and were conversant only in Aramaic. There is some evidence for this linguistic phenomenon beginning in the second century C.E., but it is unlikely that such was the case in the first century. Although the Jewish inhabitants of the land of Israel in the time of Jesus knew Aramaic and used it in their contacts with the ordinary, non-Jewish residents, Hebrew was their first or native language. It is especially clear that in enlightened circles such as those of Jesus and his disciples, Hebrew was the dominant spoken language.
-“Spoken Languages in the Time of Jesus,” Safrai, Shmuel
However, many (most) scholars understand Aramaic to be the common spoken language of the people in Galilee during the time of Jesus and his disciples. This dialect of Aramaic used in Galilee is similar to the dialect used in the Peshitta New Testament. The Peshitta has remained intact for the past 1600-1800 years. Thus, Aramaic should not be discounted, let alone eliminated, as the true common language of Jesus and the Apostles and, possibly, the original language of the New Testament. At the very least, it is the language of those Christians (Mishakyae) in the Holy Land and the Near East who preserved Christianity in its purest Semitic form since the ancient times.
Fitzmyer, an expert in NT Aramaic, indicates that “From at least the eighth century B.C. Aramaic had become a lingua franca in the ancient Near East; and contrary to the impression that one gets from the ordinary Hebrew Bible, in which (according to Kittel’s edition) the Aramaic protion occupy a maximum of 22 pages and a few stray verses in Genesis (31:47) and Jeremiah (10:11) out of a total of 1434 pages, Aramaic was not the less important of the two languages. As for the use of Aramaic in Palestine, it is now attested from the middle of the ninth century B.C. onward.” A Wandering Aramean – Joseph A. Fitzmyer, p. 6). Fitzmyer states that “Hebrew . . . was apparently the more indigenous of the two in Palestine” but clarifies his statement with the qualification that it a form called “Postbiblical Hebrew” and that although evidence of such Hebrew is found in Qumram texts, “it is not abundant and comes from restricted areas.”
Fitzmyer concludes that “the most commonly used language of Palestine in the first century A.D. was Aramaic, but that many Palestinian Jews, not only those in Hellenistic towns, but farmers and craftsmen of less obviously Hellenistic areas used Greek, at least as a second language,” and that “pockets of Palestinian Jews also used Hebrew, even though its use was not widespread.” (p. 7). Fitzmyer criticizes Birkeland’s thesis that Hebrew was the language of the common people and sustains a solid position with the consensus of scholars supporting the position of “Aramaic as the language most commonly used by Jesus and his immediate disciples in Palestine.” (pp.7-8)
Fitzmyer admits that Papias’ statement regarding the Gospel of Matthew being written in the “Hebrew” dialect most likely means “in the Aramaic language” but that this is highly debatable. (p.11). Regarding the Syriac, Fitzmyer’s position is that although “Syriac tradition is obviously secondary and derivative from the Greek. . . that, in the choice of Syriac forms of names, especially geographical names, that tradition may be closer to some of the native Palestinian names that have become Grecized in the NT text tradition.” (p. 12)
Fitzmyer explains that “Though the two languages, Hebrew and Aramaic, had co-existed for several centuries in the Near East before this, Aramaic became the more important of the two, serving as the lingua franca during the latter part of the Neo-Assyrian empire and during the Persian period. Hebrew is usually regarded today as the more important of the two languages, because it is the tongue of the bulk of the OT. And yet, historically it was restricted to a small area on the south-eastern coast of the Mediterranean, whereas Official or Imperial Aramaic was used across a major portion of the Near Eastern world, from Egypt to Asia Minor to Pakistan. Indeed, it gradualy supplanted Hebrew in most of Palestine itself as the common tongue.” (p. 29) “His footnote in reference to this statement indicates that Neh. 8:8 may be hinting at this situation.” (p. 47) . . . “If asked what was the language commonly spoken in Palestine in the time of Jesus of Nazareth, most people with some acquaintance of that era and area would almost spontaneously answer Aramaic. To my way of thinking, this is still the correct answer for the most commonly used language, but the defense of this thesis must reckon with the growing mass of evidence that both Greek and Hebrew were used as well.” (p.38)
Other scholars debate whether Aramaic or Greek were used in the original NT writings but most agree that it was Greek. David Biven agrees as well:
“From time to time, one hears reports of the discovery of a portion of the New Testament
written in Hebrew or Aramaic. To date, such reports have proven false. Readers of
JERUSALEM PERSPECTIVE should realize that there is not a single extant Hebrew-language
manuscript from the early Christian era of any of the New Testament books.
1. All of the canonical gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke and John—were written in Greek.
2. As the author of the gospel of Luke states in his prologue, many written accounts of Jesus’
life already were in circulation.
3. The early church fathers testify that Matthew wrote “the words of Jesus” in “Hebrew.”
4. There are many Semitisms in the gospels.
Those are the bare facts of the matter. Any further statement regarding the original language
of the life story of Jesus is conjectural. A conjecture may enhance understanding, and it may
even be correct. But until it is proven, it cannot be treated as fact.
Jerusalem School Perspective
The Jerusalem School of Synoptic Research has arrived at two conclusions that serve as
working hypotheses for their research:
• An account of Jesus’ life was written in Hebrew, probably by one of Jesus’ original disciples.
• One or more of the sources used by the writers of the synoptic gospels is derived from a
Greek translation of that Hebrew account.
The scholars of the Jerusalem School do not claim that the gospels of Matthew, Mark and
Luke were originally written in Hebrew. They contend only that the authors of the synoptic
gospels used sources that were derived from an earlier Hebrew gospel. In fact, not every part
of the synoptic gospels shows Semitic influence. Many parts, such as the prologue to Luke’s
gospel, show little or no Semitic influence.
On the other hand, there are non-gospel portions of the New Testament that show Semitic
influence. For example, the first half of the book of Acts, up to 15:35, is noticeably more
Semitic than the second half (cf. Max Wilcox, The Semitisms of Acts).
… While there are various degrees and types of Semitic influence throughout the New
Testament, the members of the Jerusalem School recognize that all the books of the
canonical New Testament, including the synoptic gospels, were written in Greek. However,
study has consistently shown the importance of recognizing the profoundly Jewish background
of the gospels. Jerusalem School members firmly believe that a Hebraic perspective is the key to a better
understanding of the Greek Testament. We invite you to join us in studying the gospels more
closely, and examining the evidence we have found to support our hypotheses”.
-“A Gospel In Hebrew?,” Bivin, David
The position that I have taken is as follows: The gospel message was originally given orally. This oral tradition has both Aramaic (the primary transmission of the original message since Aramaic was the lingua franca of the time) and Hebrew (the more formal language used in religious services and study of the Torah) dimensions. Greek was then used in the primary translations of these two Semitic languages for use by the Gentiles. The oldest manuscripts of the complete New Testament were preserved in Aramaic (Syriac) going back to the 4th century (as possibly as early as the 2nd century) C.E. This text is known as the Peshitta and is still in use today by Near Eastern churches. I have a copy of it in its ancient form. It is also important to understand that both Aramaic and Hebrew are cognate languages. Many words are identical. The Hebrew language actually uses Aramaic lettering known as Ktav Assurim (Assyrian letters). Papias and others that referred to early Christian writings, e.g. Matthew’s Gospel, as being written in Hebrew were referring to the letters more than the language since it would have been difficult – if not impossible – for them to distinguish between Hebrew and Aramaic. My position is well documented by factual and historical evidence. It can be substantiated by universities, synagogues, and the Assyrian Church of the East. So, while I can agree with the emphasis of Knowles, Biven, and Blizzard of Semitic languages over the Greek language relative to New Testament studies, I cannot agree with their conclusion that the language of the day was primarily Hebrew. The majority of reputable scholars would not agree with their position either.
Actually, according to the Aramaic Scriptures Research Society in Israel, the two international languages used in spreading the gospel were Greek (in the Mediterranean regions of the Roman Empire) and Aramaic in the Holy Land and the East: “In the Holy Land, Syria, Mesopotamia, and other countries of the Parthian Empire, these writings were circulated in Aramaic, lingua franca of the East. . . The main vernacular in the Holy Land, however, was Aramaic. The weekly synagogue lections of the Holy Scriptures, called sidra or parashah, with the hapthtarah, were accompanied with an oral Aramaic translation, according to fairly fixed traditions.” This quote is from The Bible Society – Jerusalem – which published THE NEW COVENANT – Commonly Called The New Testament – Peshitta Aramaic Text With a Hebrew Translation in 1986. The Editor’s Note states that, “In the Greek text of the New Testament one finds Aramaic locutions in disguise, in addition to several words and phrases in Greek transcription, such as ‘talitha qumi’, ‘lema shevatani’, ‘mamona’ and others, indicating that Yeshua spoke in Aramaic, and no doubt used Hebrew in conversations with scribes and other religious leaders, in addition to the synagogue use of Hebrew.” (p. ii). They proceed to explain that, “Rabbinical literature in Aramaic is printed in the Hebrew alphabet. Christian manuscripts in Eastern Aramaic are written in the ancient script called estrangela (round, thick-set).” (p. iii)
Hebrew and Aramaic are very closely related. Many words are identical in spelling. “Aramaic is about as close to Hebrew as Spanish is to Italian.” (p.1096) Raymond E. Brown, D. W. Johnson, Kevin G. O’Connell, “Texts and Versions” Sect. 101 “Aramaic and Syriac Versions;” The New Jerome Biblical Commentary “Translation of the Scriptures into Syriac had its roots in the developing pre-Christian Aram targums of OT books brought by 1st/2d-cent. AD Jewish and christian preachers from Palestine into the district of Adiabene (surrounding Irbil in modern Iraq) and to the neighborhood of Edessa (Urfa in modern Turkey).” However, this source also maintains that the language of the Syriac Bible is somewhat distinct “from the Western Aramaic of Palestine that was used by Christ and the apostles. The Syr Bible . . . NT is wholly a transl. from the Greek. Claims that the Syr Gospels are the form in which Jesus spoke his teaching – claims often made by people who have every reason to know better – are without foundation.” (Sect. 116; p. 1098) The Peshitta “was established firmly enough in the early 5th cent. To remain the Bible of all Syr-language Christians despite the Nestorian and Monophysite movements and the disruption of unity that accompanied them.” (Sect. 125, p. 1099) “For the NT in particular, textual transmission of the Peshitta has been remarkably faithful and precise, and good early mss. exist for both Testaments…” (Sect. 127, p. 1099)
Thackson explains that “Syriac is the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, now Urfa in Eastern Turkey, an important center of early Christianity in Mesopotamia. Edessene Syriac was rapidly accepted as the literary language of all non-Greek eastern Christianity and was the primary vehicle for the Christianization of large parts of central and south-central Asia. . . Today it is the classical tongue of the Nestorians and Chaldeans of Iran and Iraq and the liturgical language of the Jacobites of Eastern Anatolia and the Maronites of Greater Syria.” Introduction to Syriac – W. M. Thackson (p. vii)
Aramaic must not be neglected in New Testament studies for at least three reasons:
1. Because Aramaic was the lingua franca of the Near East during the time of Jesus and His disciples.
2. Because it is the language of the Peshitta – an ancient and very “faithful and precise” version of the New Testament texts.
3. Because this language has been preserved and is still used today by Christians in and from the Near East.
For these reasons the Aramaic language provides valuable insight into interpretations and nuances in New Testament studies which can be validated by contemporary scholars who have had this language passed down virtually intact for generations over at least the past 1600 years.
