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Every one loves balloons. Round, colourful and they explode with a bang. Have you wondered why the balloons we blow ourselves don't float, while some float up and away? Hold your breath...the secret is about to be revealed.
Floating in general
We are all comfortable with things that float in water. We see that happen every day - the paper ships we send floating in rainwater and the plastic toys that keep us company in the bath tub. In fact, in swimming pools we have seen people float in water. The same reason why things float in water applies to air as well.
Let's say that you take a plastic 1-liter soda bottle, empty out the soft drink, put the cap back on it (so you have a sealed bottle full of air), tie a string around it like you would a balloon, and dive down to the bottom of a swimming pool with it. You can sit at the bottom of the pool with it, holding the string, and it will act just like a helium balloon does in air. If you let go of the string the bottle will quickly rise to the surface of the water.
The reason that this soda bottle "balloon" wants to rise in the water is because water is a fluid and the 1-liter bottle is displacing one liter of that fluid. In other words, because we introduced the bottle in the pool, the bottle pushed away some amount of water to make space for it.
The bottle and the air in it weigh perhaps an ounce at most (1 liter of air weighs about a gram, and the bottle is very light as well). The liter of water it displaces, however, weights about 1,000 grams (2.2 pounds or so). Because the weight of the bottle and its air is less than the weight of the water it displaces, the bottle floats. This is the Law of Buoyancy.
The Helium Balloons
Now that we understand why things float, let's get back to balloons. The reason why some balloons float while others don't is because of the presence of a gas called Helium. Balloons filled with Helium float in air, while the one with just air don't.
Now, Helium balloons work by the same law of buoyancy. In this case, the Helium balloon that you hold by a string is floating in a "pool" of air (when you stand underwater at the bottom of a swimming pool, you are standing in a "pool of water" maybe 10 feet deep -- when you stand in an open field you are standing at the bottom of a "pool of air" that is many miles deep). The Helium balloon displaces an amount of air (just like the empty bottle displaces an amount of water). As long as the helium plus the balloon is lighter than the air it displaces, the balloon will float in the air. | <urn:uuid:c5889992-e771-4a25-9905-c3efc16f1f2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.humantouchofchemistry.com/why-do-some-balloons-float-upwards-and-others-dont.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952635 | 590 | 3.375 | 3 |
Sorting Out the New South City
From The Mason Historiographiki
Thomas W. Hanchett. Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975. Charlotte: University of North Carolina Press:1998. pp. 379. $34.95. ISBN 0807846775
In his book Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975, Thomas Hanchett uses Charlotte, North Carolina as a case study to explore the process through which segregation became solidified. In this book segregation describes not only racial separation, but also class separation as well as industrial and residential separation. Looking at Charlotte’s long history, Hanchett shows how the city moved from a salt and pepper intermingling of races, classes, and building types in the 1870s to the 1900s, to a semi-segregated patchwork pattern of zones for each sub-group from the 1900s to the 1920s, and finally to a fully segregated sector pattern in the 1920s to the mid-1970s.
The development of each of these patterns in Charlotte was the result of national, Southern, and local events. Charlotte’s early industrialization and railroad development made it keenly situated to take off as an industrial hub following the Civil War. This development combined with the South’s desire to keep older Colonial models of land development intact to give Charlotte a diverse downtown with an intermingling of races, classes, and building types. However, as factories grew, land and mill owners began to construct housing specifically for the workers; this separated the worker from the owner and contributed to a shift from a close working relationship to one which was distant. This physical distance combined with class conflict and social unrest in the 1890s when the Populist Party and Republican Party joined forces to oppose the establishment. This argument is similar to C. Vann Woodward's regarding when and why Jim Crow laws and segregation began.
Now afraid of the threat of political usurpation by working class blacks and whites, elite whites set out to restrict lower class voting for both races through disfranchisement and residential segregation, removing the threat politically and physically. These forces came together to create a patchwork pattern of separation across the city. But these divides were not yet wholly solidified or completely zoned off from one another. This complete separation would not occur until the federal policies of the New Deal and post World War II investment through the Home Owners Loan Corporation, the Federal Housing Administration, the Veterans’ Administration, highway aid, and tax code changes each came together to insist on homogeneity, “economic stability, and freedom from adverse influences” as ideals.(pp 232) Each of these influences effectively removed black from white, rich from poor, and industrial from residential with their discriminatory practices. It was not until the mid-1970’s that changes in voting patterns and the rise in social movements, such as the Civil Rights Movement and neighborhood organizations, that people would begin questioning the preeminence of the sorted out neighborhood and being pushing for race and class intermingling.
Alan S. Brody
Sorting Out the New South City follows a long line of urban place histories seeking to identify the key influences shaping the city and its inhabitants. As historians, we must accept this idea of cause and effect and in urban history, this paradigm works especially well and geographic changes combined with plentiful sources result in a well researched monograph. Imagine any well researched city history, such as Osofsky’s Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890 to 1930 to Kevin Kruse’s White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism you can see how historians have tried to grapple with the issues of race, class, power and place. The New South is also a concept that has been challenged by Lassiter and Crespino among others who argue that no such constraint should distract the historiography. In other words, there is nothing distinctive about the South and studies ok Northern cities have confirmed. Regardless of the ones historical orientation, Hanchett reminds us that the success of a city was not inevitable and that the physical arrangement and neighborhood groupings were subject to change over time.
The city of Charlotte, NC started with a wharf and mills and grew to a reasonable size for a preindustrial city, especially after the Civil War. The city was divided in to Wards and the patchwork nature of these meant that Blacks and whites lived in mixed communities, although wealthy people were somewhat segregated. Institutions like schools and businesses also practiced a form of de facto segregation as well, however, as business became larger and mill hands needed places to live, pocket neighborhoods arose. By 1917, there were very clear Back neighborhoods such as Brooklyn and others that what were once suburban areas were now being brought in to the city. Washington Heights was a streetcar suburb that catered to affluent ‘strivers’ as they were known. Piedmont Park was the white equivalent and deed restrictions helped ensure the separation or sorting out process. Myer’s Park was another planned suburb, this one influenced by the powerful George Stephens, a wealthy developer. The gap between the owners and the workers, Black and white widened to include not only parallel racial areas but class based ones as well, raising all of the inevitable questions about property values.
The downtown area also grew and it is here where the author makes his best case for social and business factors affecting growth. While it seems a simple concept, that business would bring growth, it is important to note that it was not volume, rather it was the new types of business that attracted shoppers as trolleys delivered them for shopping and recreation downtown. A financial corridor also gave the impression that Charlotte was a city worth seeing and as historian Peter Bacon Hales pointed out boosterism was an important part of city growth. It was actually education that completed the sorting out process, the new downtown was the heart of the city bit students came and went from very different places. Tech High trained white blue collar students, Second Ward High served the Black community and Central High taught wealthy white students. “The precisely chosen locations of Charlottes first high schools summed up the great changes that had taken place in the New South city.” (202). Hanchett is correct, just as rapid urbanization transformed the cityscape, the sorting out process was also completed, the same case be made for New York and its immigrants. Analysis of the Blacks leaving for Northern cities is a missing part of this story as are the patterns and roles of other ethnic groups.
While the focus is on Charlotte and its inhabitants, city planning and the role of the federal government conclude the book, noting that more than a transformation from private to municipal hands, public housing and subdivision services all played an important role in helping to establish the boundaries of Charlotte. Redlining and covenants did what the municipal government did not in raising the cost of home ownership and helping keep Charlotte a city that was well divided in to ‘sectors’. Hanchett writes in a cohesive and logical manner and his chronological approach works well. He seems enamored of several of the wealthy leaders, however, his sources may have limited him as well and it is helpful to see how generations of families influenced the city. In sum, this is an excellent model for looking at how changes in the physical world reflected changes in the social world.
Richard Hardesty, Fall 2011
Thomas W. Hanchett examined the forces that molded the evolution of land use in Charlotte over a 100-year period. During the 1870s, Charlotte’s land use exhibited a salt-and-pepper quality, as blue-collar workers, white-collar workers, whites, and blacks lived side-by-side. Neighborhoods became clearly defined by the 1920s. However, white neighborhoods adjoined black neighborhoods while working class communities rested next to elite communities, illustrating the limited scope of separation. Socio-economic divisions grew significantly by the 1970s. Now resembling wedge-shaped sectors, Charlotte’s land use patterns showed that white and black neighborhoods rested on opposite ends of the city, as did working class and elite neighborhoods (3). Scholars like Elizabeth Blackmar and Sean Wilentz attributed the evolution to industrialization. Hanchett agreed, but, in examining Charlotte, he further argued that “race and historical context gave the sorting process a distinctly Southern flavor” (9-12, 260).
After the Civil War, Southern cities like Charlotte started to pursue Northern-style industrialization, which initiated the sorting out of the city’s built environment. Yet, as Hanchett showed, “Dixie leaders did not adopt Northern ideas wholesale. They endeavored to pick and choose those things that would enhance, not remake, their familiar society” (48). The establishment of the Alpha, Ada, and Victor cotton mills in 1889 demonstrated a shift in land use. Unlike the Charlotte Cotton Mill, which rested within the existing town, the Alpha, Ada, and Victor mills stood outside the urban grid (51). Charlotte nonetheless exhibited only limited change, as illustrated by the creation of Dilworth. Set on Charlotte’s edge and served by trolleys, Dilworth appeared like a Northern streetcar neighborhood. However, the neighborhood’s layout showed an unwillingness to break with local planning customs, highlighting the ambivalence Charlotteans held toward modern urban designs (54, 62, 65).
Social and class dynamics further fueled the sorting out process in Charlotte. As Hanchett noted, the city’s social structure represented a pyramid, whereby small farmers, working class whites, and African Americans showed deference to the elite (14, 17). Populists and their Republican allies turned Charlotte’s social pyramid upside down, forming a Fusion ticket that gave a political voice to the dispossessed. In 1896, for instance, Mecklenburg County Democrats lost every countywide contest to the Fusionists. The Populist challenge led Democrats to disenfranchise African Americans and poor whites, thus enabling elite Charlotteans to return to power (70, 83, 84-7). However, the Populist challenge had ramifications on the city’s built environment. The social tensions of the 1890s helped facilitate the development of sizable blue-collar and black neighborhoods, while “[a]ffluent buyers showed a decided preference for residential areas away from African Americans and, as critically, away from factories and workers” (90, 116, 146).
Yet, the federal government represented the strongest factor in Charlotte’s reorganization. Hanchett noted that several New Deal programs “explicitly promoted the ideal of racial and economic homogeneity. Others could be used to that end by local leaders who were so predisposed” (224-5). The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), for example, provided funds for projects that could show the strict separation of race and income group. Moreover, local officials used Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) and Civil Works Administration (CWA) funds to improve the built environment in white, high-end neighborhoods like Myers Park and Independence Park (227-8, 232-3). The role of the federal government led Hanchett to conclude that the evolution of land use represented “the product of particular historical forces, which shift kaleidoscopically with the passing years” (257).
Hanchett overstated the importance of Charlotte’s transition from salt-and-pepper to patchwork land usage. While he showed that “the dwellings of owners and workers, rich and poor, and even blacks and whites still coexisted in close proximity,” existing scholarship showed that Charlotte did not differ significantly from other American cities in this regard (37). Local Attachments noted the close proximity of Jamaica Plain’s diverse population, as did The Park and the People with Seneca Village and “Pigtown.” Here, Hanchett could have improved his analysis had he explored why the transition did not occur sooner, given how antebellum slave revolts increased racial tensions in the South. Nonetheless, Hanchett’s flaw does not detract from an otherwise clear, organized, and persuasive study.
Hanchett succeeded in adding depth to the historiography surrounding the development of the urban environment. The Park and the People showed how elite New Yorkers sought to use a public park as a means of uplifting the poor and other inferior groups. Like Blackmar and Roy Rosenzweig, Hanchett showed that political, cultural, and social factors shaped the built environment. The difference, however, rested in the motivations elite Charlotteans had in shaping the urban landscape. They did not want to use the built environment as a means of uplifting inferior people. Instead, elite Charlotteans sought to shape land usage as a means of separating inferior people, especially after the Populist uprising in the 1890s. The greatest strength of Hanchett’s study thus rested in his ability to present land usage as a means of differentiating urbanization in the South from urbanization in the North.
Lindsey Bestebreurtje, Fall 2012
For me this was one of the strongest books of the semester thus far. Hanchett’s combination of municipal and federal law, architecture, the built environment, and community planning to show how segregation changed was compelling. The understanding of “segregation” to mean division not just between races, but also between classes and also building types was also an interesting and dynamic understanding of the push for homogeneity and separation. Additionally, Hanchett’s explanation of the ways in which national trends, such as Progressivism, mill towns, and zoning ordinances, had particularly Southern flairs and were not inherited unchanged from the North showed a complex understanding of Southern culture. Another great strength of this book was Hanchett’s demonstration of not just push factors which removed African Americans and lower class whites from certain neighborhoods, but also the pull factors which drew them to particular areas over others. In this way these disfranchised groups were given more agency.
Despite its many strengths, this book did have a few weaknesses. One weakness was that Hanchett describes Charlotte’s development, especially its economic strength and its salt and pepper integration through the early 1900s, as unique. But he does not go into details about just how unique Charlotte is or how it compares to other cities, leaving me uncertain about how common these patterns of development were for the South. Perhaps the greatest of these weaknesses was that, with the exception of city planners, there were no people in this book. Hanchett talked very little about the individuals who were impacted by changes in residential and business districts and the rising tide of segregation. This weakness for Hanchett actually points to one of the ways I would use this book as a jumping off point for my own research. I would hope to use similar sources and frameworks as Hanchett, but with the addition of analysis of the people who lived in these neighborhoods and a closer examination of the houses themselves.
Sheri A. Huerta, Fall 2012
Hanchett analyses land use patterns within a sociopolitical context to understand how Charlotte, North Carolinians determined “a good place to live” (p. 3). Hanchett’s ability to weave seamlessly city growth with national, state, and local politics and broad cultural factors makes this work an invaluable resource not only for urban historians, but also for social, political, and cultural historians. One crucial argument Hanchett presents is the changing nature of land use from salt-and-pepper to clusters to patchwork and then sector-style districts. By placing the changing structure of city growth and industrialization within a political framework, Hanchett explains how early integrated “salt-and-pepper” residential patterns reflected a limited emphasis on race and residence or property values. According to Hanchett, the perceived disruption of social hierarchies due to the political power of the Populist-Republican Fusion in the 1890s created a need for segregation and purposeful exclusion in zoning as a means of protecting racial groups. Hanchett also explains the growth of working class neighborhoods as a result of Charlotte’s mill owners creating “mill villages” in the late nineteenth century. Company housing not only enabled employers to “monitor” employees, but also “encouraged millhands to feel traditional bonds of obligation to their employers” (p. 53). This mill village concept contrasts sharply with business interests in the Second World War that provided employment but no housing options. The progression to clustering, patchwork, and then sector patterns reflected concerted movements of people and businesses to certain areas for financial, racial, or aesthetic reasons.
Hanchett’s discussion of Edward Dilworth Latta’s suburb development of Dilworth provides a fascinating view into the suburbanization movement. Created due to the ability of trolley service to transport workers and consumers from residential areas to commercial areas, Dilworth also reflected a utopian concept of suburban living with integrated living, landscaping, amusement parks, and trolley service during the late nineteenth century, decades before suburbia peaked in commercial or residential importance. Hanchett’s analysis of the Dilworth division challenges traditional “white flight” constructs of suburban developments with alternate motives.
Hanchett’s greatest contribution is to the debate over “what constitutes desirable urban form” (p. 257). At various times close proximity to railroad tracks or factories meant higher value property. Residences along busy thoroughfares also were deemed high status due to their prominence in the early decades of the twentieth century. African Americans clustered close to schools and churches as a source of value. After segregation, neighborhoods placed different markers on desirable locations and city planners used zoning, restrictive deed covenants, Home Owners’ Loan Corporation ratings, slum clearances, or suburbs to declare desirable or undesirable neighborhoods. Hanchett’s contribution is to place these decisions within sociopolitical movements not only on a local level, but in terms of regional trends or national politics. In the New South City, urban development and restructuring of land use constituted much more than financial decisions. Hanchett provides a thoughtful and meticulously argued work that considers the changing perspectives that guided the creation and recreation of urban and suburban built environments.
Alex Bradshaw; Fall 2012
In the 1970s, the city of Charlotte, North Carolina was the site of the Supreme Court’s nationwide test case for court-ordered school busing, which reflected the divided nature of the city at the time. Just as the Supreme Court used Charlotte to represent the modern South, Hanchett uses Charlotte to represent new southern urban areas, charting the growth and modification patterns of land use from the 1870s to the 1970s. Using maps and traditional historical documentation, Hanchett builds upon a base comprising three different social science models of urban growth to challenge traditional assumptions about the character of southern cities during the latter part of the nineteenth century and most of the twentieth century. Hanchett argues that, contrary to prevailing assumptions about the nature of social and economic relations in the South since emancipation, segregation based on race and class did not characterize the land use in the urban South unrelentingly. Charlotte, and a number of other southern cities, resembled a scattering of demographic salt and pepper until the ultra-reactionary 1890s, when the city began to become “sorted out,” dividing along lines of economic and racial difference, eventually assuming the appearance of a “patchwork quilt.” During the “salt and pepper” era, residents of Charlotte intermingled in surprising ways: the wealthy and the poor, the black and the white, businesses and residences, all lived comfortably next to each other. At the end of the nineteenth century, though, influenced by the availability of housing, services, employment, and transportation, clearly defined neighborhoods began to emerge. Hanchett explains the three different social science models that have been used to explain such “sorting out” throughout the twentieth century; the “concentric ring” model, the “sector theory” model, and the “walking city/streetcar city” model. Although these three models had validity as explanations of Charlotte’s organic growth, it was economic and social change, catalyzed by the turn away from the agriculturally-dominated South of the past and turn toward industrialism that had the greatest influence over the city’s historical geography. The structure that industrialism brought to all aspects of the lives of people who were encountering it for the first time governed urban land use as well. Small businesses grew into larger businesses and moved out from the city center, it became newly important to live in close proximity to the workplace, particularly for those who did not have the resources needed to make commuting a viable option; homes for laborers were built by employers who wanted to maintain the separation, control, and reliability of their workers, and black people and white people were offered and denied residence in particular places with ever-increasing regularity.
Megan Brett, Spring 2014
In addition to attempting to create a history of Southern urbanization and suburbanization patterns, Hanchett is clearly engaging in a debate within the field of urban development history. He rejects the ring models which place transportation as the key factor in expansion and change, arguing that economic changes were the key factor. In this book, he successfully refutes the ring model arguments, but the economic change he describes is as much the result of the action of a group of small group of elites as overall changes in the market. As Alan S. Brody points out above. Hanchett frequently returns to these elite white men when describing changes in the city; this may be a reflection of the limitations of the sources, but it implies that the other populations in the city lacked any form agency, not just the vote.
One of the strengths of this work is Hanchett’s ability to interrogate non-textual sources and interpret them for the reader. His use of maps and plans helps to support his analysis of a shift from “salt and pepper” to a “patchwork,” and his reading of architectural styles is both engaging and informative. While some of the black and white figures might have benefited from labels (especially for those with poorer eyesight), Hanchett’s figure captions are always informative and contribute to the overall quality of the text.
The greatest failing of the work is the incomplete contextualization of Charlotte, both in urban development and as part of a state, region, and nation. As Richard Hardesty points out, many of the trends which Hanchett identifies in Charlotte are not unique to the city. Hanchett does not always make clear whether the changes he discusses in Charlotte were ahead of, behind, or on par with national and regional trends. While it is useful to have the comparisons with the Northern urban patterns of which the Charlotte elites were aware, the lack of comparisons to other Southern cities makes it hard to determine how many of the decisions of that elite were unique to Charlotte and how many were part of a regional urbanization trend. Hanchett is also spotty when engaging with the history of North Carolina. His total omission of the Wilmington Riot of 1898, particularly when he is making the case for why the elite wanted to separate the communities, is baffling. While the afterword does something to alleviate this decontextualization, it is insufficient.
Daniel Curry, spring 2014
In his book, Sorting Out the New South City: Race, Class and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975, Thomas Hanchett uses the example of Charlotte, NC to convincingly argue that “patterns of racial segregation [in the south] changed considerably over time,” did not come into existence until the beginning of the 20th Century and intensified over the course of the century (p. 116). 19th Century Charlotte was a single community where residences, businesses and individuals of different races and classes intermixed throughout the city. But as the 20th Century progressed, the city became a collection of separate communities divided by class and race which were physically separated from places of business.
He convincingly explains that the impetus for this change was the combination of an influx of blue collar workers and the political “Fusion” of Populists and African Americans which threatened the dominance of the ruling white elites of the city. He describes methods used by elites to enact segregation in the city such as the establishment of a city manager with an “at large” city council, disfranchisement practices, zoning and the use of residential covenants dealing with housing prices and racial exclusion. These practices allowed the ruling elite to maintain political control and shape the city to separate themselves in almost every way from lower class whites and African Americans as residences and public venues such as churches, stores and services moved out of the city center.
Despite his detailed analysis of events leading to these changes, one area lacking a full explanation was the influence and agency of “the region’s long-established black middle-class.” Hanchett describes how planners established “the fashionable black outpost” of Washington Heights and used the construction of “West Charlotte High School… [as an] additional magnet drawing ambitious African American families westward.” Despite his acknowledgement of a significant educated African American middle class, there is no discussion of their involvement in urban planning. He concludes that Washington Heights was established because “the black middle class was too tempting a market to ignore” (p. 235). Although an educated African American middle class did not have the ability to vote they would have economic influence within the community. To more fully tell the story of the creation of Washington Heights, Hanchett needs to address the role prominent African Americans had in influencing urban planning as well as funding for the high school and other public facilities. The quality of housing and public facilities in Washington Heights seems to be vastly different from descriptions of other African American communities in the Jim Crow South found in works such as Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan by Nancy MacLean and The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration by Isabel Wilkerson. While Hanchett’s analysis of urban development in Charlotte is impressive, the lack of analysis regarding the agency of non-white elites is glaring. | <urn:uuid:99a35ce4-cd2c-454b-908e-ee76cece9503> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/schrag/wiki/index.php?title=Sorting_Out_the_New_South_City | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958764 | 5,472 | 2.78125 | 3 |
From the white, sugary sands of Hawaii to the white, powdery slopes of the Sierra Nevada, Natural Sciences Professor Stephen Hart has his eye on climate change.
For the past two years, the professor, who’s affiliated with the Sierra Nevada Research Institute, has worked with student researchers at remote sites in the mountains. They manipulate the snowpack to see the effects of early snowmelt on the forest, from how it affects the nutrients in the soil and plant growth, to how greenhouse gases are emitted from the soil.
It’s all with the goal of designing better predictive tools, and they’ve gotten some surprising results.
Although Hart thought they’d find that the earlier the snowmelt, the more carbon dioxide would be released from the microorganisms in the soil – contributing to even more global warming –it appears to be just the opposite.
“The emissions are actually slowed down,” Hart said.
The researchers also found that earlier snowmelt has a longer-lasting effect than they had theorized – drier soil persisted for much of the summer growing season, impacting the forest plants’ growing season.
In Hawaii, Hart also studies the effects of climate change on the soils in the rain forests, and while he doesn’t have to worry about soil drying out there, he said studying the contrast between the two different ecosystems is fascinating and contributes to the global knowledge about climate change.
“We need to understand how warmer temperatures are affecting the ecosystems we live in – the crops, water availability, birds and animals – everything,” Hart said.
To manipulate the snowmelt, Hart and the other researchers, including his postdoctoral student Joey Blankinship, have tried different methods, from spreading black cloth over areas of snowpack, thinking it will pull in warmth (it actually slowed the melt) to spreading bags of black sand over the snow.
It took a few tries to come up with the method that warms the snow at rates that simulate those caused by global warming in the Sierra, so they can evaluate the effects of an earlier snowmelt on the forests.
They visited the remote sites more often in the spring and less often in the summer, relying on snowmobiles to get in and out.
Having wrapped up the data-gathering this summer, they will analyze all the information and prepare reports on what they’ve found. One research paper is being revised now, and the next one should be coming soon.
Then, Hart said, it’s a matter of deciding what to do next – expand the research to bigger sites? Move on to a new area? One project he’d like to get involved with is an international research network being formed to look at climate change in high-elevation ecosystems all over the world. The researchers will share data and create predictive models to see what’s happening globally.
“It’s a scary trajectory we’ve got the planet on. The rate of change in the climate is unprecedented. It is undeniable that we live in a warmer world, and we need to better understand the consequences of this warming on the sustainability of our planet,” Hart said. “We can’t wait until nature just shows us what happens – by then it will be too late.” | <urn:uuid:f8149e21-e608-484c-8a4d-03db500dac32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ucmerced.edu/news/snowy-sandy-research-explores-climate-change | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947832 | 689 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Possibly nowhere else in the performance engine world is there more misinformation, myth and downright false claims than in the ignition component aftermarket. Many manufacturers of these products prey on the naive, uninformed consumer. We will try to help you understand what is really going on and what works and what doesn't. This article addresses current production performance atmo and turbocharged engines.
The Ignition/Combustion Process
Many people think that when the sparkplug fires, the fuel/air mixture explodes instantaneously, driving the piston down. If this really happened, engines would last only a few minutes before they literally grenaded.
Let's examine the process and dynamics involved from the moment that the intake valve is fully open. With the piston moving down the bore, cylinder volume increases, cylinder pressure decreases, allowing the higher pressure in the intake tract to push the fuel/air mixture into the cylinder. As the piston starts back up and the intake valve closes, cylinder volume decreases and cylinder pressure increases.
When the crankshaft reaches about 30 degrees before top dead center, the spark jumps the gap between the plug electrodes. The purpose of the spark is to raise the temperature of a very small portion of the fuel/air mixture above its ignition temperature. This is the point where true combustion begins. As the exothermic reaction starts, the mixture directly adjacent to the spark plug is also ignited and the process rapidly progresses out from the plug in a roughly spherical shape.
At about 20 degrees BTDC, the rate of heat release causes the cylinder pressure to rise above the compression line which is what the cylinder pressure would be at a given piston position without ignition. Notice that it has taken 10 degrees of crank rotation to generate this pressure level. This is known as the ignition-delay period.
The rate of pressure rise is a function of the rate of energy release vs. the rate of change of combustion space or cylinder volume. The rate of energy release is directly related to the flame propagation rate and the area of reacting surface. Flame speed is dependant on fuel/air ratio, charge density, charge homogeny, fuel characteristics, charge turbulence and reaction with inert gasses and the metal combustion chamber, cylinder walls and piston.
In technical terms, the pressure rise is referred to as flagregation. No two combustion cycles progress at the same rate or at a uniform rate. Some start slow and end slow. Some start slow and end fast. Some start fast and slow down. Generally, only the ones that end too fast will lead to knocking as the rapid pressure rise may happen too soon with the cylinder volume still decreasing or not increasing fast enough. Usually, not all cylinders will knock at the same time or on the same cycle because of this.
By the time the crank is at about 5 degrees ATDC, the cylinder pressure is about double that of the compression line. From this point to roughly 15 degrees ATDC the combustion process is very rapid due to the increasing area of inflamed mixture and the high rate of energy release. The peak cylinder pressure (PCP) occurs between 10 and 20 degrees ATDC on most engines and the combustion process is complete by 20 to 25 degrees ATDC.. The peak temperature within the combustion gasses will reach somewhere around 5000 degrees Fahrenheit and pressures may be anywhere from 300 to 2500psi depending on the engine.
Obviously it is very important to have the crankpin at an advantageous angle before maximum cylinder pressure is achieved in order that maximum force is applied through the piston and rod to the crankshaft. If the mixture was ignited too early, much of the force would simply try to compress the piston, rod and crank without performing any useful work. In a worst case scenario, the cylinder pressure would be rapidly rising before the piston reached TDC which would have the cylinder volume decreasing at the same time. This will often result in knock or detonation which is counterproductive to maximum power and engine life.
Detonation or knock is defined as a form of combustion which involves too rapid a rate of energy release producing excessive temperatures and pressures, adversely affecting the conversion of chemical energy into useful work. Detonation usually involves ignition and literal explosion of the end gases, these being the gases not in contact with the initial spark or the progressing flame front.
If PCP was achieved too late, again, less work would be performed. Most of the useful work is done in the first 100 degrees of crank rotation. Most combustion must be done with the piston in close proximity to the chamber so that the minimum amount of heat (energy) is lost into the water jackets and the maximum amount of energy is delivered to the crankshaft.
Let's examine the different variables regarding flame speed separately and their effects:
Gasoline can be ignited in a non-stratified charge type engine between limits of roughly 10 to 1 (rich) and 20 to 1 (lean) air/fuel ratios. Most gasolines will burn fastest at ratios in the 12.5 to 13.5 to 1 range. The stoichiometric or chemically correct ratio is around 14.7 to 1 which also results in the lowest average emissions. Best power is obtained with a rich mixture of around 12 to 13.5 to 1.
Charge density is affected by the pressure and temperature of the charge. The higher the charge density, the more rapidly it will burn.
This refers to how uniformly the air and fuel molecules are distributed in the charge. This is a very important factor with regards to successful ignition. If there is a big lump of fuel molecules with no air present between the spark plug electrodes or vice versa, at the time that the spark jumps, there will be no ignition. If the charge between the electrodes is leaner than 20 to 1 or richer than 11 to 1, there is little chance for ignition. Ideally, the molecules throughout the whole charge should be evenly spaced and distributed. This allows for a smooth rate of burn. If the charge is randomly mixed, there will be local variations in flame front propagation rates which will not produce maximum power as these may advance or delay when PCP is achieved. This phenomenon is known as ignition probability.
Because the charge is in constant motion from the valve and port flow characteristics along with inertial effects and piston motion, the mixing of fuel and air molecules is dynamic. From one split second to the next, the actual mixture and molecular distribution changes. This can mean in some instances, that if a very short duration spark was initiated at one instant, the mixture might not ignite, whereas only a half millisecond later, conditions might be perfect for ignition. For this reason, very short duration sparks are undesirable. A long duration spark or multispark ignition system will ensure the highest ignition probability.
Low compression engines usually run well on low octane fuel because they have relatively low charge densities and the burn rate within these confines is usually predictable. A low compression engine switched to 118 octane race fuel will always lose power unless the ignition advance is increased to compensate for the slower burn rates. Even then, a low CR engine may lose power with the timing optimized for high octane fuel.
A high compression or turbocharged engine operates with much higher charge densities and consequently faster burn rates. The high octane fuel permits these rapid burn rates because it has far less tendency to autoignite and detonate under these conditions. As a result, high compression and turbo engines cannot realize their full hp potential without high octane fuel.
Inert effects constitute 2 areas. Residual exhaust gasses left over from the last exhaust stroke tend to dilute the fresh charge and slow down burn rates. Camshaft timing, port flow and exhaust backpressure will affect charge dilution. Nitrogen is the major constituent of air and is essentially inert in the combustion process. Its presence substantially lowers the burn rate but since there is little that we can do about it, it is generally ignored. Nitrous oxide can be injected along with extra fuel to increase charge density as it contains a much higher concentration of oxygen than does air. Oxygen is the essential element in the combustion process.
The second inert effect concerns the relatively cold, metal engine parts in direct contact with the combustion gasses. Combustion will not easily take place in areas where the gas temperatures are well below the ignition temperature. This property is often used to advantage on engines to reduce the tendency to knock.
On many engines, a squish or quench area is used to negate combustion in certain areas to avoid knock. By having a matched area where the piston and combustion chamber come in close proximity at TDC, the gasses are kept cool enough so that they will not ignite until the piston has moved down the bore and cylinder volumes are increasing. This keeps the rate of pressure rise below the knock limit. Some people are dismayed when they install a thicker head gasket to lower the CR and have knocking worse than before. This is because they have negated the designed-in quench effect. A large squish area also tends to promote increased chamber turbulence which is important for mixing and power at high rpm.
Combustion Chamber Shape and Spark Plug Location
Combustion chambers and spark plug location and the number of plugs will have a marked effect on the time required to complete the combustion process. A large open chamber like a hemi which has a high surface to volume ratio, will combust more slowly than a wedge or modern pentroof chamber simply because it has more cold, metal molecules in contact with the combustion gasses which tends to slow reaction rates. For this reason, these chambers will require that the spark be initiated sooner to achieve PCP at the correct time.
The slowest combusting chamber would be an open chamber with a large bore size and the spark plug at one edge of the chamber. The flame front has a long distance to cover to complete combustion. By placing the plug in the center of the chamber, you halve the distance that the front needs to travel and will be able to reduce the spark advance needed to achieve maximum power. Another solution would be to add another spark plug to create two flame fronts which would also require much less time to combust. This is the solution in most aircraft engines where big bores and poor fuel distribution and homogeny require solutions to increase ignition probability.
Modern 4 valve engines with shallow pentroof chambers and a central plug location are fast, efficient combustors, requiring minimal advance for maximum power.
Inductive Discharge Coils
Generating the spark on most production automotive systems is accomplished by the coil. Coils have 2 sets of windings, a primary and a secondary. The typical coil will have around 250 turns of wire on the primary and about 25,000 on the secondary for a ratio of 100 to 1. The secondary section often uses an iron core to increase its inductance. Coil resistance on the primary will be from .5 to 2.5 ohms usually and on the secondary, between 5000 and 12,000 ohms.
The inductance and resistance of the coil will determine how quickly a coil can be charged and discharged.
A transistor is used to switch the current flow off and on in the primary coil. When the transistor is switched on, current rapidly builds from 0 to a maximum value determined by the coil inductance and resistance. This current flow induces a magnetic field within the primary. When the current is turned off, this magnetic field collapses which cuts the windings of the secondary coil and induces a high voltage surge.
The output voltage is determined by the rate of field collapse and the windings ratio between primary and secondary. Because the path to ground for the current involves the spark gap, the initial resistance is extremely high. This allows the voltage to build to a very high value until it gets high enough to jump the plug gap. The potential difference must be high enough to first ionize the gas between the electrodes. The ionized gas creates a conductive path for the current to flow. At this point, the arc jumps and current flow is established.
It is important to note that if only 10,000 volts are required to jump a plug gap under a given condition, that will be the maximum delivered. It is also important to note that the spark duration is determined by coil inductance and total resistance of the circuit, plus spark plug gap. Most inductive discharge systems have a spark duration of between 1 and 2 milliseconds.
As cylinder pressure increases, the voltage required to jump the plug gap increases. This is especially true in turbocharged engines under boost. The second problem on high performance engines with high rev limits, is that there is less time to charge the coil with increasing rpm. As such, a high rpm, high output, turbo engine puts greater demands on the ignition system than does a 5000 rpm naturally aspirated engine. Additionally, with a single coil, the more cylinders that you are firing, the less rpm you can run before the spark voltage becomes insufficient to jump the plug gap. A V8 engine would only run to about half the rpm that a 4 would before encountering misfire.
Coil Charge Time and Saturation
The amount of time it takes to charge the coil or bring the current to maximum in the primary windings is called charge time. Input voltage and coil resistance are the main parameters relating to charge time. When the current has reached its maximum value in the primary, it is said to be fully saturated.
If current is applied longer than the time needed to fully saturate the primary, energy is wasted and there is nothing more to be gained. If the current is cut off before saturation is achieved, the maximum spark energy available will be reduced.
Typical coils require charge times of between 2.1 and 6 milliseconds. Obviously, a coil requiring 6 milliseconds to saturate would be unsuitable on a high revving engine as there is not 6 milliseconds available to charge it between discharges at high rpm. For this reason, most performance and racing coils have low primary resistances between .5 and .7 ohms and are fully saturated in less than 3 milliseconds. This permits full coil output at very high rpms.
Most 4 cylinder engines below 200hp/L specific output will run fine below 9000 rpm with a good inductive discharge coil setup.
Capacitive Discharge Ignition
On very high output engines, especially V8 and V12 engines, a single inductive discharge coil is inadequate to supply spark at high rpm and high cylinder pressures. This is where the CD ignition or CDI is used to reduce charge times. The MSD line is very popular worldwide, especially on American V8 engines fitted with distributors.
In normal inductive discharge coils, only 12-14 volts is available from the battery to charge the primary. The CDI charges capacitors to store a high voltage kick to fire to the primary side, putting between 30 and 500 volts onto the primary windings which reduces the charge time substantially. A coil that would take 3 milliseconds to become fully saturated with 12 volts is now fully saturated in less than 1 with a CDI. The same engine now will be able to turn twice the rpm and experience a major increase in cylinder pressure before encountering misfire.
A slight drawback to CDIs are their shorter spark discharge times although it is better to have a shorter spark rather than no spark. One other concern when using a CDI and a distributor especially ones having closely spaced wire terminals is the possibility of crossfiring. This may happen when the coil voltage is so high that the spark will jump to adjacent terminals which can be very destructive. Most high output CDI systems will also run a larger diameter cap to reduce this possibility. Ignition rotor life may also be somewhat reduced.
Some CDIs also include a multispark function where more than 1 spark is generated after the first spark. This improves ignition probability but it is usually discontinued above 3000 rpm because there just isn't enough time available to make this useful. If the first spark didn't ignite the mixture at 8000 rpm, the 2rd spark a few milliseconds later would light off the mixture very late, leading to PCP occuring late with little useful power being delivered. Igniting late is probably better than not at all though.
One company who makes CDIs claims that their system cures all misfires among other dubious benefits. This is a physical impossibility as we have seen above that many factors could contribute to a misfire which are totally outside the realm of the ignition system. An over rich or over lean condition or broken parts cannot be fixed by ANY CDI system.
Many CDIs also claim increased fuel economy which is unlikely as well at the normal air/fuel ratios run in automotive engines. Besides the high rpm coil saturation advantages, perhaps the only other one would be greater resistance to plug fouling. However on modern, well tuned engines in proper repair, plug fouling is really a thing of the past anyway.
Commonly known as DIS. Most DIS units are of the inductive discharge type. They use a double ended, isolated coil which fires one cylinder on the compression stroke and one on the exhaust stroke simultaneously. This is referred to as a waste spark strategy.
The advantages of DIS are the elimination of the distributor and the associated rotor to terminal air gap and moving parts, plus the addition of twice the number coils so that one can be charged while the other is discharging. This feature allows DIS to produce a very powerful spark up to around 10,000 rpm.
The disadvantage of the waste spark strategy is that the coils are firing at twice the frequency needed which reduces the charge time window at extreme rpm. DIS systems will usually fire the plugs on any engine up to 10,000 rpm and 300hp/L specific output.
Coil on Plug
The latest, greatest ignition, is the coil on plug setup (COP). This method uses a small inductive discharge coil clipped directly to each spark plug. It eliminates plug wires entirely and does not usually use the waste spark strategy so it has twice the amount of time available to saturate. This basically doubles the RPM capability of the system over other ignition systems. This is the system used in FI and Indy Car engines which generate outputs of over 300hp/L and 16,000 rpm.
Many new top line production engines are starting to use COP.
The purpose of the ignition wires is to conduct the maximum coil output energy to the spark plugs with a minimum amount of radiated electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). On most street applications using digital computers for engine management control, excessive EMI and even RFI can interfere with ECUs and cause running problems.
There are 3 basic types of conductors used in automotive applications: Carbon string, solid and spiral wound. Most production engines come equipped with carbon string or spiral wound. The solid core types are used exclusively for racing, mainly with carbureted engines because they offer no EMI or RFI suppression. They generally have a low resistance stainless steel conductor. These types are rapidly losing favor, even in racing circles.
The carbon string type is the most common and work just fine in most stock type applications. The conductor is usually a carbon impregnated fiberglass multistrand. Suppression qualities are fine with resistances in the 5K to 10K ohms per foot. They are cheap and reliable for 2 to 5 years usually, then they may start to break down and should be replaced. High voltage racing ignitions will likely hasten their demise.
The spiral wound type is probably the best type for any application. The better brands offer excellent suppression, relatively low resistance and don't really wear out. Construction quality and choice of material vary widely between brands.
NGK makes low priced wire sets which work well in performance and street applications however the terminal ends tend to be a bit fragile.
Magnecor makes excellent quality spiral types with high suppression qualities. These are reasonably priced for the quality you are getting and proven worldwide over many years under extreme conditions.
Some amount of resistance is required along with proper construction to achieve high suppression levels. Resistance is also important to avoid damaging some types of coils and amplifiers due to flyback and coil harmonics. Beware of wires claiming to have very low resistance. These CANNOT have good suppression qualities.
Beware of any wires claiming to increase hp. Ignition wires CANNOT increase hp. As long as the wires that you have are allowing the spark to jump the gap properly, installing a set of $400 wires is strictly a waste of money.
Lately, some truly "magic" wires have come onto the market claiming to not only increase power but also to shorten the spark duration from milliseconds to nanoseconds. As we have seen above, spark duration is determined primarily by coil inductance and coil resistance so these wires CANNOT shorten the spark duration by the amount claimed. The wire resistance has a minimal effect on discharge time because of the high voltage involved. We have also seen above that a very short duration spark is in fact detrimental to ignition because of lower probability.
These same wires claim to increase flame front propagation rates and the ability to ignite over- rich mixtures for more power. We have again seen that once ignited, the mixture undergoes the flagregation process and that the progression rate of the flame front is totally independent of the spark. We have also learned above that most gasolines will not ignite nor burn at air fuel ratios richer than 10 to 1, period, and that maximum power is actually achieved at around 12-13 to 1 AFR so the second claim also has no basis in fact.
These wires use a braided metal shield over the main conductor which is grounded to the chassis. This arrangement offers poor suppression because it does not cover the entire conductor. Any energy leaking out of the main conductor by induction is actually wasted to ground and will not make it to the spark plug. These wires also have very low resistance which as we have seen above, can have a detrimental effect on coils and ignition amplifiers due to severe flyback effects which are normally damped by circuit resistance.
Other claims for these wires include current flows of up to 1000 amps. The current flow in the ignition circuit is determined by the coil construction and drive circuits, not by the ignition wires. Most ignition systems are current limited to between 5 and 15 amps. The most powerful race systems rarely exceed 30 amps. To flow current at 1000 amps, you would require #0 welding cable for the ignition system!
For more info on wires: www.magnecor.com.
The last part in the ignition system is the spark plug itself. The average plug consists of steel shell which threads into the cylinder head, a ceramic insulator, an iron or copper core leading to a nickel or platinum center electrode and a ground electrode of similar material. The spark jumps between the center and ground electrode. Certain special application plugs may have multiple ground electrodes.
Different heat ranges are available depending on application. For constant high power applications, a colder than stock plug is usually selected to keep internal temperatures within limits.
Again, many "magic" plugs come onto the market from time to time expounding the virtues of their incredible new design, usually offering more hp of course. Split electrode plugs are a waste of money because the spark will only jump to one of the electrodes at a time in any case.
You will find that most reputable engine builders in the higher forms of racing use pretty standard NGK, Bosch or Champion plugs with pretty standard electrode setups. A properly selected, standard plug will easily last 25,000 miles of hard use in most engines. A platinum tipped plug will easily last twice as long on most engines. There just isn't any rocket science here. Modern spark plugs coupled to modern ignition systems in a modern engine are extremely cheap and reliable. In most cases, on street performance and even race engines, a $2, off the shelf, NGK plug will work just fine.
If you see an ad for any ignition system component claiming substantial power increases over stock, BEWARE. Most of these claims are total bullshit with no basis in fact. Even if the seller advertises a money back guarantee, you will still be responsible for shipping the product back to them and probably a restocking fee. These companies rely on hype and unsubstantiated claims to sell their products to a predominantly gullible buying public. These people count on the fact that you will probably not time your vehicle's acceleration before and after installation. The seat of the pants "feel" of "increased" acceleration after installing the latest $400 trick gadget is usually enough to sell most people.
If your engine runs clean to redline with the modifications that you have done, it is very questionable that you will make it any faster by modifying the ignition system. If you encounter a high rpm miss at full throttle, there is a good chance that something needs replacing or upgrading.
If you must buy something, stick to reputable manufacturers making reasonable product claims. Steer clear of any company using hype and hard sell tactics and ones claiming vastly increased power or fuel economy. This just does not happen in the real world.
If you see a company making wild claims in their ads, do everyone a favor in the industry as well as the buying public, report them to the Federal Trade Commission.
Just printing a rebuttal to comments made on a page http://yarchive.net/car/engine_control.html. A writer quoted a paragraph on the article above:
"A high compression or turbocharged engine operates with much higher charge densities and consequently faster burn rates. The high octane fuel permits these rapid burn rates because it has far less tendency to autoignite and detonate under these conditions. As a result, high compression and turbo engines cannot realize their full hp potential without high octane fuel."
The response of the expert was " He has this kinda muddled. Fast burn rates, as induced by modern high swirl combustion chamber designs result in LOWER octane requirements and less spark lead."
The author perhaps does not read English very well despite his apparent higher education. Nowhere does my statement address modern combustion chambers or spark advance, it simply states that all things being equal, turbocharged and high compression atmo engines CANNOT reach their full hp potential on low octane fuel. This is simple fact, not conjecture. You can screw with ignition advance all you want, the fact remains that maximum power will be acheived at a certain timing value. If the octane rating is too low to permit this timing value without detonation, the engine MUST make less hp than it could with proper fuel and advance. This whole article and in fact all Tech articles on this site address performance and racing applications mainly. We all know that advances in chamber design has allowed CRs to be increased on the same types of engines from a decade ago in the stock world. This has limited effect on the racing world on 14 to 1 CR engines and turbo charged applications which always use high octane fuels.
The author goes on goes on to make a comment that "water injection has a power penalty associated with its use."
This statement needs qualification. This is true only on atmo engines, CERTAINLY NOT on turbocharged engines. Water injection permits higher BMEPs with the same fuel octane. Very well proven by Harry Ricardo way back in 1933 and documented in his ground breaking text " The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine". Water injection was extensivey used in WWII and post war supercharged and turbocharged aircraft engines for increased takeoff and combat power. It was later applied on F1 and WRC cars.
Many facts about combustion, ignition, emissions and fuels from this era were either lost, forgotten or ignored by the automotive world decades later. The industry spend billions re-discovering what was already well known and documented before in the aero engine industry. There are several excellent texts including "Power Plants for Aircraft" by Joseph Liston 1953, which readers might find interesting.
Be aware that many Japanese spec engines are designed to run on 98-102 octane fuel in their home markets. These engines will not be able to run the same boost levels on North American 92 octane fuel. Expect lots of detonation or spark retard if you attempt this.
I received another E-mail recently from a reader regarding the rebuttal above and ongoing combustion research. Again,I reiterate, this article addresses real world conditions on existing real world, production engines, not experimental designs running in a lab. This reader discusses "negative work" in conventional chambers where the piston is compressing an expanding mixture. A finite amount of time must pass between the point of spark discharge and the point at which the cylinder pressure exceeds the compression line if graphically plotted. This is the ignition delay period and cannot happen instantaneously in ANY chamber. This is the reason for spark advance. In most engines, only the period after about 10 degrees BTDC will have pressure above the compression line. This pressure at TDC is only a small fraction of what PCP rises to at 20-30 degrees ATDC so while slightly counter productive in one respect is also a necessity in the process. Obviously, if we could speed the combustion process so that we could delay the spark until 10 BTDC and achieve nothing above the compression line until after TDC and still achieve PCP at 20-30 ATDC, we could gain HP and efficiency. This condition does NOT exist in current production, mass produced engines. Research is being done to bring this to reality sometime in the future. Detonation IS a REAL concern in all turbocharged production type engines running relatively low octane fuels. | <urn:uuid:497c3f0d-3245-494f-82f6-27fbf3b5cb98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sdsefi.com/techcomb.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942954 | 6,037 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Send Your Puppy to School
Your puppy will learn a lifetime of skills at puppy kindergarten.
Page 3 of 4
The final lesson: Recognize that learning is a lifelong process, urges Karen Overall, D.V.M., Ph.D., a veterinarian who conducts an animal behavior clinic at the University of Pennsylvania's School of Veterinary Medicine in Philadelphia. She also used to conduct puppy socialization classes.
"One reason so many juvenile dogs are relinquished to animal shelters is that some owners don't realize their roles in properly socializing and training their young puppies," says Dr. Overall. "You need to understand what your puppy's needs are and what is considered normal puppy behavior. The sooner you can introduce fun and positive learning to your puppy, the less likely it is that you'll have to deal with serious behavior problems when it becomes an adult."
Success Story: HersheyPage 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
Hershey, a chocolate Labrador Retriever, joined the family of Mary and William White and their four children at age 8 weeks old. She was one of a litter of eight that had been surrendered to a local animal shelter. "We wanted a puppy that would be friendly with kids, and Labradors certainly possess an easy-going temperament," says Mary White, of Warwick, Rhode Island.
Within a few weeks of her arrival, Hershey was enrolled in a puppy kindergarten class being taught by professional trainer Bryon Davies. Mary White and her two older children, Emma, 9, and Burke, 7, attended class together so they could all learn how to work with Hershey. "When Hershey first arrived to class, she was scared and hid under a chair, but within 10 minutes she was out and playing with the other puppies," says Mary White. "By the third week of class, Hershey had learned the watch me, sit and down commands. Knowing that she would probably weigh over 50 pounds by her first birthday, these are key commands, especially because my children walk Hershey on a leash occasionally."
The children are also learning. When Hershey attempts to playfully mouth Emma's arm, Emma redirects Hershey to a more appropriate activity: chewing on a chew toy. To prevent Hershey from developing food bowl protectiveness, she has learned to go into a sit command and wait until the food bowl is placed on the ground. The children put added treats into the bowl so that Hershey learns to associate good things with their approach to her food bowl.
Next up for 4-month-old Hershey: obedience training when she turns 6 months. "We've learned from Bryon that training never stops and to always be consistent with our commands with Hershey," she says. "Puppy classes really help the dog and you. We have more patience and have a better idea of what to do to help Hershey learn and grow up to be a terrific dog."
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Of Crimes and Punishments
Of Prosecution and Prescription.
The proofs of the crime being obtained, and the certainty
of it determined, it is necessary to allow the criminal time and means for his
justification; but a time so short as not to diminish that promptitude of
punishment, which, as we have shewn, is one of the most powerful means of
preventing crimes. A mistaken humanity may object to the shortness of the time,
but the force of the objection will vanish if we consider that the danger of
the innocent increases with the defects of the legislation.
The time for inquiry and for justification should be fixed
by the laws, and not by the judge, who, in that case, would become legislator.
With regard to atrocious crimes, which are long remembered, when they are once
proved, if the criminal have fled, no time should be allowed; but in less
considerable and more obscure crimes, a time should be fixed, after which the
delinquent should be no longer uncertain of his fate: for, in the latter case,
the length of time, in which the crime is almost forgotten, prevents the
example of impunity, and allows the criminal to amend, and become a better
member of society.
General principles will here be sufficient, it being
impossible to fix precisely the limits of time for any given legislation, or
for any society in any particular circumstance. I shall only add, that, in a
nation willing to prove the utility of moderate punishment, laws which,
according to the nature of the crime, increase or diminish the time of inquiry
and justification, considering the imprisonment or the voluntary exile of the
criminal as a part of the punishment, will form an easy division of a small
number of mild punishments for a great number of crimes.
But it must be observed, the time for inquiry and
justification should not increase in direct proportion to the atrociousness of
crimes; for the probability of such crimes having been committed is inversely
as their atrociousness. Therefore the time for inquiring ought, in some cases,
to be diminished, and that for justification increased, et vice versa.
This may appear to contradict what I have said above, namely, that equal
punishments may be decreed by unequal crimes, by considering the time allowed
the criminal or the prison as a punishment.
In order to explain this idea, I shall divide crimes into
two classes. The first comprehends homicide, and all greater crimes; the second
crimes of an inferior degree. This distinction is founded in human nature. The
preservation of life is a natural right; the preservation of property is a
right of society. The motives that induce men to shake off the natural
sentiment of compassion, which must be destroyed before great crimes can be
committed, are much less in number than those by which, from the natural desire
of being happy, they are instigated to violate a right which is not founded in
the heart of man, but is the work of society. The different degrees of
probability in these two classes, require that they should be regulated on
different principles. In the greatest crimes, as they are less frequent, and
the probability of the innocence of the accused being greater, the time allowed
him for his justification should be greater, and the time of inquiry less. For
by hastening the definitive sentence, the flattering hopes of impunity are
destroyed, which are more dangerous as the crime is more atrocious. On the
contrary, in crimes of less importance, the probability of the innocence being
less, the time of inquiry should be greater, and that of justification less, as
impunity is not so dangerous.