I do not want to de-emphasize the importance of the Hebrew language. It is a beautiful and powerful language that is unique in several respects. Some knowledge of Hebrew is vital to understanding the Holy Scripture. However, let us also maintain the importance of the Aramaic language and its importance in New Testament studies in particular. It provides insights on early Christianity and it clears up many difficult to understand passages because of the nuances that are evident only from an understanding of Aramaic – the lingua franca of the times and places of early Christianity. | <urn:uuid:a3529559-0ade-4c56-b80c-dd5026571844> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.godward.org/hebrew%20roots/which_language_did_jesus_speak.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966854 | 7,441 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The Lion Sleeps Better Tonight
A new economic model that uses cost-benefit analyses to predict the fate of endangered species has been unveiled by New Zealand economist Robert Alexander and researcher Chris Fleming. The model analyzes the socio-economic pressures that push animals to the brink of extinction and could be used to assess the probable success or failure of conservation programs. For example, the model can weigh the economic benefits (in tourism dollars, say) of preserving an elephant in Africa against the expensive havoc the animal can wreak on nearby villages, which often spurs poachers into action. The model is not the first of its kind, but it is one of the first to look at multiple species and their habitats, rather than just individual species. The distinction is critical, say the researchers, because otherwise, the costs associated with preserving an elephant appear to be extremely high. By contrast, the new model takes into account that land preserved for elephants is also used by lions, leopards, rhinos, and so forth. Happily, that change yields some good news: While a single-species economic model predicted the extinction of the elephants, the multi-species model, when looking at both rhinos and elephants, predicted the survival of both species.
Donate now to support our work. | <urn:uuid:957612c0-1d1f-486a-ba19-007e7b097bc2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://grist.org/article/better1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935289 | 258 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Details about Political Foundations of Judicial Supremacy:
Should the Supreme Court have the last word when it comes to interpreting the Constitution? The justices on the Supreme Court certainly seem to think so--and their critics say that this position threatens democracy. But Keith Whittington argues that the Court's justices have not simply seized power and circumvented politics. The justices have had power thrust upon them--by politicians, for the benefit of politicians. In this sweeping political history of judicial supremacy in America, Whittington shows that presidents and political leaders of all stripes have worked to put the Court on a pedestal and have encouraged its justices to accept the role of ultimate interpreters of the Constitution. Whittington examines why presidents have often found judicial supremacy to be in their best interest, why they have rarely assumed responsibility for interpreting the Constitution, and why constitutional leadership has often been passed to the courts. The unprecedented assertiveness of the Rehnquist Court in striking down acts of Congress is only the most recent example of a development that began with the founding generation itself. Presidential bids for constitutional leadership have been rare, but reflect the temporary political advantage in doing so. Far more often, presidents have cooperated in increasing the Court's power and encouraging its activism. Challenging the conventional wisdom that judges have usurped democracy, Whittington shows that judicial supremacy is the product of democratic politics.
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Rent Political Foundations of Judicial Supremacy 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Keith E. Whittington. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Princeton University Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:68f402fc-9385-4242-a4e5-1e65cbeafbf7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/political-foundations-of-judicial-supremacy-1st-edition-9780691141022-0691141029 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950898 | 360 | 2.578125 | 3 |
A major global assessment of pollinators is raising concerns about the future of the planet’s food supply.
A U.N.-sponsored report drawing on about 3,000 scientific papers concludes that about 40 percent of invertebrate pollinator species (such as bees and butterflies) are facing extinction. Vertebrate pollinators (such as bats and birds) are somewhat better off by comparison — 16 percent are threatened with extinction, “with a trend towards more extinctions,” the researchers say.
About 75 percent of the world’s food crops, the report notes, depend at least partly on pollination.
“Pollinators are important contributors to world food production and nutritional security,” assessment co-Chair Vera Lucia Imperatriz-Fonseca says in a statement. “Their health is directly linked to our own well-being.”
Crops that need help from pollinators include coffee, apples, cacao, cotton, mangoes and almonds, to name just a few.
We’re also talking big business: “The annual value of global crops directly affected by pollinators” ranges from $235 billion to $577 billion, according to the statement.
NPR’s Dan Charles says the report “is largely based on studies in North America and Europe; there’s been less research on pollinators in Africa and Asia.”
It was released by The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, which operates under U.N. auspices. The assessment cites about 3,000 scientific papers and, researchers say, “includes information about practices based on indigenous and local knowledge from more than 60 locations around the world.” The report was presented by IPBES on Friday in Kuala Lumpur.
Pollinators are under threat for a number of reasons.
The decline of wild butterflies, bees and other pollinators “is primarily due to changes in land use, intensive agricultural practices and pesticide use, alien invasion species, diseases and pest, and climate change,” says IPBES Vice-Chair Robert Watson.
Also harming pollinators: “the decline of practices based on indigenous and local knowledge,” the assessment states. “These practices include traditional farming systems; maintenance of diverse landscapes and gardens; kinship relationships that protect specific pollinators; and cultures and languages that are connected to pollinators.”
However, the researchers say there’s plenty governments and communities can do to support these animals. “The good news is that a number of steps can be taken to reduce the risks to pollinators, including practices based on indigenous and local knowledge,” says IPBES founding Chair Zakri Abdul Hamid.
The statement cites such examples as:
- “The promotion of sustainable agriculture” that emphasizes diverse habitats.
- “Supporting traditional practices that manage habitat patchiness, crop rotation, and coproduction between science and indigenous local knowledge.”
- Reducing their exposure to pesticides, including “seeking alternative forms of pest control, and adopting a range of specific applications, including technologies to reduce pesticide drift.”
- “Improving managed bee husbandry for pathogen control, coupled with better regulation of trade and use of commercial pollinators.” | <urn:uuid:46e87391-30d9-43de-9e36-e78f9eb63577> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2016/02/26/report-more-pollinator-species-in-jeopardy-threatening-world-food-supply/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930432 | 688 | 3.6875 | 4 |
March 9, 2006
High-resolution images of Saturn's moon Enceladus provide evidence that liquid water is erupting in geyser-like fashion near the tiny moon's south pole. "We have found another environment in our solar system, in a very surprising place, that could host living organisms," says Carolyn Porco of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado, and Imaging Team leader for NASA's Cassini spacecraft, which flew past the moon 3 times last year.
The ingredients necessary for life as we know it include liquid water, a heat source, and organic material. At Enceladus, all three appear to exist Cassini also found methane, a carbon compound, near the moon's south pole. Scientists caution that any life there would be microbial, similar to organisms living near hydrothermal vents on Earth.
Enceladus joins a select group of solar-system places with active geology: Earth, Jupiter's moon Io, and possibly Neptune's moon Triton. Planetary scientists suspect other moons, like Jupiter's Europa, harbor liquid-water oceans but miles below a frozen surface.
At Enceladus, Cassini imaged fractures, dubbed "tiger stripes," at the south pole that are venting water-vapor plumes some 265 miles (430 kilometers) into the atmosphere. Scientists analyzing the data see no other explanation for the jets than pockets of liquid water under the surface, although what's heating the moon so much (and driving the eruptions) is unknown.
When the spacecraft passes by the moon again in 2008, researchers hope to learn more. "We're already altering our plans for observations in the future to see if we can get more data on Enceladus, and I wouldn't be at all surprised if this didn't become another major target for exploration in the future," comments Torrence Johnson of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, and a Cassini Imaging Team member.
The team's results appear in this week's Science. | <urn:uuid:6a9dd574-6f13-46ff-a64d-681784dd3e86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astronomy.com/news/2006/03/saturn-moon-has-conditions-for-life | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918981 | 411 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Panthers, Perceptions, and Cattle Ranching in Florida
The Florida panther is the only puma population currently found in the eastern United States. While in the 1980's the population was thought to be as low as 20-30 individuals, recent conservation efforts have resulted in an estimated population of 100-160 panthers . This population growth has placed panthers in closer proximity to humans, resulting in increased calf depredation on ranches. These events have led many local ranchers to view panthers in a negative way. Ranches provide quality habitat for the Florida panther and therefore ranchers' acceptance and support is critical to the successful recovery of the Florida panther. This acceptance is influenced by both the real and perceived impacts that panthers have on calf mortality and other aspects of the ranching business.
To address these issues, graduate student Caitlin Jacobs (advised by Martin Main) will quantify calf mortality caused by the Florida panther and other predators on two ranches in southwest Florida. A total of 200 calves will be tagged with ear tag transmitters in each of two years. Transmitters are equipped with a mortality mode, allowing me to monitor calf survival. All calf mortalities are documented and evaluated for cause of death. For depredations, she determines the predator responsible using evidence at the site and she sets up remote sensing trail cameras to obtain additional information on the individuals involved. In this way she is able to determine whether the same individual is responsible for different predation events or if multiple individuals are preying on calves. The following video was taken by one of these cameras and shows a female panther returning to her cache site to finish eating a tagged calf she killed the day before.
Caitlin is also conducting a survey to gauge ranchers' attitudes and risk perceptions of Florida panthers and assess response to various compensation and incentive based programs for providing panther habitat. The results of this survey will serve as a tool for wildlife management agencies as they begin to work with landowners on issues surrounding Florida panther recovery. | <urn:uuid:c067ad8e-2784-4048-8f30-71818f626c3d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wec.ufl.edu/news/panthers.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949254 | 415 | 3.53125 | 4 |
How do inequality and health relate? Increasing evidence from scientists the world over indicates that many health outcomes — everything from life expectancy to infant mortality and obesity — can be linked to the level of economic inequality within a given population. Greater economic inequality appears to lead to worse health outcomes.
By greater inequality, epidemiologists — the scientists who study the health of populations — don’t just mean poverty. Poor health and poverty do go hand-in-hand. But high levels of inequality, the epidemiological research shows, negatively affect the health of even the affluent, mainly because, researchers contend, inequality reduces social cohesion, which leads to more stress, fear, and insecurity for everyone.
Economists and health experts have known for years that people who live in poorer societies live shorter lives. But research also points to an additional factor in explaining life expectancy: a society’s level of inequality. People live longer in nations with lower levels of inequality, as measured here by the Gini coefficient, a standard global benchmark.
In 2012, nations with the smallest income gaps between households at the 90th and 10th percentiles had significantly fewer infant deaths than other nations. A household at the 90th percentile has more income than 90 percent of households.
Researchers are also finding links between inequality and mental health. Countries with larger rich-poor gaps have a higher risk of schizophrenia incidences. In general, a 0.2 point increase in a country’s Gini coefficient results in eight additional incidences of schizophrenia per 100,000 people. Researchers believe that higher inequality undercuts social cohesion and capital and increases chronic stress.
Extreme inequality appears to affect how people perceive their well-being. In nations where the top 1 percent hold a greater share of national income, people tend to have a lower sense of personal well-being.
Inequality and Health in the United States
The same association between high economic inequality and poor health can be observed within the United States.
What’s true on the international level also holds true within the United States: People live longer in the nation’s more equal states.
U.S. households with annual incomes below $50,000 report higher levels of stress than other families. Average stress levels have been falling since the 2007-2008 financial crisis, but the stress-gap between rich and poor households has been increasing.
The lower American workers rank on the national economic ladder, the more likely their jobs will be physically demanding. Such jobs can lead to more stress, both physical and mental — and higher medical bills. Workers in physically demanding jobs also typically retire earlier, before they can claim full Social Security benefits.
The bottom third of U.S. earners tend to retire earlier than other Americans, in part because their jobs are often more physically demanding. Because American workers cannot claim full retirement benefits before age 66, this trend exacerbates economic inequality among seniors.
Millions of American families are currently facing economic hardship in their retirement years. The chief executives of large U.S. corporations, meanwhile, are sitting on massive retirement nest eggs. In 2015 the retirement savings of just 100 top CEOs totaled $4.9 billion, a sum equivalent to the entire retirement savings of 41 percent of American families, 50 million Americans in all. | <urn:uuid:bd11da0c-63eb-4e12-b5d4-0cff93c4828d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://inequality.org/inequality-health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950024 | 665 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Adapted from Nivaldo J. Tro’s best-selling general chemistry book, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach focuses exclusively on the core concepts of general chemistry without sacrificing depth or relevance. Tro's unprecedented two- and three-column problem-solving approach is used throughout to give students sufficient practice in this fundamental skill. A unique integration of macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic illustrations helps students to visualize the various dimensions of chemistry; Tro’s engaging writing style captures student’s attention with relevant applications. The Second Edition offers a wealth of new and revised problems, approximately 50 new conceptual connections, an updated art program throughout, and is available with MasteringChemistry®, the most advanced online tutorial and assessment program available.
This package contains:
- Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Second Edition
Table of Contents
2. Atoms and Elements
3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations
4. Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions
7. The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
8. Periodic Properties of the Elements
9. Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory
10. Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory
11. Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
13. Chemical Kinetics
14. Chemical Equilibrium
15. Acids and Bases
16. Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
17. Free Energy and Thermodynamics
19. Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
20. Organic Chemistry
Format: Alternate Binding
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Access your course materials on iPad, Android and Kindle devices with VitalSource Bookshelf, the textbook e-reader that helps you read, study and learn brilliantly. Features include:
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- Supports assistive technologies for accessibility by vision and hearing impaired users | <urn:uuid:307f7486-0aa1-4080-b58b-e9736b2dddd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mypearsonstore.com/bookstore/principles-of-chemistry-a-molecular-approach-032175090X | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.794159 | 747 | 2.875 | 3 |
Very Low Birth Weight
According to preliminary data, 1.5 percent of infants were born very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams, or 3 pounds 4 ounces) in 2009. The proportion of very low birth weight infants has slowly climbed from just over 1 percent in 1980.
Infants born at such low weight are more than 100 times more likely to die in the first year of life than are infants of normal birth weight (above 5 pounds 8 ounces).1 Very low birth weight infants who survive are at a significantly increased risk of severe health and developmental problems, including physical and sensory difficulties, developmental delays, and cognitive impairment, which may require increased levels of medical, educational, and parental care.2
Infants born to non-Hispanic Black women are over two times more likely than infants born to mothers of other racial/ethnic groups to be very low birth weight. Among infants born to non-Hispanic Black women, 3.1 percent were very low birth weight in 2009, compared to 1.2 percent of infants born to non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women, 1.3 percent born to American Indian/Alaska Native women, and 1.1 percent born to Asian/Pacific Islander women. This difference is a major contributor to the disparity in infant mortality rates between non-Hispanic Black infants and infants of other racial/ethnic groups.3 Although, overall, the rate of very low birth weight was not statistically different from 2008, rates for non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black newborns were down 2-3 percent from 2006.4
In 2008 (the latest year for which data are available), the rate of very low birth weight was highest among babies born to mothers aged 45-54 years (3.6 percent). Mothers under 15 years of age also had high rates of very low birth weight (3.0 percent.) The rate was lowest among mothers aged 25-29 years (1.3 percent).
1 Matthews TJ, MacDorman MF. Infant mortality statistics from the 2006 period linked birth/infant death data set. National vital statistics reports; vol 58 no 17. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2010.
2 Eichenwald EC, Stark AR. Management and outcomes of very low birth weight. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1700-1711.
3 Wise PH. The anatomy of a disparity in infant mortality. Annu Rev Public Health. 2003;24:341-62.
4 Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Ventura SJ. Births: Preliminary data for 2009. National vital statistics reports web release; vol 59 no 3. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2010.
This image is described in the Data section.
Very Low Birth Weight Among Infants, by Maternal Race/Ethnicity, 1990–2009*
Percent of infants for:
- Non-Hispanic Blacks increased from approximately 2.8 to 3.1
- All Races increased from approximately 1.3 to 1.5
- American Indian/Alaska Natives increased from approximately 1.0 to 1.3
- Asian/Pacific Islanders increased from approximately 1.0 to 1.1
- Non-Hispanic Whites increased from approximately 0.9 to 1.2
- Hispanics increased from approximately 1.0 to 1.2
*Data for 2009 are preliminary.
**Separate estimates for Asians and Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders were not available.
Source: Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Ventura SJ. Births: Preliminary data for 2009. National vital statistics reports web release; vol 59 no 3. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2010. Accessed March 2011. | <urn:uuid:1c595460-0f39-46a2-9096-1f58cef2afdc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mchb.hrsa.gov/chusa11/hstat/hsi/pages/202vlbw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941106 | 761 | 2.984375 | 3 |
1 | 2 | 3
| 4 | 5 | 6
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refers to those cultural norms, values, rules, regulations,
behaviors, policies, and decisions that support sustainable
communities, where people can interact with confidence that
their environment is safe, nurturing and productive. Environmental
justice is served when people can realize their highest potential,
without experiencing "isms." Environmental justice is supported
by decent-paying and safe jobs, quality schools and recreation,
decent housing and adequate health care, democratic decision-making,
personal empowerment, and communities free of violence, drugs,
and poverty. These are communities where both cultural and biological
diversity are respected and highly revered and where distributive
justice movement has generated a good deal of attention and
debate. The arguments presented below are those I have encountered
in various forms in conferences and in my work with community
groups across the country. These arguments are by no means conclusive.
One: Policy decisions should be based on a demonstration
of a causal relationship between a given chemical and a corresponding
Causal relationships are most difficult to establish, even under
the most ideal research conditions. The use of control groups
using human beings to test the effect of certain toxic chemicals
is unethical, thus rendering it extremely difficult to demonstrate
causality. The best we can do in many instances is simply to
demonstrate an association between certain chemicals and certain
corresponding health effects. Given these uncertainties, an
alternative view is to focus on pollution prevention.
Two: Pollution control of fugitive emissions by 90% is a
reasonable policy to implement because it reduces emissions
to acceptable risks and allows for reasonable profits.
Not everyone agrees that pollution control of fugitive emissions
by 90% is safe, because some chemicals are persistent and fat-soluble.
Synthetic chemicals, such as the pesticide DDT, some radioactive
materials, and toxic mercury and lead compounds become more
concentrated in fatty tissues of organisms at successively higher
trophic levels in various food chains and food webs. These bioaccumulate
or amplify themselves hundreds of thousands of times as they
move up the food chain. By the time these chemicals reach the
top of the food chain, they are highly concentrated and present
a public health problem. This is a key reason many environmental
justice groups champion pollution prevention rather than pollution
Three: Income is a greater explanatory variable than race
in determining where pollution sources are located.
The results of 16 urban, regional, and national studies demonstrate
a consistent pattern: Where the distribution of pollution has
been analyzed by both income and race (and where it has been
possible to weigh the relative importance of each), race has
been found, in most cases, to be more strongly related to the
incidence of pollution than income. One response by industry
is that their sitings are motivated not by race, but only by
an attraction to low land values. However, it is possible to
establish a racial motivation so long as there is a pattern
of locating LULUs (locally unwanted land uses) in communities
of color more so than in poor white neighborhoods. Moreover,
it is also important to compare the introduction of LULUs to
Census data indicating the racial composition of a particular
neighborhood over the same time period.
Four: Census tract rather than zip code data is a more critical
unit of analysis to test hypotheses regarding disparate impact.
In recent years, an epistemological debate has been taking place
about how to measure whether a particular practice or set of
practices has disproportionately harmed communities of color
to a degree that far exceeds their percentage of the population.
Many studies that attempt to show "disparate impact" have used
either census tracts or zip codes as the unit of analysis. When
census tracts are used, the relative weight of income often
becomes a greater explanatory variable than race. When zip codes
are used, we often get the opposite effect: the relative weight
of race often becomes the greater explanatory variable. While
some critics claim that census tracts are too small to yield
meaningful results, other critics claim that zip codes are too
large to yield meaningful results. There are compelling arguments
on both sides. The question is: what is the appropriate unit
of analysis to show disparate impact?
Five: Too many environmental regulations hinder efficient
business practices, causing loss of valuable time and profits.
This assumption is not necessarily true. For example, although
Germany and Japan have some of the most stringent environmental
regulations in the world, their regulations have motivated industry
to become more creative about developing pollution prevention
and abatement technologies. Further, the development of technology
helps move us toward an environmentally just society by creating
safe, decent-paying jobs, and balances the national debt by
exporting pollution prevention, abatement and control technologies
to Eastern Europe and developing countries. Finally, loss of
environmental regulations often leaves people of color and low-income
groups who live close to LULUs vulnerable and overexposed to
toxic waste in the interest of corporate profits.
Six: Government officials assume that community people are
too irrational and that environmental problems are too complex
for the public to understand. Therefore, policy decisions should
be left to the experts.
Community members can and must be intimately involved in shaping
environmental policy. Few policies with local impacts will work
without the affected community possessing a vested interest
in their success. In fact, studies have shown that the vast
majority of community groups interact successfully with scientist
(89%) and health professionals (73%). One scientist, Nicholas
Freudenberg, found that these groups had a sophisticated understanding
of the limits of scientific studies, issues of toxic waste and
waste site remediation, and alternatives to area spraying of
pesticides. He also found that these activist groups were more
complex than policymakers realized.
Seven: Positivism is a better way of knowing because it
embraces a specific scientific methodology that reduces complex
phenomena to hypotheses to be tested and quantified.
It is often difficult for environmental justice to prevail when
the locus of control is placed with the outside researcher.
Positivism or traditional scientific methodology is not the
only effective method of problem-solving. Positivism or traditional
research is adversarial and contradictory: it often leaves laypeople
confused about the certainty and solutions regarding exposure
to environmental toxins. Often scientists or policy makers cannot
be certain about the singular or synergistic effects of chemicals
on the health of people. This inability has created both anger
and distrust of scientists and government officials and has
led affected groups to question traditional science as the only
legitimate and effective way of problem-solving. Participatory
research enables community people to become an integral part
of the research process. Affected groups feel that environmental
justice is better served if they themselves are involved in
a participatory research process, where they at least share
in the locus of control of the research process along with researchers
and policymakers. They want to be involved in problem identification,
questionnaire construction, data collection and data analysis.
Often the process outcomes of inclusion, decision-making and
respect for the affected populations may be more important and
weigh heavier on satisfactory outcomes than content outcomes.
Eight: Building incinerators or landfills will provide jobs
and economic growth for local communities.
Although new landfills and incinerators will provide jobs, the
number of jobs they provide is relatively few. Technical jobs
have a tendency to go to people outside the relevant community.
Further, there exist serious potential health effects of exposing
people to pollutants that arise from capacity expansion. The
relevant question is not one simply of job quantity, but rather
of job quality.
we need to expend greater resources to clean up our pollution.
If the effects of certain illnesses disappear, we then know
that we have dealt with the general causes, even though we may
never know the specific cause and effect outcomes. Second, we
need to devote more research money to pollution control technologies.
Third, we must ask ourselves the role population and consumption
play in disparate impacts of pollution on communities of color. | <urn:uuid:8f2e0d97-7ed9-4d14-aed4-a7c284a7081e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www-personal.umich.edu/~bbryant/interview1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920094 | 1,732 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Syrian Refugee Crisis
The war in Syria has killed as many as 250,000 Syrians, and has uprooted more than 11 million people. Children, who make up more than half of Syrian refugees in the Middle East, are paying the heaviest price: many have witnessed violence and the loss of homes or loved ones; the vast majority have been out of school for years. Syria’s neighbors, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and Egypt, have responded to the call to welcome the stranger. With an influx of some 4.1 million refugees, their economies, social services and basic infrastructure are strained to the breaking point. But unless and until families can feed their children and provide opportunities, they will continue to look for other opportunities.