But this division of crimes into two classes should not be
admitted, if the consequences of impunity were in proportion to the probability
of the crime. It should be considered, that a person accused, whose guilt or
innocence is not determined for want of proofs, may be again imprisoned for the
same crime, and be subject to a new trial, if fresh evidence arises within the
This is, in my opinion, the best method of providing at
the same time for the security and liberty of the subject, without favouring
one at the expense of the other; which may easily happen, since both these
blessings, the unalienable and equal patrimony of every citizen, are liable to
be invaded, the one by open or disguised despotism, and the other by tumultuous
and popular anarchy.
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Hydrologic History of the Indo-Pacific-Warm Pool During the Last 25,000 Years
|Map of the IPWP. Red dots show the core tops chosen to be analysed. Yellow stars show the location of 2 speleothems records which we will compare our paleohydrologic reconstructions to (Borneo & Flores). (N. Dubois using ODV)|
Dr. Delia Oppo (WHOI), Prof. Tim Eglinton (ETHZ), Dr. Valier Galy (WHOI)
The aim of this project is to generate records of hydrologic changes from the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (IPWP), the largest reservoir of warm surface water on Earth and a major source of heat for the global atmosphere.
We will measure compound-specific hydrogen and carbon isotopes of terrestrial longchain leaf wax fatty acids (δDwax and δ13Cwax) in marine sediment cores collected from continental margins around central and western Indonesian islands. The isotopes of terrestrial leaf plants will be used as tracers of water isotopes (δD) and aridity (δ13C) to reconstruct changes in the hydrologic cycle in the Indonesian region, during the last glacial maximum (LGM), the deglaciation, as well as during the Holocene and across late Holocene centennial-millennial events. These records will allow a better description of N-S migration, E-W migration, and expansion and contraction of precipitation centers.
Data will be interpreted in the context of model sensitivity studies, through a collaboration with Dr. Allegra LeGrande (GISS). Understanding how abrupt and gradual forcing influence tropical climate is critical for predicting future climate change. State-of-the-art models generally simulate weaker Walker and weaker but expanded Hadley circulations for greenhouse warming, although the amplitude of changes depends on the global sensitivity of the hydrologic cycle, which is uncertain. | <urn:uuid:4ac2e991-069d-4df2-b436-c7f54885f701> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.whoi.edu/hpb/viewPage.do?id=99957 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.853794 | 401 | 2.78125 | 3 |
"See A Need, Fill A Need" - Safe Routes to School Planning in Urban Communities
Walking to school is not a new concept - up until the 1970s, most schools were located in residential neighborhoods, and communities were built with pedestrian traffic in mind. Unlike many suburban and rural areas, this still holds true in urban communities, where sidewalks are present and homes are clustered around schools. However, safety concerns, changes to infrastructure favoring vehicular traffic, desegregation through busing and social and economic demographic shifts have created barriers to the student pedestrian landscape in urban communities.
Since 2005, Ohio communities have been incredibly receptive to the Safe Routes to School program, and all state Safe Routes to School funds have been awarded. But by 2010, the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) realized large school districts in urban communities had not applied for funding at a rate proportional to their representation in the state, in part because of the four-school limit to funding requests, as well as the scale and complexity of community issues in large districts. To overcome these obstacles, they developed a unique process, the large district school travel plan (large-district STP), grown from the original School Travel Plan guidelines and template developed to assist smaller communities with planning Safe Routes to School implementation.
ODOT’s “Developing School Travel Plans for Large Districts” is a reference for consultants facilitating large-district STP, but is a free resource for anyone seeking information on implementing Safe Routes to School in districts with 15 or more eligible schools. Developed through a research project at the Cincinnati Public School District in 2012, it is currently being replicated in the Akron, Columbus and Toledo school districts, with a unique level of local support from metropolitan planning organizations, health departments, universities, nonprofits, and city planning, transportation and enforcement.
These urban communities are developing large-district STPs that meet their specific health, infrastructure, social and cultural needs to make it safer for students to walk and bike to school, and are innovating on the Cincinnati model.
- In Columbus, Columbus Public Health, Health Impact Partners and Kent State University are incorporating a health impact assessment and perception assessment into the STP development process, to identify health impacts in low-equity neighborhoods.
- The Toledo team is making public education and encouragement a priority, developing public service announcements on Safe Routes to School benefits through media partner WGTE, the Fostering Healthy Communities Foundation sponsored by Promedica, the University of Toledo and Mercy hospital.
- Akron’s team is investigating policy and other avenues to address snow removal in residential neighborhoods that affect the 90 percent of students with no transportation. Walking in the street or on icy sidewalks has contributed to student injuries and lower school attendance.
“See a need, fill a need” is a quote from the movie “Robots”, and it is exactly what ODOT did to address Safe Routes to School implementation challenges in large urban communities. For more information on Safe Routes to School in Ohio, visit their website or contact Julie Walcoff, SRTS Program Manager.
Kate Moening is the Ohio Advocacy Organizer for the Ohio Safe Routes Network, supported by the Safe Routes to School National Partnership. You can reach her at email@example.com, or the Ohio Safe Routes Network website . | <urn:uuid:ae92b021-3fac-47ae-8bda-5d8f68ce631e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://saferoutespartnership.org/blog/see-need-fill-need-safe-routes-school-planning-urban-communities?page=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955216 | 697 | 2.703125 | 3 |
We’re wasting too much stuff, aren’t we? How many times have you thrown away a perfectly good flashlight or other household device, knowing full well that it could be repaired, but it ‘wasn’t worth it’? Yeah, it sucks, especially if you’re keen not to add any more landfill to the already obscene amount out there.
Which is why The Restart Project is so totally awesome. This non-profit organization exists to help people learn how to repair their stuff instead of throwing it away. The organization, which started out in London, UK, helps organize Restart Parties, where volunteers provide 3 hour open houses for anyone to come along and have a go fixing something, with the help of an expert.
The project is part of a wider global move towards this kind of ethical recycling, and there are a growing number of ‘repair groups‘ around the world which help people extend the lifespan of their gadgets and gear, which is excellent news.
All Restart Parties are free of charge to the public, and you can find instructions on the site if you’re interested in getting together with some friends, neighbors or family members to start your own.
There doesn’t seem to be any limit to the type of things you can fix, as long as there’s a suitable expert alongside to help teach, and the great thing is that the knowledge can be passed on from person to person and group to group. | <urn:uuid:e7bc957d-35b8-4494-ac25-8442f1f445ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redferret.net/?p=42882 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949479 | 306 | 2.546875 | 3 |
GENEVA / WASHINGTON (21 March 2013) – What can we really do to put racism offside? - Asks a group of top human rights experts on racial discrimination International Day on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
“International Day on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination is a unique opportunity to celebrate diversity, and on this day we urged all sportswomen and sportsmen, sports authorities and fans to take decisive action against intolerance and racism in sports.
In every society, sportswomen and sportsmen are role models whose behaviour and conduct carries great influence on their fans and in particular the youth. Sports are an opportunity to celebrate human achievement and excellence beyond the narrow boundaries of ethnicity, race or nationality.
Sports events should be seen as a chance to promote inter-culturalism in all societies based on the principles of equality, solidarity and respect for diversity. Racist insults and violence and discrimination have no place in these activities and negate the spirit of sportsmanship.
No country is immune to racist movements and racist manifestations by supporters of sport activities, and today we urge world governments to declare zero tolerance to denigrating and racist expressions in sport; to swiftly address all manifestations of racism, discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, both in sport and in all other situations; and hold accountable the perpetrators.
‘We call on States and sports authorities in different parts of the world to intensify the fight against racism through awareness creation, and by imposing appropriate sanctions on clubs and individuals who propagate racial hatred, abuse and violence,’ says Mr. Mutuma Ruteere, the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.
‘Regrettably, we continue to witness supporters of competing teams resorting to racist slurs, gestures and even violence to demean and attack their opponents or players of the opposite team. When such an incident occurs, swift action must be taken, not only by public authorities to condemn it and to hold those responsible to account, but also by the community at large to stand in solidarity against all forms of racial discrimination,’ stresses Mr. Alexei S. Avtonomov, who currently heads the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. ‘Indeed, this day serves as an important reminder for all of us to stand up for the universal principle: ‘All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.’
‘Racial discrimination, xenophobia and stigmatisation faced in particular by people of African descent must be addressed at the community, national and international levels. They can only be effectively combatted by affirming universal values based on human rights and human dignity,’ adds Ms. Verene Shepherd, Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent. ‘We should also recognize the contribution of people of African descent not only to sports, but also to the development, diversity and richness of world civilizations and cultures.’
‘Overcoming racism requires addressing public attitudes and private beliefs which justify and perpetuate racism at all levels and in all areas of life. Success by peoples of African descent in sport has been one important way of enabling the re-evaluation of such harmful attitudes,” says Ms. Rose-Marie Belle Antoine, Rapporteur on People of African Descent and Against Racial Discrimination of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
We must kick discrimination off the field and tackle exclusion once and for all. But what can we really do to put racism offside? Let’s uphold both in words and in deeds the values of fair play, honest competition, respect and tolerance both on and off the field.”
Mr. Mutuma Ruteere (Kenya) was appointed by the Human Rights Council as Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance in November 2011. Learn more, visit: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/SRRacism/Pages/IndexSRRacism.aspx For further information and media requests, please contact: Thierry del Prado (+41 22 917 92 32 / firstname.lastname@example.org) or Kellie-Shandra Ognimba (+41 22 917 92 68 / email@example.com)
The Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent was established by the then Commission on Human Rights in 2002 following the World Conference against Racism held in Durban in 2001. Learn more, log on to: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/WGAfricanDescent/Pages/WGEPADIndex.aspx For further information and media requests, please contact Sandra Aragon-Parriaux (+41 22 928 9393 / firstname.lastname@example.org) or write to email@example.com
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is the body of independent experts that monitors implementation of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination by its State parties. Learn more, visit: http://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/cerd/pages/cerdindex.aspx For further information and media requests, please contact Gabriella Habtom (+41 22 917 9193 / firstname.lastname@example.org) or write to email@example.com
The Inter American Commission on Human Rights appointed Professor Rose-Marie Belle Antoine, Rapporteur on the Rights of People of African Descent and against Racial Discrimination in 2012. Learn more, log on to: http://oas.org/en/iachr/mandate/what.asp For further information and media requests, please contact: María Isabel Rivero (+1 202-458-3867, +1 202-215-414 / firstname.lastname@example.org)
For media inquiries related to other UN independent experts: Xabier Celaya, UN Human Rights – Media Unit (+ 41 22 917 9383 / email@example.com)
UN Human Rights, follow us on social media:
Check the Universal Human Rights Index: http://uhri.ohchr.org/en | <urn:uuid:0bf540fa-6e5c-4302-a038-b5ed2516a20a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ohchr.org/FR/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13164&LangID=E | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.880553 | 1,319 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Indigenous Australians may have a dash more Denisovan than Neanderthal in their DNA, with genetic traces of the mysterious population of hominids popping up in surprisingly high doses, according to fresh research.
An archaic ancestry map produced by a Harvard Medical School-UCLA research team also suggests those from countries to Australia's north, including Papua New Guinea, may have more Denisovan ancestry than initially believed.
Little is understood about Denisovans because so few fossil remains have been found - to date just two teeth, a finger and a toe bone. However they lived around the time of Neanderthals and, according to this study published in the journal Current Biology on Monday, interbred with modern humans about 100 generations after modern humans had their trysts with Neanderthals.
According to Harvard Medical School geneticist David Reich, some genetic traits could still be evident today. For example, Denisovan genes could potentially be linked to a more subtle sense of smell in Papua New Guineans or high-altitude adaptation among Tibetans.
"There are certain classes of genes that modern humans inherited from the archaic humans with whom they interbred, which may have helped the modern humans to adapt to the new environments in which they arrived," he said.
The researchers compared known Neanderthal and Denisovan gene sequences across more than 250 genomes from 120 non-African populations.
In people from Oceania, the average size of Denisovan genetic fragments was found to be larger than Neanderthal fragments. The Oceania region includes countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and Papua New Guinea.
Professor Reich also noted the comparative genomics study revealed that both Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry has been lost from the X chromosome, as well as genes expressed in the testes. This could explain reduced male fertility, which is associated with interbreeding.
A global map of Neanderthal and Denisovan ancestry in modern humans.
The findings shed new light on how the Denisovans dispersed from south-western Siberia to Southeast Asia.
However UCLA's Sriram Sankararaman, a member of the research team, said the ancestry map did not answer definitively how far the Denisovans travelled. This was because their DNA could have reached South Asia and later Australian shores, albeit diluted, carried by hybrid offspring or descendants of hybrid offspring.
Denisovans are named named after a Russian hermit, Denis, who in the 18th century lived in a cave where Denisovan remains were later discovered. The cave's cool climate helped preserve the DNA. | <urn:uuid:07fc3a3a-4866-44d5-8e57-ea5ab06ab2fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.canberratimes.com.au/technology/sci-tech/mapping-the-dna-inheritance-from-neanderthal-and-denisovan-ancestors-20160329-gnsvv0.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957605 | 518 | 3.828125 | 4 |
|December 29th, 2011 3:29 PM|
by Ken Gagne
|Filed under Hacks & mods;|
Chiptune music is the art of using classic computing hardware to make original tunes. Usually, there's software involved, such as DMS Drummer, and the result is emitted from the device's inbuilt speakers.
Such is not always the case. Over the past few years, I've posted several videos of hard drives and printers making music, from Bohemian Rhapsody to "A Simple Text File". I also once posted a hard drive playing the "Imperial March", which proved popular enough on Digg to shut down my site. I don't think that'll happen this time, though, so please enjoy a floppy disk rendition of the march:
The artist's Web site describes the method for producing this video:
The sound comes from a magnetic head moved by stepper motor. To make a specific sound, head must be moved with appropriate frequency… To move the head you need to activate the drive by pulling the DRVSB0 or 1 (depends on the cable you have and the connector – notice the crossover on the FDD ribbon cable) pin low and then falling edge on STEP pin makes the head move one step in direction dependent on DIR pin state. An ATMega microcontroller is generating those frequencies and it makes the drives play music.
Another variation is demonstrated on the Amiga using a seemingly different method:
Listen to Amiga floppy drive playing a simple music, however, not with the step motor which moves the head, but with the motor which spins the disk. This means that disk must be inserted to hear music. And there is no fear that floppy will break like with the step motor music!
I've yet to find any such musical demonstrations that feature an Apple II floppy disk. Do you have some? Let me know!
(Hat tip to Paul DeFilippo) | <urn:uuid:31e42461-0ab0-4929-b4ec-e57f4e113a51> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.apl2bits.net/2011/12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92741 | 399 | 3.125 | 3 |
The mounting skepticism about milk consumption and its effects on human health is going mainstream. A recent article in the Chicago Tribune is all over the topic:
Milk, the sacred cow of the American diet, is under attack and not just by animal-rights activists. Though federal dietary guidelines and most mainstream nutrition experts recommend that people age 9 or older drink three glasses of milk a day, researchers are examining the role of dairy in everything from rising osteoporosis rates, Type 1 diabetes and heart disease to breast, prostate and ovarian cancer.Here at DiseaseProof, we have talked about negatives of drinking milk and how some public schools are actually banning whole milk due to its high fat content. Dr. Fuhrman cites allergies, anal fissures, ear infections, and various cancers much later in life as a few potential dangers of dairy consumption.
Last March, the journal Pediatrics published a review article concluding that there is "scant evidence" that consuming more milk and dairy products will promote child and adolescent bone health. Some leading practitioners of integrative medicine, including best-selling author Dr. Andrew Weil, suggest eliminating dairy products from the diet to help treat irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, eczema and ear infections. The late Dr. Benjamin Spock reversed his support of cow's milk for children in 1998 in his last edition of his world-famous book "Baby and Child Care."
The Tribune article encourages people not to see milk as the only viable source of calcium, and it's no secret that green vegetables are loaded with calcium (even the National Dairy Council will tell you so).
The calcium from some vegetables such as broccoli, bok choy and kale is absorbed as well as or better than calcium from milk and milk products, according to the National Dairy Council's Calcium Counseling Resource. But the report also says that to get the same amount of calcium absorbed from 1 cup of milk, one would have to eat nearly 2 1/2 cups of broccoli or 8 cups of spinach.Of course, people are drawn to milk out of habit, because it is a quick compact source of calcium, and because it seems easier to get children to consume milk than vegetables.
But consider the total nutritional picture. Green vegetables are dense with so many kinds of nutrition beyond just calcium.
Also, if you want some pointers about how to get your kids to eat calcium-rich fruits and vegetables, you really should listen to Dr. Fuhrman's free podcast on the topic.
Finally, in his book Disease Proof Your Child, Dr. Fuhrman explains that if you insist on cow's milk nonetheless, do yourself a favor and choose skim. | <urn:uuid:5d7abbe2-a489-464e-a1f9-49a65e8bab79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.diseaseproof.com/archives/hurtful-food-the-chicago-tribune-on-milk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954758 | 541 | 2.875 | 3 |
Humankind is beholden to its zoological evolution, and needs to educate itself for the world it aspires to.
Clannishness (small group belonging) is hardwired, and so is the privileging of short-term reactivity to short-term danger over long-term proactivity to uncertain danger. The logarithmic understanding of numbers (a diminishing scale) is hardwired as well, blinding us to the power of exponentially progressing technologies. The combination of the three factors makes it very hard, but not impossible, for humankind to act in concert, for its own benefit, to solve global challenges (global warming, financial crisis, etc.).
Oversimplifications are legion, and emotions are a factor.
“Schools kill creativity”, “Does Google make us stupid?” are press-worthy attention-grabbers, but the realities are more nuanced, for a world that refuses to deal with its nuanced self. Here too, our zoological evolution influences us by privileging the power of the negative over intelligent discourse. Everyone brings in their own biases to an education conversation (this author included), but most often fail to be aware of them as the biases they are.
Conversations about education abound with false dichotomies, and absolutist views, that must be transcended.
The lack of a balanced-conversation mindset leads to many OR debates; for instance:
- Knowledge vs skills
- Science/Technology/Engineering/Math (STEM) vs Humanities/Arts
- Didactic vs constructivist learning
- Formal vs informal learning
- All technology or no technology
- Character developed at school vs at home
The balanced reality is that these are all AND propositions, working in concert with each other, and reinforcing each other, in a judicious, impactful feedback loop.
Awareness, adaptability, creativity and collaboration are the most important 21st century skills.
In a world of increasing volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity, our abilities to understand ourselves and each other, adapt and innovate out of problems, and work together in doing so, are key to shaping the future we aspire to. A growth, rather than fixed, mindset (per Carol Dweck) is essential in this endeavor, and so is Wisdom, which has not significantly progressed since the Axial Age.
It is grand time to act in a world of possibilities—with courage.
Technology is on the march exponentially, and it is a source of disruptions (via automation and offshorability), as well as solutions and incredible new possibilities—if we leverage it rather than trail it. And we need to summon the Courage within our evolved selves to “think globally, act locally” with a combination of “head, hand and heart” to shape the world we want.
The views expressed on this site are the author's own and do not necessarily reflect those of the Pearson Foundation.
Charles Fadel is the founder and chairman of the Center for Curriculum Redesign (CCR) , a visiting scholar at Harvard GSE, MIT ESG and Wharton/Penn CLO, and co-author of best-selling “21st Century Skills.” The mission of the CCR is to answer the fundamental question “What should students learn in the 21st century?” via a global consortium of key PISA jurisdictions, NGO’s, higher education institutions, corporations, foundations and organizations.
Charles Fadel is a global education thought leader and expert, author, and inventor, with several affiliations in addition to the ones identified above:
- Senior fellow, human capital at The Conference Board
- Vice-chair of the Education committee of BIAC/OECD
- Co-author of best-selling book “21st Century Skills”
- Board member at Innovate/Educate
- Angel investor with Beacon Angels in Boston
- Former Global Education Lead at Cisco Systems
He has worked with a wide variety of education ministries and organizations, and has contributed to education projects in more than thirty countries. He has contributed to and has been featured by media such as National Public Radio (NPR), the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the Huffington Post, and others. He holds a bachelor of science in electronics /physics with a minor in neuroscience, and an MBA. He has been awarded five patents in video, content and communications technologies.
The Center for Curriculum Redesign, answering the question “What should students learn in the 21st century?” | <urn:uuid:88c3d762-a811-4c4d-8463-2613626221fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thefivethings.org/charles-fadel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941676 | 942 | 2.875 | 3 |
(PhysOrg.com) -- As any bench scientist will tell you, experimental design can be the very devil. Try as one might, it can be difficult to recognize, much less eliminate, the many extraneous factors that might bias an experiment. And unrecognized confounding factors can invalidate years of work.
So scientists worry. Recently Washington University in St. Louis scientist Younan Xia started to worry about in vitro experiments his lab was doing to study the uptake of nanoparticles by living cells.
In the laboratory, the cells were always plated on the bottom of a dish and the culture medium containing nanoparticles added from the top.
People assumed that if they prepared a suspension, the suspension was going to have the same concentration everywhere, including at the surface of the cells, says Xia, PhD, the James M. McKelvey Professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering, says.
A battery of experiments in Xias lab with both upright and inverted setups showed that nanoparticles above certain sizes and weights will settle out. So concentrations of the nanoparticles near the cell surfaces are different from those in the bulk solution and cellular uptake rates are higher.
This issue is important because scientists are actively investigating the use of nanoparticles as vehicles for the delivery of drugs or genes to cells.
For these applications, calculations of the dose the particles actually convey to cells are crucially important.
As the scientists conclude in the Nature Nanotechnology article describing the experiments, Studies on the cellular uptake of nanoparticles that have been conducted with cells in the upright configuration may have given rise to erroneous and misleading data.
Topsies and Turveys
Until now nanoparticles were assumed to be well-dispersed in the culture medium because they are small enough to be easily lofted by Brownian motion, the random motion of the molecules in the medium.
Therefore scientists felt they could safely assume that the concentration of nanoparticles in the fluid next to the cells, which drives cellular uptake, was the same as the initial concentration of nanoparticles in the medium.
We started to wonder, however, because our nanoparticles are made of gold, Xia says. Gold is nontoxic but it is also very heavy, so it was conceivable relatively large nanoparticles might settle.
Since it is impossible to measure the exact concentration of gold nanoparticles at the surface of a cell, Xia and coworkers designed a simple experiment to clearly see the difference in concentration caused by sedimentation.
Xias lab tested gold nanospheres of three sizes, nanocages of two edge lengths, and nanorods, some with surface coatings that picked up serum proteins in solution and others coated with a chemical that acts as an antifouling agent.
After the cells were incubated in the nanoparticle-bearing medium, the concentration of the nanoparticles was measured spectroscopically and the number of particles each cell had taken up was then calculated.
In the literature, Xia says, there are reports that the cellular uptake of nanoparticles depends on the nanoparticles size, shape and surface coating.
His labs experiments showed that these characteristics are secondary, relevant only insofar as they affect the sedimentation and diffusion velocities of the nanoparticles.
For small, light particles, there was no disparity between the cells in the upright and the inverted configurations. In the case of larger, heavier particles, however, sedimentation dominated, and the upright cells took in more nanoparticles than the inverted cells.
All earlier work may need to be re-evaluated to account for the effects of sedimentation on nanoparticle dosimetry, the authors conclude.
Its no different from medicines that have to be shaken to suspend a powder in a water. If you dont shake the bottle, Xia says, you end up under- or overdosing yourself.
Explore further: Nanoscopic particles resist full encapsulation, simulations show | <urn:uuid:c51394ba-e6ee-4ed9-a71d-2e479a97b9e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://phys.org/news/2011-04-overlooked-invalidate-results-prior-nanoparticles.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952694 | 788 | 3.109375 | 3 |
During pregnancy, a woman will need to be sure she is getting all of the proper nutrition, and magnesium nutrition is no exception. Magnesium is very important in the development of many parts of the anatomy and can also help to prevent many health related issues. A proper diet, especially during pregnancy, can ensure that the proper amounts of magnesium are received.
Magnesium helps to build strong bones, teeth, cartilage and the development of the inner and outer ear. When a woman is pregnant, the growing baby inside will pull all of the vitamins and nutrients it needs to grow. If there is not enough magnesium in the body of the mother, there will be a higher potential for birth defects for the baby. The ears could not develop properly, the baby could have weak bones or the bones could not form as they are meant to.
If there is not enough magnesium for both the mother and the baby, the teeth of the mother could be subject to many diseases such as gingivitis or cavities. Heartburn and leg cramping are common occurrences during pregnancy as well. Studies have shown that taking in the proper amount of magnesium during pregnancy can help to reduce the amount of heartburn flare ups and to reduce or eliminate leg cramping.
A deficiency in magnesium could possibly lead to spasms in the placenta and the umbilical cord. These spasms could lead to premature labor and increases the risks of birth defects or even infant mortality. Magnesium helps to relax the muscles, and getting the proper amount of magnesium has been shown to relax the uterus that contracts during labor, allowing the pregnancy to continue on as it should for the proper length of time.
Preeclampsia is another concern of pregnant women. This is a condition where hypertension, or high blood pressure, occurs along with a large amount of protein in the urine. This can be a very serious condition because the baby may not be getting the proper amount of blood that it should be getting. Preeclampsia will be monitored closely during pregnancy because it could have fatal results for both the mother and the baby. Not getting the proper amount of magnesium can lead to preeclampsia.
A woman who is not pregnant or a nursing mother needs to consume 310 – 320 mg per day. A pregnant woman needs to up that a bit to 350-360 mg per day.
This amount of magnesium can be received from any healthy diet and the best sources are found in:
- whole grain breads
A healthy diet is essential for both the mother and the baby during a pregnancy. The proper amount of vitamins, especially magnesium, can help to prevent any health issues and to ensure proper bone and body development. Keeping up with a proper magnesium intake is just another way to give your baby a good start at life. | <urn:uuid:7c38ca5e-7590-4972-bb3c-abb55e9a9668> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.3fatchicks.com/the-importance-of-magnesium-nutriton-during-pregnancy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95853 | 565 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Grand Canyon National Park, administered by the U.S. National Park Service, is located in north-central Arizona (map), due east of Las Vegas. The primary feature of the park is the 5,000-foot-deep canyon cut by the Colorado River and the scenic vistas across the canyon. There are two sides to every canyon: the South Rim of the Grand Canyon is about 5.5 hours southeast of Las Vegas (via Kingman, Arizona), while the North Rim is about 6.5 hours northeast of Las Vegas (via St. George, Utah). For detailed information, see my Grand Canyon Area Overview Page.
Activities at the Grand Canyon primarily are orientated around sightseeing and day-hiking along the rims, although there is also backpacking into the canyon, picnicking, mule riding, biking, car camping, and lodging.
The two rims are located high on the Colorado Plateau. The elevation of the South Rim at Mather Point is 7,120 feet, while the elevation of the North Rim at Bright Angle Point is 8,250 feet. These two points are separated by about 10 air-miles and the Colorado River, which lies some 4,600 and 5,700 feet below the two rims, respectively (2,550 feet elevation at Phantom Ranch). The river is in the low-elevation desert zone, the South Rim is in the mid-elevation pinyon-juniper, yellow-pine forest zone, and the North Rim is in the higher-elevation yellow-pine, pine-fir, spruce forest zone. The great range of elevations makes for a mix of habitats, providing for considerable floral and faunal diversity.
The South Rim is relatively high, so temperatures are cool compared to Las Vegas, and daytime summer temperatures range in the 50s to 80s, while winter temperatures range in the 20s to 50s. The North Rim is even higher, and summer temperatures there are about 10 degrees cooler than on the South Rim. The North Rim is closed by snow during winter (about mid-October through mid-May). The bottom of the canyon is hot like Las Vegas, with summer temperatures exceeding 110 degrees. Because of the high temperatures in the inner canyon, hiking is best during the fall, winter, and spring (e.g., October to May). During July and August, afternoon thunderstorms are common, creating flash floods and lightning hazards.
Because of the summer crowds on the South Rim, the Park Service established a shuttle bus system. The park entrance fees cover the shuttle bus, so after you get in the park, the bus is free. The Hermits Rest Road in the western-most portion of the South Rim is closed to private vehicles (with some exceptions) when the shuttle bus is running, but all of the other park roads are open to private vehicles. Buses run throughout the South Rim Village area, so people can park in the village or the campground and ride the bus throughout the area. Details on the shuttle bus system are provided below.
On the South Rim, there are a variety of concessions inside the park. Grand Canyon Village is a regular city with all of the usual urban services (e.g., grocery store, restaurants, lodging, post office, and bank) except gasoline. Most concessions are open during regular business hours or longer. Outside the park, the town of Tusayan provides gasoline and just about everything else.
On the North Rim, services inside the park are limited. This is rural country, so bring what you need. There is a small market, a lodge with a restaurant, a coin laundry, and showers, but no gasoline inside the park. Most concessions are open during regular business hours or longer. Outside the park, the town of Jacobs Lake provides limited services (e.g., gasoline, lodge, campground), and the Kaibab Lodge just outside the park provides some basic services and gasoline.
Hiking in the Grand Canyon carries a challenge that Nevada hikers rarely face: hiking permits that can be hard to get. Because the area is so popular, backcountry use is highly regulated. Permits are required for all overnight travel, and most permit reservations are booked solid 4 months ahead of time, but some walk-up permits may be available. Permits are not required for the day-hikes. More information on hiking permits is provided below.
If you don't want to hassle permits, or if you fly into the area or otherwise don't arrive with hiking or backpacking gear, consider contacting Four Seasons Outfitters and Guides out of Flagstaff, Arizona. They provide rental gear, guided hikes, and other hiker services. Their prices are reasonable and the guides are first rate (experienced, knowledgeable, strong as mules, they do everything, and they are good company in camp).
For More Information on Getting to Grand Canyon National Park, Hours of Operation, the Shuttle Bus System, Entrance Fees, Car Camping, Hiking Permits, Precautions, Rules and Regulations, and Links to More Information, visit the Grand Canyon National Park Overview Page. | <urn:uuid:ea67b7de-6ffc-4249-89d6-f1586f554dd9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birdandhike.com/Hike/GRCA/_GRCA_Over/_GRCA_Over.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941553 | 1,052 | 3.125 | 3 |
London (Jun. 4)
Replying to a question concerning emigration and immigration in Palestine, Colonial Minister Thomas stated as follows:
In the year 1922, 7844 Jews and 284 non-Jews immigrated into Palestine; during the same period 1503 Jews and 1436 non-Jews emigrated from Palestine. In the year 1923, 7421 Jews and 517 non-Jews immigrated, during the same period 3466 Jews and 1481 non-Jews emigrated;
In the first three months of 1924, 923 Jews and 103 non-Jews immigrated; during the same period 893 Jews and 178 non-Jews emigrated.
Separate figures for the period between October 1920 and December 1922 are not yet available. The figures given do not include tourists. | <urn:uuid:f8f1e0ac-cfd1-4459-a31c-7d843b6b139b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jta.org/1924/01/01/archive/official-figures-of-apalestinian-emigration-immigration-given | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936056 | 158 | 2.53125 | 3 |
The fascination of mountains casts a particular spell on mountaineers who knowingly risk their lives for the sense of exultation they experience in ascending a high and dangerous mountain - or by just being there on its heights.
Essentially, Frank Smythe established himself as the first professional writer/climber, explorer and photographer. He was born in Maidstone and died at the young age of 48. Having been invalided out of the RAF in 1927 he went on to command the Commando Mountain Warfare School during Word War II. He published many books, beautifully illustrated by his fine mountain photography and his only novel, set in the Himalayas - "Secret Mission" - (Hodder & Stoughton) is a scarce volume to find in the modern era. He is still acknowledged as being one of the outstanding mountaineers of the 20th. century.
He was "educated at Berkhamsted School [in Hertfordshire] where a heart murmur kept him off the football pitch. When sent to Switzerland for his health, however, he discovered the Alps and went on to become a very distinguished climber, as well as an author, photographer, and botanist, constantly striving to compensate for an apparent inferiority complex." (Royal Geographical Society)
He was a member of three Everest expeditions (1933, 1936, 1938) and was involved in many of the leading developments in mountaineering during its early, rudimentary years. He remained at the forefront of early Alpine and Himalayan mountaineering. Beginning in the late 1920s, with T. Graham Brown, he pioneered two very important routes up the Brenva Face of Mt Blanc and was the first to achieve a successful ascent of the 25,447 foot (7756 m) Himalayan peak, Kamet. He shared the world's altitude climbing record. He died in 1949 - reportedly 'languished and died of a broken heart" when he was denied permission to climb Kangchenjunga - having been part of Professor Dyhrenfurths international expedition to Kangchenjunga in 1930. This anecdote concerning his last days was heard by Herbert Tichy from a nurse who treated him. (See Himalaya, trans. R. Rickett and D. Streatfeild (New York: Putnam's, 1970), p.118.)
Originally called the Bhiundhar Valley (after a village located in south-east Badrinath) it was renamed The Valley of Flowers by Frank Smythe. Along with Eric Shipton and R.L.Holdsworth, he discovered it by chance during the expedition to the Kamet Peak. He returned to the Garhwal region in 1937 and spent three months making a number of first ascents in a rapid and frugal style, very modern in concept. He was profoundly affected by the profusion of flowers in the valley which was punctuated by waterfalls and trails crossing the lush alpine meadows - hence the very apt christening. The valleys beauty has withstood the test of time and continues to attract many visitors. In fact, so high is the degree of visitation to the area that for preservation purposes camping is no longer allowed in the Valley. However, treks back and forth to the Valley are allowed.
Frank Smythe played a central role in the Everest attempts of 1933, 1936 and, later, in 1938. On Everest, in 1933, he reached 28,100ft without using supplementary oxygen, his strong bid stopped by poor snow conditions and the lack of a partner. He was the climber who came closest to success prior to Hillary and Tensing and their peers (all using supplementary oxygen) and it was not until Messner's 1982 solo ascent that his performance, in physiological terms, was bettered.
Smythe joins Shipton and Tilman as one of the trio of great mountain writers of the period - Shipton the vivid geographical commentator, Tilman the wry anecdotal observer and Smythe the master of taut action and, helped by his fine photography, a profound observer of mountain moods. Frank Smythe thus became the most celebrated and popular mountain writer - photographer of his day - authoring 27 books.
The 1933 Expedition
Nine years had passed since the previous Everest expedition, mostly because Mallory's death (1922) (not treated here) had dashed Britain's drive to conquer the mountain. The Everest Committee was unclear about the human chemistry needed to succeed and the men selected for this expedition reflected that fogginess. The worst of weathers also became the catalyst for serious dissension, virtually confining the men to their tents for as long as one whole month.
Nevertheless, three climbers reached the same point Major Norton had achieved in 1924. Frank Smythe, reached the height climbing alone. His vivid reports insightfully address the issue of supplemental oxygen, which after much debate was not used by the climbers. Had oxygen been used, the summit might well have been reached.
The team of climbers set up a camp at the base of Mt. Everest in an attempt to reach the summit. One of the team members, Frank Smythe, would later describe this and other climbing experiences in a book titled, "THE ADVENTURES OF A MOUNTAINEER" (Dent, 1940). The Everest climb is commonly known to be one of the most dangerous challenges for any mountain climber even today due to the thin air, bitter cold, and fierce storms.
Smythe's team had set up several camps up the mountain slope as way stations where the climbers could rest and obtain provisions. The advance team's sole job was to establish the camps to allow the main climbers to use their energy only for climbing, and for toting heavy supplies as well. On April 17, 1933, the highest camp was erected - Camp Six. At 27,400 feet. This camp was at that time the highest ever camp on Everest. This was to be the last stop before the summit. As Sherpa guides finished and descended from Six, Smythe and a colleague, Eric Shipton, had ascended to Camp Five at 25,700 feet. The next day the team arrived at Camp Six, in the process passing by the remains of another camp where George Mallory and a colleague died in a summit attempt in 1922.
Fierce blizzards racked the mountain for much of the climb, hindering the progress of the climbers as well as sapping their strength. An attempt to reach the summit from Camp Six by Smythe and Shipton resulted in Shipton quitting the climb and returning to Camp Six. Smythe was on his own. He ascended under great physical stress but it became obvious to him that his strength was no longer there. He abandoned the climb short of his goal. As he made his way back to Camp Six to rendezvous with Shipton, a strange thing happened. Frank Smythe wrote:
The date of this incident is uncertain but must have been around the latter part of April in 1933. He prefaced his remarks on this, calling it a "bizarre" experience and adding, "It was in all probability an hallucination due to lack of oxygen, which affects not only the physical powers but the mental powers also." It would be easy to brush this off as a hallucination. He was physically exhausted and defeated in his effort to complete the Everest climb. It's not uncommon for people to hallucinate on the mountain from oxygen depletion. On one occasion, at about 23,000 feet on Everest he records also that he sat down in the snow and fed his food to imaginary companions.
Frank Smythe's son, Tony Smythe, launched the publication of his father's book - 'Frank Smythe: The Six Alpine and Himalayan Books' in 2000 with a unique slide-illustrated reflection on his father's life and work. The Six Books - Climbs and Ski Runs, The Kankenchunga Adventure, Kamet Conquered, Camp Six, The Valley of Flowers, Mountaineering Holiday. Published by Bāton Wicks 2000 - ISBN 1898573379
"This selection of his most powerful narratives (illustrated with his pictures, plus new colour photos and maps) will prompt a reassessment of his writing and photography and his contribution to the shape and ethos of modern climbing." Distributed by Cordee £18.99 229mm x150mm 928 pp, 64 pp of photos.
"These books represent his finest work. They contain gripping adventures, a rich sense of period and a thread of timeless mountaineering good sense." | <urn:uuid:b580d6e2-81c0-4e87-8211-ee445b93cd46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.zipworld.com.au/~lnbdds/home/smythefrank.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980468 | 1,752 | 2.5625 | 3 |
What is it?
Rad stands for Rapid Application Development.
Although it doesn't have a monopoly of Rad techniques, the DSDM (Dynamic Systems Development Method) Consortium involves many leading supplier, service and user organisations. DSDM uses prototyping, and iterative and incremental development. It divides projects into short, quickly achievable phases each of which produces a deliverable, which often provides useful functionality even though the overall project may be way off completion.
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DSDM was set up as an alternative to the classic sequential or "waterfall" approach, which, the consortium says, forces users to "fix their requirements in concrete early in the cycle", and does not allow for rapid iterative delivery. DSDM is independent of any particular set of tools and techniques, and can be used with object-oriented and structured analysis and design approaches.
Where did it originate?
The term Rad first appeared in the early 1990s, but was applied to a variety of incompatible tools and approaches. The 16 founding members of the DSDM Consortium first met in 1994, to develop and promote a public domain Rad method. This was backed up from the earliest days by a training and certification programme, overseen by the British Computer Society.
What's it for?
DSDM teams include both developers and users, who are able to agree on levels of functionality and usability without frequent recourse to higher management.
Traditional approaches fix requirements while allowing time and resources to vary during development. In DSDM, time is fixed for the life of a project, resources are fixed as far as possible, and requirements are allowed to change. Partial solutions can be delivered to satisfy immediate business needs. The system can then be more rigorously engineered later.
What makes it special?
You get working code more quickly. DSDM prototypes are intended to evolve into the final system, and are built to be robust enough for operational use and to meet performance and other criteria. DSDM uses the 80:20 principle - 80% of the functionality can be produced in 20% of the time required to build the system.
How difficult is it?
You can complete a DSDM practitioner course in a minimum of three days.
Where is it used?
In public and private sectors. Many UK banks and building societies are users, as are the Ministry of Defence, BT, Orange and Vodafone. Some service organisations use DSDM techniques, including Computacenter, KPMG and PriceWaterhouseCoopers. IBM Global Services claims to have more DSDM practitioners than any other organisation.
Not to be confused with
Quick fixes for leaky radiators, the Royal Army Dental Corps (RADC).
What does it run on?
It is platform-independent. Leading Rad tools include Visual Basic and Delphi, and IBM's Visual Age development environment. Oracle, Magic and Progress are all DSDM promoters.
Few people know that
Rad is a Scots dialect word meaning afraid, a condition often brought on by too-short time scales.
Long-term sufferers become raddled.
What's coming up?
DSDM is increasingly used in business process change projects as well as application development.
Rates of pay
Project managers with DSDM among their skills can look for between £40,000 and £50,000, and more in the financial sector. Many UK investment firms and banks use DSDM.
Training and certification DSDM training courses are only available from accredited training organisations. Training is available at three levels.
DSDM Aware is a one-day overview aimed at users, managers and development staff.
DSDM Practitioner is for users, developers and project managers intending to take an active role on a project team.
Managing DSDM Projects is a two-day course concentrating on the differences between traditional and DSDM project management.
Trainers include Parity, IBM, QA and FI Academy. A complete list of accredited trainers is on the DSDM Web site. UK Certification is overseen by the British Computer Society examinations board, ISEB. | <urn:uuid:20484586-5e76-43fd-9ba0-5eae38c781fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.computerweekly.com/feature/RAD-Banking-on-quick-development | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94389 | 886 | 2.578125 | 3 |
June 1, 2010 (JUBA) — Jane Aketch remembers the struggle to achieve education all too well. For four years, she fought with her parents to allow her to attend primary education.
"My sisters all went to primary seven and then dropped out," recalled the 14-year-old from Jonglei, one of the 10 states in the semi-autonomous region.
"My parents didn’t approve of us going,” she explained, shyly looking away in the opposite direction.
Though her parents wanted their five daughters to be literate, female education was never deemed particularly important in her village.
“Girls in Jonglei are supposed to stay at home and clean, while boys attended school,” Aketch said.
The need to attain universal primary education is one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) expected to be achieve by 2015. But it appears realizing this could be a myth than reality.
In April 2006, the Government of Southern Sudan in partnership with UN Children’s Fund lauched the ‘Go to School’ campaign; an education for all initiative aimed at boosting primary school enrolment, especially among girls.
As part of this intiative, however, UNICEF played an instrumental role in school capacity-building though not only supporting construction works, but also training teachers at various levels.
"The initiative [‘Go to School’] was instrumental in increasing primary school enrolment especially among the girls. In some cases, teachers were trained on how to handle the girl child in schools," Mr. Bismark Swangin, UNICEF’s Communication Officer for Southern Sudan Area Programme said.
WIDER GENDER GAP
An estimated 340,000 children, says UNICEF, were enrolled in primary schools at the time Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed in 2005. In 2009, primary school enrolment was earmarked at 1,362,941 (860,878 boys and 502,063 girls).
According to UNICEF, however, access to education still remains one of the biggest challenges facing children in South Sudan, especially among girls.
Nearly half of primary school age girls do not go to school, a revelation likelty to hamper the success of the girl-child education policy initiated by the semi-autonomous regional government.
SOCIO-CULTURAL VERSUS ECONOMIC FACTORS
Girls’ education is a highly gender-sensitive issue, Mr. Bismark maintains, citing cultural factors like gender specific roles, early marriage, segregation between the sexes, and poverty as the primary barriers.
"This has resulted into gender inequality in education, with human development indicators for female literacy and the net enrolment ratio for females still low," he said.
A 2008 study conducted by UNICEF on the socio-economic barriers to education in South Sudan, cited unfriendly environment of some schools, where students experience sexual harassment, early pregnancy, and child-to-child violence as some of the major obstacles to promotion of girls’ education.
The study, based on findings from the 2006 Rapid Assessment of Learning Spaces, further raised questions on constraints to key human resources, including poorly educated and trained staff handling expanding class sizes, limited supervision at county and state levels, and poor motivation causing teachers to quit the profession.
As such, low female participation in education was mainly attributed to several socio-cultural factors, citing the tradition of early marriage in rural areas, reluctance of many parents to send girls to mixed gender schools and the negative social attitudes towards girls’ education.
“Our communities have to start valuing the importance of educating the girl-child child. Too much attachmnet to some of the cultural norms that are negative towards girls will remain a set-back to the girl-child education policy,” Dr. Julia Duany, Undersecretary in the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs in the Government of Southern Sudan observes.
On the hand, some headteachers attribute non-availability of female teachers in some schools as a major factor prompting parents to keep their girls away from school.
"We have many schools here, but even if the schools exist, most ot them often lacked basic amenities like essential for effective running of the school," Sarafina Ladu, a teacher in one of the government-aided schools told Sudan Tribune.
RAY OF HOPE
In April 2000, a partnerhip of various organizations lauched the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), an initiative aimed at narrowing the gender gap in primary and secondary education.
UNGEI seeks to ensure that, by 2015, all children complete primary schooling, with girls and boys having equal access to free, quality education.
As to whether the new initiative will achieve its aims it yet to be seen. Only time will tell. | <urn:uuid:31ab4169-54ad-4d29-8fd8-f37535855643> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article35259 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960852 | 1,012 | 2.859375 | 3 |
- Mutate Your Screen
- ScreenPhaser: Download It Here
The nine mutation modes in ScreenPhaser are examples of cellular automata -- mathematical constructs that can be used to model physical systems. For details on the algorithms they use, see the "Inside ScreenPhaser" section below. We've given each mode a name that describes the visual effect it produces.
Psychedelic Screen Melt melts the screen into flashing bands of color (see Figure 3) . After a while, large, ameba-like areas usually form. It is especially interesting when acting on the desktop image. Its effects differ in interesting ways depending on which neighbors are selected.
Fuzzy Screen Melt is similar to Psychedelic Screen Melt, but the color bands are fuzzy and the mutation cycles faster. It works well with the starting screen Random colored squares.
Screen Erosion does not change the color of pixels, but the pixels migrate randomly to new locations, causing the image to gradually erode. This mutation works best if you configure it to reset after a few thousand cycles.
Screen Evaporation, like Screen Erosion, migrates pixels to new locations. But instead of random migration, the direction of migration is based on the colors of the neighboring pixels. As a result, parts of the image seem to evaporate and float off in different directions. This mutation works best with at least three neighbors.
Screen Microbes melts the screen into bands of color, like Psychedelic Screen Melt. It soon metamorphoses the bands into an array of pulsating blobs that vaguely resemble microbes. Try it with the starting screen White border and lines; you'll be amazed at the colorful display that develops from this minimal beginning. This mode is fully functional with any set of neighbors; selecting exactly four neighbors yields curved paths that crisscross the screen (see Figure 4) .
Screen Fungus produces bands of writhing pixels with blank areas between. It works well with the starting screen Random colored squares. It requires all the neighbors or all but Self; any fewer and it quickly fades to black.
Order to Chaos to Order spreads the screen out into a chaotic mass of pixels, then repeatedly reassembles portions of the image. This mode is fully functional with any set of neighbors, but is particularly interesting with four or five.
Text Glow causes sharp-edged items like text to retain their integrity while gaining a glowing aura. It works especially well with a desktop image containing colored text (see Figure 5) . It requires all neighbors, or all but Self; any fewer and the mutation stalls, making only tiny changes.
Colorized "Life" is an implementation of the famous cellular automaton called LIFE that is discussed in detail in the "Inside ScreenPhaser" section below. The image initially shifts to black and white; pixels that remain non-black through successive cycles gradually change color (see Figure 6) . Before long, the image is transformed into a mass of moving and stationary pixel "creatures." The last two starting screens are designed specifically to work with this mutation mode. By definition, LIFE requires all neighbors, or all but Self. | <urn:uuid:1b77ec77-26d6-4279-88f2-ce16d5d77c5d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1160523,00.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91049 | 640 | 2.96875 | 3 |
When to Feed Cats a High-calorie Diet
By Rose Springer
A high-calorie pet formula packs a nutrient-dense punch and has even saved the lives of cats that are in need of gaining weight. Because of the calorie density in such formulas, a cat can ingest about one-quarter of the bulk of standard cat food and get the same nutritional benefit. Below, Virginia-based veterinarian Dr. Katy Nelson, who is a member of the Iams Pet Wellness Council, weighs in on when a higher-calorie formula may or may not be right for your furry friend.
When to Feed High-calorie Food
“If your cat has lost weight, it’s possible that something is going on metabolically that needs to be addressed,” says Nelson. “No normal cat on a normal diet is going to start to drop weight unless there’s something underlying. This is specifically a recovery diet.” Cats treated for inflammatory bowel disease, as well as the following conditions, are often prescribed calorie-dense foods:
- Fatty liver disease. When an older cat stops eating, it is vulnerable to fatty liver disease. The body goes into starvation mode and begins sending fat cells into the liver to process as protein. Untreated, this will result in liver failure and death. “You can stop the process by supplying the animal with a fat source. A cat with fatty liver may end up being prescribed a high-calorie food for three to six months,” says Nelson.
- Cancer. Cats with cancer will likely need extra calories to heal, but may not have large appetites. Nelson shares that eating just one-sixth of a can of certain high-calorie cat foods is “like eating a full can of regular food.”
- Dental work. Many higher-calorie formulas are wet foods, making them easy on the teeth.
- Hyperthyroidism. Once the condition is identified and the medication is started, a high-calorie formula may still be prescribed to help the cat return to a healthy weight.
When Not to Feed Maximum-calorie Food
A pet owner should not independently make the decision to put a cat on any prescription diet. A high-calorie formula “is a phenomenal food to have in your arsenal, but no owner should say, ‘I’m going to make a diet change because my cat is losing weight,’” says Nelson. “These foods are very high-protein, very high-fat. Start it unnecessarily, and your cat’s going to end up with pancreatitis or horrible diarrhea.”
- Pregnancy/lactation. “Kitten food is most appropriate for pregnant and nursing cats. It has the appropriate levels of all sorts of nutrients that are necessary for the kittens,” says Nelson. A cat with a particularly large litter might be given a higher-calorie food as a supplement, but check with your veterinarian first.
- Old age. Many elderly cats have mildly compromised kidneys, making a food that is very rich in protein likely a bad idea. For slender, senior cats, choose a nonprescription senior-formula cat food.
Switching to a new food generally requires a transition period, but Nelson explains that when cats need a high-calorie formula, time is often of the essence. “Typically, in situations where this food is required, you don’t have transitioning time. If you have to deal with a little diarrhea versus their liver getting compromised, you go for the former.”
Transitioning off is another story. Once a cat’s underlying issue has been identified and addressed, and the cat returns to a healthy weight or the oral problem is resolved, spend seven to 10 days adjusting the ratios of the new diet back to the older one. | <urn:uuid:64b3ebb0-8b24-47f6-b74b-f49dde3f9700> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thedailycat.com/myparentime/nutrition/dietingredients/high_calorie_cat_diet/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945076 | 801 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Was Grant a Candidate?
|Ulysses S. Grant never declared or disavowed a
presidential candidacy in 1880. That was the norm for pre-convention
campaigns of the era, and was consistent with Grant’s own behavior
during his successful 1868 and 1872 presidential campaigns.
In 1875 and 1876, President Grant had warily faced the prospect of a third term as well as opposition to it. The Democratic controlled House of Representatives, with the support of most Republican members, overwhelmingly passed a resolution against a third term in December 1875, as had the Pennsylvania Republican state convention the previous May. These actions foreshadowed deep division within the Grand Old Party over the issue. The president was willing to serve for another term, but he would not struggle for it. The Republicans moved on, nominating Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876. About that time, Grant allegedly confided to his friend George W. Childs, “It is very difficult to decline a thing which has never been offered.”
Four years later, it seems clear that Grant’s sense of duty–and his wariness–remained essentially unchanged relative to a third term. But he was also willing to do some things to create options for himself. As described in the first article of this story package, Grant toured Illinois, Arkansas, and Texas on the eve of the Republican state conventions there – activity that signified more than anything else Grant’s willingness to make appearances, albeit at legitimately non-political events such as veterans’ reunions, which could be helpful to the campaign on his behalf.