European Refugee Crisis
Driven by violence and seeking safety and a fresh start, Syrians made up half of the more than one million refugees and economic migrants who arrived on European shores in 2015. However, following border closures throughout the Balkans in March 2016, tens of thousands of refugees and economic migrants have become stranded in Greece. Thousands more are stuck in Macedonia, Serbia and Croatia. With their options in flux and conditions increasingly perilous, these families need food, basic supplies, shelter and clear information about legal options for seeking asylum and international protection.
Since the beginning of the conflict, CRS has come to the aid of approximately 1 million war-affected Syrians across the Middle East and Europe.
CRS Response in the Middle East
Since 2011, CRS has worked with our Catholic Church partners across the Middle East, including in Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt.
- Living supplies and hygiene kits
- Shelter and rent assistance
- Medical support
- Livelihoods support
- Formal and informal educational support and counseling for children
CRS Response in Europe
Since the summer of 2015, CRS has been scaling up our response to the refugee crisis unfolding in Europe by working with Church and other local partners across the refugees’ routes, including in Greece, Macedonia, Croatia and Serbia.
- Food and emergency living supplies
- Medical assistance
- Temporary shelter
- Information, translation services, and legal services
Photos for Download
Download photos for use in articles about Syrian refugees. The password is "photos".
CRS in the News
There are 21 Million Refugees Around the World in Need of Solidarity, from Catholic News Agency
Georgians Travel to The Front Lines of Syrian Refugee Crisis, from The Atlanta-Journal Constitution
In San Diego, Syrian Refugee Family Finds Safe Haven, from The San Diego Union-Tribune
Update on the Syrian Refugee Crisis, from The Marc Steiner Show
Baltimore Agencies Bring Aid To Religious Minorities in Middle East, As Genocide Is Declared, from The Baltimore Sun
Syrian Refugees and Hunger: An Interview with Caroline Brennan of CRS, from the Examiner.com
Five Years of War in Syria, from WYPR
Crisis Compounded: Migrants Stranded in Greece as EU Nations Say 'No', from Catholic News Service
After Five Years of Comforting the Afflicted in Syria, A Glimmer of Hope, from National Catholic Register
The 'Moral Imperative' to Help Refugees, from Our Sunday Visitor
CRS Official Returns with Firsthand Report on Refugee Crisis, from American magazine
With Focus on EU, Lebanon Strains Under Refugee Burden, from America magazine
How the U.S. Can Respond to the European Refugee Crisis: Interview with CRS' Sean Callahan, from PBS's Religion and Ethics NewsWeekly
Steinberg: Muslim Refugees Arrives in America with 'Big Hope', from the Chicago Sun-Times
The Long Journey of Syrian Refugees, from the Huffington Post
Catholic Relief Official Calls for Stronger Response to Refugee Crisis, from the Baltimore Sun | <urn:uuid:fcdec929-fb76-4921-bd14-cd3c01d62678> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crs.org/media-center/current-issues/syrian-refugee-crisis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919652 | 770 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The first day of school can be scary. Children wonder about how everything will go—“Will my friends still like me?” “Will I fit in?” “Do I look good?” This is normal and usually goes away within a few days. For some kids, though, it doesn’t subside as quickly as parents would hope. For these children, parents may need to provide a little extra support. In general, the types of problems children have with adjusting to the new school year revolve around academic, social, or emotional issues. Here’s a look at each.
Academic problems may stem from the fact that your child is working with a new teacher. Last year’s teacher learned that he needs structure and predictability to pay attention, but does this year’s teacher know that? The expectations may be much greater this year than your child was expecting. For example, he might have forgotten some math skills over the summer, and his new teacher expects that he already knows them well. Some teachers have very active, busy classrooms, but your child works better in a quiet setting. Any one of these might be causing him to dislike going to school. The trick is to figure out what is causing his frustration and talk to his teachers about it.
Social issues may be keeping your child from adjusting to the new year. If she tells you that she doesn’t have any friends, her anxiety is almost certainly rooted in social problems. Children who enjoy being by themselves or with only one friend often do not have the skills to make new friends. Experts agree that children do not need to have a lot of friends to be healthy, but they do need at least one good friend. You can help your child make new friends by role-playing how to talk to someone new. She needs to practice asking questions like “Did you go anywhere during summer vacation?” or “Where did you go to school last year?” Conversation-starters like these can help break the ice.
If your child switched schools, she may be missing her friends from last year. It’s important to let her get together with her old friends, but she should also be making new friends at school.
Emotional issues might keep your child from adjusting to the new school year. He might be more afraid of change than others are. If you know this ahead of time, try to take him to the school to visit before the school year starts. If he is moving from a small building to a large one, he may feel insecure. It can take several weeks to feel comfortable getting to the right place at the right time. His teachers might be able to find a friend who can help him if needed.
It is possible your child’s trouble adjusting to school has nothing to do with school itself. It might be coming from home. Consider whether anything in the household is the source of stress, like a recent move or a new baby. Whatever the cause, the key to a successful year in school is communicating with your child’s teacher. Teachers want to help—so ask why she thinks your child is having trouble adjusting to school, and how to best solve the problem. | <urn:uuid:3ee8c4e8-b4cc-4325-869f-0f9001de8e02> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.schoolfamily.com/school-family-articles/article/10887-adjusting-to-the-new-school-year | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982889 | 663 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Within the Special Collections of the University of Arizona Library are a number of quality facsimile editions of several manuscript paintings produced by the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The collection contains manuscripts both from before and after the Spanish Conquest that began in 1521. These manuscripts derive primarily from three cultural areas, Mixtec, Mayan, and Aztec, although they are not limited to them. The span of history these surviving codices cover is from A.D. 629 to 1642.
This web exhibit provides a brief representation of our collection with some bibliographic and historical information. Our goal was not a complete assessment of early Mexican manuscript painting, nor do we strive to represent any of the artifacts in their entirety. Rather, the exhibition serves as an introduction to these Mesoamerican codices and as a guide to finding these facsimiles in Special Collections. Therefore, bibliographic accuracy was more important for us than correct interpretation. Call numbers are also included with each codex.
The bulk of the facsimiles represented in this site are part of the Codices Selecti Phototypice Impressi series published by the Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt in Graz, Austria.
The Nature of the Codices
Only about two dozen pre-Columbian Mesoamerican codices have survived the book-burning policies of some native rulers and Spanish conquerors. Codices painted and written during the colonial period under Spanish supervision are more numerous. The number of Mesoamerican colored facsimile editions the University of Arizona Special Collections (both pre- and post-Conquest) is over thirty.
Although pre-Conquest Mesoamerican manuscripts are colloquially called "codices," they are actually screenfolds of long strips of leather (deerhide), cotton cloth or bark paper, occasionally protected by wooden covers. Throughout this exhibit, when referring to the manuscripts, we have retained the more familiar "codex" as well as other alternatives such as "manuscript," or "screenfold."
Mesoamerican codices produced before the European arrival fold like an accordion, often both obverse and reverse sides containing pictures. In cases when the screenfold was produced to be spread out on a wall, only one side was painted. The illustration below shows Codex Laud spread out like an accordion, with both sides painted. Click on the image to enlarge it.
Within a screenfold, each page is divided into either horizontal or vertical bands separated by bright red lines, which was read in a boustrophedon or back-and-forth fashion. In the image below from Codex Zouche-Nuttall, two adjacent pages are shown. The story is to be read from the bottom right, meandering along the path delineated by the red vertical lines across the other page, finally arriving in the left where the manuscript breaks off at the time of the European conquest.
In Mixtec codices, for instance, names of characters are represented by the date of their births. It is expressed by the image of the year they were born in (e.g. Rabbit, Skull, Deer, etc.) and the exact day represented by colored discs. The following glyph on the left describes the ruler 8 Deer: eight red discs are attached to a deer head. He was born on the eighth day of the year Deer. Another glyph at the bottom informs the reader that he was also known by the nickname Jaguar Claw. Nicknames were given at age seven, and these additional nickname glyphs are often incorporated into the costume.
The scribes noted the year in which an event took place with a sign similar to an interwoven A and O. The glyph on the right, for example, represents the year 2 Rabbit (A.D. 1066).
The Way this Exhibit is Organized
The majority of surviving Mesoamerican codices come from three cultural areas: Mixtec, Mayan and Aztec, and this distinction is employed the way this site is organized. There are codices included in each section that are either from a region other than these three or they are codices whose origin is unclear. Chronologically the codices are divided into pre-Conquest and early colonial codices. While surviving Mixtec codices are generally pre-Conquest, i.e. without European influence, surviving Aztec codices all exhibit European colonial influcences in their styles. Generally, if a codex was colonial, we have included it in the group of Aztec colonial manuscripts.
This exhibit features facsimiles available for viewing at Special Collections, and provides a brief bibliographic and historical description to each, as well as a number of scanned images. You will also find bibliographic references to other codices that are held at the library but are not featured in this exhibit.
A Note on Secondary Sources
Unless otherwise noted after a particular description, the companion volumes to the individual facsimiles served as sources to the commentaries. All facsimile images have been scanned from the particular editions under which they appear.
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Special Collections | UA Library | University of Arizona | <urn:uuid:a5286c01-768f-451b-b2e3-1eaad381878a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.library.arizona.edu/exhibits/mexcodex/intro.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960579 | 1,077 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Not every storm on the Bureau weather radar is really a storm.
Sometimes when you look at the Bureau of Meteorology's weather radar, you can be surrounded by storms.
And then you look out the window and it's a clear fine day.
What's going on?
Well a common explanation in the Kimberley can be that there is an inversion in the atmosphere that is reflecting the radar beam and making it look like there are storms where there aren't.
An inversion is a warm layer of air, sitting on top of cooler air below.
The radar bounces off the warm air and the result is what looks like a ring or crescent of storms centred on the radar.
The circular shape of the apparent storms is part of the clue that you're not looking at the real thing.
Inversions are most likely to form when you have hot days and cool nights, which is typical of the Kimberley's dry season when skies are clear.
That's another clue for pseudo storms, you should be able to see the tops of storm clouds from over a hundred kilometres away.
So if there's rain on the radar and clear blue skies out to the horizon: be suspicious.
The Broome Bureau of Meteorology's Duty Observer, Ray Hegarty, talks to Ben Collins about radars, inversions, and pseudo storms. | <urn:uuid:35b1e6e0-c5b4-41ea-a7bf-27e684b7de91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc.net.au/local/photos/2010/11/11/3063666.htm?site=northwestwa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93261 | 278 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Your little boy dog isn't born with his testes in his scrotum, but they should get there before too long. If they don't, he'll require surgery. The age at which his balls actually drop varies from dog to dog, but it should occur by the age of 2 months.
When a male puppy is born, his testicles are near his inguinal ring. By the time he's a week to 10 days old, they should descend into the scrotal pouch. An animal's body is too hot for sperm production, so the testicles must descend outside to become fertile. The scrotum, behind the penis, is the right temperature for sperm. Most of the scrotum is actually continuous with the puppy's abdominal cavity.
If one or both of his testicles haven't dropped by the age of 2 months, your puppy is probably cryptorchid, which simply means he has undescended testicles. This condition is hereditary in certain breeds, especially small dogs. According to PetMD, the right testicle is twice as likely not to descend as the left one. The retained testicle might stay in the puppy's inguinal canal. If that's the case, your vet can feel it during an examination. She'll also perform an ultrasound to find its exact location.
Your puppy requires surgery to remove the undescended testicle. Since there's always a chance the testicle will descend by the time the dog reaches the age of 6 months, your vet might schedule the surgery after that date. She will also remove the other testicle, so your dog is neutered. Even if you planned to breed your dog, cryptorchidism is considered a genetic fault so it shouldn't be passed on. Standard neuter surgeries are fairly straightforward, but cryptorchid surgeries are somewhat more complicated. With traditional surgeries, your vet makes a large incision in the abdomen to find and remove the testicle. It's possible to perform this surgery laparoscopically, with just small incisions required. If your vet doesn't perform laparoscopic surgeries, she can recommend a surgeon for your pet.
Without the surgery, your dog is at much greater risk for testicular tumors. According to Michigan Veterinary Specialists, male dogs whose testicles have not descended are much more likely to develop tumors than dogs with normal testicles. Generally, only about 20 percent of tumors have metastasized, or spread, when the cancer is diagnosed, so the prognosis is often favorable. However, the dog must undergo abdominal surgery and possibly chemotherapy and radiation.
- Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:d80d760c-d064-491a-a431-19ca03d14627> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pets.thenest.com/old-puppy-balls-drop-11717.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967944 | 539 | 2.75 | 3 |
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) being identified. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English, for both singular and plural nouns, is "the".
You should look up the definition of "principle". You are failing both the grammar and vocabulary sections at this point. A principle of something is not "equal to" that thing, whether it is singular or plural.
*sigh* I'm trying to discuss the subject matter and now I get, Let's argue word definitions. Is that really the best argument you want to make about the thread subject? | <urn:uuid:ebbc256d-c15d-4413-89f0-53be6c83ddc3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aikiweb.com/forums/showpost.php?p=317493&postcount=130 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940794 | 140 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Depiction of Mountain Meadows massacre.
As a territory, Utah came under the direct control of Congress. Mormon leader Brigham Young was appointed territorial governor, but he resented any infringement on his authority. Young's leadership provoked the national government to declare the territory in "rebellion," bringing U.S. troops to Utah in a conflict known as the Mormon War.
Following the horror of a Mormon-led massacre of 120 people in a westward-bound wagon train at Mountain Meadow in fall 1857, public opinion regarding the church deteriorated. Deseret's prospects for statehood seemed dim.
During the Civil War, the U.S. government shifted its attention from the Mormons. President Abraham Lincoln told a Mormon representative to Washington, D.C., "You go back and tell Brigham Young that if he will let me alone I will let him alone."
In this period of Mormon isolation, Young, having given up his governorship, built the insularity of the Mormons against the territory's encroaching non-Mormon population.
"[The Mormon leadership] send[s] a petition signed by thousands of people from Utah, saying that they will no longer obey any laws of Congress that they don't like. They run out virtually every non-Mormon federal official in the territory."-- Will Bagley, historian
"The South is making continual sounds towards secession. The issue is slavery and states' rights -- and the person that's dealing with it is a president by the name of James Buchanan. Buchanan declares the Utah Territory in rebellion, and he marches 20 percent of the entire United States Army to the West to subdue the rebellion."-- Ken Verdoia, journalist
See a bonus video segment on the unresolved questions of the Mountain Meadows massacre. | <urn:uuid:0f9c6e50-24c9-4367-a86d-fb0d5f1a5683> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/mormons/sfeature/utah_02.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944789 | 357 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Here are some resources to help introduce you to Beowulf. Please read/listen/read some more, then answer the comprehension questions at the bottom of the post. [*You may want to read these first.]
The Norton Anthology of English Literature is an outstanding reference work-- but we don't have copies on campus, so I am embedding pieces here.
First, an introduction that provides some historical context.
beowulf commentary from norton anthology
AUDIO CLIPS FROM NORTON ANTHOLOGY/READ BY AUTHOR SEAMUS HEANEY
[These are cut/pasted with gratitude from the following URL with thanks to Prof. Boyer and St. Xavier University of Chicago: http://english.sxu.edu/boyer/201_rdg_qsts/beo_n7_qst.htm)
The best beginning procedure is always to read the assignment all the way through, keeping track of characters, so that you know what's happening. If possible, read the whole work first. Try to get the big picture of the book (or section, or chapter) before getting bogged down in details. Read through, then go back and clear up details. Then you're ready to read the work closely with these questions in mind. (In the discussion below, page numbers in parentheses refer to the translation by Seamus Heaney in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 7th ed., vol. 1 unless otherwise indicated.)
Beowulf and Grendel (lines 1-1250)
Beowulf and Grendel's Mother (lines 1251-2199)
Beowulf and the Dragon (lines 2200-3182)
Beowulf, a Geat
Hygelac, King of the Geats
Hygd, Hygelac's Queen
Hrothgar, King of the Danes
Wealhtheow, his Queen
Wiglaf, a kinsman of Beowulf
BEOWULF AND GRENDEL (lines 1-1250, pp. 32-60)
[Prologue: The Rise of the Danish Nation] (lines 1-85, pp. 33-34)
1.Realize that this prologue introduces the Danes, not Beowulf or his people the Geats. What was unusual about the way Shield came to be ruler of the Danes? What was his funeral like? What relation is Hrothgar to Shield?
[Heorot is Attacked] (lines 86-188, pp. 34-36)
1.What magnificent work did Hrothgar undertake? Who attacked it, and with what result? How long did the attacks last? What was the response of the Danes?
[The Hero Comes to Heorot] (lines 189-490, pp. 36-42)
1. What does Beowulf do when he hears of Hrothgar's problems with Grendel?
2. Whom do the Geats first meet when they arrive in Denmark? What does he do, and what do they do?
3. They next meet Hrothgar's herald. Who is he? What does he tell them? What does he tell Hrothgar? What does Hrothgar respond? Are you surprised that Hrothgar knows Beowulf so well?
4.What does Beowulf tell Hrothgar when he enters? What did Hrothgar do for Beowulf's father?
[Feast at Heorot] (lines 491-661, pp. 42-46)
1. What does Unferth accuse Beowulf of? How does Beowulf answer him? How is this episode relevant to the poem as a whole? What does Beowulf accuse Unferth of?
2. What is Queen Wealhtheow doing during the feasting?
[The Fight with Grendel] (lines 662-835, pp. 46-49)
1.Heroic poetry normally has a scene in which the hero arms for battle. What is different about Beowulf's preparations for his fight with Grendel?
2.What happens when Grendel enters Heorot? How does Beowulf fight with him? What happens when Grendel tries to leave? Does Grendel escape? What does he leave behind?
[Celebration at Heorot] (lines 836-1250, pp. 49-60)
1.When the Danes and Geats return from following Grendel's tracks to the mere, someone sings in Beowulf's presence, comparing him to Sigemund and saying that he was not like Heremod (lines 883-914). How is Beowulf like Sigemund? How is he not like Heremod? (Be alert for inserted stories such as this one. Beowulf contains many of them, most much more complex that this one.)
2.How does Hrothgar respond to Beowulf's deed? What does he offer to do for him? What does Unferth have to say now?
3.The singer sings of Finn during the feasting (lines 1070-1158). The exact details of the Finn story are not clear, but in general, what happens? What does it suggest about the wisdom of using a woman as bride to heal enmity between tribes?
4.When the feasting resumes, what does Wealhtheow ask Hrothgar not to do?
5.Wealhtheow gives Beowulf a large, broad necklace. What later happens to it? What does Wealhtheow ask Beowulf to do?
6.Why do so many men remain in the beer hall to sleep? Why is it a mistake?
BEOWULF AND GRENDEL'S MOTHER (lines 1251-2199, pp. 60-79)
[Another Attack] (lines 1251-1382, pp. 60-62)
1.Why has Grendel's mother come to Heorot? Is it the same reason Grendel had?
2.What is Hrothgar's response? Whom has Grendel's mother killed?
3.What sort of place is the mere?
[Beowulf Fights Grendel's Mother] (lines 1383-1650, pp. 63-68)
1.How does Beowulf tell Hrothgar to respond?
2.What happens at the mere before Beowulf enters it?
3.How does Beowulf prepare for the battle? What sword does he take with him?
4.What happens when Beowulf enters the mere? What is surprising about where Grendel and his mother live in the mere?
5.What happens to the sword Beowulf borrowed from Unferth?
6.At one point Beowulf is on the floor, with Grendel's mother sitting on him and drawing her knife. How does Beowulf escape?
7.How does Beowulf kill Grendel's mother? What weapon does he use? What happens when she dies? What does Beowulf take with him from her home? What happens to the sword he used to kill her?
8.What happens when Beowulf returns to the surface? Did his men expect him to return?
[Further Celebration at Heorot] (lines 1651-1798, pp. 68-71)
1.What does Beowulf give to Hrothgar?
2.What message does Hrothgar have for Beowulf? What and why does he tell us about Heremod? Why and how did Heremod die? What lesson does Hrothgar teach with the Heremod example?
3.What does Beowulf give to Unferth as he leaves?
[Beowulf Returns Home] (lines 1799-2199, pp. 71-79)
1.What future does Hrothgar predict for Beowulf?
2.Who is Hygd and why is she not like Modthryth?
3.Beowulf reports to Hygelac that Hrothgar may marry his daughter Freawaru to Ingeld. Why does he plan to do that? What does Beowulf expect the result will be? (Remember the Finn story, lines 1070-1158.) How does Beowulf think the peace will be broken? Is this the type of report we expected from the hero Beowulf, or are we seeing a new side of him?
4.How does Beowulf report about his own adventures? Does he report accurately?
5.What does Beowulf do with the treasure he was given? What does Hygelac give him?
BEOWULF AND THE DRAGON (lines 2200-3182, pp. 79-99)
[The Dragon Wakes] (lines 2200-2509, pp. 79-86)
1.How much later does Part 2 take place? What kings have died in the meanwhile? What danger now exists?
2.Why is the dragon angry? Why did the man take a cup? How did the treasure come to be there in the first place? (The speech of the lone survivor, the one who put the gold in the barrow, is in a typically Old English elegiac tone.
3.What did the dragon destroy that evening?
4.Why does Beowulf think his home was burnt? Why does he order a new shield? How will he fight this battle? What will happen to him?
5.How did Hygelac die? (The description in lines 2354-2379 begins one of several versions of Geatish history and Hygelac's death we will get.) What did Beowulf do after Hygelac's death? What happened when he returned home? Did he accept Hygd's offer to become king?
6. What happened to Hygelac's son Heardred? (That's the story in lines 2380-2390.) How did Beowulf plan to revenge Heardred's death (lines 2391-2396)?
7.How many men accompany Beowulf as he goes to meet the dragon?
8.What happened to Hygelac's oldest brother Herebeald? Who killed him? What did this do to his father King Hrethel? (This passage, lines 2425-2509, is the second account of Geatish history and of the death of Hygelac.) What happened between the Swedes and Geats after Hrethel's death? What happened to Haethcyn? How die Beowulf revenge Hygelac's death?
[Beowulf Attacks the Dragon] (lines 2510-2820, pp. 86-92)
1.What does Beowulf tell his companions to do?
2.What happens the first time Beowulf and the dragon fight? What do his companions do? How is Wiglaf different? What does he tell the others? What does he then do?
3.What happens the second time Beowulf meets the dragon? What happens to Beowulf? Who kills the dragon?
4.What does the dying Beowulf ask Wiglaf to do? What happens when Beowulf sees the gold? How does Beowulf want to be buried?
[Beowulf's Funeral] (lines 2821-3182, pp. 92-99)
1.What happens when the companions return? What does Wiglaf say to him? What does he expect will happen in the future?