That he did not declare a candidacy or openly
campaign, and that the effort on his behalf fell just short of the
nomination, do not diminish the fact that Grant was a viable candidate
in 1880, with a significant organization and nationwide support. Nor do
these things diminish the fact that this was an unprecedented effort: no
president had ever been nominated for a third term, or even had such an
extensive effort made by supporters to secure a third nomination.
|Grant aide Adam Badeau wrote in 1887: “It was now only a few weeks before the convention, and Grant manifested as much anxiety as I ever saw him display on his own account: he calculated the chances, he counted the delegates, considered how every movement would affect the result, and was pleased or indignant at the conversion of enemies or the defection of friends, just as any other human being naturally would have been under the same circumstances.”|
|Among others, recent Grant biographer Geoffrey Perret has discounted Badeau’s claims, writing that “there is not one letter, not one diary entry, not one interview, memo or official document in which Grant expressed even a hint of a desire to run again,” while there are “dozens…in which Grant explicitly said he didn’t want to be President.”|
|Jean Edward Smith generally agrees, but also points out that “Grant let events take their course…he made no effort to take himself out of the race. Grant made no statement, as he had in 1876, that he would not accept the nomination if it were offered, and he appears to have kept a quiet but eager eye on the proceedings.”|
|In the view of another recent biographer, Josiah Bunting III, “It is plain that Grant wanted the nomination and sensed both the obstacles to achieving it and the enormous demands a third-term presidency would impose on him…he knew what he quietly sought was not in his best interest. He sought it anyway….”|
|As Michael Fellman saw it, Grant was “passively open to accepting a draft if it were handed to him without any demeaning expenditure of energy on his part. He would not hustle for the prize he may or may not have wanted.”|
|Grant himself, as quoted by his son Jesse: “’I dread to think about it…But it must be as the people determine.’” According to Jesse: “When the call came, he offered himself and he served until the need was past. He never sought to advance himself, he sought only for the opportunity to serve…if the burden (of another term as president) was laid upon him he would take it up, but personally he hoped to escape the ordeal.”|
|Julia Dent Grant has the last word –her
account of a conversation with her husband on the matter, at what seems
to have been a pivotal moment during the first week of June 1880:
How I entreated him to…appear on the floor at the (1880 Republican) convention…but no! He said he would rather cut off his right hand. I said: ‘Do you not desire success?’ ‘Well, yes, of course,’ he said, ‘since my name is up, I would rather be nominated, but I will do nothing to further that end.’ ‘Oh, Ulys,’ I said, ‘how unwise, what mistaken chivalry. For heaven’s sake, go…I beseech you. He only said, ‘Julia, I am amazed at you.’”
|<<||Grant and the Campaign for a Third Term||>>|
|A Boom For Grant||Contenders||Other Hurdles|
|Grant's Participation||The Big Three Battlegrounds||Tactics|
|The National Convention||A Third Term for Grant: Point - Counterpoint|
|The 1880 Republican National Convention in Chicago: The Setting|
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The early 1870's - John Goodman Houshold
Flight in South Africa in the 1870's - Fact or fiction
There is a belief that, in the early 1870's, John Goodman Houshold and his brother built a glider and launched it from the top of a 300 metre precipice on the farm Der Magtenburg, in the Karkloof area of KwaZuluNatal. The first flight was just over 1 kilometer and a height of 50 to 80 meters was achieved. During the second flight the craft soared for a while before beginning a rapid descent in which it clipped a tree and crashed, breaking his leg in the process.
It was the first ever recorded heavier-than-air flight and Goodman and his brother could have been accorded a place in history had it not been for their mother. When she heard of the crash she persuaded them to abandon the project out of fear that the family would incur the wrath of God for challenging their natural state of being earthbound. It is believed that the glider was stored in a barn and eventually burned with other rubbish.
All drawings, sketches and calculations were supposedly burned at John Houshold's insistence so he would abide by his promise to his mother never to discuss or attempt flying again.
This allowed the German Otto Lillienthal to take the honour when he made a successful glider flight in 1896. Eight years later, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first powered flight at Kittyhawk in the United States. It was the dawning of a new era; an age of adventure, excitement and glamour that gripped the world, including South Africa.
The Goodman Household Monument has been erected near Curry's Post, in the KwaZuluNatal Midlands to commemorate his achievement.
Is this fact or myth? According to an article by J.W. Swinnich in the National Soaring Museum Historical Journal Vol 25, (1), 2003. titled "History Without Evidence is Myth: J.G. Household and Claims of Flight in 1870's Africa" (attached below), no written evidence has been found to substantiate the claim. J W Swinnich suggests that further research is required as there could be evidence in the archives in South Africa.
|History Without Evidence is Myth||389.48 KB| | <urn:uuid:0eb58694-b03a-42d0-a61f-f6bf3af2b1de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sapfa.org.za/history/early-1870s-john-goodman-houshold | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967074 | 529 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Bleeding and acute blood loss anemia
By Richard Pinson, MD, FACP
Acute blood loss from any cause—GI bleeding, trauma, surgery—may result in anemia. One might think that anemia ought to be a self-evident, intrinsic consequence of acute blood loss, but from a coding perspective it is a separate identifiable condition that contributes independently to patient risk and severity of illness.
The actual definition of anemia is “decreased red blood cell volume,” but hemoglobin/hematocrit levels are the usual surrogate measures used clinically. The lower normal limits of hemoglobin and hematocrit for men and women are shown in the table. A level lower than these may be considered indicative of anemia.
Photo by Thinkstock.
If a patient with acute bleeding loses enough blood to become anemic, the diagnosis of acute blood loss anemia is appropriate. This definition also encompasses patients who have preexisting anemia and become more anemic due to bleeding. Even if the amount of blood lost following surgery is expected and routinely associated with the procedure, acute blood loss anemia is still present if anemia occurs. A common example of this is substantial bleeding and consequent anemia associated with joint replacement surgery.
Blood transfusion is not required to substantiate the diagnosis of acute blood loss anemia. However, if a transfusion is necessary, acute blood loss anemia is almost certainly present, since transfusions are not given to patients who don't have anemia or will not become anemic.
Concerned surgeons can be reassured that the code for acute blood loss anemia is not classified as a “complication of surgery.” This diagnosis will not adversely impact a surgeon's complication rates or quality scores.
In contrast to acute blood loss anemia, a diagnosis of “postoperative hemorrhage” may result in coding of a surgical complication. Based on coding guidelines, the “complication” code for post-op hemorrhage should not be assigned unless a physician (attending or consultant) specifically indicates that the hemorrhage was due to, or resulted from, the procedure. Unfortunately, many coders mistakenly believe that the term “post-op” establishes this connection.
The term “post-op” should be used judiciously to describe a condition that occurs after surgery (such as arrhythmia, atelectasis bleeding, fever, ileus, renal failure, urinary retention, etc.) to avoid improper coding of a “complication” of the procedure. Complication codes are intended for conditions that are unusual or unexpected—not something commonly associated with the procedure—and then only when specifically connected to the procedure by a physician (that is, when a cause-and-effect relationship is established). Finally, when a postoperative event is associated with a preexisting condition or preoperative diagnosis, it should be clearly documented as such and not as a result of the procedure.
In summary, acute blood loss anemia occurs frequently in patients with acute bleeding from any cause and is a significant indicator of severity of illness that should be clearly documented in the medical record. The term “postoperative hemorrhage” may lead to incorrect coding of a complication of care. Physicians should be cautious when using the term “post-op” to describe any condition since it may be misinterpreted as meaning “due to surgery,” resulting in the assignment of a “complication” code.
Richard Pinson, MD, FACP, is a certified coding specialist and co-founder of HCQ Consulting in Houston. This content is adapted with permission from HCQ Consulting.
Acute blood loss anemia examples
Example 1: A 50-year-old former professional football player has knee replacement surgery. His hemoglobin level is 16.2 g/dL before surgery and 13.8 g/dL after surgery. Does he have acute blood loss anemia? Does this suggest a hemorrhagic complication of surgery?
Answer: He does not have acute blood loss anemia because he did not become anemic even though the amount of blood lost was substantial, as indicated by the decline in hemoglobin concentration. This amount of bleeding is common and expected with knee replacement surgery and should not be considered a complication of the procedure.
Example 2: A 30-year-old mother of three undergoes a transvaginal hysterectomy for prolapsed uterus and menometrorrhagia. Her hemoglobin level is 11.5 g/dL before surgery and 9.0 g/dL after surgery. Does she have acute blood loss anemia? Was the procedure complicated by unexpected hemorrhage?
Answer: She does have acute blood loss anemia; she was anemic preoperatively but substantially more so afterward due to operative blood loss. Based on the above information, it is not clear whether an unexpected or unusual amount of blood loss occurred that would constitute a surgical complication. A physician would have to document the blood loss's significance and any connection with the procedure for the “complication” code to be assigned.
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10 Prices: taxes and minimum prices |
284. While improvements in NHS services, education
and information campaigns and controls on marketing, licensing
and supermarket promotions have a part to play in curbing alcohol
consumption, the use of the price mechanism is seen by health
professionals as the key issue. It is also very contentious.
285. We took oral evidence about prices from health
professionals, including the CMO and the President of RCP, representatives
of four major supermarkets, of the drinks industry companies,
of the Wine and Spirits Trade Association and CAMRA. We also heard
from HM Treasury and Dr Meier who undertook the study of minimum
pricing for the DH and Ms Rabinovich of the RAND Corporation who
has undertaken an international study. As part of our visit to
Scotland, we discussed the Scottish Government's proposal for
minimum pricing with officials, medical and health experts, including
the Chief Medical Officer for Scotland, producers, representatives
of the licensed trade and economists.
286. The protagonists for raising prices argued that:
- Higher prices would reduce
consumption (they noted that the increasing affordability of alcohol
had been the major cause of increased consumption over recent
- Higher prices would have their biggest impact
on heavier drinkers because they drink most (hazardous and harmful
drinkers drink three-quarters of all the alcohol sold, of which
harmful drinkers drink around a third)
- In any case, it is desirable to reduce overall
consumption since this will reduce the number of heavy drinkers
- Higher prices would be particularly effective
in reducing drinking among low income heavy drinkers who suffer
most from alcohol-related disease.
287. These arguments are disputed. The main arguments
of those who are against price rises are that
- Price increases would have
little effect on heavier drinkers
- Price increases would be unfair, because they
would also affect moderate drinkers
- Rises in the price of cheap alcohol would particularly
affect lower income groups
- Price increases would have little effect on alcohol
harm; alcohol consumption has fallen in recent years but alcohol-related
harm has continued to rise; there is therefore no good reason
to reduce average consumption.
THE LAWS OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
288. While it seems self-evident that alcohol obeys
the laws of supply and demand like almost all other commodities,
some witnesses came close to implying that it did not. Their argument
runs as follows. In each country the relationship between price
and consumption is different. In some countries there are relatively
high prices and high levels of consumption and vice versa. Therefore
putting up the price of alcohol will have little effect. We were
It is too simplistic to apportion responsibility
for problem drinking to the price of alcohol alone; if low-cost
alcohol were the only factor then countries such as France and
Spain, where prices are much lower than in the UK, would have
similar problems and countries like Finland, where alcohol is
expensive and its availability restricted, would not (Tesco)
289. To many this argument is economic illiteracy.
All these contrasts reveal is that there is a different relationship
between price and consumption in each country. Each individual,
each group and each country responds differently to a change in
price, but all respond. The extent of this change is known by
economists as the elasticity of demand.
290. We know a good deal about the elasticity of
demand for alcohol in England and the UK. We were told of information
a study undertaken for HMRC in 2003 (which HMT uses
to assess the effect of price changes on revenues), The Treasury
figures were estimated using historic expenditure data from 1970
to 2002. Separate elasticities were estimated for each category
of alcohol. They also take into account how the change in price
of one product will affect another.
the 'Sheffield University' Study commissioned by
the DH in 2008 'to quantify the potential impact of policies targeting
pricing and promotion of alcohol on alcohol related harm. ...
The study used UK data on alcohol consumption of around 7,000
individuals between 2001/02 and 2005/06. Alcohol elasticies were
estimated as part of this study.
A study by Oxford Economics in 2008 for the British
Beer and Pub Association estimated elasticities for beer and other
There was also a study by the RAND in 2008 which
undertook inter alia an international examination of the
relationship between prices and consumption
291. Table 7 below supplied by the Treasury compares
the own-price elasticities (i.e. how consumption responds to changes
in the price of that product) from these three sources. For example,
HMRC estimate that a 1% increase in the price of on-trade beer
reduces consumption of on-trade beer by 0.48%.
||University of Sheffield
(Commissioned by the Department of Health)1
|HMRC2 ||Oxford Economics
(Commissioned by the alcohol industry)3
|Beer on trade ||-0.50 ||-0.48
|Beer off trade ||-0.52
||-1.03 ||-1.00 |
|RTDs on trade ||-0.36
|RTDs off trade ||-0.38
|| || |
|Spirits on trade ||-0.23
||-1.31 ||-1.73 |
|Spirits off trade ||-0.62
|| || |
|Wine on trade ||-0.33
|Wine off trade ||-0.58
|| || |
|Cider on trade ||N/A ||
|Cider off trade || ||
1. 'Independent Review of the Effects of Alcohol
Pricing and Promotion: Part B Modelling The Potential Impact Of
Pricing And Promotion Policies For Alcohol In England: Results
From The Sheffield Alcohol Policy Model Version 2008(1-1)'
2. 'Econometric Models of Alcohol Demand in the
United Kingdom', Government Economic Service Working Paper No.
140, May 2003
3. 'The economic outlook for the UK drinks sector
and the impact of the changes to excise duty and VAT announced
in the 2008 Budget and Pre-Budget Report', February 2009
Estimates of the elasticities vary considerably between
the three studies; for example, the estimates of the effect of
a 1% rise in the price of off-trade spirits vary from falls in
the value of sales ranging from 1.73% to 0.62%. The Sheffield
study figures are more conservative than the other two but are
consistent with other studies based on survey data. The differences
occur for a number of reasons. The Treasury figures estimates
are based on changes in overall sales figures and prices. Larger
estimates of alcohol price effects are consistent with models
based on aggregate sales data..
292. The relationship between price and consumption
is strong, as is the correlation between the price of alcohol
and affordability. The increase in consumption in recent decades
is clearly related to reductions in real prices and increasing
affordability, as the following figures show.
Figure 14: Indices of alcohol price relative to retail
price index, real households' disposable income (RHDI) and affordability
of alcohol, 1980 to 2007 United Kingdom
Source: Focus on Consumer Price Indices, Office
for National Statistics and Economic Trends, Office for National
Figure 15: Price of Alcohol and consumption
Source: Academy of Medical Sciences. Calling time.
The nation's drinking as a major health issue. London: Academy
of Medical Sciences, 2004.
293. The RAND study came to similar conclusions:
numerous international studies have generally concluded
that increases in the prices of alcoholic beveragesfor
example through local or federal taxationlead to reductions
in drinking and heavy drinking as well as in the consequences
of alcohol use and abuse
EFFECT OF PRICE RISES ON THE HEAVIEST
294. How are the heaviest drinkers affected by price
rises? Some representatives of the drinks industry argue that
the heaviest drinkers respond least to price rises and will switch
to cheaper drinks to maintain their levels of drinking. The CEBR,
in an analysis of the Sheffield and RAND reports commissioned
by SAB Miller, the world's second largest brewer, argued that
heavier drinkers were least responsive to price changes. Speaking
of minimum pricing (but the comments would apply to other price
rises) CEBR claimed that it would be
an incredibly blunt instrument which imposes significant
costs across large sections of society, whilst having very limited
benefits in terms of curbing the excesses of the minority
Mr Blood, the Chief Executive of Scottish and Newcastle,
I have read the Sheffield report
Why do we,
in principle, not support minimum pricing? We believe that where
misuse is happening and where people are drinking more than is
good for them or using alcohol in the wrong way, those are the
people that will not change their behaviour if you apply minimum
pricing, they will carry on misusing, and you will not address
the proper concerns that society has got about the misuse of alcohol
through that blanket approach.
295. Specifically, the CEBR argued that the Sheffield
study showed that heavier drinkers were more responsive to price
changes for individual alcohol products, but omitted to mention
that overall heavier drinkers were least responsive to price changes;
ie it failed to take into account the 'substitution effect'. The
CEBR claimed that the Sheffield study overestimated the impact
of price changes on consumption levels of hazardous and harmful
drinkers by a factor of two.
296. The Sheffield study paid particular attention
to underage drinkers, 18-24 year old binge-drinkers and harmful
drinkers (over 50 units per week). Consistent evidence was found
for an association between alcoholic price and patterns of drinking
by these groups. It also found that most policy options affect
moderate drinkers in a very minor way, simply because they consume
only a small amount of alcohol.
297. Even if the elasticity of demand for heavier
drinkers was exaggerated by the Sheffield study (and it is unclear
it was and, if so, by how much), simply because the 10% of heaviest
drinkers consume 44% of all the alcohol bought, the Sheffield
study is able to claim that:
Harmful drinkers are expected to reduce their absolute
298. We asked our adviser, Professor Godfrey, to
analyse the CEBR study, which had not been peer reviewed. She
found that the CEBR claim about the elasticity estimates of the
Sheffield study was based on a fundamental misunderstanding of
the Sheffield study.
The CEBR critique fails to recognise that the Sheffield
model takes account of all the price effects across different
types of consumers and is not artifically averaged as in the CEBR
study. The models take account for each group not only of all
the cross price effects of other alcoholic drinks but also the
impact of a change in alcohol prices on the consumption of other
non alcohol goods.
PRICE CHANGES AND HARM
299. The Sheffield study also found evidence linking
price increases to reductions in chronic and acute health harms
and in crime: 'Significant health benefits are estimated for harmful
drinkers (particularly deaths avoided)'. There would be less crime
because young people would drink less: 'a much larger proportion
of the crime-related harm is due to reduced drinking in the underage
and 18-24 year old hazardous drinker groups'.
300. Opponents of price rises argued that higher
prices could affect consumption but could not affect the misuse
of alcohol because they did not affect harmful drinkers or binge
drinkers who, it was claimed, did not reduce consumption when
prices rose. The CEBR argued that the Sheffield study was wrong
in linking alcohol consumption to harm done by alcohol: since
2004 alcohol consumption had fallen in the UK, but there had not
been a reduction in hospital admissions. The question arises whether
this short period is enough to establish a trend.
THE EFFECT OF A DECLINE IN AVERAGE
CONSUMPTION ON HEAVY DRINKERS
301. Linked to the previous argument is the dispute
as to whether a decline in average consumption would affect heavy
drinkersie if we all drank less, would there be fewer heavy
drinkers? As we saw in chapter 4, Ledermann's 'whole population
that there is a fixed relationship between average per capita
consumption of alcohol and the number of problem drinkers and
alcohol-related problems. The alcohol industry believes that this
not the case, arguing once again that the fall in alcohol consumption
since 2004 has not been associated with a fall in hospital admissions.
302. On the other hand, it is pointed out that the
figures for admissions are older than the consumption ones and
the recent consumption fall is slight compared to the large historic
rise. It is argued that the very modest fall from the 2004 peak
is not yet large enough to significantly impact on the health
harms from alcohol.
303. There are a number of studies which bear out
Ledermann's theory. A study of English regions (see figure 16)
found a strong relationship between average weekly consumption
in the region and the percentage of the population drinking more
than 28 units per week.
Figure 16: Relationship between mean alcohol consumption
and prevalence of drinking more than 28 units (approx 224 grams)
of alcohol per week: Men
Source: Primatesta et al., 2002.
304. The average intake of a patient with cirrhosis
is around 100 units/week, and deaths from liver disease are a
good indicator of the levels of regular heavy drinking within
a population. Figure 17 shows that liver deaths in the EU countries
with the biggest changes in either death rates or alcohol consumption
are strongly linked to consumption at a population level, both
within countries and overall. The different gradients between
countries suggest that other factors, for example nutrition, also
operate to influence this relationship change.
Figure 17: Liver death rates and overall alcohol
Source: British Association for the Study of the
HIGHER PRICES ARE UNFAIR ON MODERATE
DRINKERS AND LOWER INCOME GROUPS
305. It is argued that raising prices would be unfair
on moderate or responsible drinkers. Why should such drinkers
be punished because a minority drink too much? It is also claimed
that higher prices would be unfair because lower income groups
drink less than higher income groups.
306. On the other hand, as we have seen, others argue
that a rise in prices would have little effect on moderate drinkers
because they drink so little. As we have noted, 44% of all the
alcohol purchased is consumed by 10% of the population. According
to the Sheffield study a minimum price of 40p per unit would cost
a moderate drinker (defined as someone who drinks about 6 units
per week which is the average consumption of drinkers) about 11p
per week; A the same minimum price, a woman consuming the recommended
maximum of 15 units would have to pay £6 for her weekly intake
of alcohol , which is scarcely going to be a massive rise.
307. In fact, those most affected by of price increases,
especially on cheap alcohol, would be heavy low income drinkers,
as we discuss in the next section.
Minimum pricing or rises in duty
308. If prices are to rise, is this best achieved
by introducing a minimum price for a unit of alcohol or by raising
the level of duty or a mixture of the two?
309. Minimum pricing has recently had a number of
powerful supporters including the CMO. While much of the alcohol
industry and most supermarkets were against, there was some support
for minimum pricing from Tesco, Molson Coors (makers of Carling
lager) and CAMRA.
310. The main arguments for preferring minimum pricing
to rises in duty are:
Supermarkets will not pass on the full rises in duty
to customers; they will get the drinks industry to absorb them;
in contrast, this could not happen with minimum prices. As a result,
supermarket and other off-licence sales would be much more affected
than pub sales; thus minimum pricing could help traditional pubs.
Minimum prices would be particularly effective in
raising the price of the cheap alcohol; this would be particularly
effective in reducing consumption by heavy drinkers in low income
groups and young binge drinkers
Minimum pricing would encourage people to buy weaker
311. We have seen that supermarkets aggressively
promote alcohol to attract customers; supermarkets even sell alcohol
below the cost of the duty; thus raising the duty would not necessarily
lead to higher prices.
312. Traditional pubs have lost custom for years.
Rises in duty hit them; minimum prices would not since most pubs
sell alcohol at a higher price than the any minimum price which
has been proposed. For this reason CAMRA supports minimum pricing.
Mr Benner, the Chief Executive of the organisation, told us:
I think the price ratio at the moment is about five
to one (ie the ratio of the off-sale to the on-sale price). If
a minimum price of around 40 pence was introduced, that would
make the ratio about three to one. Therefore, I think that is
enough for there to be a shift in consumption towards drinking
in community pubs.
313. While most pubs would benefit, some pubs and
clubs, such as those which offer 'Happy Hours' and special promotions,
would be affected. The Sheffield study found that the greatest
impact on crime and accident prevention would be achieved through
reducing the consumption of 18-24 year old binge drinkers, by
raising the cost of cheap drinks in pubs and clubs and by reducing
off-licence sales which encourage pre-loading. Off-licence sales
can be very cheap with alcohol being sold for as little as 15
p per unit in some outlets.
314. BASL pointed out that alcohol-related ill health
and mortality was very strongly linked to socio-economic status,
with the most deprived experiencing between a three and five fold
increase in death rates (health statistics quarterly 33) compared
to the most privileged. For any level of drinking, lower income
groups suffer more. The organisation argued that given the strong
link with socio-economic status, one would predict that changes
in the affordability of alcohol over time would have had the most
impact on death rates in the poorer sections of society, which
is what happened to liver death rates between 1991 and 2001. We
know that professional groups drink more than lower income groups
but, astonishingly, as the figure below shows, lower income groups
suffer far more from liver disease. In the 1990s as price fell
and consumption increased, liver disease increased among more
deprived social groups but fell among the 'higher' social classes.
Alcohol duty increases can therefore be predicted to reduce mortality
in those lower socio-economic groups most at risk.
Figure 18: Changes in age standardised liver mortality
rates (deaths / million) according to socio-economic status
Age standardised alcohol mortality rates according
to social class for 1991 -3 (1) when socio-economic status was
assessed by social class, and again for 2001-3 (Health Statistics
Quarterly no 38) by which time socio-economic status was assessed
by NS-SEC groupingshence the different x axes in the graph.
315. According to the Sheffield study, a minimum
price of 50p per unit would save over 3,000 lives per year,
a minimum price of 40p, 1,100 lives.
316. Minimum pricing would encourage people to buy
weaker alcohol; for example, at a minimum price of 40p a 70cl
bottle of 10% abv wine could sell for £2.80, of 12% wine
for about. £3.40 (8.4 units), of 15% wine, about .£4.20p.
317. Opponents of minimum pricing argue that it would
be illegal under EU competition law. The Scottish Government,
which has examined this issue thoroughly, strongly disagrees and
EU Competition Law does provide for a public health exemption.
This exemption has been successfully used by the French Government
to ban alcohol advertising and sponsorship in certain circumstances,
winning a number of cases in the ECJ which were brought by the
318. The DH memorandum to this inquiry stated that
the Government had made no decision about minimum pricing. However,
when the CMO's report which advocated minimum pricing was leaked,
a Government representative rejected minimum pricing.
RISES IN DUTY
319. The main case for higher sales duties rather
than minimum prices is that minimum prices would lead to higher
profits for producers and vendors of alcohol, assuming that any
fall in sales would be more than offset by the increase in revenue
from each unit. In contrast, a rise in duty would avoid this,
producing not additional profits but extra money for the Exchequer.
A rise in taxes can also be justified, as we found in Scotland,
on the basis of recovering the costs imposed by alcoholestimated
at £20-55bn; the duty on alcohol currently raises far less.
The duty on alcohol in the UK raised £14.7 bn (£8.3
bn excluding VAT) in 2007/8 and £14.7 bn (8.5bn excl VAT)
320. In addition, minimum pricing is likely to lead
to a large increase in expenditure on marketing and other forms
of non-price competition as price competition declined. This would
not happen with a rise in prices since supermarkets and others
could more readily compete on price.
321. Another potential advantage of increasing duty
is that increases can be targeted on stronger drinks. Alcohol
duty rates and structures in the UK must comply with European
Directives on the structure and minimum rates of alcohol duty.
Under this legislation, beer and spirits must be taxed in direct
proportion to the alcohol they contain. For example, the duty
on a pint of beer at 6% alcohol by volume is double that of a
pint of 3% abv. Wine and cider must be taxed in strength bands;
thus 10% abv wines can be taxed more heavily per unit of alcohol
than 12 or 14% abv wines. However, it is possible to tax some
different products at different rates; thus in the UK spirits
are taxed more heavily per unit of alcohol than beer and wine.
Member states can also charge lower rates on beer products below
2.8% abv (beer of this strength currently accounts for a tiny
amount of beer salesless than 0.5 %).
In addition, the main beer duty rates can be and have been reduced
for small breweries.
322. We questioned the Treasury in oral evidence
about two apparent anomalies in the present tax system: first,
the low rate of duty on cider and secondly the fall in real terms
in price as a result of the freeze on the duty on spirits from
1997 to 2007. It is little wonder that cheap cider and spirits
are popular with many young people and heavy drinkers.
323. The Treasury's rationale for the low duty on
cider was to protect small producers.
While this is a laudable aim, some 'white cider' is an industrial
product which uses fermented corn syrup.
324. The rationale for freezing the duty on spirits
from 1997 to 2007 was that Government wanted to equalise rates
of duty so that the duty on each product would be equivalent to
its alcoholic strength; ie the tax on a unit of alcohol would
be the same for all alcoholic products. In contrast, older policies
taxed strong liquors such as spirits at a higher rate per unit
of alcohol than weaker products such as beer. The decade long
freeze on the duty on spirits was unusual but in line with a long
trend that has seen a very significant decline in spirits duty
as a percentage of average earnings. This has transformed drinking
habits: spirits were once an expensive occasional tipple; now
they are a cheap way for teenagers to get drunk. The remarkable
figure below shows the dramatic fall in affordability. The rate
of duty on spirits per litre of pure alcohol in 1947 was almost
60% of a average male manual weekly earnings; in 1973 when VAT
was introduced, it fell and since then it has declined consistently
as the figure below shows.
Figure 18: Duty level per litre of spirits as a percentage
of average weekly wages of manual workers (1948 to 2002)
Source: House of Commons Library, based on HM
Treasury statistics on duty levels
Conclusions and recommendations
consumption of alcohol, like that of almost all other commodities,
is sensitive to changes in price as all studies have shown. Because
some countries with high alcohol prices have high levels of per
capita consumption and vice versa some countries with low levels
of consumption have low prices, it is sometimes implied that alcohol
sales do not respond to price changes. This is economic illiteracy.
Different countries, like different people and groups, respond
differently to price, but they all respond. Studies have shown
varying elasticities of demand. The increase in alcohol consumption
over the last 50 years is very strongly correlated with its increasing
the price of alcohol is thus the most powerful tool at the disposal
of a Government. The key argument made by the drinks industry
and others opposed to a rise in price is that it would be unfair
on moderate drinkers. We do not think this is a serious argument.
The Sheffield study found that for the moderate drinker consuming
6 units per week a minimum price of 40p per unit would increase
the cost by about 11p per week. At 40p per unit a woman drinking
the recommended maximum of 15 units could buy her weekly total
of alcohol for £6.
also claim that heavier drinkers are insensitive to price changes,
but these drinkers will be most affected by price rises since
they consume so much of the alcohol purchased in the country (10%
of the population drink 44% of the alcohol consumed; 75% of alcohol
is drunk by people who exceed the recommended limits).
328. We believe
that the Government should introduce minimum pricing for the following
- It would affect
most of all those who drink cheap alcohol, in particular young
binge-drinkers and heavy low income drinkers who suffer most from
- It is estimated that a minimum
price of 50p per unit would save over 3,000 lives per year, of
40p 1,100 lives per year.
- Unlike rises in duty (which
could be absorbed by the supermarkets' suppliers and which affect
all sellers of alcohol) it would benefit traditional pubs and
discourage pre-loading. For this reason it is supported by CAMRA
- It would encourage a switch
to weaker wines and beers.
without an increase in duty minimum pricing will lead to an increase
in the profits of supermarkets and the drinks industry and an
increase in marketing, promotions and non-price competition. The
Treasury must take into account public health when determining
levels of taxation on alcohol as it does with tobacco. Alcohol
duty should continue to rise year on year above incomes, but unlike
in recent years duty increases should predominantly be on stronger
alcoholic drinks notably on spirits.
330. The duty
on spirits per litre of pure alcohol was 60% of male average manual
weekly earnings in 1947; in 1973 (when VAT was imposed in addition
to duty) duty was 16% of earnings; by 1983 it was 11% and by 2002
it had fallen to 5%. We recommend that in stages the duty on spirits
be returned in stages to the same percentage of average earnings
as in the 1980s. Cider is an extraordinary anomaly; the duty on
industrial cider should be increased. To protect small real cider
producers, their product should be subject to a lower duty. Beer
under 2.8% can be taxed at a different rate: we recommend that
duty be reduced on these weak beers; although at present there
a few producers of beers of this strength, the cut should encourage
331. In the
longer run the Government should seek to change EU rules to allow
higher and more logical levels of duty on stronger wines and beers;
it should also seek to raise the strength of beer which can be
subject to a lower duty rate from 2.8 to slightly higher levels.
332. The introduction
of minimum pricing would encourage producers to intensify their
marketing. This will make it all the more important to control
290 Q 271 (Rabinovich) Back
The studies are described in AL 72 Back
AL 72 Back
Q 385 Back
An Assessment of Minimum pricing of Alcohol; (WSTA) Back
AL 67 Back
See chapter 4 above. Back
Q 395 Back
Oral evidence Back
AL 72 Back
Q 956 Back | <urn:uuid:65c25092-59f2-4425-b7f0-486b037cb79c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmhealth/151/15114.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93846 | 6,139 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Diverse and sustainable food production
The research provides companies with information on economically, ecologically, and socially sustainable production. The economic, biological, and technical potential for sustainable production are assessed, and the technologies supportive of sustainable production are developed.
Feasibility studies on new hatchery species
The goal of this sub-theme is to assess the biological and economical potential of new farmed animal species for production, with an emphasis on market demand and impact on the stages in the food production chain.
Production technologies for new farmed species
The goal of this sub-theme is to develop new production technologies to improve the financial gain from farmed animals within any part of the production chain. Currently, the focal species in fish research are whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) and pike perch (Sander lucioperca).
Eco-friendly production technologies
The goal of this sub-theme is to reduce the environmental impact of fish farming practices. Lower impact practices are identified and developed, and the feasibility of implementation is assessed. Furthermore, the corporate readiness to adopt these practices is analyzed.
New fish feeds and feeding innovations
The goal of this sub-theme is improve fish feeds and feeding regimens to reduce the environmental nutrient loads of fish farming, to decrease dependence on ocean fish for feed, and to increase feed conversion and utilization efficiency. This research is conducted in cooperation with the fish feed industry.
Action plan for sustainable aquaculture in Åland
Effects of location guidance on the fish farming economy
Environmental investment in fish farming
Research on the selective breeding of whitefish
Regulating the sexual maturity of rainbow trout in food fish production
The quality of European whitefish in the supply chain
Research on production biology | <urn:uuid:e657cc3b-3f41-4d42-94b7-f1667b2761b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rktl.fi/english/economics_and_society/food_production/diverse_and_sustainable/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886746 | 355 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Dr. Paul Auerbach is the world's leading outdoor health expert. His blog offers tips on outdoor safety and advice on how to handle wilderness emergencies.See all posts »
Effectiveness of Herpes Zoster (Shingles) Vaccine in Older Adults
I am often asked by elder persons whether or not they should take the herpes zoster (“shingles”) vaccine. Up until this point, I have been answering “yes” based on my own experience, but now there is some data to support this recommendation.
In the article, “Herpes Zoster Vaccine in Older Adults and the Risk of Subsequent Herpes Zoster Disease,” Hung Fu Tseng and his colleagues reported their findings in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA 2011;305:160-161). They evaluated the risk of herpes zoster after persons received the vaccine in a general practice setting.
In a retrospective (looking back at a cohort of patients from medical records) study, the researchers compared information about 75,761 vaccinated persons with 227,283 patients who were not vaccinated. Both the vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups were made up of people in the same age range. The outcome measure of the study was incidence of herpes zoster infection.
The vaccine works. The number of herpes zoster cases among vaccinated individuals was 828 in 130,415 person-years, and for unvaccinated persons was 4606 in 355,659 person-years. In other words, the number of cases was 6.4 per 1,000 person-years in the vaccinated group versus 13 per 1,000 person-years in the unvaccinated group. From a practical standpoint, that is a huge difference. Importantly, a very painful manifestation of herpes zoster, ophthalmic (affecting the eye) herpes zoster was less likely among vaccine recipients.
The conclusion is that among persons with normal immune systems who are “community dwelling” and aged 60 years or older, the herpes zoster vaccine is quite effective. For persons in this group who will be travelers or outdoor recreationalists, perhaps without prompt access to medical care if afflicted by shingles, vaccination makes good sense.
Recent Blog Posts
Jul 01, 2013
In Advance of a Wildfire
Feb 11, 2013
Topical Ivermectin Lotion for Treating Head Lice
Feb 04, 2013
Public Health Interventions and Snowmobile Fatality Rates | <urn:uuid:03fae759-2c80-4e67-b490-632cf25334b6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthline.com/health-blogs/outdoor-medicine/shingles-vaccine-older-adults | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945912 | 510 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Perspectives In Psychology
A list of the seven types of perspectives that psychologists use in their profession.
This perspectives looks inside the body, at substances such as hormones, drugs, and neurotransmitters, and at internal organs, especially the brain and its structures. It is also concerned with issues such as emotions, physical health, brain damage and other injuries. It is through neuroscience that psychologists seek to understand how the body influences behavior and how behavior influences the body. For example, we can use a brain scan, called a PET scan, to see how the brain of a person with brain damage functions differently than the brain of a person who has not been injured and how these differences correlate with behavior.
This perspective looks at the impact of evolution on our behaviors. Psychologists study how the process of natural selection (i.e., survival of the fittest, which actually mean survial long enough to reproduce) and how it might affect the way in which we behave. The interaction of our physical abilities and attributes with the environment is taken into consideration. For example, how did the exisence of an opposing thumb affect our ability to do things that allowed us to survive long enough to reproduce?
3. Behavior Genetics
This perspective looks at our personal genetic heritage and how that influences who we are and how we behave. The nature-nurture issue is emphasized. It is concerned with the interaction of our environment (our personal life experiences) and the talents and physical attributes we were born with because of our genetic heritage. For example, if you are born with a tendency to have excellent eye-hand coordination, how does that affect the kinds of activities you choose to do and the activities you choose not to do? And do your choices result in additional practice that improves your coordination even more?
This perspective looks how we learn from the consequences of our actions (i.e., if I study harder, I get beter test score), at behaviors that are learned from watching others, and at behaviors that are learned unconsciously and automatically.
This perspective looks at how we think and reason, how we remember things, why we remember some things better than others, how we go about solving a math or a logic problem, why we are likely to pay attention to some things and not to others, and so on. For example, why can you remember some things that happened many years ago very clearly but you can't remember what you had for dinner just two months ago?
This perspective looks at how people in different cultures and social situations behave. Psychologists study how difference in cultural values and practices can lead to different ways of seeing the world and different ways of behaving. For example, if you show the same picture of a house on a hill to a Maori and to someone from Iowa, the Maori is more likely to be intrested in the hillside, while the Iowan is more likely to be intrested in the house.
This perspective, initially developed by Sigmund Freud, is concerned with how our unconscious motives affect our behavior. Freud developed a comprehensive theory about why we do things without understanding our own motives. He also developed strategies to try to find out what is in the unconscious, such as dream interpretation. | <urn:uuid:84768423-d0b3-4b74-a39e-d21f07cfce36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.everything2.com/title/Perspectives+in+Psychology | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951995 | 654 | 3.453125 | 3 |
General Rubrics Resources
Tips for Choosing Rubrics - Some criteria to help decide which rubrics to choose and how to formulate them. On the Chicago Board of Education Web site.
Guidelines for Rubrics Development - Steps in Rubric Development; Terms to use in measuring range/scoring levels; Concept words that convey various degrees of performance. From the Web site of the College of Education, San Diego State University.
Collaboration Rubric - from the California Department of Education
Multimedia Rubric - Developed by Caroline McCullen, Instructional Technologist, SAS in School, Cary, NC.
HyperStudio Project Rubric - from Schools of California Online Resources for Education Web site
Collaboration Rubric - College Of Education San Diego State University
Assessment: Adopting, Adapting, or Developing an Aligned Assessment for Your Lesson - A series of articles provided by The STAR Center (Support for Texas Academic Renewal). | <urn:uuid:c3ee1829-005a-42bf-9d06-eb243af989d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.caslt.org/resources/general/research-articles-assessment-eval-gen_en.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.87658 | 195 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Volunteer Program - Mentoring
The NEISD Partners in Education (PIE) Mentor Program is designed to organize assistance for our at-risk students. Our goal is to provide students with an opportunity to interact with positive adult role models who will encourage and motivate students to succeed in school.
- To provide positive adult role models for students in at-risk situations.
- To improve school attendance.
- To present a variety of career explorations for students.
- To build self esteem by motivating at-risk students to strive for academic success.
Benefits of Mentoring
Mentoring works because:
- Adults greatly influence how students behave.
- Students grow and develop through identification with adults.
- Positive models influence the social development of students.
- Seeing positive adult role models in the school
- Receiving individualized attention and support
- Having greater career exploration opportunities
- Developing stronger academic and social skills
- Learning to set educational goals
- Increasing their self-esteem
A mentor has...
- a strong desire to help students succeed in school;
- the ability to perceive and respond to the needs of students;
- a willingness to invest time and energy in mentoring a student;
- the belief that every student can learn, although each learns differently and at their own rate; and
- a commitment to spend time with their student and be involved in the schools.
- To listen, clarify and inspire
- To help find solutions to social and academic problems
- To set good examples by modeling appropriate behavior
- To support and encourage good behavior and good attendance
- To help set academic and personal goals
How Can I Help?
Becoming actively involved in education at the local level can help influence the direction and quality of education for students. Children are dependent on an involved and caring community to provide quality education. Your involvement can make all the difference in a child's life.
To apply to mentor a child at a NEISD school...
- Complete the Criminal History Record Check.
- Fill out the Mentor Application (Mentor forms page) and return it to the Volunteer Program Office.
If you have any questions about the mentor program, please contact the Volunteer Program at (210) 407-0309. | <urn:uuid:235e3447-5d61-4777-995e-1d0718bf0cdf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.neisd.net/vol/mentoring.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920203 | 469 | 2.640625 | 3 |
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timeship relativitypink astronaut costumecomputer singsrice sausagechipmunk pictures singerhayley auldbottom mushroomspring style trendscomment gamedans logooakley cover storyayad al adhamyfr19 simmonsswan dogi bar beirut | <urn:uuid:fde547ec-abf5-452d-bdd0-a020919e01d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://m.emontessori.pl/admin/internetworking-devices | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.822963 | 704 | 2.59375 | 3 |
The Hebrew Alphabet
Created by the artist Gabriele Levy this sculptural exhibition’s subject is the Hebrew alphabet.
The work presents each of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Each letter is made of a 22×24 cm piece of clay. whose weight is about 2 Kg.
A descriptive text is written next to each letter, illustrating the letter pronunciation, its numerical value (in Hebrew, “Ghematria”) and its symbolic meaning.
The Masters of the Talmud have explained the sense and the potential force of every letter which has many influences on the words and in particular on the Jewish names.
A small book, in Italian and English can be purchased at the Bookshop: it contains an image of every letter and its related commentary.
Other Art works based on Gabriele Levy’s letters are shown in the stairs going to the Silvers’ Museum.
This exhibition has been visited since 1994 by nearly 250.000 people. | <urn:uuid:862e0f10-9410-4e9a-a6d4-59050a1b7a55> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.casalebraica.info/?page_id=164&lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962538 | 201 | 2.6875 | 3 |
.- Black Catholics across the globe have dedicated their talents and their lives to their faith since earliest days of the Church, a Catholic author and scholar has said.
“Black Catholicism is not something new. From the very first century, people of color have been involved in the universal Church,” Dr. Camille Brown, author of the 2008 book “African Saints, African Stories,” told CNA.
“They have embraced the Universal Church with courage and with love of the Lord, just like everyone else.”
Brown noted that this history dates back to events recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, where Philip the Apostle preached the gospel to an Ethiopian who “returned home rejoicing.”
“We have scriptural evidence that the Gospel and the message of Our Lord Jesus Christ went to Africa from early on,” she said.
“We have men and women of color from Africa who loved the Lord, who were martyrs for the Church and are definitely a part of our history. We cannot forget that it's nothing new,” Brown said.
An associate superintendent of Archdiocese of Baltimore schools, Brown has also taught a course on the history of black Catholics at St. Charles Borromeo Seminary in Philadelphia.
Brown's book lists “over 400 people of color who are identified saints.” Her own count exceeds 700 people, though she added that the racial identification of some saints is debated.
“They were ordinary men and women just like us who just tried to love Jesus. Many were martyred,” she said.
The first identified martyrs in Africa were St. Speratus and companions, while three Popes came from Africa: Victor I, Gelasius I, and Pope St. Miltiades.
More recent black saints include St. Josephine Bakhita from Sudan, who was canonized in 2000. Born in what is now Sudan in the nineteenth century, she was kidnapped and sold as a slave multiple times before being bought by an Italian consul, who treated her well. According to her biography at the Vatican website, she returned to Italy with her owner and converted to Christianity, later joining the Daughters of Charity.
Known for her sanctity and her Christian witness, St. Josephine Bakhita died in 1947. “What a beautiful story and what a beautiful testament to forgiveness!” Brown reflected.
Black Catholicism has been particularly strong in some parishes and regions of the U.S. New Orleans has historically had a “strong pocket” of black Catholics, represented in part at Xavier University. It continues to have a strong presence today.
Baltimore, the first diocesan see in the U.S., has had a “large nucleus” of black Catholics throughout its history. In Washington, D.C., St. Augustine Catholic Church continues to serve its historic role as a center for black Catholicism.
Black Catholic history in St. Augustine, Florida dates back to its time as a Spanish colony where escaped slaves practiced the Catholic religion.
Brown has also studied the lives of black Catholics she considers “saints in waiting.”
These include Father Augustus Tolton, a former slave who became the first recognizable black priest in the United States before his death in 1897 at the age of 43. He had to go to seminary in Rome because no American seminary would accept him due to his race.
“He had some job on his hands when he put that collar on and walked down the street and told people about Holy Mother Church,” Brown said. “What a job! I know that he suffered from that. He suffered greatly for it, and I believe went to an early grave for it.”
Brown also praised the examples of Venerable Pierre Touissant, a former slave who lived a life of charity in 19th century New York City, and Ven. Henrietta DeLille, the New Orleans woman who founded the Sisters of the Holy Family.
Servant of God Mary Lange, the Cuban-born co-founder of the Oblate Sisters of Providence, advanced religious and vocational education in Baltimore, Maryland. She taught black children at a time when they were not being educated. In 1828 she founded St. Francis Academy, which still continues operations in Baltimore.
Brown said that black clergy and vowed religious “represented a beacon of hope for the community” and this role continues today.
“They set out to show the role for black Catholics by making a contribution to the Catholic Church,” she said. “They set out to show that people of color are holy men and women, and that God has a place at the altar for all of us.”
Brown saluted black clergy because of the challenges they faced historically and some still face today.
“Not because they aren't smart enough. Not because they are not holy enough. God knows who he is calling to do his holy work. There may be some challenges there, racial challenges and otherwise, that these men are called to overcome. And they do.”
Brown saw “plentiful and vast” opportunities for black Catholic leadership to emerge, especially in religious vocations. She said there is especially an opportunity for black Catholic families to “pull together and lead the way for other families.”
Black Catholic families face many of the same cultural challenges posed by 21st century media and society.
“Our Church is counter-cultural right now,” she said, “That’s a major, major, major challenge.”
“We need our families so in love with the Church that they have to support their sons becoming priests and they have to support and advocate for their daughters to become religious sisters,” she urged.
“We need our families so in love with Jesus and so in love with the Church that we are going to church together, sitting in the pews together,” she said. “We have to be at table praying, we have to be together saying our rosary. This is the time for us to pull our act together.” | <urn:uuid:5205ecbf-695c-4cb2-b6f3-4c8c7c0da60a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/scholar-recounts-black-catholics-rich-history-worldwide/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980292 | 1,280 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Micronesia, Federated States of
Micronesia, Federated States of, independent nation (2005 est. pop. 108,000), c.271 sq mi (702 sq km), an island group in the W Pacific Ocean. It comprises four states: Kosrae, Pohnpei (formerly Ponape), Chuuk (formerly Truk), and Yap. The capital, Palikir, is on the island of Pohnpei. The population is predominantly Micronesian and Christian. English is the official language; a number of Austronesian and Polynesian languages are also spoken.
The United States spent heavily in the islands in the 1990s, making financial assistance the primary source of income. Other mainstays of the economy are subsistence farming and fishing. Fish, clothing, bananas, and black pepper are exported and food and beverages, manufactured goods, and machinery are imported. The United States and Japan are the main trading partners.
The islands are governed under the constitution of 1979. The president, who is both head of state and head of government, is elected by Congress for a four-year term. There are 14 members of the unicameral Congress; four are popularly elected for four-year terms and 10 for two-year terms. Defense is the responsibility of the United States. Administratively the country is divided into four states.
Germany purchased the islands from Spain in 1898. They were occupied (1914) by Japan, which received them (1920) as a League of Nations mandate. During World War II, U.S. forces captured the islands, and in 1947 they became part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. In 1979, as negotiations for termination of the trusteeship continued, they became self-governing as the Federated States of Micronesia. In 1986, they assumed free-association status with the United States; the economic and defense relationship with the United States was renewed for 20 years in 2004. Emmanuel Mori became president in 2007 and was reelected in 2011.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Pacific Islands Political Geography | <urn:uuid:faab37ef-38e2-4354-baec-dbe9d70e3305> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/micronesia-federated-states-of.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961241 | 454 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Q. My 9-week-old gets the hiccups every day—sometimes even two or three times a day. What causes the hiccups, and how can I prevent my baby from getting them?
A. Hiccupping is a harmless nuisance of the digestive system that can occur at all ages—even in the womb. Hiccups are actually strong contractions or spasms of the diaphragm (the muscle that goes up and down when you take a deep breath). While seldom painful, and not usually a signal of an underlying medical problem, hiccups can be unsettling and startling for an infant. Here are some ways to ease your baby's hiccupping:
Keep a hiccup trigger diary
What situations seem to trigger the hiccups? Do they occur during or shortly after a feeding? Hiccups associated with feeding are quite common since the diaphragm muscle lies in close relation to the stomach. If you see a relationship between feeding and hiccups, try the following preventative feeding strategies.
- Feed twice as often and half as much. Overfeeding is a common cause of hiccups. If the stomach distends too fast or becomes too full, this can trigger the diaphragm muscle to go into spasms. When breastfeeding, try slowing down feedings, and stop and burp your baby as you switch from one breast to the other. Or, if you bottle-feed, pause halfway through the bottle, burp her and then finish off the feeding a few minutes later.
- Reduce air swallowing. Besides gulping too much milk too fast, young infants typically swallow too much air during feedings, also distending the stomach. Review your latch-on techniques during breastfeeding: Be sure your baby's lips open wide and form a tight seal around your areola, not just the nipple. Listen to your baby: You will hear a lot of gulping and air swallowing if she's nursing too quickly and sucking in air. If bottle-feeding, tilt the bottle to a 45-degree angle so the air rises to the bottom of the bottle. Try a bottle with collapsible bag inserts—these are designed to minimize air swallowing. Lastly, be sure to sit her upright in your lap (at a 30- to 45-degree angle) while feeding, as that will help prevent air from settling in the stomach. Keep her sitting up for at least twenty minutes after a feeding to allow any air to rise the top of the stomach, which will relieve pressure on the diaphragm and enable burping.
Could it be reflux?
Persistent hiccups may also signal the possibility that your baby has gastroesophageal reflux (GER), a common and usually temporary condition in which babies regurgitate some of the stomach's contents up into the esophagus, triggering pain and often hiccups. Other clues that your baby could be suffering from reflux are painful night-waking, general "colicky" behavior, abdominal pain after feeding and spitting up. If you suspect reflux, mention your concerns to your doctor.
For the most part, your baby's hiccups will decrease in frequency and severity as both she and her digestive system mature. | <urn:uuid:b6733a24-8ee3-42b6-b95e-692ba986f22b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.parenting.com/article/ask-dr-sears-babys-hiccup-habit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947317 | 666 | 3.03125 | 3 |
"How Did That Get Into My Lunchbox? The Story of Food" by Chris Butterworth has been chosen as the 2013 Book of the Year by the Wisconsin Farm Bureau Federation's Ag in the Classroom program.
The book focuses on how food is grown, produced, processed and transported from farms to tables.
Farm Bureau members and volunteers utilize the Ag in the Classroom book program to educate Wisconsin youth about where their food comes from and the importance of agriculture in their lives.
The book shows young readers how each ingredient made its journey into their lunchbox. Illustrations, by Lucia Gaggiotti, highlight many aspects of farming and include information on food safety and nutrition.
Butterworth, a native of England, is the author of more than 70 nonfiction books for children, covering a diverse range of issues.
In the book, Butterworth shows her enthusiasm for food and for instilling in young readers an appreciation for our food's journey.
The book has received numerous accolades including the being named the American Farm Bureau Foundation for Agriculture's Book of the Year.
This year's selection corresponds with Ag in the Classroom's essay contest topic of "Wisconsin farms help me eat a healthy lunch by …"
The book and essay topic will educate youth about the soil's connection to growing crops and feeding humans and animals.
Copies of "How Did That Get In My Lunchbox?", along with other past Books of the Year are available from the Wisconsin Farm Bureau Foundation for $15 per copy plus shipping.
Order forms are available at wisagclassroom.org. Activity guides developed for the book accompany all orders.
For more information, contact Darlene Arneson at 608-828-5719. | <urn:uuid:7e0e4243-2144-4b02-a179-d7aff6bfd6a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisfarmer.com/news/book-of-the-year-named-----jcpg-300222-177892931.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943276 | 354 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Want to prevent teen smoking? Understand why teens smoke and how to talk to your teen about cigarettes.By Mayo Clinic Staff
Teen smoking might begin innocently, but it can become a long-term problem. In fact, most adult smokers begin smoking as teenagers.
To help your teen avoid taking that first puff, follow these tips.
Teen smoking is more common among teens whose parents smoke. If you smoke, quit. The earlier you stop smoking, the less likely your teen is to become a smoker. Ask your doctor about ways to stop smoking.
In the meantime, don't smoke in the house, in the car or in front of your teen, and don't leave cigarettes where your teen might find them. Explain to your teen how unhappy you are with your smoking, how difficult it is to quit and that you'll keep trying until you stop smoking for good.
Teen smoking can be a form of rebellion or a way to fit in with a particular group of friends. Some teens begin smoking to control their weight. Others smoke to feel cool or independent.
Ask your teen how he or she feels about smoking and if any of your teen's friends smoke. Applaud your teen's good choices, and talk about the consequences of bad choices. You might also talk with your teen about how tobacco companies try to influence ideas about smoking — such as through advertisements or product placement in movies that create the perception that smoking is glamorous and more prevalent than it really is.
You might feel as if your teen doesn't hear a word you say, but say it anyway. Tell your teen that smoking isn't allowed. Your disapproval will have more impact than you think. Teens whose parents set the firmest smoking restrictions tend to smoke less than do teens whose parents don't set smoking limits. The same goes for teens who feel close to their parents.
Remind your teen that smoking is dirty and smelly. Smoking gives you bad breath and wrinkles. Smoking makes your clothes, breath and hair smell, and it turns your teeth yellow. Smoking can leave you with a chronic cough and less energy for sports and other fun activities.
Smoking is expensive. Help your teen calculate the weekly, monthly or yearly cost of smoking a pack a day. You might compare the cost of smoking with that of electronic devices, clothes or other teen essentials.
Give your teen the tools he or she needs to refuse cigarettes. Rehearse how to handle tough social situations. It might be as simple as saying, "No thanks. I don't smoke."
Most teens believe occasional smoking won't cause them to become addicted and that, if they become regular smokers, they can stop smoking anytime they want. Teens, however, can become addicted with intermittent and relatively low levels of smoking. Remind your teen that most adult smokers start as teens. Once you're hooked, it's tough to quit.
Teens tend to assume that bad things happen only to other people. Most teens think cancer, heart attacks and strokes occur only in the abstract. Use loved ones, friends, neighbors or celebrities who've been ill as real-life examples.
Smokeless tobacco, clove cigarettes (kreteks) and candy-flavored cigarettes (bidis) are sometimes mistaken as less harmful or addictive than are traditional cigarettes. Teens also often think that water pipe (hookah) smoking is safe. Nothing could be further from the truth. Kreteks, bidis and hookahs all carry health risks. Don't let your teen be fooled.
Electronic cigarettes are battery-operated devices designed to look like regular tobacco cigarettes. In an electronic cigarette, an atomizer heats a liquid containing nicotine, turning it into a vapor that can be inhaled and creating a vapor cloud that resembles cigarette smoke. Manufacturers claim that electronic cigarettes are a safe alternative to conventional cigarettes but there are safety concerns about potentially harmful chemicals being inhaled during use. Electronic cigarettes can get teens hooked on nicotine, too.
Research also suggests that teens who have used electronic cigarettes are more likely to try other forms of smoking within the following year than are those who have never used electronic cigarettes.
Take an active stance against teen smoking. Participate in local and school-sponsored smoking prevention campaigns. Support efforts to make public places smoke-free and increase taxes on tobacco products. Your actions can help reduce the odds that your teen will become a smoker.
If your teen has already started smoking, avoid threats and ultimatums. Instead, find out why your teen is smoking — and discuss ways to help your teen quit. Avoiding or stopping smoking is one of the best things your teen can do for a lifetime of good health.
Oct. 15, 2015
- What parents and other concerned adults can do to keep kids tobacco free. American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/tobaccocancer/childandteentobaccouse/child-and-teen-tobacco-use-what-to-do. Accessed Sept. 23, 2015.
- Youth and tobacco use. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/youth_data/tobacco_use/index.htm. Accessed Sept. 16, 2015.
- Waterpipes (hookahs). American Cancer Society. http://www.acscan.org/tobacco/regulation/. Accessed Sept. 23, 2015.
- DiFranza JR, et al. Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief, intermittent use. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2007;161:704.
- Child and teen tobacco use. American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/tobaccocancer/childandteentobaccouse/index. Accessed Sept. 23, 2015.
- Gilman SE, et al. Parental smoking and adolescent smoking initiation: An intergenerational perspective on tobacco control. Pediatrics. 2009;123:e274.
- Ditre JW, et al. Associations between parental smoking restrictions and adolescent smoking. Nicotine and Tobacco Research. 2008;10:975.
- Wilson DB, et al. Parental smoking, closeness to parents, and youth smoking. American Journal of Health Behavior. 2007;31:261.
- Guide to quitting smoking. American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/healthy/stayawayfromtobacco/guidetoquittingsmoking/index. Accessed Sept. 16, 2015.
- Teens like different forms of tobacco and nicotine. American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/tobaccocancer/childandteentobaccouse/child-and-teen-tobacco-use-other-types. Accessed Sept. 23, 2015.
- How parents can protect their kids from becoming addicted smokers. Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids. https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/facts_issues/fact_sheets/toll/tobacco_kids/harms/. Accessed Sept. 16, 2015.
- Facts for families: Tobacco and kids. http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Tobacco-And-Kids-068.aspx. American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Accessed Sept. 23, 2015.
- Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm172906.htm. Accessed Sept. 18, 2015.
- Leventhal AM, et al. Association of electronic cigarette use with initiation of combustible tobacco product smoking in early adolescence. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2015;314:700. | <urn:uuid:50298359-ad5e-4433-a5d9-55ced977462c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/tween-and-teen-health/in-depth/teen-smoking/art-20047069?pg=2&footprints=mine&p=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916695 | 1,648 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Language immersion schools have become wildly popular in Colorado and nationwide. But are they really as great as advertised?
On a sunny January morning in East Denver, Brian Weber, head of the Denver Language School (DLS), greets parents by first name as they pull up to the curb. He chitchats for a few moments while the kids head to the playground to romp around before classes start. The scene seems normal enough for an American elementary school. That is, until a foreign twang catches your ear, and you realize the first-graders clambering around the jungle gym—all of them Caucasian—are talking to each other in Mandarin Chinese.
At DLS, a public charter school with 450 students ranging from kindergarten to fourth grade, these conversations happen every day. The school’s language immersion curriculum is arguably the fastest-growing foreign-language education model in America—and as it turns out, an elaborate study in what some might call peaceful imperialism. As its name implies, language immersion students don’t just learn a foreign language; they learn every subject in a foreign language, starting as young as preschool. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance brain development in young kids, helping them become more creative, better problem-solvers, and more adept at multitasking. These qualities, along with the exposure language immersion gives kids to other cultures, have made it madly popular with parents: DLS received 500 applications for 250 spots when it opened in 2010. “I think it’s the most awesome thing in the world,” says Lori Pace, parent of a DLS third-grader. “It’s a unique and rewarding opportunity, and the fact that DLS is a public charter school is an added benefit.”
Language immersion schools have also created a situation in which foreign governments partially subsidize America’s public education system—and probably the only scenario wherein entities such as the National Security Agency and the Department of Defense donate millions of dollars to elementary schools. According to Weber and other proponents, language immersion produces smarter kids with broader worldviews. However, given the still-evolving performance of these students on English-language standardized tests, it also makes some wonder if American kids should really be spending all day learning the three Rs in a foreign tongue.
Language immersion was initiated in 1965 by English-speaking Canadian parents who wanted their kids to learn French. Inspired by Canada’s success, UCLA professor Russell Campbell launched America’s first immersion program in Culver City, California, in 1971; the model has recently exploded in popularity thanks to the National Security Language Initiative, which was launched by President George W. Bush in 2006 to expand America’s pool of future translators and diplomats. You’ll find these schools scattered from Oregon to Washington, D.C., and the model is spreading fast in unlikely places. For instance, by 2013, Utah will have 78 dual-immersion schools (which split teaching between English and a foreign language), with a goal of increasing that number to 100 by 2014.
There are four full immersion schools in Colorado that teach every core subject in the target language. All are located on the Front Range: DLS (East Denver) and Aurora’s Global Village Academy (GVA) are public, while Denver Montclair International School (DMIS) in Lowry and University Hills’ Colorado International School are private. Among the four schools, kids can learn in German, French, Spanish, Farsi, or Chinese.
When Weber and two Stapleton moms founded DLS, then a K–2 school, in 2010, it became the first and only Denver public school to offer full immersion. Weber, a former Rocky Mountain News education reporter and vice president of the Stapleton Foundation, which contributed $300,000 to the launch of DLS, never intended to run the school. He’s fluent in neither of the school’s two languages, Chinese and Spanish; he simply believes in the model. “Immersion challenges your brain more—makes it work harder,” says Weber, who stepped away from day-to-day operations in March to focus on strategic development.
Strolling through the halls, he laments the way demand for language immersion in Colorado is overwhelming supply. The average class size at DLS is large—27 kids—but a teaching assistant in every room helps keep things manageable. Inside one DLS kindergarten classroom, the language immersion methods are on display. A girl gets frustrated and starts rambling in English only to be answered in Spanish by her teacher, who gestures with her hands to help convey what she’s saying. Next door in a first-grade Mandarin room, students work on pronunciation in Pinyin, an English alphabet liaison language, by smacking the Chinese words’ English equivalents on the wall with a fly swatter. The Chinese alphabet has between 2,000 and 5,000 characters, and Weber says a couple of his third-graders are getting close to knowing them all. Surely they must be native speakers? “No,” he says. “We’ve got little blond-haired, blue-eyed white girls who win Chinese speaking contests.” | <urn:uuid:dbcd8a01-4914-459c-a3c5-b8e30ee2ece7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.5280.com/magazine/2012/08/we-are-world?page=0,1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95913 | 1,076 | 2.625 | 3 |
ALICE TERMINAL RESERVOIR
ALICE TERMINAL RESERVOIR. Alice Terminal Reservoir, also known as Lake Alice, is on Chiltipin Creek in the Nueces-Rio Grande coastal basin three miles north of Alice in Jim Wells County (at 27°49' N, 98°03' W). Construction of the reservoir started on September 27, 1963, and was completed in 1965. The project is owned by the Alice Water Authority and is operated as a municipal water supply for the city of Alice. The lake is also used for recreation. Its water is obtained from Chiltipin Creek, supplemented by Nueces River water that is purchased by contract from the city of Corpus Christi. The reservoir has a normal capacity of 2,780 acre-feet and surface area of 700 acres; its maximum capacity is 7,316 acre-feet. An intake structure and a pumping plant were built at Lake Corpus Christi to deliver purchased water through 20.4 miles of pipeline. The drainage area to the reservoir is some 157 square miles.
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Seth D. Breeding, "Alice Terminal Reservoir," accessed June 25, 2016, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/roa05.
Uploaded on June 9, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:19be52ef-f497-43ee-a7cb-6b4ec317841b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/roa05 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941868 | 459 | 2.53125 | 3 |
'In today's computer games, we often see a goal-driven dialogue where the player is limited to a number of predefined response alternatives. In my research, I study how we can use language technology to create more socially driven dialogues in games, with characters who can understand natural language.
Every second, your computer must process billions of computational steps to produce even the simplest outputs. Imagine if every one of those steps could be made just a tiny bit more efficient. “It would save precious nanoseconds,” explained Northeastern University assistant professor of physics Swastik Kar.
A computer program called the Never Ending Image Learner (NEIL) is running 24 hours a day at Carnegie Mellon University, searching the Web for images, doing its best to understand them on its own and, as it builds a growing visual database, gathering common sense on a massive scale.
A team of Stanford engineers has built a basic computer using carbon nanotubes, a semiconductor material that has the potential to launch a new generation of electronic devices that run faster, while using less energy, than those made from silicon chips. This unprecedented feat culminates years of efforts by scientists around the world to harness this promising material.
Computer science researchers have programmed a computer to play the game Concentration (also known as Memory). The work could help improve computer security – and improve our understanding of how the human mind works.
Researchers at the University of New South Wales have proposed a new method of distinguishing between quantum bits that are placed only a few nanometres apart in a silicon chip, taking them a step closer to the construction of a large-scale quantum computer.
Aaeon's EPC-CV1 is powered by an Intel Atom N2600 x86 processor, which is somewhat of a rarity when it comes to single-board computers, as most are equipped with RISC-based ARM chips.
Zotac recently revamped its Zbox mini computer lineup with Intel Core i3 and i5 processor options.
Hardcore tech enthusiasts are often quite excited when hardware benchmarks tip up before they are officially available.
Toshiba is teasing a new high-end ultrabook computer which it plans to launch next month. Curiously, although there is plenty of official information regarding specs, pictures of the device have yet to go live.
When I was growing up I wanted a Commodore 64 computer so badly I could barely stand it.
The typical PC-on-a-stick packaged in a flash drive form factor may not have the power you need, especially if you are in the market for a versatile media center.
Dell has debuted a slick all-in-one computer at a $900 price point. The XPS 18 - which is slated to launch on April 16 - features an 18.4-inch capacitive touch display with a native resolution of 1920 x 1080.
The uber-mini Xi3 Piston small form factor gaming computer first debuted at CES 2013 in January, where Xi3 also confirmed it had received an investment from Valve for the device.
A designer named Vadim Kibardin has whipped up what might well be the coolest computer mouse ever.
Xi3 Corporation has officially kicked off pre-orders for its slick little Piston compact gaming PC at a $1,000 price point.
If you've ever tried to use a typical computer or tablet in direct sunlight, you know that it's pretty much impossible to read the screen.
Asus has launched an all-in-one computer (AIO) dubbed the Transformer AiO P1801.
MSI has pulled the wraps off an all-in-one computer that is being billed as the company's first AIO designed specifically for gaming.
Zotac has debuted an Android-powered set-top box PC dubbed the "StreamBox." | <urn:uuid:696e8c7b-0263-4f4e-9009-4fc31c9a717d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tgdaily.com/tag/computer?HttpOnly=&HttpOnly%2C_cmf_i=2046052568515ca4ce9a55f7.63762893 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953621 | 787 | 2.75 | 3 |
A plague of mice devastates crops. This is the first of a dozen outbreaks that will be recorded over the next 90 years, though it is not known exactly when the harbour here is dubbed Souris or "mouse" by a French vessel encountering the aftermath of such an outbreak.
Rollo Bay school hires Louise Seniat, the first Acadian French speaking teacher. The school remained in operation until 1834 as a french school.
William Cooper, land agent for Lot 56 is elected as a radical reformer. His platform was to seize large estates from their mostly absentee-proprietors and grant the land to the tenants.
First school in Souris is established in Norris Pond and was taught by Edmund Shea.
St. Mary's church burns to the ground.
John Shannon delivers mail from Charlottetown to Souris in a covered carriage four days a week. He is paid a sum of $3.50 a week.
A plague of flying ants arrives on June 22 in East Point, they are in places three feet deep and just as wide. They extended along the North Shore many miles from East Point.
John McLean and Uriah Matthew open a store in Souris.
Construction is started on the Saint Mary's Convent.
American CJ Haley builds a lobster factory just under the lighthouse in Souris.
Alexander MacKenzie, Canada's second Prime Minister, was the first Prime Minister to visit Souris.
July 14th, over 1000 people attended a church picnic next door to the convent.
Fire started in Strathcona, July 12-23, and ended at Fortune Bridge, destroying thousands of acres of woods and fields and a least five homes.
First ice rink opens. It is small and relies on naturally made ice to operate. Artificial ice will not make an appearance in Souris until 71 years later.
The new Souris High serving grades 1-10 opens.
The Imperial Hotel burns to the ground. To assist in the fire fighting, Charlottetown's Silsby fire engine is shipped by rail.
William Dingwell, gradaute of the New England Institute of Anatomy, establishes Dingwell's Funeral Home in Souris.
The Souris Silver Black Fox company is formed by Dr. Gus MacDonald and Charles MacKinnon.
Over 50 whales beached themselves at Norris Pond creating a temporary economic boom. The rendered oil brings $10 gallon.
Teenagers Bernard and George Leslie shoot the last known Island black bear near the Souris Line Road.
St. Mary's Catholic Church is gutted by a fire. The stone shell is rebuilt with some modifications.
The McQuaid block is constructed on Main Street by Art McQuaid.
John McLean passes away. In addition to his business interests he served as a member of the PEI legislature, a member of Parliament in Ottawa and since 1915 as a Senator.
Dundas hosts the first plowing match.
The O'Donnell Usen fish company leased to Albert Griffin for the fish processing plant. The plant is the largest employer in the town until the fire in 1993.
Souris' worst fire destoys an entire block on Main Street.
Sterling Burke, SRHS bus recieves national attention on Jan 20th when it gets stuck in a snowstorm with 18 students and a teacher. Burke finally gets home 27 hours later.
Johnny Belinda hits the main stage of the Confederation Center, and the play sends curious tourists to the Souris area.
Dial telephone debuts in Souris. There is so much interest the circuits overload in the first week.
Basin Head Fisheries Museum is offically opened.
Matthew & McLean closes it's doors for the last time, the store reopens as Stedmans. | <urn:uuid:c5ed8bf1-cfad-479f-894b-79ca4807b243> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://vre2.upei.ca/cap/node/521 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944577 | 777 | 2.734375 | 3 |
In this section, you can investigate the many diverse food rituals and traditions that are practiced within the UK, and investigate the ways in which these traditions shift and adapt over time. You will be able to listen to the extracts and access both a transcript and background information for each recording.
Bianca is 13 years old and goes to a school in north London. Here, she talks about the ways in which school dinners have changed since the success of Jamie Oliver's school dinner campaign.
Read more about 'bad' school dinners and government measures, as well as personal campaigns, to make them better.
Here, cookery writer Elaine Hallgarten talks about the importance of chicken soup in Jewish culture and remembers her mother's cooking. Jewish chicken soup is famously celebrated for its healing powers and is eaten at traditional Jewish holiday meals including Passover.
Read more about the traditions behind Jewish food cultures.
Shezad Hussain, cookery writer and food consultant, was born in Pakistan and moved to England aged 11. Here, she describes foods eaten by her family on the morning of Eid. The festival of Eid marks the end of Ramadan, a month in which Muslims fast from dawn until dusk.
Read more about the festival of Eid and other Islamic food traditions.
In this extract, Shezad Hussain describes the importance of cooking 'from the heart'.
Read more about the connections between food and our emotions.
Here, John Lowery describes the 'traditional' English food cooked by his mother during World War II. He explains why he thinks people were healthier then than they are today.
Read more about government measures and rationing during World War II.
Neil Sachdev was born to an Indian family in Uganda in 1958. His family moved to England in the 1960s. Here, he remembers the typical Indian food eaten by his family during his childhood.
Read more about the history of Indian food in the UK.
Here, Frances Soar reflects on the changes that have taken place during her lifetime in eating habits in the home. Born in Sheffield in the 1950s, Frances describes how dining room eating has been replaced by eating in front of the T.V.
Read more about the ways in which our food habits shape our everyday life.
Paul Wilgos was born and raised in England in the 1960s. He had an English father and a French mother. Here, Paul describes childhood memories of his mother's cooking.
Read more about traditional, and changing, associations between food and gender.
Food traditions and rituals play a central role in all our lives. Some of these are the particular, repeated patterns that we build into our days - hot milk before bedtime, for instance, or biting the chocolate from the edge of a Kitkat. Others are the more mundane, automatic parts of our everyday lives - mealtimes, manners, table-laying, grocery shopping - all of these are ordinary rituals that mark out our waking hours.
Food time travel
But food traditions and rituals go beyond the everyday and the personal. Food takes us back in time, connecting us to the recipes and customs that our families or communities have practiced for generations. Many of us will enjoy family cookery tips that have been handed down through our families by our grandparents and great-grandparents - unique recipes for jams, breads or pickles for instance. Food customs can also play an essential role in binding us together as communities. It is impossible to imagine an Indian wedding, a Jewish Friday night, a Chinese New Year, an English birthday tea or Christmas day without the inclusion of particular foods. In all these traditions, foods plays a central role in bringing people together to commemorate a special part of the year.
However, it is important to remember that traditions do not stay the same forever, but change and adapt over time. For example, many people in England now consider going out for a curry on Friday night a 'tradition' and see Indian food as part of the British way of life - but this is a new part of British culture that has only come about in the last few decades. In Britain, a traditional 'turkey' is eaten at Christmas, but this tradition has only existed since Victorian times. Food can also be a powerful way to break with tradition - to eat food that is taboo for your elders, or reject the food your family cooks in favour of a takeaway for instance, to put our elbows on the table while eating or to lick our knives clean. Rebellions against tradition continue to force our cultures to evolve and adapt, helping us to try new things and to forge new habits. | <urn:uuid:f9b3a478-6e6a-4a65-a5d6-b9d2ca5cb268> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bl.uk/learning/citizenship/foodstories/Accessible/ritualtradition/ritualandtraditionintro.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965392 | 936 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Two Time Periods at Hope LodgeYou will see two time periods represented in the house. Some rooms are shown as the house would have been furnished when it was first built by Samuel Morris, in the Colonial era — 1743 to 1770. Other rooms are shown as the house was lived in by the last private owners, William and Alice Degn, from 1922 to 1953. Although the Colonial period had been over for a century, the Degns decorated with colonial objects to preserve both the objects and the house. This style of furnishing is now known as Colonial Revival. The combination of rooms will allow you to learn the difference between the actual Colonial period and the Colonial Revival period at Hope Lodge.
The Colonial Period
Samuel Morris was born in 1708 and lived until 1770. He was an active Quaker, attending monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings. Morris had a number of business interests, owning grist mills, and partial interests in a brewery, in two trading ships sailing from Philadelphia, and in an iron forge in New Jersey. He was active in local politics serving at different times as Assessor and Justice of the Peace for Philadelphia County.
When, in 1743, Morris decided to build his home, he adopted the most current architectural style of the day in both England and America — Georgian — named for King George I who was reigning at the time the style became popular in Great Britain. Balance and symmetry, both exterior and interior, characterize this style.
An inventory taken when Morris died in 1770 and a partial account book for two of his mills have helped to furnish the 18th century Colonial Samuel Morris rooms in the house. These include the entrance hall, a parlor, the master bedchamber, and service spaces like the head housekeeper's bedchamber, the cellars, and the servants' quarters.
The Colonial Revival Period
William and Alice Degn
William and Alice Degn were married in 1894 and were living in Philadelphia when they bought Hope Lodge in 1922. Their interest in preserving the structure led them to hire Paul Cret, a noted Philadelphia architect, to advise them on restoration. The Degns felt that the house was the perfect setting for their collection of antiques. They were active in their church and in garden clubs.
The Degns often entertained guests at Hope Lodge, and even opened their home for tours. Their love of the house and their interest in its preservation is shown in Mrs. Degn's will, which bequeathed it to the public--"in perpetuity for the enjoyment and education of the people of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and others, as a museum and permanent exhibit typical of the architecture and furnishings of the Colonial period of America."
Photographs of the house, inventories, and interviews with people who knew the Degns have helped us to place the Degn Collection of fine and decorative arts in its proper settings for the Colonial Revival 20th century period rooms. These rooms include a parlor, the dining room, and a guest bedroom. | <urn:uuid:80b9c5be-7a7b-48ae-a85e-65d31e22347b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ushistory.org/hope/history/timeperiods.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977019 | 619 | 2.6875 | 3 |
While policy prohibiting sugary foods and beverages at school parties was uncommon, policy and law were associated with increased school-level restrictions. This indicates the potential positive role of policy at state and district levels for improving the nutritional environment at schools.
About the Study:
This study examines classroom parties as an occasion for students to consume both sugary foods and beverages, by specifically looking at the policies around U.S. public elementary school classroom birthday and holiday parties at the school, district, and state level. Data from a survey of 1,204 schools during the 2009-2011 schools years was examined. District policies and state laws were also gathered from this time. | <urn:uuid:ab679f1d-7b62-4981-b88a-ca7c8f113877> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rwjf.org/en/library/research/2013/11/classroom-parties-in-united-states-elementary-schools.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982409 | 132 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies
Nanoscience is an emerging field, which researches the nature and the use of systems by using components of nanometre size. It comprises an assortment of scientific areas with potential applications in almost all branches of industry. The basic goal of nanoscience is to understand the structure and dynamics of materials at the atomic and molecular level on which their macroscopic properties are based. By understanding how to micromanipulate atoms and molecules it is possible to create new molecules, devices and machines with completely unique properties and applications. As examples, we can cite projects for building atomic size computer components on silicon chips, constructing new molecules that can sense particular viruses and bacteria, magnets at the level of molecules, micromotors, and molecules that can use sunlight to control environmental pollutants.
The basic objectives of the programme are to qualify the candidate for:
- independent or team research and development work,
- work on applied projects in industry,
- mastering the methods and techniques of scientific research,
- international integration of research and development work,
- resolving issues associated with the transfer and adaptation of new technologies,
- performing management functions in business, administration, conducting research, and in research management.
The Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Programme is a cross-disciplinary postgraduate study programme comprising the following research areas:
- Nanomaterials and nanochemistry,
- Nanophysics (including the physics of ultrathin layers, physics of nanotubes, physics of lateral nanostructures, physics of quantum dots, and methods for the analysis of nanostructures and the nanomanipulation of atoms and molecules),
- Structural and molecular biology and nanobiotechnology,
- Nanomechanics (including the mechanics of time dependent materials).
All the courses include the provision of basic skills for successful communication with experts in the areas of economic and civil law, corporate microeconomics and project management, and the basics of sustainable development.
Special emphasis will be placed on research into:
- Nanocomposites and hybrid materials,
- "Smart" ceramic materials and thin films,
- Submicron fibres,
- Nanochemistry involving the synthesis of new molecules through the manipulation of individual atoms,
- Structural and molecular biology as prerequisites for utilizing knowledge of the human genome, understanding biological functions of particular proteins and the processes involving them,
- Biomaterials, particularly new types of agents and direct delivery of agents to the target sites,
- Molecular motors,
- "Smart" ferroelectrics and piezoelectrics,
- Organic and inorganic nanotubes, nanowires and quantum dots,
- "Smart" gels,
- Materials potentially usable for miniaturizing electronic components and elements for quantum computers,
- Materials usable for “spintronics” where spins are used instead of electrons to perform logic and other operations, and where a new degree of miniaturization is expected,
- New research techniques and methods to study the structure and dynamics of nanomaterials.
Similarly, there is a possibility for developing new areas in chemistry and pharmacy where new compounds are synthesized at the molecular level. The programme thus integrates a number of natural science and technical disciplines. Special emphasis is placed on the project-based research work of students, mentors and professors as an integral part of the study programme. Target knowledge and skills, which will be obtained by students in the areas of civil and commercial law, microeconomics, patent and intellectual property law, and the methods of raising "venture" capital, should enable the students, upon the completion of their studies, to better communicate with experts in these areas in order to develop and commercialize the results of nanotechnological research.
The selection of courses is based on the credit framework. The candidate shall collect 60 credits from the organized form of lectures and 60 credits from individual work in research. The candidate can also obtain credits from other related study programmes at the local or foreign institutions of higher education with prior consent of the Senate. Individual research work within master’s degree studies is intended for preparation of the master’s thesis.
|Year||Lecture Credits||Individual Research Work||All Credits||Minimum requirement for advancing into next year| | <urn:uuid:c8091157-0bb6-40e8-b91a-a0d89329ca36> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mps.si/splet/studij.asp?lang=eng&main=1&left=2&left1=2&id=2&m=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893826 | 882 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Restoration of Dar Al-Wali
The building of Dar Al- Wali, known as the old Al- Ma’aref Ministry (Ministry of Education) building, is considered to be among the architectural masterpieces in Baghdad from the Ottoman period that remains visible to this day. The building dates back to more than one hundred and twenty years during which it alternately witnessed the periods of prosperity and the difficult times that Iraqis experienced. Economic embargo and successive wars had destructive impacts on the building. In particular, during and after the recent conflict the building suffered extensive damage. Looters forced their way into the premises, and plundered a variety of items including furniture, air-conditioners, works of art, doors, floor tiles; window frames all of the building services, sanitation, lighting installations and fixtures, computers, as well as others.
UNESCO undertook a project to assist the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage in completing the rehabilitation of Dar Al-Wali. It prepared technical drawings and specifications suiting the usage and respecting the historical and cultural value of the building. It also submitted drawings and specifications for a lighting system for the exhibition space. | <urn:uuid:9d2cb1dd-6465-47e8-a27f-e2cbc85b20ec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unesco.org/new/en/iraq-office/culture/museum-sector/dar-al-wali/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957511 | 236 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The F Word: Feminism and the Wage Gap February 20, 2014 6 Comments Share tweet Haley Sims By: Haley Sims Yes. I’m talking about feminism. Don’t groan and roll your eyes. I know what you’re thinking: “If I have to read one more article about how women are treated unfairly, I’m going to poke my eyes out!” Believe me—that’s how I used to feel every time I saw the word “feminism.” I had this picture of feminists as crazy androgynous bra burners and breast beaters shouting about how women are constantly treated unfairly in today’s world, replacing the regal Elizabeth Cady Stantons and Susan B. Anthonys of old. But this image I had conjured was extremely far removed from the truth. Any movement will have radicals, but feminism itself isn’t so revolutionary: Feminism in my not so humble opinion is simply the idea that women should seek equal rights. So is it still relevant today? Absolutely. But it might be focused on the wrong issues. One of the most well-known and publicized rallying points for feminists is the gender wage gap that exists in the United States. There are so many statistics and misleading information surrounding this topic that it’s hard to make sense of it. Are women really making less than men? And if so, how can we fix it? In the 60s, the passage of the Civil Rights Act and Equal Pay Act ended a large amount of discrimination in the workplace based on gender. However, it’s no secret that a wage gap still continues to exist between men and women, and, at surface level, the gap appears to be closing, but a significant disparity still exists. A recent study conducted by the Pew Research Center concluded that in 2012 women ages 25-34 were making hourly wages that were 93 percent of those of men. So women are making less, right? What is probably more confusing about this is the fact that women are now more likely to earn an advanced degree than men. Among women ages 25-32 in 2013, 38 percent are likely to have a bachelor’s degree compared with 31 percent of men. So if women are attaining on the whole a higher level of education than men, why are they still being paid less? Part of this answer can be found in the types of jobs women hold and the areas in which women earn their degrees. Women are more likely to hold lower-paying “pink collar” jobs such as teaching, childcare, nursing, waitressing and secretaries. There is absolutely nothing wrong with any of these professions, but the unfortunate truth is, they generally pay less than male-dominated jobs. Another and probably more significant explanation for this difference is the fact that women are more likely to leave their jobs or reduce their hours in order to care for family members. The Pew Research Center reports that 27 percent of mothers say they quit their jobs for family reasons while only 10 percent of men have. Women are indeed more likely to put family first at the expense of work life. And this departure can compound itself, as once women leave the workforce they are often likely to never return—or if they do return, they may work less or with less vigor. In comparable careers, this means women will be earning less and less relative to men as time goes on since their male counterparts might keep ascending the ranks. This is probably where most of the wage gap between men and women comes from. You might argue, “But, see that’s a choice. Both women and men have the freedom to choose if and when to leave their work.” This is true. But why are women doing it so much more often? This gets at a much deeper question about gender roles, cultural norms and each family’s personal decisions. The process of caring for a new child is inherently different for men than for women and expectations about childcare are different as well. Many would agree that, for the first few weeks of an infant’s life, a mother must be a constant presence to care for the child—feed it, put it to sleep, make sure it is safe. Technically, though, a mother is only absolutely needed to help a child breastfeed. And conflicting research even exists about how important breastfeeding is in a child’s development. A 2010 study conducted by NYU and backed by the National Science Foundation analyzed numerous extant studies about single-mother, single-father, gay and lesbian parent households. The result: there is little to no evidence of any “gender-based parenting abilities.” There is nothing to say that a mother needs to be at home to raise her children. What does matter, however, is the amount of love and care a parent provides for their children. A father could provide either of these just as well as a mother, which means that something exists in much of our society that propagates and encourages women’s beliefs that they must be the ones taking the lead in raising a child in its early years. So how can we combat this phenomenon where women are leaving the workforce en masse? One suggestion offered is for the United States to offer more paid maternity leave. The United States is one of the only countries in the world that does not, by law, offer paid maternity leave. Women are offered 12 weeks of unpaid leave, albeit provided only if the company is large enough, and companies may sometimes provide paid leave if they choose. But as of 2011, only 28 percent of women employed reported having access to paid maternity leave. However, there are also studies that show that in many countries where paid leave is offered, the gap between the earnings of men and women is even larger than it is in the United States. So this doesn’t seem to be a truly optimal solution. Furthermore, our country has enough economic problems already—how could we support mandatory paid maternity leave? I think what would truly be required is changes in the way people fundamentally think about women in the workforce and child rearing. This column is the first in a two-part series. The second part will run in two weeks. Contact Haley Sims at email@example.com Civil Rights Act of 1964 Elizabeth Cady Stanton feminism gender roles maternity leave Susan B. Anthony 2014-02-20 Haley Sims February 20, 2014 6 Comments Share tweet Subscribe Click here to subscribe to our daily newsletter of top headlines. | <urn:uuid:97432c83-8317-472d-a730-8ec832a266d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stanforddaily.com/2014/02/20/the-f-word-feminism-and-the-wage-gap/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974129 | 1,323 | 2.6875 | 3 |
A USGS study discussing the effects of habitat and predator compositions on waterfowl nesting sites says "Intensive predator management is a warranted and important alternative when habitat management alone is inadequate."
The study describes waterfowl as an "economic, recreational, and aesthetic resource" appreciated by 22 million (2006) hunters and non-consumptive users. Dwindling habitat and highly-adaptable predator populations are cited as the main threats to this resource.
"Intensive predator management" can be aerial gunning, agency trapping, even poisoning is listed by the study as "effective over large areas of the landscape, but effects on non-target species are of great concern." These are all taxpayer-funded options.
But predator control can also be provided by regulated private trapping, a pursuit that is economically positive, at no cost to the taxpayer.
My husband traps every year and he spends a lot of money doing it. His trapping enhances the economy and puts a natural resource to use, to the benefit of countless other wildlife species. We don't want to see aerial gunners and poison managing predators in Idaho.
Please vote yes on HJR 2aa, even if you don't understand private trapping, or haven't thought much about the alternatives.
-- Tina Carney | <urn:uuid:2509a229-d6b8-4f8b-9110-57c95556ecdc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mountainhomenews.com/story/1909409.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934696 | 258 | 2.6875 | 3 |
ATLANTA (October 23, 2013) A long-awaited study shows that a high-dose flu vaccine for seniors works better than the standard shot, which is only about 30 to 40 percent effective in people 65 and older, who tend to have weaker immune systems.
The new study suggests Sanofi's Fluzone High-Dose vaccine boosts protection to about 50 percent.
The vaccine maker is scheduled to present preliminary results Thursday at a medical meeting in Atlanta.
The study was conducted during the past two flu seasons, and is the first to measure how much protection the new vaccine actually provides against the flu.
In younger adults, regular vaccines work better, with effectiveness of 60 percent or better.
Flu vaccines are recommended for everyone except for infants younger than 6 months. | <urn:uuid:0ba83f55-99e4-4903-a2d4-649e96884f8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kwtx.com/news/health/headlines/Study-Says-Very-High-Dose-Flu-Shot-Protects-Seniors-Best-229023341.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963462 | 159 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella, played havoc with the economic returns of many growers in the San Joaquin Valley this season.
This pest is particularly insidious in that not only does it directly reduce yield by reducing the number of harvested nuts and by increasing the number of nuts culled at the huller, but infested nuts that are missed during processing end up in consumer packaging. Navel orangeworms that survive processing usually hatch in bags of pistachios that are not immediately eaten by consumers.
Nuts which have been damaged by navel orangeworms but which no longer house a living navel orangeworm, are composed of decayed nutmeat, frass and secondary fungal invaders that produce potentially poisonous aflotoxins. Products containing moths and decayed pistachio nuts do not usually encourage consumers to make further purchases.
During the past season, it was common for growers to find 2 percent or more of their nuts arriving at the huller infested with navel orangeworm. Levels of 5 percent or more of infested nuts will probably result in the entire load of nuts being processed as shelling stock or lesser products instead of being packaged as the more valuable in-shell nuts that consumers associate with pistachios.
Typically in the San Joaquin Valley the navel orangeworm has four to five generations per year. Early-season infestations in an orchard can be determined based on the use of egg traps baited with mixtures of almond press cake and almond oil.
The first generation of moth egg-laying activity usually peaks in late April and early May and the second generation in late June or early July. Generally, however, only the third generation is treated with chemicals.
If populations are high early in the season, appropriate insecticides are applied approximately 300-400 degree-days after third-generation egg laying begins, usually in early August. After about mid-August pistachio nuts are so attractive to the moths that the egg traps no longer work.
If third-generation egg-traps lose their effectiveness, treating approximately 1000 degree-days after the onset of second-generation egg laying will approximate the appropriate time for treating third-generation navel orangeworms.
More information on monitoring navel orangeworm populations, which insecticides to use, and when to treat using degree-day calculations is available in the University of California Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Guidelines. These guidelines are available on line at www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r6O5300111.html and also from most University of California Cooperative Extension Offices in the San Joaquin Valley.
Make sure that the length of the preharvest interval (PHI) of any applied insecticide will not interfere with the scheduled harvest date.
Frequently, navel orangeworm populations do not reach damaging levels until late in the season. In early to mid-August, if the orchard has not yet been treated, nuts can be collected from the field and examined with a magnifying glass. The greater the number of early split nuts the more likely it will be that navel orangeworm will be a problem.
Usually a sample of 100 to 200 randomly collected nuts from the orchard are inspected and if 3 to 4 percent of the nuts have eggs, the orchards will be treated with an appropriate, registered insecticide. In an untreated field, the percent infestation of the nuts can climb by 1 percent a week.
Generally the later in the year that pistachios are harvested, the greater the number of infested nuts. As many growers discovered this year, chemical control may not be adequate to reduce infestations sufficiently.
Navel orangeworm does not over winter in the egg, so is dependent for survival as a larva in unharvested nuts left on the tree or on the ground during the winter in the San Joaquin Valley. Many crops such as fig and nut crops such as almonds, walnuts and pistachios host this pest.
Navel orangeworm has the ability to fly inter-orchard distances so effective control is dependent on measures conducted on an area-wide basis. Adequate control | <urn:uuid:7929a0d1-6663-44ea-a132-c920054b4e02> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westernfarmpress.com/navel-orangeworm-threat-pistachios | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939691 | 885 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Creatophora cinerea (Wattled starling)
Lelspreeu [Afrikaans]; Unowambu, Uwambu [Xhosa];
iMpofazana [Zulu]; Leholi (generic term for starlings) [South Sotho]; Kwezu
elimhlope [Tsonga]; Lelspreeuw [Dutch]; Étourneau caronculé [French];
Lappenstar [German]; Estorninho-carunculado [Portuguese]
> Eukaryotes >
> Metazoa (animals) >
Deuterostomia > Chordata >
Craniata > Vertebrata (vertebrates) > Gnathostomata (jawed
vertebrates) > Teleostomi (teleost fish) > Osteichthyes (bony fish) > Class:
fish) > Stegocephalia (terrestrial
vertebrates) > Tetrapoda
(four-legged vertebrates) > Reptiliomorpha > Amniota >
Reptilia (reptiles) >
Romeriida > Diapsida > Archosauromorpha > Archosauria >
(dinosaurs) > Saurischia > Theropoda (bipedal predatory dinosaurs) >
Coelurosauria > Maniraptora > Aves
Order: Passeriformes > Family: Sturnidae
Wattled starling in non-breeding plumage,
Niewoudtville, South Africa. [photo Trevor Hardaker ©]
Wattled starling. [photo Callie de Wet ©]
Wattled starlings, just south of Kimberley,
Northern Cape, South Africa. [photo Andries Steenkamp
Distribution and habitat
Occurs from Ethiopia and Kenya through Tanzania, southern
DRC and Zambia to southern Africa. Here it is locally common across much of the
region, generally preferring sparse woodland and other open habitats, such as
grassland and cultivated areas.
Distribution of Wattled starling in southern Africa,
based on statistical smoothing of the records from first SA Bird Atlas
Animal Demography unit, University of
Cape Town; smoothing by Birgit Erni and Francesca Little). Colours range
from dark blue (most common) through to yellow (least common).
See here for the latest distribution
from the SABAP2.
Predators and parasites
Flightless young have been recorded as prey of the
Movements and migrations
It is nomadic, moving around in response to
insect abundance in different areas.
It mainly eats insects, fruit, seeds and nectar, doing most
of its foraging on the ground, plucking prey from the surface or proving the
ground to catch burrowing arthropods. It may occasionally forage in the
intertidal zone, and it often follows game and livestock, removing ectoparasites
from their skin. The following food items have been recorded in its diet:
- Erythrina caffra (Coast coral-tree)
- Schotia brachypetala (Weeping boer-bean)
- Acrocarpus fraxinifolius (Pink cedar)
- Pollichia campestris (Waxberry)
- Ziziphus mucronata (Buffalo-thorn)
- Azima tetracantha (Needle-bush)
- Ficus (figs)
- Monogamous and highly colonial, nesting in colonies within which laying
dates and other breeding activities are completely synchronised.
- The nest is a bulky, domed structure within an entrance on the side or
near the top, built of sticks and lined with grass and feathers. It is
typically placed in a tree (especially Acacia) conjoined to other
nests in the colony, forming one large interlocking mass.
- Egg-laying season peaks from September-December in the Western Cape,
later in summer rainfall areas, from January-March.
- It lays 2-5 eggs, which are incubated by both sexes for about 11 days.
- The chicks are fed by both parents on a diet of mainly insects, leaving
the nest after about 13-16 days, before they can fly.
Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ and Ryan PG 2005. Roberts
- Birds of southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker
Bird Book Fund, Cape Town. | <urn:uuid:6c69dc29-9d93-4367-bda8-24701f3da0c9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/birds/sturnidae/creatophora_cinerea.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.814264 | 970 | 3.09375 | 3 |
NOAA and partners are expanding the use of an underwater robot using a NOAA-developed sensor that enables remote, automated measurements of toxins produced by harmful algal blooms (HABs), known to contaminate shellfish and poison humans that consume them. Already used in monitoring the dinoflagellate Alexandrium, the algae that causes toxic red tides in the Gulf of Maine, the robot will now be deployed in the Pacific Northwest to detect and identify the HAB species Pseudo-nitzschia australis.
The robot, called the Environmental Sample Processor (ESP), was deployed by the University of Washington on May 23, and will provide data on both Pseudo-nitzschia cell and toxin concentrations off the coast of Washington. By including the sensor on the robot during deployment, scientists are better able to assess the toxicity level of a given algal bloom.
Original article: High Tech Tool to Aid in Pacific Northwest Toxin Detection | <urn:uuid:b808e0f1-2be3-48d5-95c3-bc199ff69c8f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/mobile/news-item.php?siteName=nosnews&passedcount=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916205 | 195 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Image from prisonpolicy.org. Click image to enlarge.
Today is National Black HIV/AIDS Awareness Day, an initiative spearheaded by five organizations and the CDC to raise awareness and education about the exacerbated rates of HIV/AIDS infections among African-Americans.
And this is a much-needed effort. Although African-Americans make up 14% of the US population, they make up nearly half of all new HIV infections per year (44%). According to the latest CDC figures, the HIV infection rate of black men is more than 6 times higher than white men, and the infection rates of black women were estimated as high as 15 times higher than the rate for white women. What's more, black MSM represented nearly 75% of all new infections among black men, and nearly 40% among all MSM. And finally, young black MSM continues to be one of the few populations groups whose yearly infection rates rise annually.
One of the major prevention challenges that contribute to the higher rates of HIV/AIDS infection among African American populations is the high -- speciously high, in fact -- rates of incarceration among black men, women, and youth. According to the Pew Center, black men ages 20-34 have the highest incarceration rates among any other population in the United States, and black women aged 35-39 also have astronomically higher incarceration rates than white women and Latina women.
Incarceration stymies HIV/AIDS treatment, education, and prevention efforts because correctional facilities often lack the resources and medical tools to implement clear testing and prevention programs, as well as providing links to mental and physical care due to the restrictions based on their imprisonment. In other words, prisoners are not likely to be able to access AIDS service organizations or expert case managers while incarcerated, leaving them to facility workers who do not specialize in HIV/AIDS care and treatment.
What's more, people living with HIV/AIDS recently released from incarceration face seemingly insurmountable challenges. This time is often "characterized by limited access to medical care, interruption of antiretroviral therapy, poor virological and immunological outcomes, and behaviors that can transmit HIV infection. Studies show that as many as half of HIV-positive inmates leave prison or jail with no place to call home and no income to meet basic subsistence needs."
To further understand the needs of those living with HIV/AIDS and with histories of incarceration, Housing Works teamed up with the National Minority AIDS council to release the report, "Mass Incarceration, Housing Instability and HIV/AIDS: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations." The report examines the intersection between incarceration, homelessness and HIV vulnerability within the African American community, as well as the social disparities that drive the AIDS pandemic including poverty, institutionalized racism, health care access, and financial disparities.
Released yesterday, this report sheds some much needed light on how communities of color continue to be affected by HIV/AIDS.
Read it now and please share it with your networks, not only today, but for all people living with and affected by HIV/AIDS. | <urn:uuid:cedfa67c-3f49-47d3-856c-281882ad8313> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thebody.com/content/70494/on-national-black-hivaids-awareness-day-report-on-.html?ic=4003 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956111 | 620 | 2.75 | 3 |
What’s a Pitch?
The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a “pitch” as “Behavior or speech intended to influence or persuade, esp. for the purpose of sales or advertising.”
For this report we’ll define it as “A speech intended to influence or persuade.” More precisely, for this report a PITCH is a series of words, transmitted by voice or other media that are meant to:
- Make someone act or think a certain way.
- Persuade someone to purchase
- Set up perceptions in someone’s mind.
- Create expectation or lack of expectation.
- Cause emotion that leads to pre-determined behaviors.
Just from this list alone, you can see that a pitch is more powerful than just mere words. A pitch can move people to action. A pitch can change the mood associated with activities. A pitch can create mental expectations that can make people move towards things with gusto or cause them to run in disgust. A pitch is power.
When most people think of a pitch they think of the sales pitch. The one that makes persuades people to buy something. But…
Are there other types of pitches
besides the sales pitch?
Here’s a list of various types of pitches I’ve classified. I’m sure there can be further variations, but these have worked well for me.
I categorize the types of pitches into two groups. Category one is “Mental Architecture.” Category two is “Action.”
Most people think of a pitch as something that leads to an action immediately at its close. You will soon see that is not always the case. Sometimes we just want to use a pitch to create attitudes, expectations, emotions and perceptions. These types of pitches are what I call “Mental Architecture” pitches. When you perfect “Mental Architecture” pitches, the prospect will often take the necessary action steps without an “Action” pitch. Isn’t that what we want? – For it to be their idea? 100% of the professional salespeople and businesspeople I have met have never heard of anything like my idea of “Mental Architecture” pitches. They have probably, by chance alone, used one from time to time. However, once I show them how to predictably create them and put them to use their entire world changes overnight – mentally and monetarily. I think you will come to the same conclusion they do – “Mental Architecture” pitches are the missing link in predictably superior performance in all areas of business and sales life.
Chances are you are more familiar with the second category of pitch – the “Action” category. These pitches ask for some kind of action or commitment on the part of the prospect. They take some physical action or commit to a physical action at the end of the pitch.
Keep in mind that any of these individual types of pitches can, and often are, combined in very creative and effective ways. Experiment and find out what works for you. My philosophy is this “You can never have too many pitches” If you can find a way to say something in an appealing and persuasive way that makes people change their behavior or alter their way of perceiving in a way beneficial for you – WRITE IT DOWN IMMEDIATELY – then figure out where it would be appropriate to use. Polish the pitch and put it to use.
The Sales Pitch
This is the classic pitch. This is the pitch normally thought of when people think “pitch.” You know a sales pitch when the final-action step is a request for money (in any of its various forms.) Obviously, this pitch falls into the “Action” category.
There are many formulas for the Sales Pitch. The most common is
The Appointment Pitch
A pitch that has as its action step a commitment on the part of the prospect to listen to a sales pitch at a future date. This pitch falls into the “Action” category.
The Expectation Pitch
A pitch that is used to create mental expectations in the listener. This pitch can be used on circumstances as varied as hiring a new employee to starting a romantic relationship. This pitch falls into the “Mental Architecture” category.
The “Pitch the Pitch” Pitch
A pitch that creates perceptions and expectations about how someone should process a pitch that is about to be given. I consider this part of the “Mental Architecture” category.
The Perception Pitch
A pitch that creates a perception of a situation, person or thing. Often used as a set-up pitch before a sales pitch or other action based pitch. This pitch falls into the category of “Mental Architecture.”
Copyright 2004-2010 Christopher Tomasulo
Learn about Roy Williams concept of “Seussing” and how you can use it to turn advertising from boring and bland to exciting and unique. Also find out about a boatload of Dr. Seuss illustrated ads that you can add to your swipe file. Continue reading
In 1924 a George Burton Hotchkiss copywriting book suggests that people use social proof in ad copy but calls it “imitative suggestion”. Are imitative suggestion and social proof the same and are they a form of hypnosis? Continue reading
October monthly update that includes a story on how the massive success of the Salty Droid blog has spawned a bunch of clones that make a mockery of the robot. Also how a motivational blog post by Frank Kern is really a disguised pitch. And finally some feedback I received on the Bill Bonner Video Sales Letter Post. Continue reading
No related posts. | <urn:uuid:00055648-484b-45fc-acc4-9e101a5f9c3b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.covertcommunications.com/sales-pitch-pitches-persuader-master/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956107 | 1,189 | 2.875 | 3 |
Since the discovery of his tomb in the 1920s, the 14th Century BC Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun–AKA King Tut–often has been depicted as a sickly, physically frail child, more of a figurehead than a monarch. The “Boy King,” as comedian Steve Martin labeled him in a late 1970s satirical song, even poked good-natured fun at his premature demise at age 19, suggesting that “he gave his life for tourism.” Other, darker rumors have persisted that he was murdered with a brutal blow to the head in order to clear the throne.
But new research, detailed in a book by archaeologists Zahi A. Hawass and Sandro Vannini and this article from the September 2010 issue of National Geographic, puts the lie to some of those popular myths. The new finds also yield some surprising new insights about the life of the ancient ruler.
When Tutankhamun came to power in the 1330s BC, the nation of Egypt already was 16 centuries old, and was a military and economic superpower of the ancient world. Its empire stretched 1,200 miles from the Euphrates in the north to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in the south. But the decade before Tutankamun’s rise had been filed with tumult. Amenhotep IV, the first ruler to call himself Pharaoh, disrupted the society’s status quo. He disenfranchised the wealthy priesthood by abolishing worship of the traditional pantheon of gods and replaced it with devotion to a single deity, the sun god Aten. After Amenhotep IV’s death in the mid-1340s BC, Egypt seems to have been ruled for brief periods by two different monarchs. One may have been his wife Nefertiti, and the second was a shadowy figure named Smenkhkare, possibly a brother of Amenhotep IV, about whom little is known.
How exactly young Tutankhamun–whom DNA analysis indicates was product of an incestuous union between Amenhotep IV and one of his five sisters –came to power in the 1330s is a bit murky. He ruled Egypt for about a decade, during which his father’s radical legacy was rolled back and the traditional gods were restored to their place. Tutankhamun died before he could sire a male heir, which was windfall for an elderly man named Ay, possibly a relative, who then got the chance to become Pharaoh.
Those circumstances, combined with Tutankhamun’s youth, have led many to assume that he was little more than a figurehead, and that the powers behind his throne may have decided to dispose of him before he became old enough to try to take a stronger hand.
CT scans of of his mummy, made in 2005, show that the Tutankhamun did have an imperfect, pear-shaped physique. Additionally, his left foot was clubbed, one toe was missing a bone, and bones in part of the foot were destroyed by necrosis. Well-worn walking sticks in his tomb suggest that he needed a cane to walk. DNA evidence also shows that he had contracted a severe form of malaria several times. The researchers also suspect that he had a partially cleft palate.