2.What does the messenger tell the city? (This passage, lines 2900-3027, is the third account of the history of the Geats and the death of Hygelac. These are the enemies that will attack the Geats when they learn of Beowulf's death.) What happened overnight in Ravenswood after Ongentheow killed Haethcyn? What happened the next morning? What happened to Ongentheow? What does the messenger say to do with the gold? What is the final image (animal) of the messenger's speech?
3. What does Wiglaf tell the crowd that comes to see the dragon and Beowulf?
4.What happens to the dragon?
5.What happens during and after the funeral celebration?
6.What did the Geats say about Beowulf in the last three lines of the poem? Are these the terms one would expect to be used to describe a military hero? | <urn:uuid:c67e0041-a485-43e6-b660-ef3834ea61a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://drprestonsrhsenglitcomp12.blogspot.com/2012/08/beowulf.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93264 | 2,641 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Unification of human affairs, to the extent at least of a cessation of
war and a worldwide rule of international law, is no new idea; it can be
traced through many centuries of history. It is found as an acceptable
commonplace in a fragment, De Republica, of Cicero. It has, indeed, appeared
and passed out of the foreground of thought, and reappeared there, again and
H.G. Wells, The Idea Of A League of Nations, Atlantic Monthly, January, 1919.
A Note To The Reader: This interactive text contains hyperlinks both to complete copies of important document found at other sites and to abridged versions of the same document on this site. Those abridged versions are noted after the first link as "abridged." They have been provided for the convenience of the reader interested in substantive versions of treaties but absent information regarding such matters as structure of secretariats and provisions for entry into effect. The text is color coded as follows:
A Note To The Law Of War Student: Particularly relevant sections of underlying case readings are yellow highlighted. The student is, however, expected to at least be familiar with the entire reading. Where the case title is highlighted, as in Yamashita, the student is expected to read carefully the entire case.
A Note to German Students: To facilitate your understanding I have included German language texts of treaties where available. The hyperlink will be identified by the words "German language version."
International security agreements were not a new product of the twentieth century. The Holy Alliance, for example, among most of the European rulers, represented a defense commitment in central and eastern Europe in the early 19th century. The League Of Nations, however, was the first international organization designed to maintain world peace and deter international aggression. It was based on collective security against the "criminal" threat of war. (For extensive documentary information on the League, visit the Northwestern University site beginning in December, 2000). See also, Archives of the League of Nations.
Article 10 of the League
language version) provided:
|The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.|
Contrary to popular wisdom the League's history was not one of uniform failure. As a useful web article notes:
|In spite of its handicaps The League of Nations had a number of far-reaching accomplishments. It proved that international administration of small territories was feasible, and the Lytton and Epidemics Commissions illustrated the value of impartial international investigating bodies. In the areas of social and economic cooperation, where the League was most successful, it went beyond the original intention of its Covenant, because it helped to meet specific and real problems of people in their daily lives. The League of Nations went as far and as fast as the great powers would permit.|
In October, 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia, following a series of threats against that country, and ineffective appeals to the League by the Ethiopian government. In the following months Italian aircraft bombed and gassed Ethiopian troops and civilians. The League imposed sanctions but did not include oil, coal, and rubber; the essential materials of modern warfare. The export of aluminum to Italy was forbidden; it was one of the few metals which Italy produced in sufficient quantities for export. By May, 1936, Ethiopia's troops had been defeated and its cities occupied.
In June, 1936,
Selassie I, the Emperor of Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations:
In October, 1935, the 52 nations who are listening to me today gave me an assurance that the aggressor would not triumph, that the resources of the Covenant would be employed in order to ensure the reign of right and the failure of violence.
I ask the
fifty-two nations not to forget today the policy upon which they embarked eight months ago, and on faith of which I directed the resistance of my
people against the aggressor whom they had denounced to the world. Despite
the inferiority of my weapons, the complete lack of aircraft, artillery,
munitions, hospital services, my confidence in the League was absolute. I
thought it to be impossible that fifty-two nations, including the most powerful
in the world, should be successfully opposed by a single aggressor. Counting on
the faith due to treaties, I had made no preparation for war, and that is the
case with certain small countries in Europe.
When the danger became more urgent, being aware of my responsibilities towards my people, during the first six months of 1935 I tried to acquire armaments. Many Governments proclaimed an embargo to prevent my doing so, whereas the Italian Government through the Suez Canal, was given all facilities for transporting without cessation and without protest, troops, arms, and munitions.
The British government immediately argued that since the sanctions had failed they should be ended. The sanctions were intended to restrain Italy and to deter it from conquering Abyssinia. Sanctions ended on 15 July 1936. Before the end of the year, all but four of the League's members voted to recognize Italy's annexation of Ethiopia.
|In the view of the Court, under international law in force today - whether customary international law or that of the United Nations system - States do not have a right of 'collective' armed response to acts which do not constitute an 'armed attack'.|
Nicaragua v US, ¶ 211.
Questions To Consider About
Of International Organizations
|8.1.1 In crises involving Italian aggression in Ethiopia, Japanese aggression in China, and German aggression in Austria and Czechoslovakia, the League proved ineffective as a peace keeping body. Examine the League Covenant and compare it with the United Nations Charter. What modifications of the League might have made it a more effective vehicle for enforcement?|
|8.1.2 Following the successful Italian conquest of Ethiopia, the British government argued that sanctions had failed and should be ended. How long should sanctions have lasted? Compare that situation with Iraq between 1991 and 2003.|
|8.1.3 In WWII the United States and the United Kingdom did much of their military planning through an entity called the Combined Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United Nations Charter provides in Article 47 for the establishment of ... "a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament." That Committee consists of "the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives." How has the Military Staff Committee actually functioned? Hint: There is a movement to revive the Committee. How and why does it need reviving?|
|8.1.4 Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter provides a security role for regional defense organizations. One of those regional organizations is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). How does the NATO staff function? Compare that well developed staff organization with other regional alliances.|
|8.1.5 The European Union is planning the creation of a pan-European defense force independent of NATO. Consider the potential conflicts of interest between NATO and the pan-European force regarding base and equipment usage, munitions de guerre, and specialized units. How would you resolve those conflicts?|
|8.1.6 In Nicaragua v US, at ¶ 211 the Court says that "In the view of the Court, under international law in force today - whether customary international law or that of the United Nations system - States do not have a right of 'collective' armed response to acts which do not constitute an 'armed attack'." Compare this statement with the position of the United States regarding Iraqi possession of weapons of mass destruction. Is the U.S. position valid? Does it make a difference if Iraq is in breach of an armistice agreement which halted the fighting in an armed response clearly made to an act of aggression?|
The founders of the United Nations (for additional background information see U.S. Department of State Background Notes) determined that it should not repeat the experience of the League of Nations, which relied solely upon the individual action of Member States to carry out the sanctions. It was therefore decided that each nation should agree in advance to provide forces and facilities upon which the Security Council could call to prevent or suppress any act of aggression or breach of the peace. Those national contingents are to be under the strategic direction of the Military Staff Committee whenever they are called into action by the Security Council.
See, Speech by Herschel V. Johnson, Deputy United States Representative to the United Nations, June 4, 1947.
Under Article 43 of the Charter all members "undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security."
The fundamentals of the Military Staff Committee are
enunciated in Article 47 of the Charter:
1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament.
2. The Military Staff Committee consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the participation of that Member its work.
3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces paced at the disposal of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be worked out subsequently.
4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of the security Council and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish sub-committees.
The Military Staff Committee was initially of considerable interest to the Security Council. At its second meeting, the Council adopted without a vote the following Resolution:
|By Article 47 of the
Charter, the United Nations have agreed that there shall be established
a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council,
and that the Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of
Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their
1. The Security Council requests the permanent members of the Security Council to direct their Chiefs of Staff to meet, or to appoint representatives to meet, at London on 1 February 1946;
2. The Security Council directs that the Chiefs of Staff or their representatives, when so assembled, shall constitute the Military Staff Committee referred to above;
3. The Security Council directs the Military Staff Committee thereupon, as its first task, to draw up proposals for its organization (including the appropriate secretarial staff) and procedure, and to submit these proposals to the Security Council.
The Cold War, however, intervened, and Soviet footdragging essentially caused the MSC to be stillborn. See, Jane Boulden, Prometheus Unborn: The History of The Military Staff Committee, 19 Aurora Papers, Canadian Centre For Global Security (1993), but see, Report by the Military Staff Committee, Yearbook of the United Nations, 1946-47 at pp. 424 et seq.
been a number of proposals for breathing life into the U.N.'s military
enforcement structure including the creation of a
reaction force under U.N. control. There have been equally
objections to any military empowerment of the U.N, and some
in between. For a nice discussion of the military implications of peace
keeping operations see
UN JIU Report
|It is my view that the role of the Military Staff Committee should be seen in the context of Chapter VII, and not that of the planning or conduct of peace keeping operations|
An Agenda For Peace, Report of the Secretary General, 17 June, 1992 at ¶43.
On November 13, 2000, the Security Council
the Annex to which specifically "undertakes to consider the possibility of
using the Military Staff Committee as one of the means of enhancing the United
Nations peacekeeping capacity." That Resolution also requests regular
military briefings from the Secretariat to report on "key military factors
such as, where appropriate, the chain of command, force structure, unity and
cohesion of the force, training and equipment, risk assessment and rules of
engagement." Resolution 1327 demonstrates a clear intention by the Security
Council to adopt a more cohesive and realistic means of command and control of
military forces, a vital first step in the creation of any effective armed
Questions To Consider About The
Paramount Role Of The U.N.
|8.2.1 What is the purpose of Chapter VI of the UN Charter? Has it ever worked?|
|8.2.2 Consider Article 39 regarding threats to peace, breaches of peace or acts of aggression, and note the 1974 definition of aggression in General Assembly Resolution 3314. What is difference between a breach the of peace and an act of aggression? Was the Blockade of Sharem El Sheck an act of aggression. If so, was the mining of Nicaraguan harbors during the Contra War? See, Nicaraugua v US.|
|8.2.3 What happens when the primary or one of the primary providers of troops, equipment or other resources to any U.N. permanent force is itself a party to a conflict condemned by the Security Council? One answer is, of course, that permanent members are removed from that problem by their ability to prevent U.N. decision making. What about, however, a conflict between India and Pakistan where both have provided substantial troops to the U.N.? How is the problem resolved, or can it be? Is there any legally binding solution?|
One of the potent legal problems in peace making/keeping operations is the legal structure and control of actions by international organizations. The potential for internal conflict is great; not only among member States, but between parallel organizations. While the creation of a European Defense Force, or of an effective U.N. military structure has positive implications, it also presents numerous possibilities for diverging and mutually exclusive command and organizational structures. As you review the following examples of coalition warfare, keep in mind those potential problems and consider their solutions.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization describes itself in this way:
Atlantic Treaty of April 1949 brought into being an Alliance of
independent countries with a common interest in maintaining peace and
defending their freedom through political solidarity and adequate military
defence to deter and, if necessary, repel all possible forms of aggression
against them. Created within the framework of Article 51 of the United
Nations Charter, which reaffirms the inherent right of individual or
collective defence, the Alliance is an association of free states united
in their determination to preserve their security through mutual
guarantees and stable relations with other countries.
NATO is the Organisation which serves the Alliance. It is an inter-governmental organisation in which member countries retain their full sovereignty and independence. The Organisation provides the forum in which they consult together on any issues they may choose to raise and take decisions on political and military matters affecting their security. It provides the structures needed to facilitate consultation and cooperation between them, not only in political fields but also in many other areas where
policies can be coordinated in order to fulfil the goals of the North Atlantic Treaty.