Child-sized weaponry, chariots and fitted charioteer attire found in his tomb, which show signs of extensive use, suggest that Tutankamun was a vigorous young man, despite his physical flaws. He apparently trained in the arts of war, and fragments of reliefs at Luxor depict him leading his armies into battle against Egypt’s foes. He also enjoyed the manly pastime of hunting.
Additionally, the CT scans show no evidence that he was assassinated with a blow to the head, as some had believed. Instead, researchers found that the young king’s leg was broken just below the knee in a hunting accident, and the amount of healing indicates that the injury occurred perhaps a day before his death. It may well be that Tutankhamun died from internal injuries from the accident that caused the broken leg, or that the injury may have further weakened his already compromised body, leading him to die from an infection.
Another interesting discovery: DNA analysis shows that two mummified fetuses in Tutankamen’s tomb were his offspring. Since genetic defects often prevent a fetus from surviving full-term, it could be that royal incest is what prevented him from leaving a successor.
For more revelations, be sure to watch Treasures of Egypt: Tut’s Treasures, on Tuesday Feb. 22 at 8 p.m. Here’s a sneak peak from tonight’s episode: | <urn:uuid:69fc9715-3eb5-4cde-8a4a-a64008df344f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tvblogs.nationalgeographic.com/2011/02/22/who-was-tutankhamun-really/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987518 | 969 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Infants who excel at processing new information at 6- and 12-months-old, typically excel in intelligence and academic achievements as young adults in their 20's, according to a study directed by Case Western Reserve University Psychologist Joseph Fagan.
Fagan's "The prediction, from infancy, of adult IQ and achievement," published in the journal Intelligence, is receiving accolades. Mensa International, Limited— the international organization of 100,000 people who score at the 98 percentile on IQ tests—and the Mensa Education & Research Foundation recently recognized Fagan's work with the 2009 Award for Excellence in Research.
The research honored by the Mensa groups examined the question of whether the more intelligent infant becomes the more intelligent and more highly achieving adult.
"Yes" is the answer Fagan and his research team found.
Intelligence involves processing new information and then making associations with other information an individual encounters throughout life. These processes work together to allow an individual to grow in knowledge, says Fagan.
Over 20 years ago, Fagan developed the Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence. The test measures the response infants have to pictures of novel objects.
The infant test works by pairing two pictures together for a set period of time. A researcher watches the length of time an infant looks at the pictures. Then one of these pictures is paired with a new image and again the time the infant focuses on the new and old images is recorded. Infants generally spend about 60 percent of the time looking at new images.
In the research project for the award-winning paper, Fagan and his co-investigators Cynthia Holland from Cuyahoga Community College and undergraduate student Karyn Wheeler revisited 61 young adults, who had taken Fagan Test as babies in their first year of life. They also looked at their first IQ tests at the age of 3 and compared them with their scores at 21 years old.
They discovered an association with intelligence between this early ability to process information and IQ during their young adult years. These infants with ability to process new information at an early age showed higher levels of academic achievement later in life.
The researchers say that attention to novelty "tells us that intelligence is continuous from infancy to adulthood" and "underscore the importance of information processing as a means for studying intelligence."
They added that this knowledge may help researchers also understand how genetics and environment can influence intelligence.
Case Western Reserve University is committed to the free exchange of ideas, reasoned debate and intellectual dialogue. Speakers and scholars with a diversity of opinions and perspectives are invited to the campus to provide the community with important points of view, some of which may be deemed controversial. The views and opinions of those invited to speak on the campus do not necessarily reflect the views of the university administration or any other segment of the university community. | <urn:uuid:449f4086-950f-4238-b163-d85761369b83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.case.edu/case-news/2009/08/05/josephfaganmensa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954236 | 573 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Roses are Red
The vivid color of this rose brings to mind an old rhyme. It also brings a bee to the flower, seeking nectar. You know roses are red (and violets are blue), but did you ever wonder how and why flowers have such beautiful colors?
The Back Story
- What determines flower color? It’s basic chemistry.
- In fact, chemistry explains why most things have color. In plants, flower cells produce specific color molecules called pigments. Each pigment absorbs most wavelengths of visible light and reflects just one or a few wavelengths.
- The wavelength of visible light determines the color that the light appears to the human eye. So whatever wavelength of light a flower reflects is the color you see.
- Watch this video to learn in detail why roses are red, violets are blue, and other flowers have their own hue: http://www.nbclearn.com/chemistrynow/cuecard/53149
Show What You Know
At the link below, learn more about color in flowers. Then answer the following questions.
- Why are roses red?
- Which pigment is most common in plants? What color does it appear?
- What are the two types of pigments that make most flower colors?
- Why do pigments absorb the light waves they do?
- What factors determine the color of a given flower?
- How did flower colors evolve? | <urn:uuid:7186b85a-539b-4e13-8542-dbac151eb169> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ck12.org/physical-science/Visible-Light-and-Matter-in-Physical-Science/rwa/Roses-are-Red/r6/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915763 | 296 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Yemen: Does Shari'a Oppose the State Law on Marriage?
The earliest concerns expressed by religious figures over the advancement of women in Yemen began in the 1930s. Responding to emerging desire among Adeni families to educate their girls, clerk Ahmed Mohammed Saeed emphasized (and set what later became a social convention) that girls must only be educated in religious studies and matters suitable to their “nature,” in order for them to become more adept “wives and mothers of the future.”
Two religious figures, both graduates of Al Azhar University in Cairo, became dominant voices in the 50s and 60s against women’s public participation in Aden: Sheikh Mohammed Al Bayhani and Sheikh Ali Ahmad Bahamish. Al Bayhani published a book in 1950, “Ustadh Al Mar’a”(“The Woman’s Teacher”), in which he upheld conservative views on several topics concerning women. Between 1948 and 1950, Bahamish published a religious and social newspaper “Al Dhikra” (“The Remembrance”) which was the mouthpiece of the Islamic Welfare Society. One of the paper’s editors wrote in 1950, responding to discussions of granting political rights to women: “I say it…and I say it with strong emphasis: The woman is a creature for the home only; if granted alleged political rights, then woe to the men. Woe to them from a coming era.” During the same period, a religious figure in Sana’a, Abdul Wasi’i Al Wasi’iy, published the book, “Al Burhan wa Al Hujja Fi Wujoob Ta’at Al Zawja” (“The Proof and Argument for the obligation of the Wife’s Obedience” [to her husband]), preaching similar conservative views on women’s social roles and duties.
An incident that caused great outrage among religious groups was when, in 1959, six female activists removed their veil and marched down the streets of Aden, rebelling against what they perceived as backward and hindering traditions. Not only did religious figures strongly protest, they declared an emergency meeting and, interestingly, approached the British colonial authorities for help in containing what they perceived as the beginning of moral chaos (The British refused to interfere). When journalist Mahia Nagib founded the female journal Fatat Shamsan (“The Maiden of Mount Shamsan”) in 1961, religious groups and mosque imams in Aden mounted a campaign against the journal, threatening its founder and accusing her of blasphemy. And in 1969, they assaulted judge Hamida Zakaria, who had also been running a family program on TV, opposing her appointment as a judge and deploring her appearance on TV as causing fitna (moral disorder).
The socialist regime in the south provoked further religious opposition during the 70s with its radical social and economic policy measures that aimed at empowering women, especially its secular 1974 Family Law. This caused outrage among many Yemeni conservative and religious groups, not only within Aden, but even within Yemeni communities based in Saudi Arabia who reacted by broadcasting their opposition and demonizing the socialist regime through radio stations. The mid-70s in the north also witnessed a rise of Islamist opposition to organized women’s activity. In 1974, a group of Islamists took over and closed down the Yemeni Woman’s Association in Sana’a, which had been providing basic literary lessons, craftwork training, and running a radio Family Program. The Association remained dysfunctional until it was re-opened in 1979 by activist Raufa Hassan.
The Islah Party and other conservatives managed to influence the 1992 Family Law which was only a slightly improved version of the conservative northern 1978 Family Law of the former Yemen Arab Republic. In the same year, Islah organized a huge conference where several unsigned working papers addressing the woman’s questions demanded behavioral codes for women, including hijab, separate educational facilities, and restrictions on travel without a male guardian. In 1997, a new conservative and regressive family law draft was secretly proposed and passed in Parliament without notice, but women later persuaded the president not to sign the bill. The Women’s Studies Center at Sana’a University was ransacked, closed down, and its director threatened, by religious groups in the late 90s. More recent examples include the 2008 fatwa issued against calls for facilitating women’s political participation through a quota system and the fatwa issued last month against the minimum marriage age set by the Parliament.
In light of the brief historical survey above, the recent efforts by religious groups to retract the marriage age law come as part of a continuous effort to employ religion in defining women’s social and political realities. One common underlying rationale that informs religious and conservative reactions is the assumption that women’s roles are pre-defined according to their nature or biology. Hence, women’s education, work, public participation, and other life opportunities, are made subject to this socially constructed rather than naturally determined constraint. Another common rationale (or rather, fear) is that allowing women to practice their full autonomy will lead to social disorder and chaos. There are also the readily hurled accusations of blasphemy and/or association with ill-intentioned Western agendas at anyone who voices disapproval of the status quo.
Focus on women and gender relations
Regarding the recent marriage age debate, Assistant Secretary-General of the Islah party Mohammad Assadi said that “marriage age is an Islamic rule and political parties cannot intervene in such affairs.” As we notice from this statement and from past incidents, there has always been a particular effort by religious groups in Yemen to influence the family law. More specifically, to ensure that it remains closely governed by the Shari’ah, as opposed to other areas (such as education, business, or labor) that regularly, and with no objections, undergo amendments that are largely secular in nature. This persistence of governing matters related to women and gender relations by Islam is best explained by Eleanor Doumato: “The woman issue has assumed a place of unprecedented importance in the definition of Islamic values and Islamic behaviors, mainly because in the rush of development and the infusion of Western culture, there is little else of symbolic value that is so visible, and no other group in society whose behavior can so easily by controlled, and no other challenge to religious values that threatens male identity or affects people’s lives so personally.”
One of the main arguments presented during the recent marriage age debate was that “marriage age has no Islamic basis” and that “setting a marriage age for girls is [therefore] a restriction of what Shari’a permits.” Indeed, religious scriptures are silent on marriage age, just like they are on many other daily matters. But what’s interesting is how this silence in the case of marriage age is arbitrarily interpreted as “permission” by Shari’a. This arbitrary Shari’asim with respect to family laws, along with the constant assertion that such laws are divine and immutable, presents a central challenge to those attempting to reform family laws. This challenge is particularly powerful because such religious efforts, according to Amira Sonbol, “represent a patriarchal hegemony that is supported by traditions, conservative clerical classes and state power structures.” We must realize that Muslim family laws are the products of socio-cultural (often patriarchal) assumptions and juristic reasoning about the nature of relations between men and women. They are, as Mir-Hosseini asserts, “man-made juristic constructs, shaped by the social, cultural and political conditions within which Islam’s sacred texts are understood and turned into law.”
Patriarchal interpretations of Islam, or Shari’a, and their portrayal as sacrosanct, have a long historical tradition that is not only particular to Yemen. Two sets of explanations for their existence (and persistence) are found in Islamic feminist (and no, this not an oxymoron) scholarship. They are best summarized by Ziba Mir-Hosseini: “The first set is ideological and political, and has to do with the strong patriarchal ethos that informed the classical jurists’ readings of the sacred texts and the exclusion of women from production of religious knowledge, and their consequent inability to have their voices heard and their interests reflected in law. The second set of answers is more epistemological, and concerns the ways in which social norms, existing norms, marriage practices and gender ideologies were sanctified, and then turned into fixed entities in fiqh. That is, rather than considering them as social, thus temporal institutions and phenomena, the classical jurists treated them as ‘divinely ordained’, thus immutable.”
Conservative and religious groups in Yemen have always had an ambiguous relation with the state. Their recognition of state legitimacy fluctuated with the degree to which they perceived the state as serving their interests. Arguably, the biggest fear of those groups is that the state and its goals becomes a higher authority than religion and the kin group, particularly in matters pertaining to women’s status, as had happened during the southern socialist regime. In addition to family law, another site of tension between the state and religious groups is the constitution. Pre-empting the total loss of their long held authority to the state, religious and conservative groups assured that the new 1990 post-unification constitution made Shari’a as the sole source of legislation. This was further emphasized to the public masses, during the 1992 Islah conference, through slogans such as “The Quran and the Sunna Supercede the Constitution and Laws.” Then, in 1994, another layer of assurance was created with the addition of Article 31 to the constitution declaring: “Women are sisters of men.” This article upholds the authority of the kin group and perpetuates the cultural norm that typically regards females as inferior and subordinate to their male siblings and relatives. Today, with enough comfort in the authority guaranteed to them by the constitution, religious groups seem to recognize the legitimacy of the state and its constitution like never before. So much so that, in addition to claims of Shari’a non-compliance, claims of constitutionality, or otherwise, have become an expedient recourse for religious groups (like we’ve seen in claims of the marriage age law being unconstitutional).
Towards a “good life”
Shari’a, in its religious usage from the earliest period, as Fazlur Rahman notes, has meant “the highway of good life”. And indeed, Shari’a court records from the Ottoman Empire reveal how people had faith in the “good life” Shari’a assured them. As Amira Sonbol asserts from her studies of those records, “the system was flexible and provided an avenue for the public to achieve justice and litigate disputes rather than to enforce a particular philosophy of social laws and norms formulated by the State.” It is time that we re-establish this purpose of Shari’a, or any governing system for that matter. We’ve mastered the skill of deploying our constitution expediently and our Shari’a arbitrarily. Let us now learn to use this skill towards achieving humane and truly Islamic goals of equality, integrity, welfare, justice, and “good life,” for all Yemeni citizens.
By Amal Al Ashtal
Source: Yemen Today | <urn:uuid:86f83b94-64a4-4245-9298-3a09a2390b03> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wluml.org/fr/node/5186 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965142 | 2,389 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Q: I often see a hyphen used in sentences like this: “Different animals live in fresh- and saltwater.” Is the hyphen really necessary? I think it’s ugly.
A: The short answer is that a hyphen isn’t necessary in that sentence. We’ll explain why later, but let’s first discuss what’s going on here.
To keep things simple, we’ll use another example: “He has a stomachache and a headache.”
The two nouns in that sentence are compound words, the first made up of “stomach” and “ache,” the second of “head” and “ache.” Compounds can also be hyphenated (“mayor-elect” and “governor-elect,” for example).
To get rid of an “ache” in the sentence above, the usual style is to replace it with a hyphen: “He has a stomach- and a headache.”
As The Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.) explains it, when the second part of a compound is omitted, a hyphen is used, followed by a space. It gives this example: “both over- and underfed cats.”
Note, however, that the second part of the compound, “fed,” is the same in both words. This hyphen business doesn’t work when the second part is different.
As the Chicago Manual points out, you would write “overfed and overworked mules,” but not “overfed and -worked mules.”
We’ve simplified this a lot. If you’d like to read more about dropping parts of compounds, check out page 374 in the Chicago Manual.
Getting back to your question, why isn’t a hyphen necessary in the sentence you ask about?
Because four of the five dictionaries we checked consider the noun versions to be two words, “fresh water” and “salt water”—noun phrases, in other words.
They appear as two words, for example, in both The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.) and the Oxford English Dictionary.
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.) is the lone dissenter, but we’ll let the majority rule here.
Since these two noun phrases aren’t compounds, no hyphen is needed when a word is removed: “Different animals live in fresh and salt water.”
However, the adjectives “freshwater” and “saltwater” are solid compound words in four of the five dictionaries we looked at.
So a hyphen is needed if the adjectives are used in a similar sentence and part of the first one is dropped: “The aquarium has both fresh- and saltwater fish.”
Check out our books about the English language | <urn:uuid:c9934311-4bfc-4c55-9559-6516de0a2f1d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.grammarphobia.com/blog/2010/11/hyphen-notions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92684 | 647 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Network address translation is a procedure by which the firewall can alter the data in packets to change the network address. This can serve several purposes:
* it allows a large number of internal hosts to connect to the Internet using a small number of IP addresses (thus conserving a limited resource)
* it can help enforce the firewall's control over outbound traffic since the internal host will need to obtain a valid address from the firewall before its connection to the Internet will work
* it prevents the true IP addresses from reaching the Internet; thus providing a small degree of additional security
* dynamic NAT can provide additional defence against incoming attacks since the attacker has to work within the time constraints of the current session. | <urn:uuid:639bfcc6-ae71-4312-8b87-ab998b3c6162> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.itsecurity.com/security.htm?s=530 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937793 | 141 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Part 1 of a two-part series
Ever since the first Spanish explorers landed on the sun-drenched coast of Southern California in 1542, the mild climate has drawn millions of people to the region. But even though Southern California isn’t known for tornados, or hurricanes, or frigid winters, the region does have its fair share of spectacular natural disasters.
The Spanish missionaries began to keep records in the late 1700s, and by the early 1800s, there were enough people in the Southern California to witness and record natural disasters. In the Inland Empire, the most notable natural disasters are earthquakes, fires, floods, and, oddly enough, frost.
Earthquakes are perhaps the best known, and most feared natural hazard in California. The infamous 810-mile-long San Andreas Fault cuts a large swath through San Bernardino County. The fault passes through Wrightwood, Cajon Pass, and Highland, and then eastward along the southern edge of the San Bernardino Mountains.
The most powerful earthquakes in California are generally produced by the movement along the San Andreas Fault, with the less powerful quakes usually produced by smaller faults.
Most of the destructive firestorms that have swept through Southern California were human-caused, but they are usually driven by natural weather patterns.
The powerful Santa Ana winds blow dry air from the interior deserts, over the mountain ranges, and toward the coast. In these treacherous conditions, the air heats up, and the wind speeds can increase to hurricane force as they blow toward the ocean.
Extreme swings between drought and wet weather are common in Southern California, but floods can cause immediate destruction, and loss of life. The severity of a major flood is measured in the historical frequency that a flood would be expected to occur. A number in the 50-100 year range would almost certainly be catastrophic.
Weather fronts approaching from the Pacific Ocean can collide with the mountain ranges that traverse the state, creating intense rainfall, especially at the higher elevations.
The San Bernardino and Pomona valleys combine to act as huge drainage troughs for the San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains, funneling potentially massive amounts of water into the Santa Ana River and its tributaries.
In basic terms, winter freezes in Southern California are primarily due to an influx of great masses of unusually cold air from the north or northeast. Radiation loss of heat to the sky at night due to lack of cloud cover also adds to the severity of a freeze.
Freezes were a major problem in Southern California in the early 1900s when citrus crops were a huge percentage of the state and local economy. Damage to citrus trees and crops typically occurs when temperatures drop below 28 degrees Farhrenheit for more than four hours.
Here is an unofficial and unscientific list of the 10 most notorious and devastating natural disasters experienced in the Inland Empire, beginning with the earliest recorded events.
1. Dec. 8, 1812 — The Wrightwood Earthquake
One of the earliest large earthquakes recorded in Southern California struck on Dec. 8, 1812. The enormous quake was believed to be centered near the present-day community of Wrightwood, and was likely caused by the San Andreas Fault. The estimated 7.5 magnitude quake was so powerful that it caused the wood and masonry chapel at Mission San Juan Capistrano, some 50 miles away, to collapse and kill 40 Native Americans who were attending Mass there.
2. January, 1862 — Great Flood of 1862
The Great Flood of 1862 was the largest flood in the recorded history of California, Oregon, and Nevada, and may have been a 150-year flood. An intense series of storms dropped 35 inches of rain on Los Angeles in 4 weeks, beginning in late December of 1861.
The tiny settlement of Agua Mansa located along the Santa Ana River in south Colton was completely wiped out by the raging river. The small mining town of El Doradoville in the San Gabriel Mountains was also completely washed away in the great flood. Downstream in Orange County, an inland sea developed with up to 4 feet of standing water that lingered for weeks.
3. January 1913 — Great Freeze of 1913
On Jan. 4, 1913, a weather warning was issued for heavy frost throughout Southern California’s citrus belt. The citrus growers began a frantic effort to set up and light their oil-burning smudge pots to help warm the groves.
On Sunday, Jan. 5, temperatures dropped to a record low of 17 degrees. On Tuesday, Jan. 7, the temperature in many areas dropped to 18 degrees and held there for 6 hours.
Some crops in entire groves were ruined, and thousands of citrus trees were permanently damaged by the frost. California’s citrus crop for 1913 ended up being less than half of the previous year, and some Redlands residents claimed their town’s population dropped by 50 percent.
4. January 1937 — Great Freeze of 1937
In 1937, another great freeze settled into Southern California, and struck at the heart of the citrus belt in the San Bernardino and Pomona valleys. The citrus growers had learned from previous freezes, and were better prepared through improved orchard heating, and more accurate weather forecasts.
The freeze of January, 1937 was the most severe since record keeping began. Smudge pots were burning nearly every night that month, and one particularly harsh freeze lasted seven consecutive nights. The temperature fell to new records in many areas. In spite of the record cold, the crop loss was only about 10% below the previous year.
5. Nov. 23, 1938 — Southern California Firestorm
On Nov. 23, Santa Ana winds were blowing fiercely, driving dry air from the interior deserts, over the mountains, and toward the coast. Around noon, an oil stove exploded in a cabin above Waterman Canyon.
The flames raced down the canyon through the dry brush and consumed the posh hotel at Arrowhead Springs resort, above San Bernardino. The flames advanced south toward the northern edge of San Bernardino, where the blaze was finally halted after destroying 12,000 acres of mountain watershed.
The San Bernardino Mountain resort communities were spared, but fires continued to rage in four other locations across Southern California. The fires destroyed more than 300 homes, with many in the movie colonies of Malibu, Topanga Canyon, and the Santa Monica Mountains.
Next time: Disasters 6 through 10
Contact Mark Landis at firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:26b2f68b-138b-4f6c-bbea-66efbaf7b8de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sbsun.com/general-news/20130807/local-history-top-10-worst-natural-disasters-in-inland-empire-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959048 | 1,316 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Since Howard Gardner first introduced his Multiple Intelligences theory, educators have been grappling with its implications. Gardner himself does not presume to have all the answers, but rather defers to educators as the experts who can best apply his work in the classroom. In order to make this happen, teachers first need to know the distinguishing characteristics of each of the intelligences. This is important, because in many cases we take an intelligence at face value without truly examining it for its distinct attributes and features. Too often, for example, teachers assume the musical intelligence is merely the introduction of music into a lesson, or that the naturalist intelligence is simply the study of flora and fauna in the curriculum. If we are going to effectively transform instruction by use of Gardner 's theory, then we must understand its basic tenets. To do any less would be to not give it its due as a viable model. Let's take a brief look at each intelligence before exploring the theory holistically:Verbal – traditionally one of the heavily emphasized intelligences in the classroom. It has been valued because it matches the way we have taught traditionally: lecture, recitation, textbooks, and board work. It includes the ability to express oneself orally and in writing, as well as the ability to master foreign languages.
Logical – also highly valued in traditional instruction. It is not the intelligence of Mathematics, but of logic and reasoning. This intelligence allows us to be problem solvers. It seeks structure in the learning environment and thrives on sequenced, orderly lessons. In the traditional classroom students are asked to conform to the teacher's instructional approach and this intelligence allows them to do so.
Visual – an intelligence we as educators are instinctively aware of, the Visual intelligence provides for spatial reasoning through the use of charts, graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes and many other materials. More than just the ocular internalization of stimulus, the Visual intelligence allows the student to picture ideas and solutions to problems in his/her mind before s/he is able to verbalize them or put them into practice.
Musical – the intelligence of patterns, including songs, poetry, instruments, environmental sounds, and response to rhythms. By picking up the patterns in different situations, learners are able to make sense of their environment and adapt successfully. Note that this is not exclusively an auditory intelligence; it can include all kinds of patterns. Because mathematics is defined as the study of patterns, this is truly the domain of mathematics instruction.
Intrapersonal – the intelligence of feelings, values and attitudes. The intrapersonal intelligence helps the learner make an affective connection with the curriculum. Children who ask, “Why do I need to learn this?” or “How does this effect me?” are exercising their intrapersonal intelligence. It is the part of us that expects learning to be meaningful. The more we find pertinence in what we study, the more inclined we are to take ownership for our learning and the better we will retain what we have learned.
Interpersonal – the intelligence of interacting with others, the interpersonal intelligence requires collaboration in order to make sense of learning. Students with a strong interpersonal tendency may have been labeled “too talkative” or “excessively social” in the traditional classroom. They thrive in cooperative groups, working with partners, and even in whole group instruction where they are free to ask, discuss and understand.
Kinesthetic – the intelligence of interacting with one's physical environment. The kinesthetic intelligence is promoted through fine and gross motor activities such as manipulative learning centers, science labs, active games and dramatic improvisations. Students with a strong Kinesthetic intelligence may tend to seem “overactive” in the traditional classroom, but they thrive in hands-on learning environments.
Naturalist – the intelligence of classification. While the naturalist intelligence can include biology, botany, zoology, archaeology and geology, consider the processes that these disciplines utilize: classification, categorization, and hierarchical frameworks. The naturalist intelligence can be stimulated in the classroom through activities such as attribute grouping, charting and semantic mapping.
Existential – the intelligence of understanding in a larger context. It can include aesthetics, philosophy, and religion and emphasizes the classical values of beauty, truth and goodness. The existential intelligence allows students to see their place in the big picture, be it in the classroom, the community, the world or the universe. Students with a strong existential intelligence have the ability to summarize and synthesize ideas from across a broad unit of study.
> MI Links | <urn:uuid:d497bc67-562d-4f34-88b8-505e6ca6ba7b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.surfaquarium.com/MI/intelligence.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939317 | 938 | 4.28125 | 4 |
On April 20 here in the Madison area, the temperature soared above 70 degrees for the first time in 190 days. This was certainly a welcome relief and we are hoping for many more days like that since many of us were wondering if this severe winter would ever end.
For 190 days, the last thing that dairy producers wanted to think about was heat stress abatement. However, as we enjoy the warmer temperatures heading into May and June, we need to start thinking about our heat abatement strategies for our dairy cows.
For the most part, humans function best in warmer weather since our ideal thermoneutral zone is between 65 to 85 degrees. For dairy cattle, it is a different story since they are cold-weather animals.
Heat stress and its effect in dairy cows
Dairy cows function best in the thermoneutral zone of 25 to 65 degrees and certainly can do well in temperatures well below zero as long as management and facilities are in place to minimize wind chill. In other words, cows can tolerate very cold temperatures and do quite well. However, cows are dramatically affected once the temperature-humidity index (THI) goes above 75 degrees. What may feel comfortable to us may actually be imposing heat stress in our dairy herds. As the THI rises above 90 degrees, significant heat stress signs will be very noticeable and costly.
Decreased milk production is the most immediate and financially painful result of heat stress. Cows simply eat less and, in combination with expending energy to keep cool, less milk is produced. During severe heat stress, milk production can decrease as much as 25 percent.
Increased mastitis rates may be another immediate effect of severe heat stress. Heat stress effects just don’t end there. We see residual heat stress effects well into October and November even though heat stress is not an issue. Residual heat stress effects occurring in the fall season include low pregnancy rates, foot issues, poor fresh cow starts and body condition challenges.
Obviously, these immediate and residual effects of summer heat stress can and will have a significant effect on the dairy’s cash flow and profitability if not correctly addressed. It is important to review your heat abatement plan before the summer season and make the necessary changes. A good method to review your heat abatement plan is the 3-M approach: mechanical considerations, metabolic considerations and management considerations.
In this article, we’ll focus on the mechanical considerations and the things you can do now to prepare for warm temperatures. Look for a future discussion on metabolic and management considerations.
The three main areas that need to be considered for effective cow cooling include shade, airflow and water. All three of these need to work in combination to provide the best result for your dairy operation.
Shade: For best results, use solid shade for open lots, pastures and feed lanes. For open lots and pastures, providing 40 to 45 square feet of solid shade per mature dairy cow is recommended. The shade cloth should be at least 12 feet high. Providing shade cloth over outdoor drive-by feed lanes is especially important for dry cows and pre-fresh cows in order to maintain dry matter intake.
Airflow: The combination of water and fans is the most effective heat abatement strategy, so it is important to provide maximum ventilation and airflow along with an effective sprinkler system that will provide evaporative cooling. Fans should start at 65 to 70 degrees and run continuously while providing 4- to 6-mph air speed over the cow beds and feed alley.
If you cannot install both fans and sprinklers, choose sprinklers before fans. Application of water with low pressure sprinklers cools cows more efficiently than fans alone. Where water is used without fans, soaking frequency should be increased. Prioritize the locations based on the cooling needs of the facility and the best return on your investment. These locations should be considered in this order of priority: holding pen, maternity pen, pre-fresh pens, lactating cows and hospital cows.
The combination of properly placed fans and a sprinkler system is recommended for all of these locations. The holding area is the most challenging environment in relation to heat stress as body temperatures will increase rapidly. New research from the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine has shown that positive pressure tube systems may be a viable option in holding pens to reduce the significant heat stress that occurs in this location.
Water access: Providing access to clean, fresh water is critical during heat stress. Lactating cattle require between 25 and 35 gallons per day and water intake may increase as much 2 times that amount during periods of heat stress. Availability of clean water to cows leaving the parlor is beneficial for increasing water intake during heat stress. Provide 3 to 4 inches of linear water space per cow along with a minimum of two water locations per group. Ideally, water should be available at every crossover between feeding and resting areas. Check water flow rates during times of high water use and clean waterers regularly.
With milk prices at an all-time high, the payback for improved heat abatement strategies on your dairy is pretty significant. Work with your consultant and other key industry leaders to evaluate your heat abatement program on your dairy. There are a lot of resources and information for you to take advantage of in order to minimize the negative effects of heat stress.
About the author: Rod Martin is a dairy specialist and a member of the Vita Plus dairy technical services team. He grew up on his family’s diversified livestock farm in southwest Wisconsin and attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in agricultural education and animal science, and a master’s degree in animal nutrition. He has 24 years of experience in consulting with Midwest dairy operations. | <urn:uuid:9fda3395-4f25-4a29-9aa3-37a984720a84> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dairyherd.com/dairy-news/The-ladies-like-it-cool-starting-today-part-1-257055851.html?source=related | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949274 | 1,179 | 2.625 | 3 |
Sustainability has emerged as an important theme for the hospitality industry. However, many hoteliers are confused about the the key issues, benefits and associated costs of the sustainability movement. Phil Benson provides an overview of this difficult issue.
Sustainability is an important concept that has gathered momentum over the past decade within the global investment community. This has had a significant impact for new and existing hospitality assets.
Hoteliers and investors have increasingly grown aware of the social and environmental impacts of hotel operations and development … so much so, that sustainability now leaks into almost every aspect of the hospitality industry.
Sustainability = Cost Reduction
Driven by a desire to reduce operating costs, a more rigid focus on facility operations and development and a changing attitude from investors towards the environment, a general shift towards the idea of sustainability has taken place.
There are other areas of the hospitality sector that are rather more straightforward to record, analyse and interpret, for example, RevPAR, capitalisation rates and occupancy percentages. However, sustainability has continued to be comparatively more difficult to calculate and measure. The issues of sustainability affect nearly all of the hotel management and ownership characteristics, which have forced the need for an alignment of environmental, social and financial issues to encourage responsible long-term business operations.
There has been a noticeable shift towards sustainability, demonstrated by an increase in the number of sustainability programmes and schemes arising from within the hospitality industry through hotel managers and operators, but externally too, throughout the wider environmental community.
Current trend thinking, specifically in facility management and hospitality operations, focuses on the advantages of operational efficiency and its consequential cost savings, primarily in three areas:
Energy is consumed by hotels for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) operations, cooking fuel, lighting and other various power requirements. Reducing energy intensity is the focus from a facility management view, which can be achieved through commissioning, a technical, engineering-based approach. Things such as front of house lighting retrofits, sealing of the building envelope and a minimisation of plug loads are effective.
In back of house, proper sensor calibration, the removal of simultaneous cooling and heating, improved equipment and maintenance of a proper building ventilation system are important energy efficiency measures. In addition, renewable energy technology has improved the economics of using alternative energy sources at individual facility levels.
Waste is generated by hotels from consumables, durable goods, construction, refurbishments, food and beverage waste, recyclable oil and hazardous materials, such as cleaning solutions.
There are a variety of approaches used by hoteliers to reduce, recycle or reuse a waste stream to decrease the hauling and processing costs. ‘Waste-to-energy’ is a scheme that sees vendors offering a processing service to turn wastes into alternative energy sources, for example, bio-diesel or natural gas, to be sold back to the hotelier for a reduced price.
Water is used by hotels for bathrooms, food and beverages, laundry and the process of water for facility operations. Hotels also collect and treat greywater (produced from domestic activities) and blackwater (e.g. sewage).
Some of the typical water conservation measures introduced by hoteliers have seen towel and linen reuse initiatives, fixture retrofits, the use of recycled/rain water and system improvements for HVAC and plumbing.
There is an obvious connection between the hospitality industries sustainability approach and its financial performance, which is anticipated to strengthen further more over the next few decades. | <urn:uuid:d2a6374c-b3c2-4111-aafc-05cee11d1b6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hotel-industry.co.uk/2012/02/what-is-sustainability/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949412 | 709 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Tracing Paper LayersMarch 6th, 2009
Here is an interesting technique which uses multiple pieces of tracing paper combined with sketching and scanning. It kind of reminds me of Photoshop layers except these exist in the real world. First, Jennifer drew various interface elements separate from each other on tracing paper and overlaid them together to form full page screens. These various combinations were later on also digitized using a scanner and then shared with others.
This technique shares some similarities in terms of flexibility with sticky frames. Just as with stickies, the designer can undo and rearrange elements very flexibly. Also, similarly to the sticky frame example where the designer used photography in order to reuse the various elements (and speed up the design process), here a scanner performed the same function. Tracing paper however has an additional characteristic of allowing to represent interesting transparency effects as is visible in the top right example suggesting an overlaying lightbox image. Tracing paper perhaps also affords a little bit more change and rearranging than sticky notes. All in all, such awesome tactics provide us with more speed and agility.
We’ve also found that sometimes taking your design out of the computer screen forces your audience to focus on the concept rather than the execution, which is very helpful if your audience gets hung up on colors and buttons and the like. Frankly, it’s helpful to everyone involved: good design, I feel, serves the content, and all the flashy Flash/AJAX/JQuery what-have-you won’t save a poor design. I also believe that while good web design does not translate into good book design, etc., every designer should learn to use paper and pencil. Like the codex, it’s worked for 500 years; it’s not going anywhere soon.
Credits: Jennifer L. Anderson
Need UI Inspiration?
Hi I'm Jakub and I wanted to share with you some of my better UI sketches to inspire your line of work. I've been sketching user interfaces with paper/electronically for over a decade. Subscribe today, and I'll share 5 of my better sketches with you over the next 5 days. How is that? :) | <urn:uuid:28471993-6ccc-4d34-ae5d-ab4a48ff838e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wireframes.linowski.ca/2009/03/tracing-paper-layers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953861 | 451 | 2.59375 | 3 |
I know that helping students to engage the topics in class through "different eyes" and different strategies can help improve retention and outcomes (meaning exams, on one level). One method to accomplish that is to encourage students to approach concepts from class based on their interests, using their own skill sets. I find that most students have impressive talents and special interests that we just don't find out about within the context of a crowded introductory course.
Nothing motivates students quite like points (he said, cynically), so I often offer "extra credit" for "creative" projects in some of my classes. This has created some wonderful products in the past, as can be seen in my freshman course last Spring here, and my microbiology course last Fall here.
This Spring, I offered my freshman biology students the same "deal." They had to talk about their project with me first, to get verbal approval. Then I needed them to write a one page proposal, to lay out the basic parameters and concept of the project. I did both of these things to keep students from doing something overwhelmingly last minute (which is in my opinion non-optimal in two ways: last minute efforts are generally underwhelming, and I also worry that the project might take away from their studies in general).
The results in the past have been gratifying (as seen in the prior links), and this Spring was no different. Here are some examples of what these students can do, when they are in the "driver's seat" of their studying and preparations for final exams. Also note that, for every project, the act of putting these projects together helps students with concepts central to my introductory course. This approach helps the students in an enjoyable and positive manner.
First, a "piratical" approach to a dihybrid cross that would make Mendel smile. I hope.
I also had two students who were interested in what I had presented about endosymbiosis, and followed up with Elysia, the chloroplast harvesting sea slug. In their hands, this topic became a children's book, as you can see from the following two sample pages.
Several students became fascinated by mitosis and meiosis (and well they should!). One student "cross-stitched" her version of mitosis (very "crafty" as my late mother would have said) as can be seen here.
Another created a flip book (I am still trying to create a YouTube video to demonstrate, but cannot get the angle quite correct) showing meiosis in action.
Another student created a fun "mini-comic book" about Mendel as her project. The student pointed out to me, correctly, that the founder of genetics was born "Johann" and only took "Gregor" as a friar in his religious order.
There was a great deal of creative writing that appeared in this year's "creative projects" offering. Here is a poem about "mitochondrial love" and central metabolism.
Another student created an ode to a phospholipid that I think emphasizes some important points.
One student came up with a charming idea I had not anticipated. She told me that she loved the idea of "visual puns" involving biology. This student created a series of cartoons that mix humor and first year biology pretty well.
For example, a "Barr Body" takes on a whole new meaning in this student's artistic vision:
And don't get me started about cell phones in class:
Another student had a more traditional artistic bent, and created this lovely piece of art on canvas that I will hang in my office or laboratory:
I'm not usually surprised by student choices with this kind of assignment, but one student created a "bingo" game that one can use to create a dihybrid Punnett Square. That is certainly one approach to creating a random selection of alleles during gamete formation! She included lots of apparatus and instructions. I can't wait to try it out!
Another rather shy student wrote a fun poem about the ribosome, that emphases the basic structure and function.
One student asked to do something more "short story"-"creative writing" for her project. In particular, she wanted to write about Rosalind Franklin. What the student produced is a ghost story with a slapstick edge. Here is an excerpt:
Another student had quite an interest in 1930s Gothic literature, such as that of H.P. Lovecraft. For her project the student produced an analysis---1930s style---of some rather odd families in the H.P. Lovecraft universe, complete with pedigree analysis.
Ph'nglui mglw'nafh Cthulhu R'lyeh wgah-nagl fhtagn
Which brings us to some more...theatrical...extra credit productions. First, three of my students decide to rap a bit about mitosis:
Here is their lyric sheet, exactly as they presented it to me.
Another student tried her hand at also being raptastic about mitosis, as you can hear in this audio file:
I don't know how to add an overall cover image, so this is the only way I could determine to upload audio to this blog! Apologies for the kludge-y approach. Here are the lyrics to the rap, anyway:
And finally, two students with traditional musical talents put together a pretty fun parody, and do their best to emote for the camera...about mitosis.
Well, I hope that the "creative extra credit" project had some positive aspects for the students. I know that I was impressed by skills and interests among the students, aspects of them about which I was unaware! And if this kind of project helps the students prepare for their final exam next week, all the better.
I will leave the students with a microbial "good luck" wish, as you can see:
And I recorded this on the last day of class. I like to think they were clapping because they enjoyed some of the class, not simply that it was over!
I hope you enjoyed this post, as well. I'll keep trying to merge their creative sides with their studious sides in my classes, never fear! Give it a try in your classrooms, educators---the students always surprise and impress me! | <urn:uuid:7370790a-78cd-4e78-87ab-015bbc07b55b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://microbesrule.blogspot.com/2014/05/freshman-biology-and-creativity.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977322 | 1,305 | 3.046875 | 3 |
May 8, 2013
UPTON, NY — More than 500 science projects from 114 Suffolk County schools were entered into the 2013 Elementary School Science Fair. The Fair, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory and coordinated by the Lab's Office of Educational Programs, was held at the Laboratory on May 4. Brookhaven scientists as well as volunteers from the Long Island Matrix of Science and Technology and local elementary school teachers judged the projects, which focused on topics ranging from the kind of food ants like best to how switching tasks while solving math problems may cause students to lose concentration.
In addition to the first-place winners, selected students received honorable mention for projects that ranged from how greasy potato chips can be to the effects of pollution on plant growth. A list of students receiving honorable mention (pdf) can be found on the Lab's Office of Educational Programs website.
Jenna Romito, kindergarten, Forest Brook Elementary School, Hauppauge School District, "I Need a Band-Aid for my Boo Boo"
Luke Katona, first grade, West Middle Island Elementary School, Longwood School District, "What Kind of Food Do Ants Like Best?"
Kevin Koch, second grade, South Street School, Eastport/South Manor School District, "Wonder Snails"
Antonia Pavek, third grade, Tecumseh Elementary School, Sachem School District, "Fast or Slow? A Boat Hull Experiment"
Brendan Eising, fourth grade, JFK School, Deer Park School District, "Shake it Up"
Arianna Rodichok, fifth grade, St. James Elementary School, Smithtown School District, "Hydrophonics"
Emily Phua, sixth grade, James Wilson Young Middle School, Bayport-Bluepoint School District, "No Task Left Behind"
For more information on Brookhaven Lab's educational programs: http://www.bnl.gov/education/
2013-1536 | Media & Communications Office | <urn:uuid:3845f9dd-5b2f-4f80-90c9-19c21b15ea41> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=11536 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949152 | 408 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Good governance involves the effective, equitable, transparent and accountable use of power, as well as social and economic resources by all levels of the government, and society for the common good. Effective governance systems are an essential component of successful socio-economic development; poor governance, on the contrary, contributes to economic stagnation, poverty, marginalization, and even conflict.
WUSC works to improve governance systems allowing for better poverty reduction, delivery of essential services and community insight. WUSC promotes good governance in the following ways:
- supporting the Ministry of Education’s efforts to improve and decentralize education in Ghana;
- strengthening the democratic governance and community outreach practices of institutions in Indonesia;
- improving the capacity of local governments to coordinate, plan, and deliver basic services and engage their communities in Ghana;
- strengthening the capacity of local water and sanitation providers to manage their resources and engage their communities in Peru;
- empowering residents of plantation communities in Sri Lanka to exercise their rights as both citizens and community members. | <urn:uuid:b497f0db-4689-4683-b0c6-e3ce8783e491> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wusc.ca/en/area-of-work/governance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944969 | 207 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The Mount Saint Michel is a mythical and mystical place, a small rocky island in Normandy (France) just at one kilometre from the north coast.
Mount Saint Michel is an island just half of the time. In ancient times was connected to the land only via a natural sand bridge which was covered by the sea at high tide and revealed at low tide. Today is connected with the mainland by the road you can see in the satellite image. The tides around Mount Saint Michel are dangerous, shift quickly and come in at one metre per second. However nowadays you don't see very much water around the island because of some polderisation projects carried for centuries. Now there are plans to build a hydraulic dam that will help remove the accumulated silt and make Mont Saint-Michel an island again. It is expected to be completed by 2012.
The main building at the island is the Benedictine Abbey. The church of the abbey built between 11th and 16th centuriesis crowned by a statue of Saint Michael that reaches 155 metres above the sea level and makes the shadow you see over the sand in the mini-panoramio above.
Photographers love this picturesque place that makes possible great shots. | <urn:uuid:b0ff0436-950e-4b43-88ba-e8359adee869> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.panoramio.com/2007/01/le-mont-saint-michel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957357 | 245 | 2.59375 | 3 |
In his recent Supreme Court opinion upholding Kentucky's execution method, Chief Justice John Roberts says the state's lethal injection procedure passes constitutional muster because it does not pose "a substantial risk of serious harm." You might think serious harm would be hard to avoid with a procedure that's designed to take someone's life.
Roberts, of course, is not talking about the harm that inevitably occurs when someone dies; he is talking about the possibility of pain on the way to that final destination. This strange fastidiousness about making murderers as comfortable as possible when we kill them suggests that capital punishment in this country is ultimately doomed.
It's not doomed because it violates the Eighth Amendment's prohibition of "cruel and unusual punishments," contrary to what Justice John Paul Stevens now seems to think. As Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas point out in their concurring opinions, a penalty explicitly envisioned by the Constitution (which refers to capital cases and says the government may not take someone's life without due process) can hardly violate the Constitution.
No, capital punishment is doomed because most Americans, including many who ostensibly support it, are not truly at ease with the idea of killing a man in cold blood. On balance, that is probably a good thing.
This discomfort with executions is reflected in what initially seems to be a needlessly complicated lethal injection process. In Kentucky, as in the vast majority of the 36 states with death penalties, condemned prisoners receive three different drugs: sodium thiopental, a barbiturate that would be fatal on its own in a large enough dose, to knock them out; pancuronium bromide to paralyze their muscles; and potassium chloride to stop their hearts.
The Eighth Amendment challenge to this procedure was based on the possibility that a prisoner might not get enough of the barbiturate to be fully unconscious. In that case, he would experience suffocation from the pancuronium bromide and severe pain from the potassium chloride without being able to communicate his suffering.
One solution to this potential problem, recommended by the two Kentucky murderers who brought the case, is to eliminate the pancuronium bromide so that the illusion of unconsciousness won't be mistaken for the real thing. In his opinion, Roberts cites two reasons why a state might nonetheless decide to continue using the paralytic agent.
"First," he writes, "it prevents involuntary physical movements during unconsciousness that may accompany the injection of potassium chloride. The Commonwealth has an interest in preserving the dignity of the procedure, especially where convulsions or seizures could be misperceived as signs of consciousness or distress. Second, pancuronium stops respiration, hastening death."
It's clear from these justifications that the state is trying to prevent discomfort not in the condemned prisoner (who, after all, is supposed to be unconscious) but in the people who witness the execution and, by extension, the general public. "Preserving the dignity of the procedure" is code for maintaining the illusion that a man the government executes is really just undergoing a medical procedure with a very high risk of fatal complications.
In the ebb and flow of American death penalty fashions, from hanging and firing squad through electrocution and the gas chamber to lethal injection, Roberts sees "an earnest desire to provide for a progressively more humane manner of death." I see an earnest desire to soothe an increasingly squeamish public.
As Fordham University law professor Deborah Denno has noted, the execution methods that are less unpleasant to watch are not necessarily less painful. "To me," she told The New York Times a few months ago, "the firing squad is the most humane and perceived to be the most brutal."
Around the same time, the Chinese government said it planned to switch from executions by gunshot to executions by lethal injection, which "is considered more humane," according to an official of the Supreme People's Court. Should that count as progress? | <urn:uuid:d4ec00d4-33ea-42a6-a5eb-8f76430aa724> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://townhall.com/columnists/jacobsullum/2008/04/23/think_of_it_as_a_lifectomy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962342 | 799 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Historically speaking, Brazosport is where Texas history began. It is where the group known as Stephen F. Austin's "Old 300" first stepped off the schooner "Lively." The schooner landed near the mouth of the Brazos River in 1821 bringing men full of hope, courage and the will to survive. They met the challenge of war that greeted them and achieved the reward that solidified them. After engaging in many hard fought battles, they defeated General Lopez Santa Anna (the leader of Mexico's army), and Texas became a Republic. Their hardships and sacrifices were finally rewarded with the signing of the Treaties of Velasco, which gave Texas its independence. Stephen F. Austin, a hero and driving force of the Texas Revolution, later died in West Columbia, Texas. Austin's body was transported down the Brazos River to Peach Point in present day Jones Creek, and buried in an honors tomb at Gulf Prairie Cemetery. In 1910, despite strong family objections, Austin's body was removed from his grave and transported by wagon to Brazoria and placed on a train, traveling to Austin where his final resting place remains today at the State Cemetery.
Lake Jackson Historical Museum
The Lake Jackson Historical Museum chronicles the history of the area through interactive exhibits from the plantation era to modern industry. Let Alden Dow explain why Lake Jackson's streets are named This Way or That Way. Abner Jackson Plantation site tours are offered through the museum. Closed on Mondays. FREE admission.
Alden B. Dow Office Museum
One of the first buildings constructed in the city, it housed many of Lake Jackson's firsts; including the post office, city hall, barber shop, and much more. The Office now houses the area's 1943 history. Experience life in a new town during World War II. Discover early printing techniques, the rationing system and solve a crime like local Cap Brown. Open the first and third Saturday of every month or by appointment. FREE admission.
Freeport Historical Museum
Visit our Site
Several blocks of early 1900 historic buildings surround the museum. A model of the old swing bridge is prominently displayed along with other historical memorabilia and photos. Call ahead for hours of operation. FREE admission.
Brazosport Museum of Natural Science
The museum contains the largest seashell collection in the South along with fossils, including dinosaurs and mammoth bones. Other exhibits feature Texas coastal wildlife and a unique jade and ivory collection. FREE admission. Closed Mondays.
Brazoria County Historical Museum
Located in Brazoria County's historic 1897 courthouse the museum has an extensive Austin Colony exhibit. It give patrons a definitive interpretation of the events leading from the earliest inhabitants, to the Anglo-American immigration into Spanish Texas, and through and including the Texas Revolution and Independence from Mexico. FREE admission. Closed Sundays.
Stephen F. Austin Statue
The Stephen F. Austin Statue is a tribute to the Father of Texas. Located in the ten acre, Henry William Munson Park in Angleton, the seventy-foot statue is a reminder of the importance of Brazoria County's rich history.
979-345-4656, West Columbia
This majestic antebellum home tells the story of its three owners: Austin colonist Martin Varner, sugarcane mogul Columbus Patton and Texas Gov. James S. Hogg. This property hosted sugar cane production, rum distilling and oil drilling as it transitioned through families. Closed Mondays.
Surfside Historical Museum
A display of artifacts and exhibits on the history of Surfside Beach, Fort Velasco, Brazoria County and Texas. Outside monuments commemorate the Battle of Velasco and sinking of the Acadia during the Civil War. FREE admission
Mammoth Lake Scuba Park/Asiel's
In 2003, the remains of a Colombian Mammoth were unearthed at this site. Shortly thereafter, the remains of another Mammoth, along with camels, a saber-toothed tiger, and others were found. The on-site restaurant is the home to the mammoth artifacts.
Schuster Home Museum
Built in 1917, the same year the city of Freeport was incorporated, the Schuster house was a special place for family gatherings and
holidays. Large crafted columns supported the wrap around porch and two enclosed chimneys provided for wood-burning stoves. Ten foot ceilings
and many windows helped keep the area cool. It serves as an example of family life during the founding of Freeport.
Tours are given on the fourth Saturday of every month.
More Historical Sites:
The Mystery - Shrimp Boat Fleet Monument in Freeport
Quintana Beach County Park Historical Museum
1933 Brazoria School, Civic Center and Museum in Brazoria
Replica of the First Capitol of the Republic of Texas in West Columbia | <urn:uuid:421467fd-aa2c-4548-9516-00c4920f4e85> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.visitbrazosport.com/historicalsites/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92967 | 982 | 2.59375 | 3 |
By Luke Parks
History Workshop published a series of 13 pamphlets between 1970 and 1974, written by students at Ruskin College. A number of these began life as papers delivered to History Workshops in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The pamphlets frequently contained strong autobiographical elements, and covered a variety of topics including miners in County Durham, family life in Matabeleland, and the social and political history of Oxfordshire. They fitted firmly into the History Workshop ethos of worker-historians using primary sources to undertake research into the areas with which they were most familiar.
Several of the pamphlets, as well as some of the publicity for the History Workshops, were printed by the workers of Briant Colour Printing (BCP) in London during a ‘work-in’ in 1972-1973. The ‘work-in’ took place whilst employees at BCP occupied the print workshop following the issuing of redundancy notices, and continued to work whilst campaigning for a new owner to be found who would guarantee to carry on running the company with the existing staff. Although a new owner was ultimately found, the new owner made all of the employees redundant a few months later, having first secured the print workshop to ensure that the occupation could not be repeated. During the ‘work-in’, History Workshop was one of a number of left-wing organisations which commissioned work from BCP in order to express solidarity with the occupiers.
You can access all thirteen History Workshop pamphlets below:
History Workshop Pamphlets Number One : A Glossary of Railwaymen’s Talk: A Compendium of Slang Terms Old and New used by Railwaymen: Collected and Arranged by Frank McKenna, c. 1970.
History Workshop Pamphlet Number Two: St Giles Fair 1830 – 1914: Popular culture and the Industrial Revolution in 19th century Oxford, by Sally Alexander c. 1970.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Three: The Class Struggle in 19th Century Oxfordshire, by Bernard Reaney, 1970.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Four: The Journeymen Coopers of East London, by Bob Gilding, 1971.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Five: Club Life and Socialism in Mid-Victorian London, by Stan Shipley, 1971.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Six: Pit Life in Co Durham: Rank and File Movements and Workers’ Control, by David Douglass, 1972.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Seven: From Self-Help to Glamour: The Working Man’s Club, 1860 – 1972, by John Taylor, 1972.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Eight: Whitsun in 19th Century Oxfordshire, by Alun Howkins, 1972.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Nine: Children’s Strikes in 1911, by Dave Marson, 1973.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Ten: Pit Talk in County Durham: A Glossary of Miner’s Talk with Memories of Wardley Colliery, Pit Songs and Piliking, by Dave Douglass, 1973.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Eleven: Country Girls in Nineteenth Century England, by Jennie Kitteringham, 1973.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Twelve: Big Mother & Little Mother in Matabeleland, by Edgar Moyo, 1973.
History Workshop Pamphlets Number Thirteen: A Play About the Children’s Strike of 1911. As Performed at the Half Moon Theatre, Whitechapel, 10th – 27th July 1973. By Billy Colville and Dave Marson, 1973. | <urn:uuid:f025a801-02b0-4730-ae80-587bb42983d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/history-workshop-pamphlets/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929494 | 744 | 2.828125 | 3 |
IN the last chapter, after illustrating the terms positive and negative mana, we discussed the taboo on blood and five other taboos which are allied with it--on women, children, death, leather, and days. The present chapter will illustrate rather fully and attempt to explain several more taboos which were prevalent among the Romans--those on sex, men, strangers, slaves, and on linen, knots, iron and places.
Among all peoples, chastity is often obligatory before the performance of religious duties. In certain Roman priesthoods, the taboo on sexual intercourse lasted for a long period of years; in some religious rites, abstinence was enjoined only at specific times, particularly on the eve of a religious festival. Even outside the Roman State religion, chastity was occasionally required before the performance of certain daily tasks. The most familiar example of forced chastity over a period of years is that of the Vestal Virgins. Chastity as a preparation for religious rites was familiar at the festivals of Ceres and of Bacchus, both divinities of the products of the earth; we know, too, that beekeepers, on the day before they handled the hives, had to refrain from intercourse. 1
The Vestal's vow of virginity lasted for thirty years. 2 During the first ten years she was a novice, during the next ten she performed the sacred duties of the order, and during the last ten she taught the girls who had just entered the order. After thirty years she was allowed to return to secular life and marry, if she chose, but this rarely happened.
One is forced to believe that the Vestals, despite their vows of chastity and their putative holiness, were a little lower than the angels. The maiden Tarpeia, who treacherously opened the portals of the Citadel to Tatius the Sabine, was a Vestal; she used her sacred office of drawing water from the holy spring of the Muses as a pretext for admitting the enemy. 3 If we are to give credence to these stories, unchastity among the Vestals seems to have been common. The founder of Rome saw the light of day as the result of the ravishing of the Vestal Rhea by the god Mars. In 483 B.C., soothsayers were consulted about the meaning of certain portents from the gods: they reported that sacred rites had been neglected. Accordingly, Oppia, a Vestal, was charged with having broken her vow, and was buried alive. 4 During the period of the First Samnite War, Minucia, a Vestal, brought suspicion upon herself because of her fondness for prety dresses; on the evidence of a slave she was charged with unchastity and was buried alive near the Colline Gate at a place afterwards called the Accursed Plain--presumably from this event. 5 At the time of the Second Punic War, two Vestals, Opimia and Floronia, violated their vows of chastity, and were detected: one committed suicide, the other was buried alive at the Colline Gate. Lucius Cantilius, one of the clerks of the pontiffs, charged with a liaison with Floronia, was scourged to death. 6 Catiline was accused of incest with a Vestal, a half-sister of Cicero's wife; but she was acquitted, probably because of influential friends. 7 We are not surprised to read that Nero, who had no regard for anything sacred, deflowered a Vestal. 8 Juvenal, with a contemptuous sneer, accused Crispinus of a liaison with a Vestal; 9 but Domitian's interest in Crispinus prevented the traditional punishment for the crime. Incest with Vestals seems to have been condoned by Vespasian and Titus; 10 but Suetonius tells us that Domitian visited offenders, at first with capital punishment, and later on with the extreme penalty, burial alive. Oculata and Varronilla broke their vows, and Domitian allowed them to choose their mode of death. Their lovers suffered banishment. Cornelia, the chief of the Vestals, had been acquitted once; but she was accused again, convicted, and buried alive, and her paramours were beaten to death with rods. One, an ex-praetor, was allowed to go into exile. In at least one instance--that of the Vestal Posturnia--the charge of unchastity was quashed; but, as Livy says, 11 she was under suspicion because of her free and easy manner. We recall that Vestals were supposed to dress modestly in white, to keep their eyes on the ground and their thoughts on holy things.
Colorable offenses of the Vestals were punished as follows: 12 the Vestal was stripped and placed in a dark place. The Chief Priest, with an arras between him and the peccant Vestal, lashed her with thongs to drive out the evil as well as to punish her. When a Vestal broke her vow of chastity a terrible fate awaited her if she could not prove her innocence or if she had no influential friends to espouse her cause. She was buried alive in a small underground chamber located within the city walls, at one of the gates. She was stripped of her sacred fillets, tied down on a covered litter in such a way that she might utter no sound, and conveyed to the Great Roman Forum, where the people who attended the litter made way for her to pass. When the procession arrived at the tomb, the Chief Priest loosened the cords which bound her, and, raising his hands toward the sky, prayed inaudibly. Then he brought the Vestal from the litter and laid her on the steps of the tomb. She then descended by a ladder into the subterranean room and was left to die, with the small comfort, however, of a bed, a lamp, some bread, milk and water; for since she had been consecrated to religion, it would have been impious to allow her to die of hunger.
Among many peoples, there is supposed to exist some connection between fertility in women and fertility in the earth. This is not difficult to understand when we remember that among savage peoples the men are engaged in hunting, fishing, and fighting, while the women plough and sow. This connection is suggested, for example, by the common practice 13 of throwing products of the earth, such as rice, at marriage ceremonies and at the birth of children. A Roman bride who desired to be prolific should be wed, as the superstition went, "in the very bosom of Mother Earth, among the ripened crops, above the fruitful soil." 14 The fertility of the earth and of the crops would thus be communicated to the bride.
At several Roman festivals whose purpose was to assist the ripening of the crops, abstinence from sexual intercourse was enjoined upon the worshipers. Thus during the nine nights of the Festival of Ceres married women must not touch a man. 15 At the
Festival of the Ambarvalia no one who had had sexual intercourse the night before might approach the altar. 16 Inasmuch as primitive people thus closely associate the fertility of women with the fertility of the soil, the lashing of women at the Lupercalia may well have been intended to promote fertility in the crops. Again, in the rites of the Argei, which were closely connected with crops, and at the Festival of Pales, the Vestals had important functions. 17 At the Festival of Vesta, they offered sacred cakes, made in the primitive way by the three eldest Vestals out of the first grain garnered in May. 18 The burying of Vestals when they had broken their vows of chastity, then, may conceivably have been a sacrifice to the Earth whose products they were likely to harm by their immorality. Ovid himself comes close to this interpretation when he says: 19 "Thus the unchaste Vestal perishes, because she is buried in that earth which she contaminated. For Earth and Vesta are the same divinity."
We have the definite statement of Propertius 20 that there was a connection between sexual purity and good crops. At Lanuvium, in a grove of Juno the Savior, there was a pit in which a hungry snake awaited his yearly feast of barley cakes. These cakes were carried in baskets by maidens who were blindfolded and then lowered into the pit. If the girls were pure, the snake snatched away the food. Thus proved to be virgins, they returned home to their parents, while the shepherds cried out in joy, "The year will be fruitful." If, however, the girls were impure and the snake refused their gifts of food, they were punished by law--perhaps, as in the case of the Vestals, by being buried alive. Thus the rite was not only a test of the virginity of the maidens, but their purity had some mysterious effect in assuring good crops. The same reason, as we have seen, may be given for the sacrifice of the Vestals who broke their vow of chastity.
There is a modern parallel among the Ibibio in southern Nigeria, who wipe out the pollution of adultery by sacrifice to the Earth or to their ancestors. 21
In some Roman rites, abstinence from sexual intercourse was required, especially on the eve of a religious festival. The wife of the Priest of Jupiter must not have touched her husband until after the ceremony of cleansing in the temple of Vesta. 22 We have seen that during the Festival of Ceres women had to sleep alone. 23 The same prohibition applied to the worshipers in the Festival of Bacchus, also a god of one of the products of the earth. 24 Here again, in rites of an agricultural nature, sexual purity was necessary for the good of the crops. The Emperor Severus Alexander would regularly worship his Lares early in the morning, unless he had lain with his wife the night before. 25
Cooks, bakers, butlers must be chaste. 26 If one was sexually impure he had to wash in a running stream before touching the contents of the storeroom. We have already observed that beekeepers, before handling their hives, had to refrain from sexual intercourse. Frazer gives us an interestmg parallel. He writes: 27 "The Masai think that if the couple were to break the rule of continence while the wine is brewing, not only would the wine be undrinkable but the bees which made the honey would fly away." In such cases as these of course, the person does not know why he observes the taboo. At any rate the taboo on sexual intercourse among savages, as well as among civilized peoples, is required of persons engaged in occupations necessary for the good of the community. 28
In Oriental rites abstinence was a familiar requirement for worshipers. In the case of Isis, a ten days' abstinence was demanded, as we learn from the restive complaint of Propertius: 29 "The rites of Isis are now returning again to give me gloom; for Cynthia ten nights now has been continually engaged in worship." Tibullus similarly lamented the fact that Delia was separated from him during her observance of the rites of Isis. 30 Among the Gauls, too, persons who were chaste were most acceptable in religious rites. 31 The sexual purity of children may account for their employment in these rites. Thus children were used to bring provisions from the sacred storeroom. 32
The taboo on sex is difficult to explain. Generally speaking, however, we may ascribe it to the belief that the weakness following upon the sexual act will be communicated to the religious rite or to the action proposed. Specifically, in the case of the Vestals, the prohibition is referable to the principles of sympathetic magic. Assume a belief in the connection between chastity and the fertility of the crops, and that is sufficient to cause the prohibition. In some cases there may be originally a biological reason corresponding to the period after detumescence, when the savage would naturally be chaste. Thus chastity before certain religious rites would be an unconscious--instinctive, if you will--conservation of the sexual strength for expression during the festival involving the fertility of the crops.
Men were, naturally, debarred from rites in which women's interests were especially involved. The taboo on men in such cases is due to the fact that they were strange creatures, physiologically unlike women, and so potentially dangerous. Hence the presence of men in women's rites interferes with their efficacy. This was particularly the case in the Festival of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea). The temple of this divinity had been dedicated by an heiress of the Claudian family who had never had intercourse with a man. 33 We recall that the notorious Clodius, dressed as a music girl, entered the house of Julius Caesar with the connivance of Caesar's wife when the rites were being held there. This sacrilege was a first-rate scandal at the time and led to Caesar's divorcing his wife Pompeia. 34 Again, all men, except the Chief Priest, were prohibited from the worship of Vesta. 35 A curious instance of this taboo is recorded in one of Pliny's letters. 36 When the Vestal Cornelia, who had been accused of breaking her vows, was descending into her living tomb, her dress caught. The public executioner turned as if to disentangle it, but Cornelia drew back shuddering "as if to ward off the foul contagion from her chaste and pure body." Men were allowed to worship at all the shrines of Diana except one in the Patrician Quarter of Rome. The reason, as given by Plutarch, 37 is that a man had once tried to deflower a woman in the temple and had been torn to pieces by the dogs. Thereafter men avoided the temple.
Cicero explicitly states that the Romans had an aversion to foreigners. 38 Servius says that in ancient days the Romans seldom welcomed strangers unless they had the "right of hospitality" (ius hospitii). 39 The uncanny feeling which the Romans had from early times in the presence of their Italian neighbors is shown by the fact that they associated sorcery with the Marsians--the leaders of the Italian allies in the war for the Roman franchise. They were believed to have descended from Circe and to have inherited her magic powers. 40 Again, the sons of King Ancus considered it an outrage that the Roman State should fall into the hands of a foreigner. 41
The Roman's feeling toward his enemies is well illustrated by the words of a consul during the Second Punic War, who accused Hannibal's soldiers of eating human flesh. Even to touch these men, he felt, would be an act of impiety. 42 After the defection of the city of Capua to Hannibal and its subsequent capture by the Romans in 211 B.c., the statues which the Romans had purloined from the city were placed in the hands of the College of Priests, presumably to be purified from contact with the enemy. 43 Some notion of taboo may lie behind the expulsion of the foreign Volscians from the sacred games in Rome in 491 B.c. The Volscians, at least, so interpreted it. 44 The brother of Scipio the Elder was once fined for some reason or other, and he was given the choice of furnishing security or going to jail. A tribune--the father of the famous Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus--saved him from prison by his veto on the ground that the prison had been contaminated by enemy prisoners. This feeling of danger from contamination by foreigners was a sufficiently strong motive to use as a pretext to save Scipio's brother. 45
In one religious rite, of whose nature, however, we know nothing, it is expressly stated that the stranger must depart from the sacrifice. 46 The Romans had many requirements which the young girl who aspired to be a Vestal had to meet: among them, that her father must have his residence in Italy. 47 In certain rites at Iguvium, a procession about the town was made by the Fratres Attiedii. From these rites foreigners were excluded. "Send beyond the boundaries the Tadinate people, the Tadinate tribe, the Tuscan and the Narcan folk, the Iapudic folk (saying), 'if any remain, then bring (such person) whither it is lawful to bring him, do unto him as it is lawful to do.'" 48
We have already seen that certain priests called verbenarii went with the Roman armies into foreign lands, bearing with them the sacred herbs which were used to disinfect the army from contagion of blood and foreign influences. 49 One of the war-heralds in the ceremony of treaty-making took the sacred herbs from the citadel and touched the head of the chief herald to keep him free from contamination. 50
A curious case of taboo, germane to the taboo on strangers, is found in Livy's account of early Rome. In 445 B.C., a tribune proposed a bill to legalize marriage between the plebeians and the patricians. The consuls opposed the measure on the ground that, if it were allowed, religion would be thrown into confusion and nothing would be left uncontaminated. From the patrician point of view, the plebeians were taboo and hence dangerous to the religious system. At any rate, so they interpreted the point for the edification of the plebeians, whom they wanted to keep from usurping their immemorial rites. Again, the election of a plebeian consul was looked upon as impious. 51 In the consulship of Marcus Valerius and Quintus Apuleius an attempt was made on the part of the plebeians to secure representation in the college of augurs and pontiffs. The patricians were against the measure, contending that the gods would oppose such contamination. 52
It seems odd that among the Romans, as well as among other ancient peoples and among savages of our own day, strangers, who are ordinarily taboo, should often be treated with great consideration; 53 but the explanation is quite simple. As the stranger possesses mana which is at least potentially dangerous, he must be prevented from doing barm; and this end is attained by feeding and housing him. 54 The Malays, we read, 55 fear the Jakuns who are skilled in magic and can, by striking two sticks together, cause an enemy to die. But they can do good, too; and for this reason the Malays treat the Jakuns with respect.
Casar writes the following concerning the Germans: 56 "They do not think it right to violate a guest; those who, for whatever cause, have come to them, they keep from harm and hold sacred; the houses of all are open to them; with them food is shared." The Germans housed and fed the stranger as if he were their own; and thus becoming one of them in reality, he was no longer able to do them harm. The Romans thus welcomed foreign gods within their gates, albeit outside the sacred pomerium. 57
The presence of slaves was believed to interfere with the efficacy of many religious rites, both Greek and Roman. 58 The Romans, for example, had to repeat the Great Games of 491 B.c., because, on the morning set for the games, a citizen had driven a recalcitrant slave through the circus where the games were to be held. 59 It appears that the young rake Clodius flooded with slaves the theater where games in honor of the Great Mother were being held--a pollution which angered his arch-enemy Cicero. 60 The rites of Hercules at the Greatest Altar in the Cattle Market were, for many years, performed by members of two distinguished Roman families. One family, however, seems to have gained the chief control of the cult and to have delegated the performance of the rites to certain public slaves. As a punishment for this pollution by contact with slaves, the family died out. 61 Among the qualifications necessary for a Vestal was that neither of her parents might have been a slave. 62
Slave women were excluded from the temple of the Goddess of the Morning (Mater Matuta), whom the Romans identified with the Greek goddess Ino-Leucothea, because of many similarities in ritual, and myth. Each free woman, however, might bring a slave girl into the sacred precincts, but she had to slap the face of the girl before doing so. 63 The slap on the face may be considered a magic transfer, for the occasion only, of the freedom of the mistress to the slave. Similar temporary manumissions occurred at the Festival of Saturn and at the Festival of the Lares of the Crossroads (Compitalia). At this latter festival, the overseer was the sacrificer, apparently for the slaves of the family. 64 Slaves were also admitted to the rites of Fors Fortuna. The reason, as stated by Ovid, was that Servius Tullius, the founder of the temple, had been born a slave. 65 Despite the taboo on slaves in religious worship, it seems that a slave might have the right of refuge at the statue of a god. 66 Slaves were allowed to take part in rites in honor of the dead. 67
The Emperor Claudius offered a public prayer whenever a bird of ill omen appeared on the Capitol. From this rite he ordered all slaves and artisans to withdraw. 68 Nero, in 60 A.D., instituted games on the model of the Olympic Games; and while considerable license was allowed, pantomime actors, being slaves, were excluded because of the religious character of the games. 69
The taboo on slaves seems to have been partly an artificial one. It may have been fostered by the free people in order to keep religious matters strictly in their own hands. The fact that slaves were usually foreigners may have been a contributing cause.
That the Romans had an uncanny feeling with regard to linen is suggested occasionally in their literature. Corpses, for instance, were regularly shrouded in linen. 70 This in itself would be sufficient to invest linen with harmful mana. After the bones of a cremated body had been sprinkled with wine and soaked in milk, the moisture was removed with linen cloths. 71 It is possible that the linen on the breastplate of a Roman soldier had magical significance, probably warding off the spirits of the enemies slain in battle. 72 Just before Galba was assassinated, he put on a linen cuirass, "although openly averring that it would avail little against so many swords." 73 He probably felt that the only help it could give him was magical. The Roman standards may have been of linen. 74
In religious rites linen was usually taboo. Servius states 75 that linen was "foreign to Roman ritual." The heralds who were entrusted with the responsibility of declaring war and making treaties were not allowed to wear linen garments. 76 Again, if the wife of the Priest of Jupiter sewed her woolen garment with a linen thread, she had to perform an atoning sacrifice.
In spite of Servius' words, linen was occasionally used in religious rites. We have a definite statement of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius to this effect, in a letter written to his old teacher Fronto, where, among other things, he writes about a certain town: 77 "There was no corner without a shrine, a holy place, a temple. Besides, many books of linen were to be found in the temples, and the linen was of religious significance." He describes these books as sacra, not as religiosa. The latter adjective, as we have already noted, was regularly used in the sense of taboo, particularly the taboo on death. Sacer, too, often has the same connotation; but in this passage the context seems to demand sacra in the usual sense of "holy." A possible explanation may be that the taboo on linen began gradually to disappear under the Empire because of the growing familiarity with its use in Oriental cults. However, Marcus Aurelius' remark on the religious importance of the linen in the books naturally suggests that he had some reason for mentioning the fact to Fronto: possibly Fronto had usually associated some feeling of taboo with linen. The rolls containing the names of the magistrates, which were kept in the temple of Juno Moneta, were called "linen books." 78 Again, a Roman consul who had won a victory over the Samnites forced the vanquished enemy to serve in his army, using novel religious rites at their induction. These soldiers made up his "linen legion," so called because the sacrifice of induction was made in an enclosure covered with linen; and the forms used in the ritual were read by an old priest from a linen book. 79 The explanation of these rites is similar to that of the presence of linen on the breastplate of the Roman soldier. The soldiers were foreigners, and hence were taboo to a Roman. The rites were magical, intended to drive away evil forces which were felt to be attached to foreigners.
Sometimes an uncanny association was attached to wool. Thus there is record of a rain of wool following upon the death of a distinguished Roman. 80 Fillets worn by the priests and priestesses were commonly made of wool. 81 In the case of the Vestals they were tokens of chastity. Ovid mentions 82 wool among the instruments of purification called februa. The wife of the Priest of Jupiter wore a kind of veil on her head at sacrifices; to this was attached a spray of the pomegranate tree, the two ends of which were fastened with wool. 83 The envoy who went to the borders to demand satisfaction of a nation which had wronged the Roman people wore a woolen covering on his head. 84
Wool was regularly used in Roman religious rites. At the Festival of the Lares of the Crossroads, woolen images of men and women and balls of wool--the images representing all free men and women, the balls representing all slaves--were suspended at night at the crossroads and probably also at the housedoors. These represented a substitute for an earlier human sacrifice to the spirits of the dead in the underworld who might harm the living. Festus says: 85 " . . . As many balls as there are slaves and as many effigies as there are freeborn men and women in the family are set up, that the spirits may spare the living and be content with these balls as substitutes." That human sacrifice prevailed in Rome up to 97 B.C. is proved by a decree of the Senate of that year which provided "that no human being be immolated. . . ." 86 In the rites of the Sacrifice of the Pregnant Cow (Fordicidia), Ovid represents Numa slaying two ewes, whose fleece he spreads on the ground, and on these he lies in worshiping Faunus. 87
The fact that linen was commonly used by priests in Oriental cults, not only for clothing but as a veil for sacred things, may have tended to add negative mana to it at Rome where wool was normally worn in religious rites. In the tale of Thelyphron, for instance, which we related in our first chapter, 88 the Egyptian prophet who brought the corpse to life was clad in linen. We know that the worshipers of Isis dressed in linen. 89 Apuleius, who was initiated into the mysteries of Isis and Osiris, calls linen "the purest covering for divine things." 90 Wool, he reminds us, was considered unclean by the followers of Orpheus and Pythagoras. The Jewish prophets wore linen. 91 In Leviticus we read the specifications for the high priest's dress: 92 "He shall put on the holy linen coat, and he shall have the linen breeches upon his flesh, and shall be girded with a linen girdle, and with the linen mitre shall he be attired: these are holy garments . . ."
We have seen, then, that the Romans had an uncanny feeling about the presence of linen in religious rites because of its association with dead bodies and with magic, particularly the magic of aversion in the case of the spirits of slain enemies. We have seen, too, that linen was regularly worn by devotees of Oriental cults and that this would have a tendency to increase the danger of a material which was already endowed, for other reasons, with negative mana. Thus the taboo on linen may be closely linked up with the taboos on death and on the stranger. Furthermore, wool was commonly used in religious rites, and since wool was the older material, the gods would naturally be averse to adopting linen, which was new and was associated with death, magic, and foreign rites.
Rites of binding and tying and the use of knots were common in Roman magic. For example, while his sweetheart Delia lay ill, Tibullus performed magic rites for her recovery and made nine vows to Trivia, "his head veiled in wool and with loosened tunic." 93 Images of lovers, which were employed by witches, were commonly bound with magic threads. 94 Belief in the dangerous character of knots of all sorts, in religious rites, is not confined to any one people. Frazer writes, for instance: 95 ". . . among the gypsies of Transylvania, as soon as the birth-pains set in, every knot is untied, not only on the clothes of the woman in labor, but also on everything in her neighborhood. . . ."
We know that knots, as well as things tied or bound, were considered harmful in all religious rites among the Romans. This may have been due to fear that the binding principle would be carried over to the rites and hinder their effectiveness. Servius, in his commentary on Vergil's Aeneid, 96 says: " . . . In sacred rites, it is customary for nothing to be bound." The requirement that women must have their hair flowing and their garments ungirt in all religious rites is attributable to the taboo on knots. The wife of the Priest of Jupiter must leave her hair untouched by a comb on at least three occasions: during the ceremonial procession among the shrines called Argei, 97 at the Festival of Vesta until the Tiber had carried the sweepings from the temple of Vesta to the sea, 98 and during the ritualistic "moving" of the shields in March. 99 At funerals women wore their hair streaming and their garments had to be ungirt. 100 A pregnant woman loosened her hair before praying to Juno Lucina, a goddess of childbirth, in order "that the goddess might tenderly release her child." 101 Knots in any form were forbidden at the rites of this deity. 102 Crossing of the legs or fingers was considered harmful to pregnant women. 103 A person who was minded to do one harm could be forestalled by crossing the legs and intertwining the fingers. 104 Dido, in preparing for self-destruction, pretended to her sister Anna that she was performing magic rites to destroy her lover. We read: 105 "Dido calls to witness the gods--having freed one foot of its sandal, and with garment ungirt." The reason for thus baring her foot and loosing her dress is, as Servius thinks, 106 "that she may be freed and AEneas be entangled."
The Priest of Jupiter must have no knots on his conical cap, his girdle, or any part of his dress. 107 He was forbidden to touch ivy or to walk under vines, probably because of the grasping knotty character of their tendrils. 108 In Livy's account of the inauguration of Numa, representing, no doubt, that of a typical Roman priest, we read 109 that the curved wand of the augur must be without a knot. The worshipers at the festival of the Lemuria must have nothing binding on their feet. 110 The sacrificial animal had to be led to the altar by a rope in which there was no knot. 111 Animals were unyoked at country festivals, and the sacrificial victim must be one that had never touched a yoke or been mated. 112
A curious case of taboo is recorded by Pliny the Elder. 113 According to the law of most country districts in Italy, women were not permitted to spin or to carry their spindles uncovered as they walked on the highroads, for the crops would be harmed thereby. The reason for this taboo seems to be that as the threads became tangled on the spindle, so, by the principle of sympathy, the crops would become tangled with weeds. Again, for the same reason, women were not allowed to spin at the time of the Festival of the Ambarvalia. 114
Similarly rings, which, like knots, were commonly used in magic rites, were taboo. The Priest of Jupiter was not allowed to wear a ring unless it was broken and stoneless. 115 In the religious rites which Numa performs in the sacred grove of Faunus, as described by Ovid, the king is forbidden to wear a ring. 116
In all the instances cited--whether the taboo be on rings, dressed hair, crossed legs, crossed fingers, fettered culprit, peasant's spindle, or actual knots in clothes or rope--the same principle is involved: as the ring, the crossed legs, the fetters, the spindle, the knot, bind physically, so they bind the god and his rites--a survival of the earliest days when man believed that a thing or action which resembled another thing or action (whether actual or conceived in the imagination) was one and the same thing.
Servius has an inkling of the principle in his comments on the lines of Vergil which describe the priest Helenus removing his sacred fillets before approaching the temple of Apollo: 117 "In the procedure of sacred rites, this (i.e. the removing of the fillets) is appropriate both for soul and body; for generally those things which cannot be done with respect to the soul can be done with respect to the body--as loosing or binding--that the soul may, from resemblance, perceive what it cannot of itself perceive." The priest Helenus laid aside his fillets, and, thus removing the binding principle, he was free to receive the inspiration of the god.
We know that knots and rings were commonly used in magic, especially in rites intended to bind lovers together; and so it may be barely possible that the priests of the Roman State religion deliberately discouraged objects and actions which belonged to popular rites of magic. Whether this be true or not, the Romans had a feeling that knots had some evil influence on religious rites; hence they avoided them. The most natural explanation of the taboo is on the principle of similarity.
The taboo on iron dates from the beginning of the Iron Age when religious conservatism forbade the use of the strange new material in place of the usual bronze. 118 It has been suggested that the magic significance of iron arose from its susceptibility to magnetism which, as the superstitious Romans often believed, it derived from witchcraft. 119 The Romans believed that the lodestone recruited its strength from iron. Roman priests, in at least one instance, used the lodestone's powers to bring about a mysterious attraction between an iron image of Mars--presumably a small one--and an image of Venus, made of lodestone. 120 Thus did the priests blithely employ science for their own ends.
In many magic rites, iron early lost its power to harm. In the charm, for instance, which Cato has left us in his treatise on agriculture, iron figured in a helpful way. We give Cato's directions for inducing a broken or a dislocated bone to come together: 121
"If a bone has been dislocated, it will become whole by this charm. Take a green reed, four or five feet long; split it in the middle, and let two men hold the pieces against the hip joints. Begin to chant: 'Motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter,' until the pieces of the reed come together. Keep tossing iron above. When the pieces of the reed have come together, and the one touches the other, seize them with the hand, and cut them right and left; bind them to the dislocation or to the fracture, and it will become sound. And yet every day chant (as above), or in the following manner: 'Huat haut huat istasis tarsis ardannabou dannaustra.'"
This is a piece of sheer magic. As the two split pieces of reed come together, so the broken pieces of the bone will mend. The element in the rite that concerns us especially here, however, is the tossing of iron above the broken bone. The iron apparently is used to ward off any evil influences which might hinder the mending of the bone. We find a similar use of iron in the case of the Priest of Jupiter, who placed a piece of iron under his pillow at night in order to ward off evil influences. 122 A like superstition had it that iron, placed beneath the straw on which hens had dropped their eggs, would keep the eggs from spoiling. 123
Another quality of iron may, along with its magnetic powers, help to account for its taboo in certain rites. Man must have noticed at a very early time that sparks flew from iron and stone when they were struck together.
The Arval Brothers were originally forbidden to use iron implements for engraving inscriptions in their sacred grove. They therefore performed an atoning sacrifice with a lamb and a pig in advance, in order to avoid the displeasure which the gods might feel because of their having used an iron graving tool. The atoning sacrifice was made again when the iron instrument was taken from the grove. 124 Similarly, no iron implement could be used in repairing the Sublician Bridge, which was made entirely of wood and fastened with wooden pins. 125 While it seems probable that the prohibition here is a religious one, there is a possibility, as Pliny suggests, 126 that it may have been necessary in order to facilitate tearing the bridge down quickly at the approach of an enemy. There was a similar taboo on iron at the building of the temple of Solomon. 127 In the regulations of the temple of Jupiter Liber at Furfo a special provision was made allowing iron to be used in repairing the temple, showing that there must have been some misgivings as to the propriety of its use. 128
Servius records 129 that if a man bound in chains entered the house of a flamen he must be loosened from his chains and that these had to be lowered through the skylight into the street. Here, not only the fact that the man was bound and in chains of iron made him dangerous, but also the fact that he was a criminal; for criminals were regularly taboo in Rome. 130
In historical times, bronze was commonly used in magic as well as in religious rites. Vergil, for instance, represents 131 Dido pretending to consult a witch who cuts herbs by moonlight with a bronze sickle. In the magic rites of the Silent Goddess, Tacita (to which we shall return in a later chapter), an old witch sews up the head of a small fish with a bronze needle, in order by sympathetic magic to bind the lips of a slanderous person. 132 Marcellus Empiricus, in his directions for the preparation of amulets, includes implements of reed, of copper, and of glass, but not of iron. 133 We know that both Etruscans and Romans used only bronze ploughshares to dig furrows in founding their cities; 134 and their priests, as well as those of the Sabines, used bronze razors. 135 The hair and nails of the Priest of Jupiter must be cut, not with iron, but with a bronze knife. 136 The dress worn by the flamens while offering sacrifice was fastened with a clasp of bronze. 137 The Leaping Priests of Mars wore bronze corselets. 138 While Italy was being threatened by the Goths, there was an eclipse, and the night rang with wailings and the beating of bronze. 139 Again, during the revolt of the Roman soldiers in Pannonia, an eclipse of the moon caused panic in the camp. The air rang with the crash of trumpets and other bronze implements. These were calculated, as Tacitus says, 140 to aid the moon in her labors; but, as a modern scholar has recently suggested, 141 they may have been believed to drive away the goblin which was swallowing up the moon.
That certain places were affected by the feeling of taboo we have already shown; and the reason for the uncanny feeling in each case was that associated with the place was a particular form of taboo: in the case of burial grounds, for instance, the taboo on the corpse.
Thunder and lightning have always caused feelings of uneasiness among men, whether savage or civilized. Juvenal, for instance, writes: 142 "There are those who tremble and blanch at every lightning flash; and when it thunders they are helpless even on the first rumbling in the sky." It is not strange, then, that places struck by lightning should be considered taboo by the Romans. Such places were surrounded with a low well-shaped wall and marked with an inscription indicating that the thunderbolt had been duly buried. 143 A lamb was sacrificed in expiation. 144 There seems to have been a college of priests whose duty was properly to care for the rites of "burying the thunderbolt." 145 On one occasion the temples of Jupiter and Minerva were struck by lightning and Nero, on the advice of soothsayers, purified the whole city. 146 The Emperor Galba's grandfather once performed an expiatory sacrifice after a place had been struck by lightning. 147 According to the laws of Numa, a man who had been struck by lightning must not be lifted above the knees and no rites of burial could be performed. 148 Such a man might not be cremated and must be buried, presumably on the spot where he had been struck. 149
Many taboos on places arose from particular events which had proved disastrous. For instance, there was a taboo on the right-hand passage of the Carmental Gate because the three hundred and six members of the Fabian family had passed through it to fight against the Veii, never to return. 150 Gervasius von Tilbury furnishes us with a parallel from Naples. 151 He and a friend tried to enter the city by the lefthand side of the city gate, when an ass, laden with wood, blocked the way and forced the travelers to use the right side. On reaching the home of their host, the latter inquired by which side of the gate they had entered, and, when he learned that they had used the right-hand side, he said: "Every one who enters the city by the right-hand side will succeed in whatever business he has in hand; every one on the contrary who enters on the left will find and meet with nothing but disappointment." The dusty traveler for the moment began to yield to the superstition; but catching himself he muttered piously: "In Thy hands, O Lord, are all things, and there is nothing that can resist Thy power."
We have in the last two chapters treated the following taboos in Roman life: blood, women, children, death and corpses, sex, men, strangers, slaves, linen, knots, iron, and places. Of these, the taboo on blood has been found to have arisen either from instinct or because of the association of death and suffering with its presence; that on women and children from the fact that they are weak physically, and this weakness, by the familiar law of association by similarity, may be communicated to the religious rite, affecting it adversely. Furthermore, the presence of blood at menstruation and at the birth of the child adds to women and children the uncanniness of blood. That on corpses may be attributed to man's instinct for self-preservation; the strangeness of the dead body may add to its mysterious character; moreover, man associates death with the agonies of the last moments of the sick man, and hence fears death. The taboo on sexual intercourse may perhaps best be explained on the ground that after the sexual act comes a period of weakness which will be communicated magically to the religious rite or to the actions of daily life. The taboo on men is due to their physical unlikeness to women; that on strangers may be due both to the fact that what is new or unfamiliar is dangerous and to the association of ideas of death and blood and pain with the stranger. That on slaves seems to have been entirely artificial; but, inasmuch as slaves were foreigners, the taboo on strangers may apply here also. The taboo on linen may be due to its association with corpses, to its strangeness in comparison with wool (the older material), and to its use in Oriental rites--a taboo, therefore, on that which is foreign. The taboo on knots is obvious: the principle of sympathetic magic holds here. As the knot binds, so the action is bound. The taboo on iron is due to its strangeness at the time when it was introduced, to its susceptibility to magnetism, and to its power of producing sparks when struck. The taboo on places has no one origin. The uncanniness of each place has a special cause: contact with death, association with disaster, and the like.
1 Columella, De Re Rustica IX. 14, 3.
2 For the Vestals, see Plutarch, Numa X; Gellius, Noctes Atticae I. 12; Frazer's note on Ovid, Fasti VI. 283.
3 Livy I. 11. 6-9.
4 Livy II. 42, 10-11.
5 Livy VIII. 15, 7-8.
6 Livy XXII. 57.
7 Sallust, Bellum Catilinum XV. 1; Orosius VI. 3; Cicero, Oratio in Toga Candida.
8 Suetonius, Nero XXVIII. 1.
9 IV. 8-10; see Mayor's notes on these lines.
10 Suetonius, Domitianus VIII. 3-4; see Pliny, Epistulae IV. 11, 6.
11 IV. 44, 11-12.
12 Plutarch, Numa X.
13 See W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals, p. 94.
14 Apuleius, Apologia LXXXVIII.
15 Ovid, Metamorphoses X. 431-435.
16 Tibullus Il. 1. 11-12.
17 See Fowler, The Roman Festivals, pp. 114-115.
18 Servius on Vergil's Bucolica VIII. 82.
19 Fasti VI. 459-460.
20 V. 8, 1-14; see Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid, Vol. II, pp. 296-297.
21 Amaury Talbot, Life in Southern Nigeria, p. 220.
22 Ovid, Fasti VI. 227-232.
23 Ovid, Metamorphoses X. 431-435.
24 Livy XXXIX. 9. 4. XXXIX. 10, 1. XXXIX. 11, 2; Ovid, Fasti II. 327-330.
25 Aelius Lampridius, Severus Alexander XXIX. 2.
26 Columella, De Re Rustica XII. 4, 2ff.
27 Tolemism and Exogamy, Vol. II, p. 411.
28 Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid, Vol. IV. pp. 205-206.
29 III. 31, 1-2; see also III. 26, 15-16 (Lucian Mueller's edition).
30 I. 3. 23-26.
31 Aelius Spartianus, Pescennius Niger VI. 7.
32 Columella, De Re Rustica XII. 4. 2ff.
33 Ovid, Fasti V. 153-156; see also Tibullus III. 5, 7-8.
34 Plutarch, Caesar IX-X; see Dio Cassius XXXVII. 35 and 45.
35 Ovid, Fasti VI. 437-454; Lactantius, Divinae Institutiones III. 20; Aelius Lampridius, Antoninus Heliogabalus VI. 7.
36 Epistulae IV. 11, 9.
37 Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae III.
38 Tusculanae Dispulationes IV. 11. 27.
39 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid VIII. 269.
40 Pliny, Naturalis Historia VII. 2, 15.
41 Livy I. 40, 2.
42 Livy XXIII. 5.
43 Livy XXVI. 34, 12; see Macrobius, Saturnalia III. 3, 1.
44 Livy II. 37. 9.
45 Gellius, Noctes Atticae VI. 19, 7.
46 Festus: aesto (Mueller, p. 82).
47 Gellius, Noctes Atticae I. 12. 8.
48 The translation is that of H. J. Rose in Primitive Culture in Italy, p. 67.
49 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXII. 1, 5.
50 Livy I. 24, 4-6.
51 Livy IV. 3, 9, and 2. 5-7.
52 Livy X. 6.
53 Livy I. 34. 11.
54 Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, I. 570ff., 590ff.
55 Tylor, Primitive Culture, Vol. I, p. 114,
56 Bellum Gallicum VI. 23.
57 See W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, pp. 223-247.
58 See Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid, Vol. IV, pp. 290-291.
59 Livy II. 36. 1.
60 Cicero, De Haruspicum Responso XI-XII.
61 Livy I. 7, 12-14.
62 Gellius, Noctes Atticae I. 12. 5.
63 Ovid, Fasti VI. 481; Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae XVI.
64 Cato, De Agricultura V. 1-4; Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
65 Antiquitates Romanae IV. 14, 3-4.
66 Ovid, Fasti VI. 783-784. Seneca, De Clementia 1. 18, 2.
67 Dionysius of Halicarnassus IV. 14, 3-4.
68 Suetonius, Claudius XXII.
69 Tacitus, Annales XIV. 21.
70 Apuleius, Metamorphoses IV. 11.
71 Tibullus III. 2. 15-22.
72 Livy IV. 20. 7.
73 Suctonius, Galba XIX.1.
74 Propertius V. 3. 64.
75 On Vergil's Aeneid XII. 120.
77 Cornelius Fronto, Ad Marcum Caesarem IV. 4.
78 Livy IV. 7. 12.
79 Livy X. 38.
80 Pliny, Naturalis Historia 11. 56, 147.
81 Ovid, Fasti III. 30.
82 Fasti II. 21.
83 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid IV. 137.
84 Livy I. 32. 6.
85 Pilae effigies (Mueller, p. 239) ; Laneae (p. 121). Macrobius, Saturnalia I. 7, 35.
86 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXX. 1, 12.
87 Ovid, Fasti IV, 652-660.
88 See Chapter 1, pp. 5-7.
89 Tibullus I. 3. 30.
90 Apologia LVI.
91 Leviticus VI. 10.
92 Leviticus XVI. 4.
93 Tibullus I. 5, 15-17.
94 Vergil, Bucolica VIII.
95 J. G. Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid, Vol. III, p. 61.
96 IV. 518.
97 Gellius, Noctes Atticae X. 15, 30.
98 Ovid, Fasti VI. 227-232.
99 Ibid., III. 397-398.
100 Ovid, Fasti IV. 854; Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae XIV; Tibullus III. 2. 11.
101 Ovid, Fasti III. 257-258.
102 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid IV. 518.
103 Ovid, Metamorphoses IV. 297-300.
104 Apuleius, Metamorphoses III. 1.
105 Vergil, Aeneid IV. 518.
106 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid IV. 518.
107 Gellius, Noctes Atticae X. 15, 9.
108 Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae CXII; Gellius, Noctes Atticae X. 15, 13; Festus, Ederam (Mueller, p. 82).
109 Livy I. 18, 7.
110 Ovid, Farii V. 432.
111 Juvenal XII. 3-6.
112 Tibullus II. 1, 7; Ovid, Fasti I. 83, III. 375-376, IV. 335-336.
113 Naturalis Historia XXVIII. 28.
114 Tibullus II. 1, 10.
115 Gellius, Noctes Atticae X. 15, 6.
116 Ovid, Fasti IV. 657-658.
117 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid III. 370.
118 See J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, Vol. II, p. 230.
119 M. Cary and A. D. Nock, in The Classical Quarterly, XXI (1927), pp. 125-127; see Propertius V. 5, 9-10.
120 Claudius Claudianus, Carminum Minorum Corpusculum XXIX. 25-27.
121 De Agricultura CLX.
122 See Frank Granger, The Worship of the Romans, p. 164.
123 Pliny, Naturalis Historia X. 54, 152.
124 Henzen, Acta Fratrum Artalium, pp. 128-135.
125 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXXVI. 15, 100; Dio III. 45.
126 Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXXVI. 100.
127 I Kings VI. 7.
128 Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 4906.
129 On Vergil's Aeneid II. 57; see also Gellius, Noctes Atticae X. 15, 8.
130 W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 32.
131 Aeneid IV. 513; see also Macrobius, Saturnalia V. 19, 7-14; Ovid, Metamorphoses VII. 227.
132 Ovid, Fasti 11. 575-578.
133 I. 85; VIII. 49, 50; see Tavenner, op. cit. p. 121, note 294.
134 Plutarch, Romulus XI. 2; Zollaras VII. 3.
135 Macrobius, Saturnalia V. 19, 13.
136 Servius on Vergil's Aeneid I. 448.
137 Festus: Infibulati (Mueller, p. 113).
138 Livy I. 20, 4.
139 Claudianus, De Bello Gothico 233-234.
140 Annales 1. 28.
141 J. G. Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid, Vol. IV, p. 48.
142 Juvenal XIII. 223-224.
143 Festus: Fulguritum (Mueller, p. 92) ; Bidental (p. 33). Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 37. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer, p. 122 and note 3.
144 Festus: Bidental (Mueller, P. 33) ; Horace, Ars Poetica 470-472.
145 See Wissowa, op. cit,, P. 131,
146 Tacitus, Annales XIII. 24.
147 Suetonius, Galba IV. 2.
148 Festus: Occisum (Mueller, p. 178).
149 Pliny, Naturalis Historia II. 145.
150 Ovid, Fasti II. 201-202; Livy II. 49, 8.
151 Translated in Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, p. 261. | <urn:uuid:360709ee-1b31-483b-bb26-fde6e617edbe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sacred-texts.com/cla/tms/tms05.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96554 | 11,989 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Ewing, William Maurice, 1906–74, American oceanographer and geologist, b. Lackney, Tex., grad. Rice Institute, now Rice Univ. (B.S., 1926; M.A., 1927; Ph.D., 1931). He taught physics and geology at the Univ. of Pittsburgh and Lehigh Univ. and was a research associate at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts. In 1935, he took the first seismic measurements in open seas (Atlantic Basin at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and in the Mediterranean and Norwegian Seas) and developed a seismometer that has become a standard. He proposed that earthquakes are associated with central oceanic rifts and suggested that seafloor spreading may be worldwide and episodic in nature. In 1939, he took the first deep-sea photos. In 1944 he joined the faculty of Columbia Univ. and in 1949 founded and became the first director of Columbia's Lamont Geological Observatory (now Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory) at Palisades, N.Y. Lamont-Doherty now holds one of the world's largest collection of deep-sea cores because of Ewing's many oceanic explorations. In 1960, Ewing became the first recipient of the Vetlesen Prize, an award given by the Vetlesen Foundation to honor leaders in the earth sciences.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:d40d129e-a02d-422d-ad33-fc30f962acc8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/people/ewing-william-maurice.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933245 | 293 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Jessie L. Bonner, AP
Few things generate more debate and controversy than attempts to measure educational achievement. It should come as no surprise that the release this week of the latest Programme for International Student Assessment results (or PISA) by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development was immediately parsed, diced and manipulated to fit the agendas of dozens of interest groups and organizations.
The reason is that students in the United States once again scored poorly against their peers in other nations of the world. U.S. results, in fact, haven’t budged on these tests in a decade, despite a patchwork quilt of reform efforts from coast to coast.
It would be wrong to overreact to these results, but it would be worse to cast them aside as meaningless. They offer a candid look at public education that doesn’t fit neatly into any one interest group’s agenda. Everyone can find a reason to feel uncomfortable.
For example, the results clearly indicate that per pupil expenditures do not translate into better results. Neither does class size. Those are two elements at the core of virtually every legislative session in which teacher unions argue for more funding. Only four nations spend more per student than the United States, and yet U.S. students performed roughly on the same level as those in the Slovak Republic, which spends about half as much.
On the other end of the ideological spectrum, however, the results show that an increase in competition between public and private schools, and the addition of public charter schools have done little so far to improve scores over time. Neither have increased testing nor the grading of public schools.
Critics may legitimately take issue with these findings. Greater competition and transparency certainly are not bad concepts, and they have not been around long enough to establish a track record. They help empower parents and require a level of accountability that wasn’t present before.
But, ideologies and agendas aside, one unavoidable truth shines through in the PISA results, and it demands attention. Children from wealthy families perform well, while those from poor families typically do not.
As a report on politico.com noted, if U.S schools with 10 percent or fewer students eligible for subsidized lunches were separated from the rest and treated as a nation, their scores would be second only to those in Shanghai in reading and science, while the math results would rank sixth in the world. That is considerably different than the 26th ranking the U.S. scored in math, 21st in science and 17th in reading.
In the United States, then, despite being nearly 60 years removed from a landmark Supreme Court decision that outlawed segregation, the public school system remains separate and wholly unequal. But instead of being divided by race, it is divided by income levels.
It is this inequity that state school systems must address first and foremost. Doing so will require nothing short of a radical approach to reform. Officials in each state would do well to ask themselves what type of education system they would devise if they could completely eliminate the current system and start over, then work toward that end.
In some states this might involve an equalization plan, in which all districts receive an equal share of revenues. It may mean adding resources to schools in low-income areas or providing greater school choices to parents who need them most.
As some critics have noted, the United States continues to have a more robust and innovative economy than nearly all the nations included in the PISA results. But it should expect more of itself than to just rely on the children of wealthy parents to keep that condition going.
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- John Hoffmire: The Amalfi Coast lemon: tasty... | <urn:uuid:8827dfb4-2532-4f30-adf6-4b3519ee51c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865591744/US-schools-still-separate-and-unequal.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962754 | 822 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Co-author of “The Neglected Sun“/geologist Dr. Sebastian Lüning made a presentation at the 7th International Conference for Climate and Energy in Mannheim, Germany, back in April. EIKE has now put it up. The presentation is in German and so I am providing below a round up of the main points made by Lüning.
Lüning starts by reminding the listeners that geology is key to understanding the past, which in turn can help us to better understand the present and provide valuable clues of what to expect in the future.
The German geologist is a specialist in the geology of Africa. The scientitific literature shows that the Sahara was green a mere 6000 years ago, and his slide at the 0:45 mark show remnants of that time.
Remnants of a green Sahara, 6000 years ago.
Back then, in the mid Holocene, it was 1 – 2°C warmer than it is today and the Sahara was teeming with wildlife.
At the 2:20 mark Lüning shows a slide of cave painting, in the middle of the Sahara, depicting wildlife seen at the time:
Cave paintings of wildlife in the middle of the Sahara.
The changes over the Holocener period clearly are greater than what we are seeing today and are due to natural flcutucations, primarily solar activity. Lüning adds at the 3:40 mark:
This is a geological context that unfortunately is lost on many people like physicists who believe their formulae more than they believe the true facts.”
Greenland is cooling
At the 4:10 mark Lüning brings up the Axforf paper of 2013, which shows Greenland was “2 – 3°C warmer 6000 to 4000 years ago than it is today” and that the ice survived.
At the 5:00 mark he presents a 2013 paper by Lecavalier et al showing that Greenland has cooled 2.5°C over the last 8000 years.
Greenland has cooled 2.5°C over the last 8000 years.
On his slide Lüning writes:
Despite the thousands of years of continuous warmth, the dramatic ice collapse never occurred.”
At the 6:00 mark Lüning shows a chart from Bob Carter, also showing nothing unusual is happening, Co2 playing only a minor role.
At the 7:30 mark Lüning brings up the IPCC 1990 millennium temperature chart that distinctly shows a warmer Medieval Warm Period and a little ice age. At the 8:30 various hockey sticks are shown, which Lüning describes as “incorrect”. “Even Michael Mann had to admit that he had exaggerated”.
Climate driven by solar activity
Starting at the 9:45 mark, his charts show that solar activity correlates well with temperature, which Lüning calls “a surprisingly good match”. He then presents the various solar cycles that the sun undergoes, going into the works of Gerard Bond, who made temperature reconstructions using layers of ice-rafted material in the North Atlantic. Lüning calls the synchronicity between solar activity and temperature found by Bond “stunning”. See chart 13:20 mark below)
Strong correlation between solar activity and temperature.
At around the 14:00 mark Lüning recounts how he naively expected an explanation from Rahmstorf on why Bond’s findings were being ignored. Rahmstorf replied that “Bond’s cycles could not be reproduced by other groups” and that “Bond himself later stopped believing in his cycles” and that “Bond cycles are a scientific dead-end”.
But at the 14:45 mark, Lüning clearly shows this was not true, and presents a 2003 paper by Hu et al, where Bond is one of the co-authors. That paper too also showed a good correlation between solar activity and temperature over the last 12,000 years. Here the theory was enforced, rather than not being reproducible, as Rahmstorf falsely claimed. Another 2005 paper that included Bond as a co-author is shown at the 15:45 mark.
Clear solar signal found worldwide
Lüning then shows other papers showing solar activity driving climate patterns all over the world, in places like Australia, Oman, North Caorlina, China. He sums them up in chart at the 17:04 mark.
IPCC models have no chance of success
Lüning says that there is clearly a solar signal in climate over the millenniums, and therefore says the IPCC models have no chance of ever successfully modeling the climate. He says that the IPCC models have gotten worse, and not better.
Lüning at the 20:00 mark presents evidence showing that the recent warming is due primarily to the extremely high level of solar activity over the 20th century. Even the flowrate of the Parana River in South America is in sync with solar activity (21:45). Even Lake Victoria fluctuates in sync with solar activity (22:30).
Lüning then brings up the solar amplifier and Svensmark’s theory (23:20) and that cloud formation is modulated by cosmic ray intensity, which in turn is modulated by the sun’s magnetic field. Lüning believes such research deserves some funding (applause) and that the sun acting as one of the major climate modulators makes perfect sense.
Warming of last 20 years “statistically insignificant”
At the 28:00 mark he calls the warming of the last 20 years “statistically insignificant” and says it has indeed stagnated no matter which dataset you look at. At the 28:15 mark he shows how the IPCC’s previous prognoses are “all too hot”, see following figure:
Models have all been false.
At the 29:00 mark he calls the recent claims of an unprecedented warning unjustified and shows that similar warming episodes have occurred in the past. Even Phil Jones admits it.