NATO's essential purpose is thus to safeguard the freedom and security of all its members by political and military means in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter.
The NATO Handbook (1992).
Beginning March 23, 1999 NATO aircraft launched repeated attacks against Yugoslavian armed forces and other targets. For NATO's view of the historical background of this conflict see the NATO web site. There, NATO says that its objectives in instituting the attack were:
On June 9, NATO and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia signed a a Military-Technical Agreement which permitted "...deployment in Kosovo under UN auspices of effective international civil and security presences," and in which the Yugoslavian Goverment agreed:
|...that the international security force ("KFOR") will deploy following the adoption of [a U.N. Security Council resolution] and operate without hindrance within Kosovo and with the authority to take all necessary action to establish and maintain a secure environment for all citizens of Kosovo and otherwise carry out its mission.|
On 10 June, 1999 the Security Council adopted Resolution 1244 which authorized "...Member States and relevant international organizations to establish the international security presence in Kosovo ... with all necessary means to fulfil its responsibilities..."
On June 2, 2000, the ICTY prosecutor reported to the UN Security Council that she found no basis to open a criminal investigation for NATO's conduct of its campaign in Kosovo. See, U.N. Doc. S/PV.4150 (June 2, 2000).
In 1968 the Warsaw Pact countries, lead by the Soviet Union and East Germany invaded Czechoslovakia to suppress a liberal regime under Alexander Dubcek. The Soviets argued the invasion was justified under the terms of the Warsaw Treaty of 1955, although it was largely viewed as an attempt to prevent the spread of economic and social liberalization.
The Soviet Union used military exercises to threaten an invasion unless Dubcek complied with Soviet demands. These exercises allowed the Soviet Union to deploy forces along Czechoslovakia's borders with Poland and East Germany. On August 20, 1968, twenty-three Soviet divisions, accompanied by one Hungarian, two East German, and two Polish divisions invaded Czechoslovakia and installed a new communist government.
Dubcek recalls Soviet leader Breznev's explanation of the reasons underlying
|He said that since the end of the last war, Czechoslovakia had been a part of the Soviet security zone, and that the Soviet Union had no intention of giving it up. What had worried the Soviet Politbureau most about Prague had been our tendency toward independence: that I did not send him my speeches in advance for review, that I did not ask his permission for personnel changes. They could not tolerate this, and, when we had not submitted to other forms of pressure, they had invaded the country.|
Alexander Dubcek, Hope Dies Last. The Autobiography of Alexander (Kodansha International, 1993) at p. 212.
The immediate legal aspects of this action were a sort of
uncomfortable military occupation in response to the mass passive resistance of
the Czech population:
|This is bizarre kind of occupation. Although occupying forces have taken over key points they have not established martial law (except in some provincial cities), have not imposed military government, and have not yet installed puppet government. Legally constituted government claims to be still in being: 22 out of about 30 Ministers attended Cabinet meeting yesterday, apparently in Hradcany Castle. National Assembly claims to be in continuing session in its own building. Communist Party organs not only continuing to operate but managed to convene Party Congress under noses of occupying forces despite fact that Congress severely complicates Soviets' problems in installing compliant regime.|
Telegram From United States Embassy in Czechoslovakia to Department of State, August 24, 1968, Department of State, Central Files, POL 27-1 COMBLOC-CZECH, Confidential; Immediate.
Consider, the Warsaw Pact's rationale, and the Breznev
Doctrine in light of the following quote from the ICJ's decision in Nicaraugua v US
at ¶ 246.
|the principle of non- intervention derives from customary international law. It would certainly lose its effectiveness as a principle of law if intervention were to be justified by a mere request for assistance made by an opposition group in another State - supposing such a request to have actually been made by an opposition to the regime in Nicaragua in this instance. Indeed, it is difficult to see what would remain of the principle of non-intervention in international law if intervention, which is already allowable at the request of the government of a State, were also to be allowed at the request of the opposition. This would permit any State to intervene at any moment in the internal affairs of another State, whether at the request of the government or at the request of its opposition. Such a situation does not in the Court's view correspond to the present state of international law.|
In 1950 North Korean forces invaded South Korea (for excellent background material see the U.S. Army history on-line). Following a Russian walk-out from the security Council, the council passed Resolution 83 which determined that the northern invasion was a breach of the peace and called upon member states to "furnish such assistance ... as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and to restore international peace and security in the area." By October, the Security Council was unable to function since the USSR delegate had returned to exercise his nation's veto power. Consequently, the Korean question was transferred to the General Assembly where no veto power existed.
On 3 November the General Assembly adopted the landmark Uniting
For Peace Resolution. The General Assembly resolved:
|... that if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members, fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and Security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression, the General Assembly shall consider the matter immediately with a view to making appropriate recommendations to Members for collective measures, including in case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression the use of armed force when necessary, to maintain or restore international peace and security.|
General Assembly Resolution 377(v), 3 November, 1950.
armed forces, including ground, air and naval units, under the United
Nations flag, were deployed in the Korean peninsula, and they engaged in
extensive and often fierce combat with North Korean and Chinese Communist
forces. The United
Nations Command in Korea still maintains extensive forces although the
current reality is that outside Korean military assets those forces are from the
Questions About Warfare By International Organizations
8.3.1 Consider the following examples of warfare by international organizations:
Where do peace-keeping operations fall within this spectrum. Was the action in Bosnia peacekeeping by the U.N. or by NATO. What about Kosovo? Did Resolution 1244 have any effect on the legality of NATO actions in Kosovo?
|8.3.2 What was the Persian Gulf Operation? How should coalition warfare be treated? Does it fall under Chapter VII? If not, is it justified by peace and security resolutions? Draft a peace and security resolution which would authorize action by any member state to restore peace and security to the Gulf following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.|
|8.3.3 Examine the list of objectives stated by NATO regarding its attack on Serbian forces in Kosovo. Were those objectives a sufficient basis to justify use of force? Identify the supporting legal doctrine to support your answer. Were all those objectives met? If not, does that affect your answer to the prior question?|
|8.3.4 Was the Warsaw Pact occupation of Czechoslovakia subject to Geneva and Hague Regulations? What is the effect of signature by the legitimate government of terms of capitulation (the "Moscow Protocol") which met Soviet demands?|
Certain non-governmental organizations ("NGO's") have played and continue to play in both the development and application of the laws of war. The chief occupant of that duel role is the International Committee of the Red Cross ("ICRC"), which is also unique in its position as an exemplar of humanitarian organizations in International Treaties (see, e.g. Geneva Civilians Convention at Article 11). The ICRC lists as areas of potential cooperation with belligerents
|The release and transfer of prisoners|
|The search for missing persons|
|Civil Military Cooperation (CIMIC) structures and the
|The American authorities were enormously sensitive to the periodic findings of the Swiss Legation and the IRCC, not only because their representatives were guaranteed unrestricted access to the POWs by Article 88 but because any findings by these agencies of American mistreatment of POWs would almost certainly bring immediate retaliation against American prisoners in German hands|
Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners Of War In America, (Scarborough
House, 1996) at 38.
|The War Department was startled to learn from the International Red Cross that the first contingent of [German] prisoners assigned to France was not being maintained according to the Geneva Convention. In fact, the Red Cross revealed that starvation conditions existed in the French POW depots.|
Ibid at 239.
Other NGO's have, in recent years, increased
their influence and participation in international affairs in general, and in
particular with relation to the law of war. Human
Rights Watch and Human
Rights First, for example have been quite influential in the dialogue
relating to use of force and employment of certain types of weapons. Amnesty
International and Medecins Sans Frontieres
have also played effective roles on certain issues.
Questions About Non-Governmental Organizations
|8.4.1 If neutrality has ceased to exist as a legal status (see, Chapter IX), can NGOs play the protecting power role. Don't NGOs have the same problem through corporate identity? How would you resolve that dilemma?|
8.4.2 When does an NGO cross the line into active belligerency on one side? Suppose an NGO lobbies against a particular weapons system upon which one side uniquely relies. Is it justified in viewing that NGO as an hostile entity? What if the NGO is, in fact, influenced by the opposing state to take that position? | <urn:uuid:54fdada5-86c5-45ae-81bd-1bb9855bdb87> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://lawofwar.org/International%20Organizations.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947763 | 5,371 | 2.9375 | 3 |
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Current is defined as the flow of electrons within a conducting material or substance, such as copper electrical wire. In metallic solids, such as coper wire, the electrons flow from a low potential to a high potential. Independent of the type of charge metal carriers have, a conventional current is defined as electron flow in the same direction as positive charges. So if you have metals in which the charge of the carrier is negative, the electrons will be traveling in the opposite direction as the current. If the situation is reversed, and the charge of the carrier is positive, then the electrons will be traveling in the same direction of the current. This works well with the multiplicity of different metallic conductors available, as charges will vary depending upon the material being used. So the factor that makes the difference is the charge of the conducting material; if negative, the electron flow is opposite that of the current, if positive, the same direction.
Hello!This is because of the conventional definition of a current flow is''the flow of POSITIVE charges'' However positive charges in a conductor do not move. it is only the electrons that are mobile.
We’ve answered 327,629 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:7d6ddc60-dc73-46cc-8989-966481a247fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-direction-current-opposite-flow-electrons-349665 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924174 | 262 | 3.78125 | 4 |
DOE participated in gas hydrate field production trials in early 2012 in partnership with ConocoPhillips and the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corp at the Iġnik Sikumi (Inupiat for “Fire in the Ice”) test well, shown here, on the north slope of Alaska. Datasets from that field trial are now available to the public.
Gas hydrate is an ice-like solid that results from the trapping of methane molecules - the main component of natural gas - in a lattice-like cage of water molecules. Called the "ice that burns," this substance releases gaseous methane when it melts.
Washington, D.C. - Data from an innovative test conducted last year that used carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) injection to release natural gas from methane hydrates at a well on the Alaska North Slope is now available to researchers and the public on the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) website.
Methane hydrate – essentially molecules of natural gas trapped in ice crystals – represents a potentially enormous energy resource, possibly exceeding the combined energy content of all other fossil fuels. Hydrate resources in arctic sandstone reservoirs contain an in-place gas volume estimated to be in the 100’s of trillions of cubic feet (TCF), while hydrate in marine sands is estimated to contain 1,000’s to 10,000’s of TCF, and hydrate dispersed through marine mud is estimated to contain 100,000’s of TCF. In addition to the immense resource, CO2 injection into methane hydrate deposits is a technology that can potentially both release an energy resource while permanently storing carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in partnership with other nations and industry, has played a leading role in developing technologies to evaluate how to safely recover these methane hydrate energy resources in order to provide new supplies of clean-burning natural gas. These resources occur in a variety of forms in sediments within and below thick permafrost in Arctic regions, and in the subsurface of continental waters with a depth of 1,500 feet or greater. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has estimated a potentially recoverable resource of 85 trillion cubic feet of gas in favorable hydrate accumulations on the Alaska North Slope alone.
NETL, the research laboratory of DOE’s Office of Fossil Energy (FE), participated in gas hydrate field production trials in early 2012 in partnership with ConocoPhillips and the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corp. (JOGMEC). This test well (known as Iġnik Sikumi, Inupiat for “Fire in the Ice”) represented the first test of a CO2 exchange technology that was developed by ConocoPhillips and the University of Bergen, Norway. In the test, a small volume of CO2 and nitrogen was injected into the well and then the well was produced back to demonstrate that this mixture of injected gases could promote production of natural gas.
The large volumes of raw data from the test are currently under evaluation. The data now available from the test program include the rates and composition of gases both injected and produced, and information on changes in the reservoir pressure and temperature during the test. ConocoPhillips has further augmented the raw data through extensive quality control checks and integration of the various measurements to a standard time framework. The data are now fully available to all researchers and the public for analysis and evaluation.