Ocean cycles responsible for the 1980-2000 warming
At the 30:00 mark Lüning says the natural oceanic cycles have been responsible for the recent decadal temperature fluctuations, and at least for half of the most recent 1980 – 2000 warming. The remaining half has to be responsibly assigned to the other factors. At the 31:20 mark, he believes that cooling is ahead for the 20 years:
Cooling projected for the next 20 years.
He thinks it is also possible that the low solar activity will lead to a cooling of one or two tenths of a degree Celsius over the next 5 years, which he says “could be very interesting for the discussion” (32:00). He cites Judith Curry. At the 33:00 mark he cites other papers showing that CO2 climate sensitivity has been overstated and needs to be corrected.
At the 37:30 mark Lüning tells the listeners he expects a huge drop in overall solar activity to take hold in the decades ahead and global temperatures to drop by 0.2°C by 2030 (see following chart).
Lüning believes 0.2°C cooling is possible by 2030.
All graphics cropped from Lüning’s presentation with permission. | <urn:uuid:a1c0d433-668d-4538-b087-cbcc0711a706> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://notrickszone.com/2014/06/29/german-geologist-ipcc-models-a-failure-have-no-chance-of-success-sees-possible-0-2c-of-cooling-by-2020/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947301 | 1,516 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Toronto Pearson International Airport’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have dropped nearly by half since 2006, a feat it claims is equivalent to 44,800 tonnes worth of carbon dioxide.
That fact, nine years in the making, means Toronto Pearson has joined an elite league of only 10 airports in North America to be accredited as environmentally friendly by Airports Council International.
The announcement arrives just as UN climate change talks kicked off in Paris. More than 100 world leaders, including Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, are expected to negotiate plans to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.
Pearson touted its own efforts but credited the greening of the province’s electrical grid for most of the reduction.
“The electricity that we get today is cleaner than it was in the past, with the closing of the coal-fired power plants,” said Todd Ernst, the Greater Toronto Airports Authority’s director of aviation infrastructure, energy and environment.
Reducing the airport’s carbon footprint is particularly notable, he added, because aviation demand continues to rise. The country’s busiest airport predicts it will surpass 40 million annual passengers before the end of this year, the first Canadian airport to do so.
According to the Canadian Airports Council, aviation accounts for two per cent of worldwide CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel use. It estimates that will rise to three per cent by 2050.
But the environmental cost of flying extends far beyond jet fuel, which is where airport efforts can make a difference. Ernst said Toronto Pearson has initiated several energy-efficiency programs, including modernizing its buildings.
“The airport is a small city here,” Ernst said, adding that heating, cooling and lighting all of the terminals is especially taxing on the system. Some upgrades will be noticeable right away, such as replacing metal halide lights with LEDs, but most will take place behind the scenes.
In the past, the motors powering the airport’s massive baggage systems would run constantly. Thanks to the installation of energy-efficient variable speed drives, the motors consume less power when not in use.
Because aircraft require power while gated at the airport, planes can now plug into Toronto Pearson’s auxiliary power supply instead of running their own engines and burning jet fuel. Some airport employees now shuttle around in a small fleet of electric cars.
New additions to the airport, Ernst added, have been designed from the ground up with energy-consciousness and sustainability in mind.
The airport opened its first LEED-certified building in 2007, housing the Fire and Emergency Services Training Institute. The building’s in-slab air distribution system reduces peak energy use by storing excess heat in concrete slabs for later use.
Toronto Pearson will continue to focus on reducing emissions through low-carbon technologies and adaptation measures. The plan is cut down on the use of fuels such as natural gas.
“Our biggest impact now and going forward will be natural gas reductions,” Ernst said. “GHG reductions from a unit of electricity saved are much less than a unit of natural gas burned.”
Ernst suggested the GTAA may also start collecting and examining aircraft data gathered during taxiing and queuing for takeoffs. This could lead to improvements that would minimize the distance and number of movements an airplane needs to make on the runway.
Aside from the environmental benefits, the transition to a low-carbon diet is, in itself, a good business decision, Ernst said.
“We do not want to wait for a GHG cap to be imposed on us, or a carbon tax,” he said. “We want to do our part now and be able to benefit from that foresight when these things come into effect.
“Doing our best to reduce the total tonnage of CO2 is the right thing to do.”
GTAA’s vice-president of airport planning and technical services, Pat Neville, acknowledged the role the airport must play in a global effort to address the aviation industry’s environmental challenges.
“There is no question as to whether or not (Toronto Pearson) has an environmental impact,” he said. “We do create a footprint, whether it’s noise, greenhouse gas emissions, storm water or waste.
“And fundamentally, we want to be a good neighbour. It is a really important part of our DNA that we do our part.”
The fight against pollution doesn’t necessarily rest solely on cutting greenhouse gas emissions. Here is a look at some of the other eco-friendly initiatives at Canada’s busiest airport.
YYbeeZ Honey bee Apiary
A party was recently held for the one million bees who call Pearson’s YYbeeZ apiary home. The pollinators were celebrating the hive’s first honey harvest after a year of hard work. Fifteen hives had been established to support the dwindling honey bee population and spread some love among the airfield’s wildflowers.
The GTAA has invested more than $120 million in stormwater management since assuming operation of Toronto Pearson. The funding has led to construction of airport-wide facilities that trap contaminated liquids, such as de-icing fluid, from flowing off the runway. Instead, the water is redirected to waste-treatment.
Partners in Project Green
In an effort to preserve the airport’s grassland and creek valleys, volunteers from Pearson’s Partners in Project Green team planted nearly 800 trees and shrubs along Etobicoke Creek this May. Participating businesses have pledged to green their bottom line to protect the 12,000 hectares worth of green space surrounding the airport’s property. | <urn:uuid:229e9fe7-7475-46ad-a7b1-d4b2294bcb5a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ourwindsor.ca/news-story/6156701-pearson-airport-sees-greenhouse-gas-emissions-drop-almost-by-half/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942537 | 1,179 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Fostering motivation—a child’s desire and drive to succeed—is a universal challenge for teachers and parents. A “well-motivated child” is a pleasure to teach. His hand shoots into the air during class discussions. He can’t wait for that science lab, writing workshop, or even formal test. In fact, he’ll cheerfully take on one challenge after another, handle setbacks, and keep moving forward, even if results aren’t perfect.
Unfortunately, research indicates that he can also be pretty rare. In a recent survey by the National Education Association, for example, teachers said that in general, approximately 60% of their students were “disengaged” or “unmotivated.” In practical terms, that’s a lot of demoralized kids, with plenty of frustrated teachers and parents looking on. So is there any way out of the impasse? Absolutely, says renowned author and lecturer, Richard Lavoie, Ed.D. In over 30 years as a teacher and headmaster of residential schools for children with learning disabilities, Lavoie watched thousands of students struggle to stay engaged. His latest book, The Motivation Breakthrough, builds on those experiences to offer practical, research-based tools. He says that all children are motivated in some way, but adults need to help motivate them. “Kids just don’t come loaded with [motivation] batteries. You’ve got to be ready to put them in.”
So let’s say you want to help your child join the ranks of those eager beavers who just can’t get enough time in class. Lavoie started his research where most of us would: by reviewing professional scholarship. He found, however, that he came out largely empty handed. “Our schools have come to the point,” he says, “where we understand and embrace many learning styles. A teacher may use nine different math strategies, ten different reading strategies…but we typically rely on just one strategy of motivation: reward and punishment. They just don’t do the job.”
Just what is the answer? To his amazement, Lavoie stumbled across an unlikely source of “practical, pragmatic, and detailed” research: from Madison Avenue advertising! “If anybody knows how to motivate kids,” says Lavoie, “it’s the people selling toys and music.” They understand, explains Lavoie, that “one size does not fit all.” Kids—and we adults—respond to different kinds of motivating drives.
To help load kids’ “batteries,” then, Lavoie argues that we must be willing to understand what drives them—as well as what drives us. If we’re different, we must be ready to bridge those gaps.
So, parents, do you know what motivates you and your child the most? Check out Lavoie’s list and see what matches (note: more than one may apply!):
These folks adore social interaction and love to be in a lively crowd. Gregarious folks love to be connected to others, and hate to feel cast out in any way. When they’re comfortable, they’re friendly and may be great at both joining and leading.
In this case, the chance to work independently is a dream come true. A trip to a library study carrel is a treat, as is the chance to solve a problem alone in an office.
It’s important to know where you stand, and to feel that you have maintained a strong, positive reputation. Criticism can feel crushing.
The need to know is a deep and powerful drive. When you’re curious about something, it’s a gift to be allowed to explore it without being restrained.
This sounds negative, but don’t be fooled. People with strong positive aggression are good competitors, as well as passionate fighters for justice. They want their views to be heard and respected.
Again, beware bad connotations. As a motivating force, “power” is a drive for influence, responsibility, and authority. It’s an especially natural and important part of adolescence…when it’s managed right.
Many people adore being seen and appreciated for their gifts and accomplishments, and will respond to public encouragement.
These folks adore feeling connected to institutions and groups bigger than themselves. Lavoie himself, for example, owns a world-class collection of sport team tees and hats, and loves wearing them at any opportunity. He is deeply motivated by affiliation.
If you’re like most people, you’ll notice that while most drives apply in some way, one or two will really stand out. Kids, says, Lavoie, are just the same. So when you’re figuring out how to help a child feel motivated, try working with these drives. Lavoie, the affiliation-lover, offers the example of a year when he made class logo tee shirts for each of his students. “Some students,” he remembers, “wore the shirts until the garment nearly dissolved off their bodies”—fellow affiliation-lovers. “Others never wore them again”—lovers of power, inquisitiveness, or other drives, perhaps. Rather than give up the tees entirely, Lavoie says he could have just handled them differently: he could have allowed the students themselves, for example, to select colors and logo (power, status); given extra shirts as rewards for progress (recognition); or set aside one day a week for wearing them together (gregariousness).
What’s most important, he explains, is to remember that we adults can make all the difference in motivating kids. Special needs students need extra sensitivity, but the strategies that work for them, says Lavoie, “work for everybody.” To his surprise, workshop participants around the country have told Lavoie that his work has had dramatic effects on their teaching and parenting. “Somebody actually described it as 'Radical.’ Well, I think it does work, and it really is a departure from the same old-same old. And in the end, I think it’s about really good human relations. That’s always a good thing.” | <urn:uuid:5e9dabdc-e3dd-4afe-95ee-3cac3dae4854> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/magazine/article/go-for-it-motivation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958317 | 1,344 | 3.25 | 3 |
“Respectability tax” is a term we invented. It refers to the extra lengths that some African-Americans, and other people of color go to, in order to telegraph that they are middle-class, successful, and respectable. Historians say the notion of “racial respectability” took root in U.S. culture after slavery ended.
“African-Americans were trying to figure out: how do we live up to the promise of America?” said Celeste Watkins-Hayes, a sociologist from Northwestern University. “How do we make sure that we have the economic, the educational, the political and the social rights that we supposedly have now?”
It has persisted until today, says Lester Spence, a political scientist from Johns Hopkins University, because African-Americans are still trying to live up to that promise.
“At stake are a variety of zero-sum resources,” Spence said. “Your ability to get a job. Your ability to get a raise. Your ability to maintain a job. The argument is if you do not carry yourself in a certain fashion, you are not going to get access to a variety of resources that you need to live.”
Read more at Marketplace | <urn:uuid:b0e11e2c-b190-4c9b-a2d9-a1e5e7991dc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.blackenterprise.com/news/do-people-of-color-pay-a-respectability-tax/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969548 | 262 | 3.578125 | 4 |
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to an inkjet ink system comprising a liquid vehicle, a colorant, and a gelling agent. Methods of printing using this inkjet ink system are also disclosed.
2. Description of the Related Art
An inkjet ink composition generally consists of a vehicle, which functions as a carrier, and a colorant such as a dye or pigment. Additives and/or cosolvents can also be incorporated in order to adjust the inkjet ink to attain the desired overall performance properties.
In general, pigments alone are not readily dispersible in liquid vehicles. A variety of techniques have been developed which can provide stable pigment dispersions which can be used in inkjet printing. For example, dispersants can be added to the pigment to improve its dispersibility in a particular medium. Examples of dispersants include water-soluble polymers and surfactants. Typically, these polymeric dispersants have a molecular weight less than 20,000 in order to maintain solubility and therefore pigment stability.
Recently, modified pigments have also been developed which provide ink compositions with improved properties, such as dispersibility, without the need for an external dispersant. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,851,280 discloses methods for the attachment of organic groups onto pigments including, for example, attachment via a diazonium reaction wherein the organic group is part of the diazonium salt. The resulting surface-modified pigments can be used in a variety of applications, such as inks, inkjet inks, coatings, toners, plastics, rubbers, and the like. These modified pigments provide inkjet inks with good overall properties.
Polymers other than dispersants have also been incorporated into inkjet ink compositions in an effort to improve performance. For example, emulsion polymers or latexes have been used as an additive to improve the print performance of inkjet inks. Since an emulsion polymer typically has a high molecular weight, this enables the use of higher molecular weight materials in an inkjet ink application. However, as emulsion polymers, these polymers are not soluble and would tend to lead to difficulties in printing, particularly nozzle clogging.
Other polymer-based inks are also known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,281,267 describes an inkjet ink set comprising a first ink comprising a pH-sensitive polymer and a self-dispersing pigment and a second ink. When the first ink comes in contact with the second ink on a print medium, the polymer becomes insoluble and precipitates onto the print medium. This ink set is believed to have improved bleed and halo control.
- SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
Thus, as the inkjet printing industry moves towards print performance similar to that of laser printing, there remains a need for additional inkjet ink compositions and systems with improved print properties, such as improved print durability.
The present invention relates to an inkjet ink system comprising a) a liquid vehicle, b) a colorant, and c) a gelling agent. The gelling agent may be incorporated into the liquid vehicle to form an inkjet ink composition, into a second jettable composition, or onto a substrate. The gelling agent may also be attached to the colorant itself. Preferably the colorant is a pigment. Also, the gelling agent is preferably a hydrophobically modified polyelectrolyte.
The present invention further relates a method of generating a printed image comprising the steps of: i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle, b) a colorant, and c) a gelling agent; ii) jetting the inkjet ink composition; and iii) generating an image onto a substrate. The substrate may optionally comprise a gelling agent, which can be the same or different from the gelling agent of the inkjet ink composition.
The present invention further relates to a method of generating a printed image comprising the steps of i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a colorant; ii) incorporating into a printing apparatus a gelling agent composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a gelling agent; iii) jetting, in any order, the inkjet ink composition and the gelling agent composition; and iv) generating an image. This method may further comprise jetting a second gelling agent composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a gelling agent before the jetting of the inkjet ink composition.
The present invention further relates to a method of generating a printed image comprising the steps of: i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a colorant; ii) jetting the inkjet ink composition; and iii) generating an image onto a substrate, wherein the substrate comprises a gelling agent.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are intended to provide further explanation of the present invention, as claimed.
FIG. 1 is a formula of a hydrophobically modified polymeric gelling agent containing a hydrophobic block, an ionic or ionizable block, and a hydrophilic block used in the present invention.
FIG. 2 is a plot of viscosity versus pH of an inkjet ink composition comprising a hydrophobically modified terpolymer gelling agent and a modified pigment.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
FIG. 3 is a plot of viscosity versus humectant concentration of an inkjet ink composition comprising a hydrophobically modified terpolymer gelling agent and a modified pigment.
The present invention relates to inkjet ink systems comprising a) a liquid vehicle; b) a colorant; and c) a gelling agent, as well as to methods of printing.
The inkjet ink systems of the present invention comprise a liquid vehicle and a colorant. The vehicle can be either an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid vehicle, but is preferably a vehicle that contains water. Thus, the vehicle is preferably an aqueous vehicle, which can be, for example, water or mixtures of water with water miscible solvents such as alcohols. Preferably the aqueous vehicle is water, and the inkjet ink system is an aqueous inkjet ink system.
The colorant in the inkjet ink systems of the present invention can be either a dye or a pigment. The dye can be either soluble or insoluble in the liquid vehicle. Preferably, the colorant is a pigment or a dye that is not soluble in the liquid vehicle. Examples of such dyes include those referred to as dispersed dyes, which are soluble in organic solvents such as toluene but are not soluble in water. Other such dyes will be known to those skilled in the art.
The pigment can be any type of pigment conventionally used by those skilled in the art, such as black pigments and other colored pigments. Preferably, when the pigment is a black pigment, the pigment is carbon black. Mixtures of different pigments can also be used. These pigments can also be used in combination with a variety of different types of dispersants in order to form stable dispersions and inks.
Representative examples of black pigments include various carbon blacks (Pigment Black 7) such as channel blacks, furnace blacks and lamp blacks, and include, for example, carbon blacks sold under the Regalg, Black Pearls®, Elftex®, Monarch®, Mogul®, and Vulcan® trademarks available from Cabot Corporation (such as Black Pearls® 2000, Black Pearls® 1400, Black Pearls® 1300, Black Pearls® 1100, Black Pearls® 1000, Black Pearls® 900, Black Pearls® 880, Black Pearls® 800, Black Pearls® 700, Black Pearls® L, Elftex® 8, Monarch® 1400, Monarch® 1300, Monarch® 1100, Monarch® 1000, Monarch® 900, Monarch® 880, Monarch® 800, Monarch® 700, Mogul® L, Regal® 330, Regal® 400, Vulcan® P). Other suitable carbon blacks include, but are not limited to, Printex 40, Printex 80, Printex 300, Printex L, Printex U, Printex V, Special Black 4, Special Black 5, FW200, (the foregoing available from Degussa Corporation), Raven 780, Raven 890, Raven 1020, Raven 1040, Raven 1255, Raven 1500, Raven 5000, Raven 5250 (the foregoing available from Colombian Chemical Corporation) and MA100 and MA440 available from Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation.
The pigment may also be chosen from a wide range of conventional colored pigments. The colored pigment can be blue, black, brown, cyan, green, white, violet, magenta, red, orange, yellow, as well as mixtures thereof. Suitable classes of colored pigments include, for example, anthraquinones, phthalocyanine blues, phthalocyanine greens, diazos, monoazos, pyranthrones, perylenes, heterocyclic yellows, quinacridones, and (thio)indigoids. Representative examples of phthalocyanine blues include copper phthalocyanine blue and derivatives thereof (Pigment Blue 15). Representative examples of quinacridones include Pigment Orange 48, Pigment Orange 49, Pigment Red 122, Pigment Red 192, Pigment Red 202, Pigment Red 206, Pigment Red 207, Pigment Red 209, Pigment Violet 19 and Pigment Violet 42. Representative examples of anthraquinones include Pigment Red 43, Pigment Red 194 (Perinone Red), Pigment Red 216 (Brominated Pyranthrone Red) and Pigment Red 226 (Pyranthrone Red). Representative examples of perylenes include Pigment Red 123 (Vermillion), Pigment Red 149 (Scarlet), Pigment Red 179 (Maroon), Pigment Red 190 (Red), Pigment Violet 19, Pigment Red 189 (Yellow Shade Red) and Pigment Red 224. Representative examples of thioindigoids include Pigment Red 86, Pigment Red 87, Pigment Red 88, Pigment Red 181, Pigment Red 198, Pigment Violet 36, and Pigment Violet 38. Representative examples of heterocyclic yellows include Pigment Yellow 1, Pigment Yellow 3, Pigment Yellow 12, Pigment Yellow 13, Pigment Yellow 14, Pigment Yellow 17, Pigment Yellow 65, Pigment Yellow 73, Pigment Yellow 74, Pigment Yellow 151, Pigment Yellow 117, Pigment Yellow 128 and Pigment Yellow 138. Such pigments are commercially available in either powder or press cake form from a number of sources including, BASF Corporation, Engelhard Corporation and Sun Chemical Corporation. Examples of other suitable colored pigments are described in the Colour Index, 3rd edition (The Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1982).
Other examples of pigments include Hostafine® series such as Hostafine® Yellow GR (Pigment 13), Hostafine® Yellow (Pigment 83), Hostafine® Red FRLL (Pigment Red 9), Hostafine® Rubine F6B (Pigment 184), Hostafine® Blue 2G (Pigment Blue 15:3), Hostafine® Black T (Pigment Black 7), and Hostafine® Black TS (Pigment Black 7), Normandy Magenta RD-2400, Paliogen Violet 5100, Paliogen® Violet 5890, Permanent Violet VT2645, Heliogen Green L8730, Argyle Green XP-111-S, Brilliant Green Toner GR 0991, Heliogen® Blue L6900, L7020, Heliogen® Blue D6840, D7080, Sudan Blue OS, PV Fast Blue B2GO1, Irgalite Blue BCA, Paliogen® Blue 6470, Sudan III, Sudan II, Sudan IV, Sudan Orange G, Sudan Orange 220, Paliogen(g Orange 3040, Ortho Orange OR 2673, Paliogen® Yellow 152, 1560, Lithol Fast Yellow 0991K, Paliotol Yellow 1840, Novoperm® Yellow FG 1, Permanent Yellow YE 0305, Lumogen Yellow D0790, Suco-Gelb L1250, Suco-Yellow D1355, Hostaperm® Pink E, Fanal Pink D4830, Cinquasia Magenta, Lithol Scarlet D3700, Toluidine Red, Scarlet for Thermoplast NSD PS PA, E.D. Toluidine Red, Lithol Rubine Toner, Lithol Scarlet 4440, Bon Red C, Royal Brilliant Red RD-8192, Oracet Pink RF, Paliogen® Red 3871K, Paliogen® Red 3340, and Lithol Fast Scarlet L4300. These are available from sources such as Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Paul Ulhlich, BASF, American Hoechst, Ciba-Geigy, Aldrich, DuPont, Ugine Kuhlman of Canada, Dominion Color Company, Magruder, and Matheson, Coleman, Bell.
The colorant can also be a modified pigment which comprises a pigment having an attached organic group. The pigment having an attached organic group can be formed from any of the pigments described above. The starting pigment can have a wide range of BET surface areas, as measured by nitrogen adsorption. Preferably, the pigment has a surface area greater than or equal to 85 m2/g, and more preferably greater than or equal to about 100 m2/g, thereby corresponding to a smaller primary/aggregate particle size. Such surface areas have been found to provide for a more uniform distribution and efficient level of treating agent on the pigment and a higher percent yield of the modified pigment after post processing techniques. If the preferred higher surface area of the pigment (thereby corresponding to a smaller particle size) is not readily available, it is well recognized by those skilled in the art that the pigment may be subject to conventional size comminution or reduction techniques, such as ball or jet milling, to reduce the pigment to the desired particle size.
Preferably, the organic group of the modified pigment comprises at least one ionic group, ionizable group, or mixtures of an ionic group and an ionizable group. An ionic group is either anionic or cationic and is associated with a counterion of the opposite charge including inorganic or organic counterions such as Na+, K+, Li+, NH4 +, NR′4 +, acetate, NO3 −, SO4−2, R′SO3 −, R′OSO3 −, OH−, and Cl−, where R′ represents hydrogen or an organic group such as a substituted or unsubstituted aryl and/or alkyl group. An ionizable group is one that is capable of forming an ionic group in the medium of use. Organic ionic groups include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,016, the description of which is fully incorporated herein by reference.
The organic group can comprise at least one anionic or anionizable group. Anionic groups are negatively charged ionic groups that may be generated from groups having ionizable substituents that can form anions (anionizable groups), such as acidic substituents. They may also be the anion in the salts of ionizable substituents. Preferably, when the ionizable substituent forms an anion, the ionizable substituent has a pKa of less than 11. The anionic group could further be generated from a species having ionizable groups with a pKa of less than 11 and salts of ionizable substituents having a pKa of less than 11. The pKa of the ionizable substituent refers to the pKa of the ionizable substituent as a whole, not just the acidic substituent. More preferably, the pKa is less than 10 and most preferably less than 9.
Representative examples of anionic groups include —COO−, —SO3 −, —OSO3 −, —HPO3 −, —OPO3 −2, and —PO3 −2. Representative examples of anionizable groups include —COOH, —SO3H, —PO3H2, —R′SH, —R′OH, and —SO2NHCOR′, where R′represents hydrogen or an organic group such as a substituted or unsubstituted aryl and/or alkyl group. Preferably, the anionic or anionizable group is a carboxylic acid group, a sulfonic acid group, a phoshonic acid group, or salts thereof.
The organic group may also comprise at least one cationic or cationizable group. Cationic groups are positively charged organic ionic groups that may be generated from ionizable substituents that can form cations (cationizable groups), such as protonated amines. For example, alkyl or aryl amines may be protonated in acidic media to form ammonium groups —NR′2H+, where R′ represent an organic group such as a substituted or unsubstituted aryl and/or alkyl group. Preferably, the amine has a pKb of less than 5. Cationic groups may also be positively charged organic ionic groups. Examples include quaternary ammonium groups (—NR′3 +) and quaternary phosphonium groups (—PR′3 +). Here, R′ represents hydrogen or an organic group such as a substituted or unsubstituted aryl and/or alkyl group. Preferably, the cationic or cationizable group is an amine group or a salt thereof.
The organic group may also comprise polymeric groups. Preferably, the polymeric groups comprise the ionic or ionizable groups described above. Thus, the organic group may be a polymeric group comprising one or more anionic or anionizable groups. Examples include, but are not limited to, polyacids such as polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, copolymers of acrylic acid or methacrylic acid, including styrene-acrylic acid polymers, and hydrolyzed derivatives of maleic anhydride-containing polymers.
The organic group may also comprise a polymeric group comprising one or more cationic or cationizable groups. Examples include, but are not limited to, linear or branched polyamines such as polyethyleneimine (PEI), oligomers of ethyleneimine (such as pentaethyleneamine, PEA) and derivatives of polyethyleneimine.
The organic group may also comprise a polymeric group comprising one or more non-ionic groups. Examples include alkylene oxide groups of from about 1 to about 12 carbons. Examples of preferred alkylene oxide groups include, but are not limited to, —CH2—CH2—O—; —CH(CH3)—CH 2—O—; —CH2—CH(CH3)—O—, —CH 2CH 2CH 2—O—, or combinations thereof.
For example, the organic group may be a group represented by the formula -X-Sp-[Polymer]R. X, which is directly attached to the pigment, represents an arylene or heteroarylene group or an alkylene group and is substituted with an Sp group. Sp represents a spacer group. The group Polymer represents a polymeric group comprising repeating monomer groups or multiple monomer groups or both. R represents hydrogen, a bond, a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group, or a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group. Preferably, at least one type of monomer group comprises at least one ionic or ionizable group. The group Polymer can be further substituted with additional groups. The total number of monomer repeating units that comprise the group Polymer is preferably not greater than about 500 monomer repeating units.
The group Polymer can be any type of polymeric group such as, for example, a thermoplastic polymeric group or a thermosetting polymeric group. Further, the polymeric group can be a homopolymer, copolymer, terpolymer, and/or a polymer containing any number of different repeating units. Further, the group Polymer can be a random polymer, alternating polymer, graft polymer, block polymer, star-like polymer, and/or comb-like polymer. Preferred examples of the group Polymer are those described above.
The group Sp represents a spacer group which, as used herein, is a link between two groups. The group Sp can be a bond or a chemical group. Examples of chemical groups include, but are not limited to, —CO2—, —OC—, —CO—, —OSO2—, —SO3—, —SO2—, —SO2C2H4O—, —SO2C2H4S—, —SO2C2H4NR—, —S>—, —NR—, —NRCO—, —CONR—, —NRCO2——O2CNR—, —NRCONR—, —NRCOCH(CH2CO2R)—, —NRCOCH2CH(CO2R)—, —N(COR)(CO)—, imide groups, arylene groups, alkylene groups and the like. R, which can be the same or different, represents hydrogen or an organic group such as a substituted or unsubstituted aryl or alkyl group.
The group X represents an arylene or heteroarylene group or an alkylene group. X is directly attached to the pigment and is further substituted with an Sp group. The aromatic group can be further substituted with any group, such as one or more alkyl groups or aryl groups. Preferably, the arylene group is phenylene, naphthylene, or biphenylene, and the heteroarylene group. When X represents an alkylene group, examples include, but are not limited to, substituted or unsubstituted alkylene groups which may be branched or unbranched. The alkylene group can be substituted with one or more groups, such as aromatic groups. Examples include, but are not limited to, C1-C12 groups like methylene, ethylene, propylene, or butylene, groups. Preferably, X is an arylene group.
The group X may be substituted with one or more functional groups. Examples of functional groups include, but are not limited to, R′″, OR′″, COR′″, COOR′″, OCOR′″, carboxylates, halogens, CN, NR′″2, SO3H, sulfonates, sulfates, NR′″(COR′″), CONR′″2, NO2, PO3H2, phosphonates, phosphates, N═NR′″, SOR′″, NSO2R′″, wherein R′″ which can be the same or different, is independently hydrogen, branched or unbranched C1-C20 substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons, e.g., alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted alkaryl, or substituted or unsubstituted aralkyl.
As shown by the structure above, the group Polymer is attached to the pigment through the spacer group Sp. However, it will also be recognized that when R represents a bond, the available bond can also be attached to the pigment. In addition, the group Polymer can also be attached to the pigment at multiple points along the polymer chain through proper choice of substituent groups on the repeating monomer units. These substituents may also comprise spacer groups or -X-Sp-groups as described above. Thus, these groups can be attached to the pigment at either end or at points along the backbone. Further, these groups can be any type of polymeric group, such as a random polymer, alternating polymer, graft polymer, block polymer, star-like polymer, and/or comb-like polymer.
The organic group may also comprise a gelling agent, preferably a polymeric gelling agent. These gelling agents are described in more detail below.
The modified pigments used in the inkjet ink systems of the present invention are modified using methods known to those skilled in the art such that organic groups are attached to the pigment. For example, the modified pigments used in the dispersions of the present invention can be prepared using the methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,851,280, 5,698,016, 5,922,118, and 5,837,045, and PCT Publication Nos. WO 99/51690 and WO 00/22051, the descriptions of which are fully incorporated herein by reference. This provides a more stable attachment of the groups on the pigment compared to adsorbed groups, such as polymers, surfactants, and the like.
The modified pigments may also comprise a pigment having attached at least one organic group, wherein the organic group comprises the reaction product of a pigment having attached a first chemical group with a second chemical group to form a pigment having attached a third organic group. For this, the modified pigments can be prepared using methods known to those skilled in the art. For example, the modified pigments may be prepared using the method described in PCT Publication No. WO 01/51566, which is incorporated in its entirety herein by reference. Thus, for example, the organic group may comprise the reaction product of at least one electrophile, such as a (2-sulfatoethyl)-sulphone group or a benozoic acid group, and at least one nucleophilic polymer, such as a polyamine. Further reactions on these attached organic groups, such as acylation reactions, are also possible. Other examples are also disclosed in the above-cited reference.
The amount of the attached organic groups can be varied in order to attain the desired performance attributes. Preferably, the total amount of attached organic groups is from about 0.01 to about 10.0 micromoles of organic group/m2 surface area of pigment, as measured by nitrogen adsorption (BET method). For example, the amount of attached organic groups is between from about 0.5 to about 4.0 micromoles/m2. In addition, the modified pigments may further comprise additional attached organic groups. This can result in further improved properties.
The modified pigments may be purified by washing, such as by filtration, centrifugation, or a combination of the two methods, to remove unreacted raw materials, byproduct salts and other reaction impurities. The products may also be isolated, for example, by evaporation or it may be recovered by filtration and drying using known techniques to those skilled in the art.
The colorants are used in the inkjet ink systems of the present invention in an amount effective to provide the desired image quality (for example, optical density) without detrimentally affecting print performance. Preferably the colorant is incorporated in the liquid vehicle to form an inkjet ink composition and is present in an amount ranging from about 0.1% to about 20%, most preferably 1% to 5%, based on the weight of the inkjet ink composition. It is also within the bounds of the present invention to use a formulation containing a mixture of modified pigments described herein and unmodified pigments, other modified pigments, or both.
The inkjet ink systems of the present invention further comprise at least one gelling agent. As used herein, a gelling agent is a material that, when incorporated into a composition, can form either a physical or chemical network either with itself or with other components in the composition, causing the system to set or gel.
Preferably, the gelling agents used in the inkjet ink systems of the present invention are polymeric gelling agents. A preferred example includes those polymeric gelling agents known as hydrophobically modified polyelectrolytes (HMPs). Examples of classes of these types of gelling agents include acrylamide-acrylic acid terpolymers, poly(sodium maleate-alkyl vinyl ethers), hydrophobe modified alkali-soluble emulsion polymers (HASE polymers), hydrophobically modified poly(sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonates), hydrophobically modified poly(acrylic acids) (HMPAAs), poly(N-alkylacrylamide)-polyelectrolyte conjugates, and hydrophobically modified naturally occurring polymers such as chitosan, ionic cellulose ethers, pectin, alginates, and carboxypullulan. These types of polymers have been reviewed by L. Bromberg in Chapter 7 of Handbook of Surfaces and Interfaces of Materials, Vol. 4, 2001, titled “Hydrophobically Modified Polyelectrolytes and Polyelectrolyte Block Copolymers,” which is incorporated in its entirety herein by reference.
A preferred class of hydrophobically modified polyelectrolyte gelling agents are those which comprise at least one hydrophobic monomer unit and at least one ionic or ionizable polymer unit. Examples of hydrophobic monomer units include, but are not limited to, alkyl vinyl ethers and alkyl and fluoroalkyl esters and amides of acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, and maleic acid. Preferably, the hydrophobic monomer group is an alkyl ester of acylic acid or an alkyl ester of methacrylic acid. Examples of ionic or ionizable monomer units are those that comprise a carboxylic acid group or salt thereof such as acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, maleic acid, and salts thereof. Another example is 2-methylpropanesulfonate (AMPS). Preferably the ionic or ionizable monomer unit is acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, or salts thereof.
Most preferred are those gelling agents that further comprise a hydrophilic monomer unit. The hydrophilic monomer unit, as used herein, is a non-ionic hydrophile. Examples include, but are not limited to, acrylamide and esters of acrylic and methacrylic acid comprising an alkylene oxide group, such as a polyethylene oxide (PEO) group, a polypropylene oxide (PPO) group, or a ethylene oxide-propylene oxide block copolymer group. Preferably the hydrophilic monomer unit is a polyethylene oxide ester of acrylic or methacrylic acid.
The gelling agents used in the inkjet ink systems of the present invention can be any type of polymeric material, such as a random copolymer, an alternating copolymer, a graft copolymer, a dendrimer, or a block copolymer, including a segmented block copolymer or a star block copolymer. Preferably the gelling agent is a block copolymer or a graft copolymer. The blocks or grafts can comprise any of the different types of monomer units described above. Thus, for example, the gelling agent may be a triblock polymer comprising blocks of hydrophilic monomer units, hydrophobic monomer units, and ionic or ionizable monomer units. Other arrangements of monomer units will be known to one skilled in the art.
The molecular weight of the gelling agent can vary depending on the types of monomer units comprising it, so long as the material functions as a gelling agent as herein defined. Preferably, the gelling agent has a weight average molecular weight of between 1,000 and 3,000,000 and more preferably between 300,000 and 1,500,000. If the molecular weight is too low, the gelling agent will not produce a well-formed network and, if it is too high, ink stability may be affected.
In one embodiment, the gelling agent is incorporated into the liquid vehicle to form an inkjet ink composition. In another embodiment, the gelling agent is incorporated into a second jettable composition, which may also be referred to as an inkjet ink composition. For both of these embodiments, the gelling agent can be used in amounts ranging between 0.1% and 60%, preferably 1% and 50%, by weight based on the total weight of the inkjet ink composition. Most preferred is an amount of gelling agent of between 5% and 40% by weight based on the total weight of the inkjet ink composition.
In another embodiment, the gelling agent is attached to the colorant. Preferably, the colorant is a modified pigment having attached at least one gelling agent. In another embodiment, the gelling agent is incorporated onto a substrate, that is, either as a component of the substrate or as a coating on the surface of the substrate.
When used in combination with a modified pigment having an attached organic group, it is preferred that the pigment and the gelling agent do not have opposing charges. Thus, examples of preferred combinations of modified pigments and gelling agents include modified pigments having an attached ionic or ionizable group and a gelling agent comprising an ionic or ionizable monomer unit, where both the ionic or ionizable group and the ionic or ionizable monomer unit are anionic or anionizable. If the ionic or ionizable group is cationic or cationizable, then it is preferred that the ionic or ionizable monomer unit of the gelling agent also be cationic or cationizable.
One skilled in the art would recognize that both the amount of gelling agent and the more preferred molecular weights represent much higher values than has been used for conventional dispersing agents. For example, conventional dispersing agents typically have weight average molecular weights less that 20,000. This is due to difficulties encountered in solubility and jetting. It has surprisingly been found that these gelling agents can be used in jettable compositions despite their higher molecular weights.
The inkjet ink compositions may be purified or classified to remove impurities and other undesirable free species which can co-exist in the inkjet ink composition as a result of the manufacturing process. For example, the inkjet ink composition can be purified to remove any undesired free species, such as unreacted treating agent. Known techniques of ultrafiltration/diafiltration using a membrane or ion exchange may be used to purify the dispersion and remove a substantial amount of free ionic and unwanted species. An optional exchange of counterions step may also occur in the purification process whereby the counterions that form a part of the modified pigment are exchanged or substituted with alternative counterions (including, e.g., amphiphilic ions) utilizing known ion exchange techniques such as ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, ion exchange columns and the like. Particular examples of counterions that can be exchanged include, but are not limited to, Na+, K+, Li+, NH4 +, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, NO3 −, NO2 −, acetate, and Br−.
The inkjet ink compositions of the present invention can be formed with a minimum of additional components (additives and/or cosolvents) and processing steps. Suitable additives may be incorporated into these inkjet ink compositions to impart a number of desired properties while maintaining the stability of the compositions. For example, surfactants may be added to further enhance the colloidal stability of the composition. Other additives are well known in the art and include humectants, biocides, binders, drying accelerators, penetrants, and the like. The amount of a particular additive will vary depending on a variety of factors but are generally present in an amount ranging between 0% and 40%.
Additionally, the inkjet ink compositions of the present invention may further incorporate dyes to modify color balance and adjust optical density. Such dyes include food dyes, FD&C dyes, acid dyes, direct dyes, reactive dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine sulfonic acids, including copper phthalocyanine derivatives, sodium salts, ammonium salts, potassium salts, lithium salts, and the like.
The present invention further relates to a method of generating an image. In one embodiment, this method comprises the steps of: i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle, b) a colorant, and c) a gelling agent; ii) jetting the inkjet ink composition; and iii) generating an image onto a substrate. The substrate may optionally comprise a gelling agent, which can be the same or different gelling agent than that in the inkjet ink composition. The liquid vehicle, colorant, and gelling agent are as described above. Any suitable printing apparatus capable of jetting the inkjet ink composition can be used. Suitable inkjet printers include, for example, thermal printers, piezoelectric printers, continuous printers, valve printers and the like. Similarly, any suitable substrate can be employed including plain papers, bonded papers, coated papers, transparency materials, textile materials, plastics, polymeric films, inorganic substrates and the like.
For this first embodiment, the method of generating an image of the present invention may further comprise the step of jetting a gelling composition. A gelling composition, as used herein, is defined to have a physical and/or chemical property that will cause the printed image to gel.
Thus, for example, the gelling composition may have a pH that is effective to cause the gelling of the image. The pH of the gelling composition can be either higher or lower than that of the inkjet ink composition, depending on the nature of the gelling agent used in the inkjet ink composition. However, the difference in pH between the inkjet ink composition and the gelling composition is large enough that the image gels.
Alternatively, the gelling composition may comprise a liquid vehicle which is effective to cause the gelling of the image. Thus, the liquid vehicle of the gelling composition may comprise one or more components which are different from that of the inkjet ink composition. For example, if the vehicle of the inkjet ink composition is water, the gelling composition may comprise water and a water miscible solvent, such as an alcohol, which is capable of gelling the image. Other combinations of vehicles will also be known to one skilled in the art and will depend on the nature of the gelling agent.
The step of jetting the gelling composition can occur either before or after the jetting of the inkjet ink composition. It may also occur both before and after the jetting of the inkjet ink composition, thereby forming essentially a “sandwich structure” with the inkjet ink composition in between two jetted “layers” of the gelling composition.
The method of generating an image of the present invention may further comprise the step of changing the temperature of the image to a level effective to cause the gelling of the image. Preferably, the temperature is increased. The amount of increase in temperature will depend on a variety of factors including the type and concentration of the gelling agent, the nature of the liquid vehicle, and the substrate.
The method of generating an image of the present invention may further comprise the step of jetting a gelling agent composition comprising at least one gelling agent. The gelling agent can be any of those that are described above. As noted above, the gelling agent of the gelling agent composition may be the same or different than that of the inkjet ink composition.
In a second embodiment, the present invention further relates to a method of generating an image comprising the steps of: i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a colorant; ii) incorporating into a printing apparatus a gelling agent composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a gelling agent; iii) jetting, in any order, the inkjet ink composition and the gelling agent composition; and iv) generating an image onto a substrate. The liquid vehicle, colorant, gelling agent, printing apparatus, and substrate are as described above. The liquid vehicle of the inkjet ink composition and the gelling agent composition may be the same or different.
For this second embodiment, the method of generating an image may further comprise the jetting of a second gelling agent composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a gelling agent. The liquid vehicle and gelling agent of the second gelling agent composition may be the same or different from those of the first gelling agent composition. Preferably, the step of jetting the second gelling agent composition occurs after the jetting of the inkjet ink composition and the first gelling agent composition. Most preferably, the inkjet ink composition is jetted after the first gelling agent composition, which is then followed by the jetting of the second gelling agent composition. Since, in this preferred method, only the gelling agent compositions comprise a gelling agent, this allows the formation of a “sandwich structure with the inkjet ink composition between the two gelling agent compositions.
In a third embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of generating an image comprising the steps of: i) incorporating into a printing apparatus an inkjet ink composition comprising a) a liquid vehicle and b) a colorant; ii) jetting the inkjet ink composition; and iii) generating an image, wherein the substrate comprises at least one gelling agent. The gelling agent can be within the substrate or, more preferably, is a coating on the substrate. The substrate, as described above, is any suitable substance for generating an image, such as, plain paper, bonded paper, coated paper, and the like. The gelling agent can be applied to the substrate using any method know to one skilled in the art, such as, for example, dipping, coating, solvent deposition, jetting, or the like.
While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the gelling agent present in the printed image forms a network or gel upon printing, particularly under any of the conditions described above. Thus, for example, the gelling agent undergoes a chemical and/or physical change by coming in contact with a second inkjet ink composition of a different pH. The result is the formation of a gelled network within the printed image. Thus, the resulting images would have improved overall properties such as optical density, gloss, and durability (smearfastness and waterfastness).
The present invention will be further clarified by the following examples which are intended to be only exemplary in nature.
The following examples describe the use of gelling agents in accordance with the present invention and, for the purposes of these examples, the use of hydrophobically modified terpolymer gelling agents with modified pigments as the colorant. The gelling agents used are terpolymers containing methacrylic acid (about 10-49 mol %), ethyl acrylate (about 10-50 mol %), and a hydrophobically modified macromonomer (about 1-20 mol %). The macromonomer is composed of α-methylstyrene monomer and a hydrophobe connected via a poly(ethylene oxide) spacer. A general formula for this gelling agent is shown in FIG. 1.
- Example 1
It is known that in basic solutions (pH>8), the methacrylic acid monomer units are fully ionized, and the gelling agent becomes soluble. However, the terpolymer is also a polyelectrolyte. At high pH, its dimensions increase due to a “same-charge” repulsion, and the polymer chain opens or swells. This increases the intermolecular associations between the hydrophobic monomer units, leading to the formation of a polymer network or gel. Thus, the gelling of this gelling agent is promoted by an increase in pH.
Cab-O-Jet® 300 black dispersion (available from Cabot Corporation) was dried in an oven to obtain a powdery modified pigment. 1.2 g of the modified pigment was mixed with 15.2 g of a UCAR® TR-115 polymer suspension (available from the Dow Chemical Corp., UCAR Emulsion Systems) having an initial solids content of 39.4 wt %, a pH of 2.63, and a mean particle size of 271 nm. UCAR® polymer suspensions contain terpolymers having the general structure shown in FIG. 1. The mixture was vigorously stirred overnight using a magnetic stirrer at a high speed. The resulting mixture was an ink composition containing 4.0 wt % modified pigment, 58.0 wt % water, and 37.6 wt % gelling agent.
The change in equilibrium viscosity with pH of this ink composition was measured. The pH of the suspension was adjusted by the addition of either 10 M NaOH or concentrated HCl, as needed, followed by equilibration by stirring overnight. The viscosity of the resulting composition was measured using a controlled stress Carri-Med Rheometer (TA Instruments) with a cone and plate geometry system (cone parameters: diameter, 4 cm; angle, 2°, truncation, 56 μm) equipped with a solvent trap. An initial stress of 0.6 Pa was applied throughout. The results are shown in FIG. 2.
- Examples 2-6
As can be seen, the viscosity of the ink composition increased by about 7 orders of magnitude with increasing pH. Yet, at a pH below the pKa of the COOH groups in the UCAR® copolymer, the ink composition was no more viscous than a commercially available carbon black pigment-based inkjet ink (HP C4800A available from Hewlett-Packard Corp.), shown by the square in FIG. 2. Therefore, this ink composition could be jetted at low pH, and would therefore function as an inkjet ink composition. If jetted onto a substrate capable of causing an increase in pH, the resulting printed image would gel. Such an image would be expected to have improved print performance, particularly durability.
In the following examples, suspensions of the UCAR® polymers, with properties as shown in Table 1, were mixed with a dried modified pigment (prepared from Cab-O-Jet® 300 black dispersion) as described in Example 1. The resulting ink compositions are shown in Table 2. Properties of these ink compositions are shown in Table 3.
| ||TABLE 1 |
| || |
| || |
| ||Solids || ||Particle Size |
|UCAR ||Content || ||mean diameter ||50% ||100% |
|polymer ||(wt %) ||pH ||(nm) ||(nm) ||(nm) |
|TR-115 ||39.4 ||2.6 ||254.7 ||230.2 ||1635 |
|TR-116 ||39.9 ||2.5 ||445.1 ||266.6 ||5500 |
|TR-117 ||40 ||2.4 ||357.5 ||285.6 ||2313 |
|106HE ||24.9 ||2.4 ||137.8 ||108.7 ||1156 |
|107 ||24.0 ||2.9 ||223 ||218.6 ||436.1 |
| ||TABLE 2 |
| || |
| || |
| || ||Gelling ||wt % ||wt % |
| ||Example # ||Agent Type ||Gelling Agent ||Colorant |
| || |
| ||2 ||TR-115 ||37.8 ||4 |
| ||3 ||TR-116 ||38.3 ||4 |
| ||4 ||TR-117 ||38.4 ||4 |
| ||5 ||106HE ||23.9 ||4 |
| ||6 ||107 ||23.9 ||4 |
| || |
| ||TABLE 3 |
| || |
| || |
| ||Particle Size |
|Example ||Viscosity || ||mean diameter ||50% ||100% |
|# ||(cP) ||pH ||(nm) ||(nm) ||(nm) |
|2 ||1.70 ||3.60 ||271 ||237 ||1116 |
|3 ||6.21 ||3.46 ||342 ||277 ||3888 |
|4 ||3.62 ||3.27 ||429 ||349 ||1945 |
|5 ||1.50 ||3.38 ||265 ||169 ||1946 |
|6 ||1.40 ||4.02 ||276 ||241 || 972 |
As seen from Table 3, the viscosities of the ink compositions at the pH shown are similar to that of a commercially available inkjet ink composition (for example, the viscosity of an HP 4800 cartridge inkjet ink is approximately 5 cp.). Therefore, these ink compositions would be suitable and effective as inkjet ink compositions.
- Examples 7-11
The inkjet ink composition of Example 4 was printed using a Hewlett Packard Professional Series Model 2000C Inkjet printer, demonstrating the jettability of the inkjet ink composition. Similar results would be expected for the inkjet ink compositions of Examples 2, 3, 5, and 6.
Inkjet ink compositions were prepared similar to those described in Examples 2-6, except that 1,5-pentanediol humectant was also added (15 wt % of the humectant in each ink). The resulting inkjet ink compositions are shown in Table 4, along with the resulting properties.
|TABLE 4 |
| ||Gelling ||wt % || || || || |
|Example ||Agent ||Gelling ||Wt % ||wt % |
|# ||Type ||Agent ||Colorant ||Humectant ||pH ||Viscosity |
|7 ||TR-115 ||31.9 ||4 ||15 ||4.01 ||6.034 |
|8 ||TR-116 ||32.3 ||4 ||15 ||3.96 ||Phase |
| || || || || || ||separated |
|9 ||TR-117 ||32.4 ||4 ||15 ||3.84 ||115 |
|10 ||106HE ||20.2 ||4 ||15 ||4.28 ||1.958 |
|11 ||107 ||20.2 ||4 ||15 ||4.42 ||7.47 |
Each of the inkjet ink compostions listed in Table 4 was tested for printability using a drawdown technique in which a Wire-Cator #3 (a wire-bar with wire diameter, 0.075 nm, film thickness, 5 mm; Leneta Company, Mahwah, N.J.) was used to apply the inkjet ink composition to a substrate (Xerox Premium Multipurpose 4024 Paper). In addition, for each composition, an “underprinted” sample was also prepared. Thus, a gelling composition consisting of a 15 wt % solution of 1,5-pentane diol in 0.1 M NaOH was first applied to the substrate using the drawdown technique and dried. The inkjet ink compositions shown in Table 4 were then applied to this “underprint” also using the drawdown technique. The final prints were allowed to dry for 5 minutes prior to performance testing.
The resulting samples were then tested for optical density (OD), waterfastness (WF), and smearfastness (SF). Optical density was measured using a Macbeth densitometer and averaged over 5 measurements. Waterfastness was measured by comparing the optical density of a water trail (0.25 ml of DI water) after the print had dried (time 0) to that after 5 minutes in the immediate proximity. The waterfastness was then expressed as a ratio of the OD of the water trail after 5 minutes to that time 0. The lower the value, the better the waterfastness. Smearfastness was measured by highlighting across the printed region and onto a clear unprinted area. This was done twice (2-pass test). Smearfastness was then expressed as the ratio of the optical density of the highlighter trail to the initial optical density. Two different highlighters were used: an orange major Sanford fluorescent (pH 4.4, Sanford Co.), and a yellow Hi-Liter Fluorescent Marker #240XX (pH 9.2, Avery Co.). The lower the value, the better the smearfastness. The results of the performance testing are shown in Table 5.
| ||TABLE 5 |
| || |
| || |
| ||Average || ||Smearfastness |
| ||OD ||WF ||Yellow ||Orange |
| ||Underprint? ||Underprint? ||Underprint? ||Underprint? |
|Ex. # ||no ||Yes ||no ||yes ||no ||Yes ||no ||yes |
|7 ||1.88 ||2.08 ||0.30 ||0.11 ||0.13 ||0.14 ||0.09 ||0.09 |
|8 ||1.94 ||2.08 ||0.80 ||0.14 ||0.17 ||0.13 ||0.14 ||0.13 |
|9 ||2.24 ||2.28 ||0.56 ||0.27 ||0.32 ||0.51 ||0.38 ||0.40 |
|10 ||1.85 ||1.83 ||0.24 ||0.20 ||0.31 ||0.13 ||0.20 ||0.08 |
|11 ||1.75 ||1.68 ||0.32 ||0.14 ||0.23 ||0.20 ||0.12 ||0.28 |
|Comp ||1.18 ||1.18 ||0.08 ||0.55 ||0.21 ||0.38 ||0.20 ||0.24 |
For the Comparative Example, the same procedure as that described above was followed using a Hewlett-Packard C4800A cartridge inkjet ink.