Both the U.S. and Japan have committed to utilizing Arctic gas hydrate research opportunities as an important step in assessing the potential for gas hydrate production in deepwater marine settings, the location of the vast majority of global resources. DOE and JOGMEC have also collaborated on the development of specialized core sampling devices through the Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrates Joint Industry Project (an industry consortium managed by Chevron) conducting research on deepwater gas hydrate characterization technology.
In addition to the U.S./Japan collaboration, FE scientists have worked actively with researchers in Korea, India, China, Canada and other nations, as well as with USGS, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), and other federal agencies, to advance methane hydrate technology. The Methane Hydrate Research and Development Act of 2000 established DOE (through the efforts of FE and NETL) as the lead U.S. agency for methane hydrate research and development. | <urn:uuid:13f4d79c-f88e-4195-a583-1db8f92fa697> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://energy.gov/fe/articles/data-innovative-methane-hydrate-test-alaskas-north-slope-now | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926569 | 929 | 3.1875 | 3 |
What is the rock cycle explain breifly?
The rock cycle is the full "life" of a rock from its original formation to its demise through weathering, and rebirth through recrystallization and extrusion. The rock cycle was first described by the geologist James Hutton. The concept of the rock cycle is considered by many to be the basic outline of physical geology.
There are five stages in the typical rock cycle:
1. Crystallizing magma cools into "new" rocks (Why do we say "new" rocks? Are not all rocks the same age?).
2. Then weathering breaks the rocks into smaller fragments which are then transported via rivers or wind, then deposited at the beach.
3. This sediment then undergoes lithification, cementation, and compaction into new sedimentary rock.
4. After millions of years resting and accumulating on the sea floor, subduction finally pulls these sediments down where they are melted and metamorphized into new rock material.
5. Then this material is melted and extruded again at the surface of the Earth, the rock cycle is complete, and a "new" rock is born.
An entire rock's cycle may take millions or even billions of years, depending on where the rock is deposited and how long it is "stuck" in any of the five stages of the rock cycle.
There are three basic rock types in the rock cycle. The first rock type is igneous rock, which originates when molten lava cools and solidifies. This process is called crystallization, and may occur at depth or at the surface of the Earth. The igneous rock, now at the surface, is exposed to weathering and erosion. These processes break it down into sediment, which is then transported via river or wind and deposited as sediment at the bottom of the sea.
Lithification, which means "conversion into rock", of the sediment forms a new sedimentary rock, which is the second kind of rock in the cycle. The sedimentary rock will then eventually be subducted, or taken underground, into the crust of the Earth and melted into metamorphic rock.
This new metamorphic rock is the third kind of rock, and will then eventually be melted and then rise to the surface of the Earth (again) and be extruded as new rock.
This full cycle does not always take place, as this is an idealized rock cycle. What actually happens to each individual rock in reality can vary greatly. Some rocks take "short cuts" in the rock cycle. For example, a piece of lava that cools into a new rock may then immediately be re-melted and mixed with other rocks to become a new metamorphic rock variety; all of this without ever being a sedimentary rock. | <urn:uuid:64160f9d-8edd-45ec-979a-15bb0f378bc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.expertsmind.com/questions/what-is-the-rock-cycle-explain-briefly-30160598.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947737 | 579 | 3.859375 | 4 |
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Thinking Allowed 2016: A special programme on Pierre BourdieuMonday, 27th June 2016 00:15 - BBC Radio 4This special episode of Thinking Allowed explores the ideas of French socialist Pierre Bourdieu. Read more: Thinking Allowed 2016: A special programme on Pierre Bourdieu
Thinking Allowed 2016: A special programme on Pierre BourdieuAvailable for over a yearThis special episode of Thinking Allowed explores the ideas of French socialist Pierre Bourdieu. Read more: Thinking Allowed 2016: A special programme on Pierre Bourdieu
OpenLearn Live: 27th June 2016The musician who aimed to take a mop to power. Then more free learning through the day. Watch now: OpenLearn Live: 27th June 2016
Take the photographic memory testCan you capture scenes just by looking at them? Find out with our photographic memory test. Launch now: Take the photographic memory test
The value of coffeeThis free course explores the economic and cultural value of coffee. You will follow the chain of... Try: The value of coffee now
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What causes pain and how do we stop it? This free course, Pain and Aspirin, looks at how the human body responds to the release of certain chemicals and as a result feels pain. Pain can be reduced by inhibiting the formation of such chemicals and you will learn how the molecular structure of aspirin has been formulated to help in this process.
After studying this course, you should be able to:
- demonstrate general knowledge and understanding of some of the basic facts, concepts and principles relating to the development of medicines
- demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the science behind the development of some drugs to achieve particular tasks
- demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how chemical bonding determines the properties of compounds and provides an explanation for the mode of action of drugs
- apply this knowledge and understanding to address familiar and unfamiliar situations
- express unit concepts in an objective and factually correct way.
- Current section: Introduction
- Learning outcomes
- 1 Ouch – that hurts!
- 1.1 Why does it hurt?
- 1.2 How does it hurt?
- 1.3 The aspirin story
- 1.4 The molecules involved
- 1.5 Some chemistry involving esters
- 1.6 How does aspirin relieve pain?
- 1.7 Enzymes
- 1.8 Enter aspirin!
- Keep on learning
Study this free course
Enrol to access the full course, get recognition for the skills you learn, track your progress and on completion gain a statement of participation to demonstrate your learning to others. Make your learning visible!
Pain and aspirin
In this course you will find out that the sensation of pain is caused by the release of a chemical called prostaglandin that stimulates the nerve endings and sends an electrical message to the brain. Inhibiting the formation of prostaglandin reduces pain and we will see, by looking at the specific shape of the molecules involved, how aspirin can so inhibit the formation of prostaglandin. To make the most of the material of this course you will need to use an organic molecular modelling kit such as the one that is supplied by Molymod™ to Open University students who study the module that this course comes from.
This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open University course :.
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Originally published: Thursday, 24th March 2016
Last updated on: Thursday, 24th March 2016
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All our alternative formats are free for you to download, for more information about the different formats we offer please see our FAQs. The most frequently used are Word (for accessibility), PDF (for print) and ePub and Kindle to download to eReaders*.
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*Please note you will need an ePub and Mobi reader for these formats. | <urn:uuid:93f98f6c-8709-480a-bc1e-5d575f5eb02f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/biology/pain-and-aspirin/content-section-0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876825 | 1,198 | 2.796875 | 3 |
You examine the interfaces which a particular layer implements. All layers implement ILayer. If you open up the documentation link for the interface, you will see which classes implement this general interface.
Common layer types (in context of your question) are FeatureLayer (implements IFeatureLayer among others), GroupLayer (ICompositeLayer, IGroupLayer) etc. You get the idea - when exploring the plethora of interfaces layers can implement, it's good to refer to the list of classes implementing ILayer as a great starting point.
As for the second part, layers which are not connected due to an inaccessible data source will typically be marked as invalid (red exclamation mark). The ILayer.Valid indicates whether this is or is not the case.
Finally, the third part of your question. Layer indices are assigned either at the top level (the index which goes as a parameter to IMap.Layer) or within a particular layer container, e. g. a composite (group) layer. The only way to get retrieve the index for an existing layer is to loop through the map or a composite layer and compare the items. This will work only at a single level and will not work reliably when layers are nested with group layers. That being said, layer indices are generally not a good idea to refer to layers. | <urn:uuid:9775e994-4c36-4c9e-be5f-7129687275a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gis.stackexchange.com/questions/12855/finding-toc-layers-type-layer-grouplayer-and-layerindex-of-a-layer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.874972 | 271 | 2.546875 | 3 |
No return to the moon; unmanned trips to Mars; the possibility of private companies launching government payloads on commercial rockets--what has the U.S. space program come to? The United States’ space program has always been notable, but the Obama Administration is making some major changes including shutting down the moon shuttle program, Constellation. NASA’s new direction seems to be pointing toward more research heavy and un-manned space exploration. Budget constraints have forced the scaling down of the big dreams and ambitions of NASA, but can man still make an impact in space with limited funds? What does it all mean for the space program? NASA Administrator Charles Bolden is here to discuss the new budget, research programs and the future of NASA.
Charles Bolden, NASA Administrator, and former astronaut and Major General in the U.S. Marine Corps | <urn:uuid:bd3c088b-2b29-41b9-97f8-d74b50c33ba5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scpr.org/programs/patt-morrison/2010/06/11/15304/to-infinity-and-beyond-the-chief-of-nasa-talks-spa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92289 | 172 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and
sequence of the .... In some books the chapters are grouped into bigger
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The simplest building blocks of a good story are found in the Three Act Structure. Separated by Plot Points, its Act 1 (Beginning), Act 2 (Middle), and Act 3 (End) ...
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It's critical to understand these elements and how they are related. 1. Plot. There are many definitions of plot, but plot is essentially the story, or the events that ...
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May 17, 2010 | <urn:uuid:8289c340-cc69-49e6-8c92-f79f142542f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ask.com/web?qsrc=6&o=102140&oo=102140&l=dir&gc=1&qo=popularsearches&ad=dirN&q=Parts+of+a+Novel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.860488 | 181 | 3.015625 | 3 |
See Medscape article here
You may use my access account ... User ID = "shula27" and password ="shula" to see the article. It is also reprinted below:
'Safe' Blood Lead Levels Can Cause Cognitive Deficits
BALTIMORE (Reuters Health) May 01 - Lead can cause cognitive deficits in children even when blood levels are well below the officially sanctioned 10 µg/dL mark, according to study results presented Monday at the Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting in Baltimore.
The concentration for defining lead intoxication has been lowered progressively from 60 µg/dL to 10 µg/dL over the past three decades, explained Dr. Bruce Lanphear from Children's Hospital Medical Center in Cincinnati, Ohio. But he described the choice of 10 µg as arbitrary, saying that it remains unclear whether lower levels are actually harmless.
Dr. Lanphear and his associates measured blood lead levels during the first 5 years of life and IQ at 60 months in 276 children and adjusted their comparisons for factors with a recognized influence on child IQ (sex, birthweight, maternal IQ, in utero tobacco exposure, and so on). Dr. Lanphear reported that the mean blood lead level at 60 months was 6.1 µg/dL and the mean IQ was 90.
The mean blood lead level rose from 1.9 µg/dL at 6 months of age to peak at 9.3 µg/dL at 24 months, when 33.8% of children had levels above the 10 µg/dL "safe" cutoff, Dr. Lanphear said.
"There was a consistent inverse association between blood lead level and IQ," Dr. Lanphear noted, "which proved statistically significant beginning at 36 months of age."
Overall, Dr. Lanphear said, there was a 5.7-point drop in IQ for each 10-µg/dL increase in blood lead level. But among children with lower lead levels, the effect of rising lead levels was more striking: an 11.5-point drop for those whose levels were initially below 10 µg/dL and more than a 15-point drop for children whose lead levels were initially below 5 µg/dL.
Moreover, contrary to previous suggestions, concurrent lead levels proved better predictors of cognitive defects than did lead concentrations earlier in childhood, the results indicated.
Dr. Lanphear urged a primary prevention strategy aimed at eliminating lead from housing before children are exposed. "We need to stop using children as biological markers for substandard housing practices," he said, "and to test the safety and efficacy of existing lead hazard controls." | <urn:uuid:e7521276-7c2b-4923-bbff-a5b25ead0b30> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.feingold.org/lead.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958246 | 543 | 2.796875 | 3 |
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