- Examples 12-16
As can be seen from Table 5, the optical density (OD) of the inkjet ink compositions of the present invention exceeded that of the Comparative Example, with or without an underprint layer. The waterfastness of the Comparative Example was lower on the paper without underprinting compared to the waterfastness of the inkjet ink compositions of Examples 7-11, which would be expected since the OD of the Comparative Example is also much lower. However, as seen in Table 5, the waterfastness of the inkjet ink compositions of Examples 7-11 could be improved with the use of an underprint layer. In fact, the waterfastness of the inkjet ink compositions of the present invention with underprinting was lower than the Comparative Example, even though they also had considerably higher OD than the Comparative Example. As such, the inkjet ink compositions of the present invention did not sacrifice OD for improved waterfastness and vice versa. In addition, smearfastness of the present inkjet ink compositions was comparable or better than that of the Comparative Example, also despite their differences in OD. Moreover, most of the images prepared using the inkjet ink compositions of the present invention also had a glossy texture, which was not observed with the ink of the Comparative Example. These examples demonstrate that the inkjet ink systems of the present invention comprising at least one gelling agent provide improved print properties over standard inkjet ink systems and are effective inkjet ink systems with or without the use of an underprint layer.
Compositions containing 20 wt % of the UCAR® materials shown in Table 1 as the gelling agents and 4% modified pigment (prepared from Cab-O-Jet® 300 black dispersion) were prepared using the procedure describe in Example 1, with the addition of a humectant (15 wt %). The viscosities of the compositions were measured as described in Example 1, and the results are shown in Table 6.
|TABLE 6 |
| ||Example ||Example ||Example ||Example ||Example |
| ||12 ||13 ||14 ||15 ||16 |
|Humectant ||(TR-115) ||(TR-116) ||(TR-117) ||(106HE) ||(107) |
|1,5-Pentane- ||13610 ||71.8 ||2689 ||181 ||1.5 |
|2-Pyrroli- ||23.4 ||1.8 ||31.8 ||2.8 ||1.8 |
|Diethylene- ||5.4 ||244300 ||151.4 ||1.8 ||1.8 |
|Ethylene ||3.6 ||5.2 ||15.5 ||2.1 ||1.8 |
As can be seen from Table 6, ethylene glycol did not cause significant changes in the zero shear viscosity for all but one sample, while 1,5-pentanediol caused dramatic viscosification and gelation of all but one sample.
- Examples 17-21
The change in viscosity with concentration of humectant was measured following the procedure described in Example 1 using the composition of Example 12. The results for 1,5-pentanediol and ethylene glycol are shown in FIG. 3. These examples confirm the selectivity of the gelling agent for different humectants.
Compositions were prepared similar to those of Examples 12-16 containing 5 wt % ethylene glycol and 0.1% Surfonyl 465 surfactant. These were printed following the procedure described in Examples 7-11. Print samples were prepared by first applying an underprint using a second composition (15 wt % 1,5-pentanediol in 0.1 M NaOH) on the substrate (Xerox Premium Multipurpose 4024 Paper) followed by applying the compositions described above.
Optical density and waterfastness were measured as described above. The results of the testing of the printed images are shown in Table 7.
| ||TABLE 7 |
| || |
| || |
| ||Optical Density ||Waterfastness |
| ||Underprint? ||Underprint? |
| ||no ||yes ||No ||yes |
| || |
|Example 17 || || || || |
|Average ||1.720 ||1.650 ||0.070 ||0.070 |
|St. Dev. ||0.088 ||0.037 ||0.015 ||0.008 |
|Example 18 |
|Average ||1.652 ||1.766 ||0.080 ||0.070 |
|St. Dev. ||0.057 ||0.024 ||0.010 ||0.007 |
|Example 19 |
|Average ||1.644 ||1.704 ||0.172 ||0.074 |
|St. Dev. ||0.065 ||0.143 ||0.071 ||0.015 |
|Example 20 |
|Average ||1.678 ||1.888 ||0.102 ||0.074 |
|St. Dev. ||0.054 ||0.083 ||0.024 ||0.011 |
|Example 21 |
|Average ||1.588 ||1.766 ||0.082 ||0.072 |
|St. Dev. ||0.043 ||0.023 ||0.019 ||0.022 |
As can be seen from Table 7, in all cases but one, the optical density obtained from the underprinted samples was higher than those without underprinting, and the waterfastness of the underprinted samples was reproducibly higher (i.e. the water trail was lighter) in the underprinted samples. These examples demonstrate the use of a second inkjet ink composition comprising a liquid vehicle effective to cause the gelling of the image.
As noted from the examples above, the inkjet ink systems described herein have been shown to produce inkjet ink compositions that are capable of generating images with improved print properties. | <urn:uuid:fe8628c6-6375-4db4-84e4-46afab502ad0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.google.com.au/patents/US20030153649 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888462 | 12,894 | 2.546875 | 3 |
East German shepherds and west German shepherds represent two types among many types of the German shepherd dog breed (also called the Alsatian). The east and west German shepherd differences have been influenced by the conditions within their homelands while the country remained divided.
1. The east and west division in German Shepherd lines occurred because of the division of Germany after World War II. Many of the differences between these two lines of the breed occurred because of conditions within their respective countries. West German lines have very pronounced differences between the dogs bred for show and those bred for working, although the show lines have more popularity. Some of the east German shepherds were bred for aggression, to attack people who attempted to cross the wall out of East Germany; others were bred for herding, show, or as pets.
2. East German shepherd dogs, also called DDR German shepherds (Deutshe Demokratishe Republik), tend to have dark pigmentation, a large, blocky head, big bone structure and a lean build. Their backs do not slope like the international show lines of German shepherds, but have a straight appearance. East German shepherds were bred more for their working abilities and have few problems with medical issues such as hip dysplasia. They have high energy levels and need sufficient activity (work) to keep them healthy.
3. West German Shepherds have a clear division between show and working lines. Show lines have been bred primarily for their physical appearance and do not have the courage and strong work instincts of their working counterparts. The show lines have the most representation outside of Germany, and high popularity within Germany. For many, the title west German shepherd refers to German show lines, while east German shepherd refers to working lines. The west German shepherds have a more sloped body than the east German shepherd, but not as much slope as American German shepherds. They retain a high energy level, so require lots of exercise.
4. American German shepherds represent most of the international show lines of German shepherds and have a very sloped back and sharp angle in their hindquarters. The American lines tend to be longer and leaner than both types of German lines. British German shepherds have large bones and a long, straight body. Both British and American lines have calmer temperaments and lower energy requirements than the German lines. The Czech German shepherd lines have many similarities to the east German lines, and some consider them the same type of German shepherd. Other less known German shepherd lines are the white German shepherds (not albino) and long-haired German shepherds.
5. While some breeders boast of pure west, east or other type of German shepherd lines, many breeders combine the different types of German shepherd to get the best characteristics of all the lines. A common combination attempts to combine the low incidence of hip dysplasia and strong work instincts of the east German shepherd with the refined physical characteristics of German shepherd show lines | <urn:uuid:5ddc293e-bddb-481f-a9ce-814c236e738e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.caseyshepherds.webs.com/westernvseastern.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970841 | 620 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Tornadoes occur most frequently in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. A tornado is defined as a violently rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of 250 mph or more. Damage paths can be in excess of one mile wide and 50 miles long.
Although these violent tornadoes comprise about 2% of tornado occurrences, some Kansas tornadoes have the potential to be the most violent. Kansas has averaged 53 tornadoes annually since 1950 when the National Weather Service in Topeka started keeping statistics. The most tornadoes recorded were in 1991 when 116 tornadoes were documented throughout the state.
Areas near rivers, lakes, and mountains are safe from tornadoes.
The low pressure with a tornado causes buildings to "explode" as the tornado passes overhead.
Windows should be opened before a tornado approached to equalize pressure and minimize damage.
No place is 100% guaranteed safe from a tornado. In the late 1980's, a tornado swept through Yellowstone National Park leaving a path of destruction up and down a 10,000-foot mountain.
Violent winds and debris slamming into buildings cause most structural damage.
Opening windows allows damaging winds to enter the structure. Leave the windows alone; instead, immediately go to a safe place.
Have a pre-designated safety spot.
Go to the lowest level possible in a structure.
Put as many walls between you and the outside as you can.
Avoid windows and glass.
In a basement stay under the center support beam, a stairwell, or heavy piece of furniture for protection from falling debris. Stay out of corners; debris often collects in corners.
If you have no area below ground level, utilize a hallway closing doors off to outside rooms. Any small interior room (a bathroom or closet) away from outside walls and windows would be preferable to large or rooms with outside walls.
Outside or homes of modular construction
Get to a safe shelter if possible. Do not try to outrun a tornado in your car. If caught in the open leave a vehicle and go to a low-lying area such as a ditch or ravine. Lie flat and cover your head. Mobile homes, even if tied down, offer little protection from tornadoes and should be abandoned.
The installation of a safe room can drastically increase your family's protection from the dangers of tornadoes. A safe room is a small windowless shelter, such as a closet or a bathroom, which is readily accessible from all parts of your home. It is best to have them put in when constructing a new house, but can be added afterwards as well. The safe room is a good idea because it creates a designated safe zone so that everyone knows where to go in case there is a need to seek shelter. Learn more about a Safe Room. | <urn:uuid:d4aa5af4-ea8c-4b34-87af-9df1d84e8790> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.olatheks.org/Fire/Preparedness/SevereWeather/Tornadoes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942823 | 582 | 3.734375 | 4 |
A Man and a Lion were companions on a journey, and in the course of conversation they began to boast about their prowess, and each claimed to be superior to the other in strength and courage. They were still arguing with some heat when they came to a cross-road where there was a statue of a Man strangling a Lion. “There!” said the Man triumphantly, “look at that! Doesn’t that prove to you that we are stronger than you?” “Not so fast, my friend,” said the Lion: “that is only your view of the case. If we Lions could make statues, you may be sure that in most of them you would see the Man underneath.”
There are two sides to every question.
THE TORTOISE AND THE EAGLE
A Tortoise, discontented with his lowly life, and envious of the birds he saw disporting themselves in the air, begged an Eagle to teach him to fly. The Eagle protested that it was idle for him to try, as nature had not provided him with wings; but the Tortoise pressed him with entreaties and promises of treasure, insisting that it could only be a question of learning the craft of the air. So at length the Eagle consented to do the best he could for him, and picked him up in his talons. Soaring with him to a great height in the sky he then let him go, and the wretched Tortoise fell headlong and was dashed to pieces on a rock.
THE KID ON THE HOUSETOP
A Kid climbed up on to the roof of an outhouse, attracted by the grass and other things that grew in the thatch; and as he stood there browsing away, he caught sight of a Wolf passing below, and jeered at him because he couldn’t reach him. The Wolf only looked up and said, “I hear you, my young friend; but it is not you who mock me, but the roof on which you are standing.”
THE FOX WITHOUT A TAIL
A fox once fell into a trap, and after a struggle managed to get free, but with the loss of his brush. He was then so much ashamed of his appearance that he thought life was not worth living unless he could persuade the other Foxes to part with their tails also, and thus divert attention from his own loss. So he called a meeting of all the Foxes, and advised them to cut off their tails: “They’re ugly things anyhow,” he said, “and besides they’re heavy, and it’s tiresome to be always carrying them about with you.” But one of the other Foxes said, “My friend, if you hadn’t lost your own tail, you wouldn’t be so keen on getting us to cut off ours.” | <urn:uuid:77ecff3d-aff7-4f16-8b12-d6a3ea1b132b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/11339/22.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988867 | 608 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Article reviewed by
The system of endocrine glands secreting a variety of hormones, which are controlled by peptide hormones released from the pituitary and by direct neural input.
The endocrine system can be disrupted by a variety of compounds, which may markedly affect the fauna of the coastal environment. The main area of concern for the effect of these compounds are the steroid hormones produced by the gonads which, in conjunction with some other hormones (particularly those produced by the pituitary), control processes such as reproduction and sexual behaviour, fetal differentiation and development, and maturation. They also influence the immune system and general metabolism. It has been demonstrated that the compounds may reduce the fertility of wildlife. They might be responsible for reduced sperm counts in mammals, including humans, reduced penises and abnormal testis morphology in reptiles and feminization of the sexual behavior of male birds.
- Lawrence E (ed.), 2000. Henderson’s Dictionary of Biological Terms. 12th edition. Prentice Hall, Pearson Education Limited. Harlow, Great Britain.
- Dopp, E., Stopper, H., Alink, G.M. 2002, Natural and synthetic estrogens : aspects of the cellular and molecular activity Trivandrum, India : Research Signpost, p. 162. | <urn:uuid:3896be29-7ec8-4b4c-bc41-ef3ca3de8761> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vliz.be/wiki/Endocrine_system | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92488 | 263 | 3.03125 | 3 |
- freely available
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14(9), 18711-18739; doi:10.3390/ijms140918711
Abstract: Plant phenolics have been for many years a theme of major scientific and applied interest. Grape berry phenolics contribute to organoleptic properties, color and protection against environmental challenges. Climate change has already caused significant warming in most grape-growing areas of the world, and the climatic conditions determine, to a large degree, the grape varieties that can be cultivated as well as wine quality. In particular, heat, drought and light/UV intensity severely affect phenolic metabolism and, thus, grape composition and development. In the variety Chardonnay, water stress increases the content of flavonols and decreases the expression of genes involved in biosynthesis of stilbene precursors. Also, polyphenolic profile is greatly dependent on genotype and environmental interactions. This review deals with the diversity and biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in the grape berry, from a general overview to a more detailed level, where the influence of environmental challenges on key phenolic metabolism pathways is approached. The full understanding of how and when specific phenolic compounds accumulate in the berry, and how the varietal grape berry metabolism responds to the environment is of utmost importance to adjust agricultural practices and thus, modify wine profile.
Phenolic compounds can be defined as molecules naturally derived from plants or microbes, consisting of a phenyl ring backbone with a hydroxyl group or other substitutes. Phenolic compounds of the grape are divided between nonflavonoid (with a simple C6 backbone; hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, volatile phenols and stilbenes) and flavonoid compounds (flavones, flavonols, flavanones, flavan-3-ols and anthocyanins). Nonflavonoid phenolics are found in grapes and wine, but with the exception of hydroxycinnamic acids, they are present in low concentrations [1,2]. Flavonoids make up a significant portion of the phenolic material in grapes and include several classes . They are C6–C3–C6 polyphenolic compounds, in which two hydroxylated benzene rings, A and B, are joined by a three-carbon chain that is part of a heterocyclic C ring (Figure 1). According to the oxidation state of the C ring, these compounds are divided into structural classes that include flavonols, flavan-3-ols (that include simple flavan-3-ols and their polymeric forms proanthocyanidins), and anthocyanins .
Grape phenolics contribute to color, flavor, texture and astringency of wine and to its antioxidant properties. The biosynthesis of soluble phenolics begins with the aromatic amino acid phenylalanine, a product of the shikimate pathway. The early precursors of the shikimate pathway are erythrose-4-phosphate and phosphoenol pyruvate. This pathway is responsible for producing phenylalanine and the other amino acids tyrosine and tryptopahne [2,3]. Although the biosynthesis of many secondary compounds has been elucidated in detail, reports on the identification of transporters of secondary compounds have been published only recently [4,5] and a clear and precise understanding of flavonoid transport in plants is far from being elucidated.
Two distinguishable tissues compose the grape skin, representing the hydrophobic barrier of the pericarp. The outermost—the epidermis—is strongly cutinized, while the inner thick-walled layers of hypodermis (assumed to consist of several layers, depending on the variety), contain most of the skin flavonoids. In this fraction, the major class of flavonoids is represented by anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins and, to a minor extent, simple flavan-3-ols and flavonols . A schematic structure of a ripe grape berry with the distribution pattern of secondary metabolites between tissues is shown in Figure 2.
While there is debate about the anthropogenic influence on climate, there are clearly recorded periods of extreme temperature events that may have implications for grape cultivation and wine quality [13–16]. Climate change imposes rapid drifts in weather patterns that determine the suitability of growing regions for specific types of wine . Climate changes in the future might extend the north and south latitude boundaries of areas where good wines are produced . However, some areas that nowadays are producing high quality grapes may be affected by heat and water stress . The climate changes are particularly important for grapevine cultivation, in which heat, drought and light intensity are just some environmental stress factors that dramatically affect phenolic metabolism as well as grape development and chemical composition. In this regard, cultural practices, such as canopy management and irrigation may be optimized to adjust berry and wine quality.
Nowadays, the genetic diversity conservation of grapevine is a big concern. The genus Vitis contains more than 70 species growing widely in distinct geographical areas . The most renowned species is Vitis vinifera that was domesticated in Asia Minor or Armenia 5000 years ago, from where it spread to other countries. The high morphological and genetic diversity of vinifera has an estimated number of more than 10,000 cultivars. While many factors, such as viticulture practices, environmental conditions, and post-harvest processing activities, can all affect the content of total polyphenols or individual polyphenolic compounds in grapes and grape products, varietal or genetic difference is one of the most important factors . This review deals with the diversity and biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in the grape berry, from a general approach to a more detailed level, such as the influence of the environmental factors, including drought and heat, and the genotype dependence on the production of grape phenolics. The comprehension of how and when specific phenolic compounds accumulate in the berry, and how the grape berry metabolism responds to the environment is of utmost importance to adjust agricultural practices and thus, modify wine profile.
2. Metabolism and Compartmentation of Phenolics in the Grape Berry
2.1. Nonflavonoid Phenolics
The hydroxycinnamates are the third most abundant class of soluble phenolics in grape berries, after proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins. Phenolic hydroxycinnamates are commonly accumulated in berry skin and the flesh of white and red vinifera and non-vinifera varieties . Thus, while they are also found in red wines, they are usually the most abundant class of phenolics in free-run juice and white wines where they contribute to colour browning under oxidation with non-phenolic molecules [1,2,6,22]. In terms of concentration, p-coumaric, caffeic and ferulic acids are also predominant phenolics in grape. These three hydroxycinnamic acids are present primarily as trans isomers, although traces of cis isomers have been detected. They differ by the type and number of substituents on the aromatic ring. When these hydroxycinnamic acids are esterified with tartaric acid, they are named coutaric acid (trans-p-coumaroyl-tartaric acid), caftaric acid (trans-caffeoyl-tartaric acid), and fertaric acid (trans-feruloyl-tartaric acid) .
The synthesis of hydroxycinnamates occurs mainly before veraison (Table 1). During ripening, their concentration decreases with the increasing fruit size and dilution of solutes, though its content per berry remains almost constant. Although its accumulation occurs predominantly in the flesh they are present in all berry tissues [4,13] (Figure 2 and Table 1). In hypodermal, mesocarp and placental cells of the pulp, hydroxycinnamates may be conjugated with anthocyanins [2,3,13].
The levels of hydroxybenoic acids and their derivatives are commonly low in wine, compared to the levels of hydroxycinnamic acids. The most common hydroxybenzoic acids in grape berry include gentisic acid, salicylic acid, gallic acid, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, which are mainly found in their free form [23–25]. Gentisic acid is accumulated at very low levels, as is salicylic acid which is involved in signaling in plants, particularly in the induction of defense and stress responses [3,25]. The most represented is gallic acid, which is found free as well as acyl substituent of flavan-3-ols. Other benzoic acids such as protocatechuic, vanillic and syringic acids are found in Riesling wine from Germany . In the seeds, gallic acid can esterify the carbon in position 3 of flavan-3-ols .
A nonflavonoid compound class that, although present in trace quantities in wine, has been drawing attention is stilbenes . These compounds occur naturally in a few edible plants, and several species of the genus Vitis are proficient at stilbenes synthesis, mainly in the skin at the mature stage (Table 1 and Figure 2). Stilbene content of the berry changes across varieties . Their synthesis also increases upon pathogen infection and in response to abiotic stress . Some stilbenes, particularly resveratrol, have been drawing attention for their benefits to human health. Stilbenes can undergo glycosylations or methylations. Glycosylated resveratrol originate piceids, trans- and cis-resveratrol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranosidade as well as astringin, which is a 3′-OH-trans-piceid. Modifications by addition of two methyl groups to the resveratrol originate pterostilbene (3,5-dimethoxy-4′-hydroxystilbene) with enhanced antifungal activity compared to the non-methylated form .
Trans-resveratrol (3,5,4′-trihydroxytilbene) is the stilbene with the simplest molecular structure, which is used as precursor for other compounds through various modifications of the stilbene unit. Cis-resveratrol is a trans-resveratrol isomer although less stable . Oligomerisation of stilbenes can be derived in dimers, trimers and tetramers from oxidative coupling of resveratrol and derivatives by 4-hydroxystilbenes peroxidases. Viniferins are a major group of resveratrol oligomers produced by oxidation of basic stilbenes. The most important viniferins are α- β- γ- δ- ɛ-viniferins, composed essentially by cyclic oligomers of resveratrol .
From an anatomical point of view, grape flavonoids are localized mainly in both the peripheral layers of berry pericarp (skin) and in some layers of the seed coat. Most of the skin flavonoids are abundant in the inner thick-walled layers of hypodermis. In this fraction, the major class of flavonoids is represented by anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins (also known as tannins) and, to a minor extent, simple flavan-3-ols and flavonols [4,6] (Figure 2 and Table 1).
Flavonols are a class of flavonoids with a 3-hydroxyflavone backbone. They differ by the number and type of substituents on the B ring (see Introduction), and occur conventionally as glucosides, galactosides, rhamnosides and glucuronides with the sugar bond attached to the 3 position of the flavonoid skeleton. The grape berry synthetizes kaempferol, quercetin, myrcetin and the methylated forms isoharmnetin, laricitrin and syringetin . Flavonols constitute the third component of flavonoids in the skin fraction (Table 1). Quercetin is known to behave as UV-protectant and to play a role in co-pigmentation with anthocyanins . As reported below, flavonol concentration varies extensively among varieties, ranging from 0.018 mg to 0.176 mg per g of berry FW, but its content in the berry can be strongly affected by environmental factors, particularly sunlight exposure (among the others, see [20,28,37]. Flavonol synthesis occurs primarily during early stages of fruit development and ends at around veraison (Table 1).
Flavan-3-ols are the most abundant class of phenolics in the grape berry . They have a monomeric (catechins) or polymeric structure known as proantocyanidins or condensed tannins. Catechins and proantocyanidins are located essentially in the seeds, then in the skins and very little in the pulp . Catechins are responsible for bitterness in wine and may also be partially associated with astringency [1,2,6]. The five flavan-3-ols in grapes are (+)catechin and its isomer (−)epicatechin, (+)gallocatechin, (−)epigallocatechin and catechin-3-O-gallate. Catechins are characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl group at the 3 position of the C ring [2,3,22,40].
Proantocyanidins are a diverse group of compounds composed by flavan-3-ols polymer subunits that are linked via 4–6 and 4–8 interflavan bonds. These phenolic compounds are the most abundant class of soluble polyphenols in grape berries. Proanthocyanidins vary in size, ranging from dimers to polymers with more than 40 units [2,3,28,41].
Flavan-3-ols are detectable in highest concentration in seeds (Figure 2 and Table 1). Proanthocyanidins are predominantly found in the hypodermal cell layers of the berry skin and in the soft parenchyma of the seed coat inside the vacuole or bound to cell wall polysaccharides [1–3,6]. Grape proanthocyanidins have a larger average size in the skin than in the seeds. These proanthocyanidin compounds are responsible for the grape skin organoleptic properties such as astringency and bitterness in grape skin or wine [2,4].
Anthocyanins are responsible for red, purple and blue pigmentation of the grape berries and, consequently, the red wine. The structures of the common anthocyanins in V. vinifera grapes and wine were determined in 1959 [2,42]. The core of the anthocyanidin, the flavylium, has the typical C6–C3–C6 skeleton. Intrinsically, anthocyanins are glycosides and acylglycosides of anthocyanidins, and the difference of the aglycones and flavyliums (2-phenylbenzopyrilium) occurs at the 3′ and 5′ positions of the B ring, due to hydroxyl or methoxyl substitutions . Anthocyanins can also be esterified by acids, such as acetic, coumaric or caffeic, linked to the 6′ position of the glucose bonded to the 3′ position of the C ring [2,6]. There are 17 naturally occurring aglycones, but only six are reported in grapevine: malvidin, cyanidin, peonidin, delphinidin and petunidin. Traces of pelargonidin are found in Pinot Noir and Cabernet Sauvignon , but the malvidin-3-O-glucoside was found to be the major anthocyanin present along with its acylated forms . V. vinifera contains only 3-O-monoglycosides due to two mutations in the 5-O-glucosyltransferase gene which implicated the loss of the dominant allele involved in the production of diglucosidic anthocyanins [43,45,46]. The anthocyanins commonly found in V. vinifera grape include delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin 3-glucosides, 3-(6-acetyl)-glucosides and 3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucosides, peonidin and malvidin 3-(6-caffeoyl)-glucosides, being that malvidin-3-O-glucoside is generally the major anthocyanin present along with its acylated forms (Figure 2).
Differently from proanthocyanidin, accumulation of anthocyanin pigments in red grape varieties starts from veraison and reaches its maximum in the latest phases of fruit maturation when the synthesis stops (Table 1). Anthocyanins are synthesized in the cytosol of the epidermal cells, are co-localized with proanthocyanidins in the skin hypodermal layers and then stored in the vacuole [4,9] (Figure 2 and Table 1). In a few teinturier varieties, accumulation in the berry skin is paralleled by accumulation in flesh [3,4,47]. In the red flesh variety Alicante Bouschet, colour development began in the flesh at the stylar end of the fruit and progressed toward the pedicel end flesh and into the skin .
2.3. Biosynthesis Pathways of Phenolic Compounds in Wine Grape
Hydroxycinnamic acids are generated by modifications to intermediates of the phenylpropanoid pathway. First reaction synthesis of simple phenolics in grape involves the deamination of phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), in which the product is cinnamic acid . The enzyme cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H) converts cinnamic acid to p-coumaric by hydroxylation. p-coumaric is esterified by the enzyme CoA-ligase (4CL) producing 4-coumaroyl-CoA. In these modifications, 3-hydroxylation of p-coumaric originate caffeic acid, which can be converted into ferulic acid by 3-methylation. This product is substrate of two enzymes, chalcone synthase (CHS) and stilbene synthase (STS).
The first step of the stilbene pathway is controlled by STS. The competition of STS and CHS for the same substrate, 4-coumaroyl-CoA, controls the entry point into the stilbene pathway and flavonoid pathway. In an analogous way of CHS, STS carry out three reactions of condensation that produce resveratrol. Although, in the STS reaction, the terminal carboxyl group is removed prior to closure of the A ring, causing a different ring-folding in resveratrol compared to the CHS product tetrahydroxychalcone.
All flavonoids stem from tetrahydroxychalcone. The flavonoid pathway leads to the synthesis of different classes of metabolites such as flavonols, flavan-3-ols, proanthocyanidins, and anthocyanins (Figure 3).
Some mechanisms have been proposed concerning flavonoid transport in plants. Flavonoid uptake across the tonoplast may be mediated by a primary active transport, driven by ABC proteins. Very recently it was shown that the ABC protein ABCC1 that localizes to the tonoplast is involved in the transport of glucosylated anthocyanidins, which depends on the presence of GSH but not on the formation of an anthocyanin-GSH conjugate . ABCC1 is expressed in the exocarp throughout berry development and ripening, with a significant increase at veraison. A genetic screen aimed to study flavonoid biosynthesis provided the first evidence for the involvement of MATE proteins in the transport of flavonoids across the tonoplast. MATE transporters are highly upregulated during maturation, the time when grape berries start to accumulate anthocyanins. It has also been suggested that flavonoid moieties, depending also on their different substituting groups (acyl, glycosyl and/or methoxyl), are driven to their accumulation sites by a complex vesicle trafficking system involving the Golgi apparatus . The two grape berry MATEs, anthoMATE1 (AM1) and AM3, specifically transport acylated anthocyanins [50,51]. Subcellular localization assays revealed that anthoMATE transporters were closely related with these small vesicles, whereas GST was localized in the cytosol around the nucleus, suggesting an association with the endoplasmic reticulum . While the biosynthesis and regulation mechanisms of anthocyanin synthesis have been extensively studied, the knowledge on the mechanisms of their sequestration in the vacuole and to what extent their color is affected by vacuole storage is still limited.
3. Impact of Environment and Agricultural Practices in Grape Berry Phenolics
Several regional climate models have been proposed in order to forecast the overall effects of individual or combined climate change-related variables . Some models take into account air temperature and other variables, including precipitation, humidity, radiation, and historical viticultural records . Spatial modeling research has indicated potential geographical shifts and/or expansion of viticultural regions with parts of southern Europe becoming too hot to produce high-quality wines and northern regions becoming viable [17,18,55]. For the Northern hemisphere, Jones et al. predicted that temperatures at regions producing high-quality wine between 2000 and 2049 are going to warmby 0.42 °C per decade and 2.04 °C overall. In the Bordeaux region, the predicted increase temperature overall trend would be 2.3 °C in the same period (Figure 4).
For vineyards, the increase in the number of days with high temperatures is particularly relevant. Grape production and quality are sensitive to heat waves, especially at certain growth stages, such as flowering and ripening. At high temperatures, replacement of starch by lipids in leaf chloroplasts has been reported for grapevines . Prolonged periods with temperatures above 30 °C cause a reduction in photosynthesis, with consequent berry size and weight reduction . High temperature conditions may have implications in premature veraison, berry abscission and reducing flavour development.
Studies carried out in European countries have highlighted harvest date advances associated with temperature increases. In southern France, the harvest dates advanced by between 18 and 21 days from 1940 to 2000 and in Alsace (eastern France) the harvest was two weeks earlier in 2002 than in 1972, a period during which temperature increased by 1.8 °C .
In the viticultural French region of Languedoc, the climacteric evolution over the period 1950–2006 obeyed to two distinct climate periods, according to Laget et al. . Observing the evolution of mean annual and seasonal temperatures, total solar radiation, night freshness index, the distribution and efficiency of rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (pET), it was reported an increase in mean annual temperatures of +1.3 °C between 1980 and 2006 and an increase in the mean pET of 900 mm/year since 1999. It was also concluded that the harvest dates advanced by up to three weeks and sugar concentrations at harvest increased by up to 1.5% potential alcohol. In the Bordeaux region, from 1952 to 1997 changes in the dates of all the phenological events and in the length of the growing season were reported for Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot . Similar results were found in the southern hemisphere. In Australia, the date of designated maturity of Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz advanced at rates of between 0.5 and 3.1 days per year between 1993 and 2006 . A trend towards earlier maturity of several varieties was observed in 12 different Australian winegrape growing regions form 1993–2009 . For most of the cases, the rate of change in the date of designated maturity was correlated with the rate of change in temperature.
3.1. Temperature and Radiation
Of environmental factors including all external stimuli, the most influential of which for phenolic synthesis are light/radiation and temperature, as well as water and nutritional status. Phenolic synthesis and accumulation in grape berry is also determined by genetic factors and the interaction between genotype and environment [3,53]. The role of phenolics as photo-protectants explains their dependency on sun exposure . In warmer climates, high light exposure can increase the concentration of phenolics and anthocyanins because of the higher activity of PAL . Sun exposure is generally considered to be of primary importance for high quality wine production. However, it is not clear whether the effect on fruit composition is due to visible light or ultraviolet light or both [68,69].
It has been shown that UV-B provoke several morphological, physiological and biochemical changes in higher plants, depending on the intensity, total dosage, plant species and the balance between UV-B and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm) [69,70]. On the other hand, UV-A and visible light may induce both protective and repair mechanisms, thus decreasing the negative impact of UV-B light . However, relatively high levels of solar UV-B were reported to enhance the accumulation of UV-absorbing compounds, including flavonoids and related phenolics . UV-B is also known to upregulate genes encoding PAL and CHS . Phenolics transform short-wave, high-energy and highly destructive radiation into longer wavelength light, less destructive to the cellular leaf structures, including the photosynthetic apparatus . Very few studies have attempted to separate the effects of visible light from those of UV light [59,73]. As discussed by Keller , this is surprising given that phenolic compounds are absorbed predominantly in the UV range of the spectrum and form an important part of fruit quality in grapes.
Stilbene synthesis is enhanced in response to several abiotic factors. These factors include UV-radiation, wounding, ozone, anoxia and metal ions. Exposure to UV light induces the accumulation of stilbenes in grape berry through the induction of STS expression . In berries, this is dependent on the development stage, since unripe berries respond to UV irradiation to a greater extent. A study on grape plantlets proved the existence of a positive correlation between resveratrol synthesis in leaves (induced by UV) and field resistance .
Flavonols are thought to protect plant tissue to UV radiation whereas anthocyanins are thought to provide some protection to UV radiation and high extreme temperatures . Synthesis of flavonols is a light-dependent process. Sealing grape bunches in light-excluding boxes from before flowering until harvest completely inhibits flavonol synthesis. If shading is applied later in fruit development, flavonol content is reduced and no further accumulation is detected after the initiation of light deprivation [3,6,37,77,78]. In Pinot Noir, Shiraz, and Merlot varieties, the amount of these compounds has been shown to be highly dependent on light exposure of the tissues in which they accumulate . Light modulates the expression of flavonol synthase (VvFLS), a key flavonol structural gene, and of VvMYBF1, a transcriptional regulator of flavonoid synthesis [79–81]. In Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, flavonols are the only phenolic components in both grape leaves and berries that are consistently and severely increased by UV radiation . It was suggested that flavonols, but not anthocyanins or hydroxycinnamic acids, are important for UV protection in grapevine tissues. Similar results were recently confirmed by Koyama et al. who showed that UV light specifically induced flavonols while not affecting other flavonoid components. However, the relatively high concentrations of flavonols found even in the absence of UV radiation suggest that flavonols may also have a protective function against excess visible radiation . In the vineyard, any cultural practices that favor the exposure of grape brunches to sunlight boost flavonol accumulation. This occurs equally in white and red grapes.
Flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins are the most stable phenolics under diverse growing conditions. This is also true for accumulation of these compounds in seeds. However, some studies have shown a positive association between temperature and the number of seeds and total proanthocyanidin levels per berry at harvest [82,83]. Shading treatments increased the amount of seed proanthocyanidins and affected their composition in Pinot Noir , while had no effects in Shiraz , reiterating the importance to discriminate between irradiation and temperature effects .
Skin flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins are more sensitive than seed ones to environmental cues; sunlight has been shown to affect their relative content [78,81,84], as well as their mean degree of polymerization [81,84]. Sunlight exposure consistently increased the relative abundance of the tri-hydroxylated gallocatechins at the expense of the di-hydroxylated catechins and increased the mean degree of polimeryzation.
When the effect of cluster temperature on proanthocyanidins biosynthesis was studied it was shown that there is no consistent relationship between temperature and total proanthocyanidins accumulation across three seasons . In this field, experiment grape bunches were cooled during the day and heated at night (±8 °C). However, composition of proanthocyanidins was affected in the experiment because decreasing thermal time in degree-days favored a shift towards tri-hydroxylated forms.
Although anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins share several steps in the biosynthetic pathway, there are many differences in their regulation and reactivity. In fact, in contrast with proanthocyanidins, several authors reported that light, temperature, and their interactive effects, highly influence anthocyanin accumulation in berry skins [85,86]. Exposure to sunlight is associated with an increase in anthocyanin accumulation, until the point when excessive heat causes berry temperature to become detrimental [3,77,87]. In growth chambers, optimal conditions for anthocyanin accumulation occurred when grapes were exposed to cool nights (15 °C) and mild, temperate days (25 °C) during ripening . Higher temperatures (30–35 °C) promote the degradation of the existing anthocyanins . In the Merlot variety, attenuation of the diurnal temperature fluctuations led to increased ripening rates and higher anthocyanin concentrations at harvest . Moreover, absolute anthocyanin levels and chemical composition changes have also been related with warmer seasons, as indicated by the increased formation of malvidin, petunidin, and delphinidin coumaroyl derivatives . In another study , the association of high temperatures with the increase of delphinidin, petunidin and peonidin-based anthocyanins in sun-exposed Merlot berries were observed, while malvidin derivatives remained unaffected. The complexity of combined solar radiation and temperature effects on flavonoid composition further expands the understanding of the effect of such environmental factors on anthocyanin biosynthesis .
3.2. Agricultural Practices and the Levels of Synthesized Metabolites
In a vineyard, the environment varied due to the natural soil heterogeneity and the uneven light distribution. Physical characteristics of the vineyard can also affect flavonoid accumulation. These include altitude of the cultivation site, heat stress, defoliation, mineral supply or soil type, all of which have shown some influence. Nitrogen, potassium and phosphate are the nutrients commonly applied as fertilizers, although only nitrogen and potassium have thus far attracted viticultural research. Both low and excessively high levels of nitrogen have been shown to decrease color in grape berries, while high potassium has been reported to decrease color in grapes [85,91,92]. Despite the age of the soil, which largely determine the micronutrient pool, structure and texture, and significantly affects plant growth [93–95], the major consequence of soil type is the capacity of the soil to hold water while remaining sufficiently well-drained to avoid waterlogging [85,96,97].
Despite the relevance of these parameters, vineyard microclimate has a fundamental influence in the metabolite biosynthesis. The importance of the effect of canopy microclimate on chemical composition of berry was initially raised by Shaulis and co-workers in their investigations with Concord grapevines. The amount and the distribution of light intercepted by the vines are determined by the architecture of the vineyard, mainly row orientation, height, width, porosity of the canopy, and distance between rows . The term “microclimate” was adopted by Smart to define the environmental conditions within the immediate vicinity of the leaves and fruit .
Cultural practice effects on berry have long been studied; among them, leaf removal and cluster thinning, which modify leaf area/yield ratio and fruit-zone microclimate, could potentially improve grape quality [86,96,102,103]. The amount of intercepted light affects the whole plant photosynthetic capacity, water balance, and source to sink balance [99,104]. The source to sink balance is an important parameter that controls berry sugar, organic acids, and secondary metabolites content with qualitative enological potential . In general, berries grown under open canopy conditions, compared to berries grown under shaded canopy conditions, have higher juice sugar concentration (measured as total soluble solids), improved acid balance (lower juice pH and higher titratable acidity). However, while some exposure to light may be appropriate, high temperatures resulting from full exposure of berries are likely to inhibit anthocyanin metabolism .
Vine vigor has been reported to impact upon the proanthocyanidins content and chemical composition of grape skins in Pinot noir. In the berry skin, proanthocyanidins were higher in low-vigor vines, with an increase in the proportion of epi-gallocatechin subunits, as much in polymers as on average size, observed with decreasing vine vigor [85,106]. It seems that severe canopy shade down regulate gene expression in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway, [107,108] while photon fluxes of 100 mmol/m2/s on the berries temperature becomes the overriding variable in anthocyanin synthesis [74,77,85,87].
Among environmental and viticultural parameters investigated in the past decades for various grape varieties, it is known that the water status is a potential modulator of secondary metabolism during the berry development [109–112]. Many scientific articles have extensively reported the effects of water deficit on the accumulation of various grape secondary metabolites (Table 2). Grapevine irrigation can alleviate water-stress-related reductions in plant growth and development, demonstrating the importance of cultural practice at vineyard to guarantee wine quality or even plant survival in regions affected by seasonal drought . Several reports demonstrated that large fluxes of water are not essential for the optimal plant performance for agricultural purposes and that moderate water deficits might be used successfully in grapevine production through control of sink-source relationships, thereby maintaining or ameliorating fruit quality . Plant water status affects berry composition, but the effects might be contrasting according to the level and the moment in time when water is applied or deficit is imposed. Furthermore, grape response to moderate irrigation might also be cultivar-dependent as V. Vinifera varieties have been shown to respond differently to water stress . Overall, regulation of grapevine water deficit is a powerful tool to manage the amount of secondary metabolite compounds and improve wine quality .
The impact of water on stilbene biosynthesis in grapes has been evaluated. The water deficit increases the specific steady state transcript abundance of a STS gene and phenylpropanoid metabolism in general. The increase of STS mRNA abundance suggests an increase in resveratrol accumulation . However, conflicting results have been reported on the effects of water deficit on resveratrol synthesis. Research conducted by Vezzuli et al. observed little effect of drought on resveratrol concentrations in grape berry skin. In another study on Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay varieties, harvested at six and eight weeks after veraison, respectively, Deluc et al. demonstrated that water deficit increased the accumulation of trans-piceid (the glycosylated form of resveratrol) by five-fold in Cabernet Sauvignon berries but not in Chardonnay. However, the abundance of two stilbene-derived compounds—trans-piceid and trans-resveratrol—was not significantly different between the two cultivars when well-watered. Similarly, water deficit significantly increased the transcript abundance of genes involved in the biosynthesis of stilbene precursors in Cabernet Sauvignon. In contrast, the transcript abundance of the same genes declined in Chardonnay in response to water deficit.
Recently, it was shown that the concentrations of flavonol increase under drought stress in a white grapevine Chardonnay, but not in a red grapevine Cabernet Sauvignon . Few studies have reported that water deficit may modify the skin proanthocyanidins [120–123], but this topic still awaits further clarification. In Shiraz, the application of water stress before and after veraison differently affects the grape berry polyphenol biosynthesis . The authors showed that pre-veraison water deficit had no effect on total proanthocyanidin accumulation, whereas pre- and post-veraison deficits specifically affected the flux of anthocyanin biosynthesis in stressed grape berries sampled with equivalent sugar content. However, both water deficits differently affected the anthocyanin composition. Pre-veraison water deficit increased anthocyanin accumulation except for malvidin and p-coumaroylated derivatives, whereas post-veraison water deficit enhanced the overall anthocyanin biosynthesis, particularly malvidin and p-coumaroylated derivatives. In Merlot variety under water stress, an increase of anthocyanin content between 37% and 57% for two consecutive years was reported by Castellarin et al. .
Imposing water deficits from the onset of ripening until maturity in the Merlot variety reduced the berry weight and increased the concentration of anthocyanins and skin tannins , and the application of water deficits also modulated chemical composition changes during berry ripening [125,127].
When Aragonez (Syn. Tempranillo) grapevines were subjected to three irrigation regimes (conventional sustained deficit irrigation (DI), regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and non-irrigated (NI)), the main compounds affected by water availability were proanthocyanidins and flavonols which were increased with irrigation at pea size, veraison, mid-ripening and full maturation phenological stages . Concentrations of anthocyanin at full maturation were observed to be higher in the skin of berries belonging to DI and RDI vines than in NI ones. In general, although no differences in sugar accumulation were observed between the water treatments, a decrease in the quality parameters in grape skins in NI vines was observed, may resulting from high temperature and excessive cluster sunlight exposition.
4. Varietal Dependence on Grape Berry Phenolics
Traditionally, morphological and agronomical characteristics have been the main criteria for differentiating grapevine cultivars, but it is well known that many of those characters are strongly influenced by environmental conditions . Grapevine varieties are not genetically homogeneous and intravarietal diversity varies across cultivars [131,132]. Even vines multiplied by vegetative propagation display a broad range of characteristics . As referred to in the introduction, the grape phenolic profile depends greatly on the grape variety [7,36,134,135]. In a recent study, Liang et al. showed that the polyphenol profile revealed significant differences among 344 European grape varieties. Polyphenol variations among several varieties are summarized in Table 3.
Phenolics from grape and wine have generated remarkable interest with their antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties. Catechins, proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins are the most concentrated natural antioxidants present in red grape and wine [2,138] and it is believed that they play important beneficial roles in the mammalian systems . The differences in phenolic composition observed across varieties might impact their respective health benefits. A study of 21 white and red winegrape varieties of Portugal showed remarkable differences in total phenolic concentrations in full mature berries, which were correlated to their total antioxidant activity (Figure 5). Of them, Borraçal grapes had the highest total phenolic content, even above the teinturier Alicante Bouschet.
Owing to its biological and agricultural importance, the genetics and biochemistry of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway have been widely studied and the great intravarietal variability recommends the use of more precise methods to characterize and classify grape germplasm collections. Methods used to track back the variety and for producing a given wine rely on the composition in proteins, amino acids and aroma compounds, or on DNA analysis [130,140,141]. To a certain extent, flavonol profiles have demonstrated that some of them can be used as chemical markers for the authentication and varietal differentiation of grapes and wines . Among those metabolic compounds, which have frequently been used as chemical markers in chemotaxonomy, in recent years the cultivar-characteristic profiles of monomeric anthocyanins have been widely used for the classification and differentiation of grape cultivars and monovarietal wines [38,143,144]. Despite the strong role of the genetic background in determining the composition of anthocyanins, the content of anthocyanins in grapes changes during their maturation and seasonal conditions, and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil also influence the distribution of anthocyanins in grapes [130,136]. For example, Downey et al. found that the anthocyanin fingerprint was altered by cluster exposition or shading to sunlight, by temperature regimes reached during the growing season, and by water deficit treatments . Moreover, Guidoni et al. stated that cluster thinning changed the proportion of anthocyanins, increasing cyanidin and peonidin 3-O-glucosides whereas malvidin 3-O-glucoside and acylated anthocyanins were not affected. The relative proportion of anthocyanins also varies during grape ripening; however, this composition is practically constant in the final stages of ripening . Nevertheless, most references coincide with the fact that the non-genetic factors such as several environmental conditions or viticultural practices have a greater effect on the concentration of anthocyanins rather than on their relative composition [130,136]. Moreover, it is commonly accepted that anthocyanin concentration of grape berry also varies according to the genetic background, which is independent of seasonal conditions or production area .
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Grapevine phenolics play distinctive roles during the development of the fruit until full maturation. Hydroxybenzoic acids may be involved in signaling, particularly in the induction of defense and stress responses, and stilbenes are effective antifungal agents. Flavonols are thought to act as UV and extreme temperature protectants, as well as free radical scavengers. The astringency role of proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) is thought to act as a feeding deterrent to herbivorous and other insects. Anthocyanins play important roles in DNA protection and defense against photo-oxidative stress. In wine, hydroxycinnamates contribute to colour browning under oxidation in association with molecules. Also, proanthocyanidins contribute to mouthfell of red wine, as well as colour stability by forming complexes with anthocyanins that are responsible for the colour, and also contribute to the sensory attributes of wine. Important nutraceutical and pharmacologic properties have also been attributed to grape berry phenolics, including antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic and antioxidant. Several reports indicate that trans-resveratrol inhibits the proliferation of tumor cells and had a putative protection against diabetes. Their role against neurodegenerative diseases were recently postulated due to the resveratrol ability to activate the protein SIRT1 that was related to many diseases associated with aging . Thus, the continued study of grape phenolics has an important basic and applied relevance.
The physiology of grapevine has already suffered from significant impacts of global climate change in recent decades. Harvest occurs sooner and sooner, although grape growers tend to wait longer for ripeness. Berry sugar content (and alcohol in the wine) tends to increase whereas phenolic and aromatic ripeness are not always achieved. Acidity tends to decrease with potential effects on wine aging capacity. Water supply is becoming shorter in many regions . The site and season conditions are the most important factors that influence phenolic content of a grape cultivar. In particular, light and temperature affect to a great extent the phenolic content of the berry. These parameters are the most difficult to manage, although some viticulture practices, including strategic use of irrigation, utilization of cover crops, row orientation, trellising, and other canopy modifications may optimize plant interaction with light and temperature. Thus, the development of management strategies for optimizing grapevine phenolic composition in challenging environments is an important issue in modern viticulture. The improvement and implementation of standardized tools to quantitatively and qualitatively measure flavonoids in the grape berry is also an important research topic that could provide important developments in the future.
Although the inherent plasticity of grapevine response to environmental conditions may account for phenolic variation, several evidences introduced in this review show that phenolic profile is very dependent on the genotype. In this regard, the selection of new varieties with pleasant sensorial flavors but with improved climate tolerance may be an important investment for viticulturists and the wine industry. To address this challenge, scientists and breeders need to work together at an international level to generate knowledge about the valuable diversity, and patterns, processes and correlations with traits such as resistance and grape quality, which is the aim of the ongoing European Cost Action COSTFA1003 “East-West Collaboration for Grapevine Diversity Exploration and Mobilization of Adaptive Traits for Breeding” (2010–2013). For instance, despite the large number of studies on grape colour, there is still not a complete understanding of the genetics underlying this phenotype. In this regard, specific genes significantly associated with total skin and pulp anthocyanin were recently detected in red and rose cultivars from the Portuguese Ampelographic Collection, suggesting their involvement in anthocyanin content .
Important efforts have been undertaken by several research laboratories worldwide to understand and enhance the mechanisms of phenolic biosynthesis in grapevine, but this area of basic research is still widely open. Although the biosynthesis of many secondary compounds was already elucidated in some plants, the identification and characterization of specific transport steps have been published only recently, but a complete understanding of flavonoid transport and compartmentation in grape berry tissues in response to the environment is far from being elucidated. In addition, how the networks of phenolic biosynthesis are regulated and coordinated in different varieties, tissues and environments remains to be uncovered. In this regard, future investigation will involve the exploration of grapevine genetic diversity and the study of the role of specific genes or metabolic pathways in response to environmental conditions, taking advantage of the already available grapevine reference genome.
This work was supported by European Union Funds (FEDER/COMPETE-Operational Competitiveness Programme) and by national funds (FCT-Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) under the project FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-022692 and the research project PTDC/AGR-ALI/100636/2008. This work was also supported by the European project INNOVINE (ref. 311775), and from the networking activities within the European funded COST ACTION FA1106 “QualityFruit” and COST Action FA1003 “East-West Collaboration for Grapevine Diversity Exploration and Mobilization of Adaptive Traits for Breeding”.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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|Compound||Level of synthesis a||Location||Berry phenological scale b|
|Hydroxycinnamic acids||++||+++||++||Hypodermal cells and placental cells of the pulp; primarily in the vacuoles of mesocarp cells.||+++||+++||+||+|
|Stilbenes||+++||+||++||Berry skin and seeds.||−||+||++||+++|
|Flavonols||++||−||−||Dermal cell vacuoles of the skin tissue and cell wall of skin and seeds.||++||+||+++||++|
|Flavan-3-ols||++||+||+++||Specific vacuoles of hypodermal skin cells and seed coat soft parenquima.||+||++||+++||++|
|Anthocyanins||+++||− *||−||Cell layers below the epidermis; storage confined to the vacuoles and cytoplasmic vesicles named anthocyanoplasts.||−||−||+||+++|
a,bVery abundant compound (+++) to absent (−);*Teinturiers contain anthocyanis also in mesocarp cells.
|Variety||Compound||Effect of water deficit||References|
|Aragonez (Tempranillo)||Anthocyanins||Decreased concentration.|||
|Cabernet Sauvignon||Trans-piceid stilbene precursors||5-fold increase in concentration. Increased transcript abundance of genes involved in the biosynthesis of stilbene precursors and phenylpropanoid metabolism in general.||[85,111,115,116,118,119,127,129]|
|Flavonols||Increased concentration in the skin and in the wine. No changes in seeds.|
|Anthocyanins||Increased of concentration in the skin and in the wine.|
|Increased expression of many genes responsible for their biosynthesis.|
|Chardonnay||Stilbene precursors||Increased concentration.|||
|Flavonols||Decreased transcript abundance of biosynthetic genes.|
|Merlot||Anthocyanins||Increased concentration and biosynthesis;||[125,126]|
|Proanthocyanidins||Increased concentration in berry skin.|
|Hydroxycinnamic acids mg·g−1 FW||Hydroxybenzoic acids mg·g−1 FW||Stilbenes mg·g−1 FW||Flavonols mg·g−1 FW||Flavan- 3-ols mg·g−1 FW||Anthocyanins mg·g−1 FW|
|Greco di Tufo||0.0002|||
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). | <urn:uuid:6a5f537a-5650-4987-b8df-42ecdb303e40> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/14/9/18711/htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.848728 | 21,137 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Volume Number: 20 (2004)
Issue Number: 12
Column Tag: Programming
by Michael R. Harvey
The other day I was browsing the aisles at my favorite local bookstore when this book cover
caught my eye. Zero-Day Exploit. Hmm, wonder what this is about. I pick it up and check out this
quote on the front cover:
"So much of our critical national infrastructure hinges on technology, which is so fragile, that
a zero-day bug in the wrong hands could lead to any equally bad attack. I'm not, for a moment, going
to speculate on what or how that attack may come, but suffice to say that the potential is there;
the threat is real."
OK, so they had my attention. Turns out, the quote was by David Litchfield, Managing Director at
NGSSoftware (http://www.nextgenss.com). NGS stands for Next
Generation Security, and that's what this book is about.
But wait, there's a twist. This book is actually a fictionalized account of the evolution of a
zero-day exploit. In essence, a cyber-thriller, but a cyber-thriller that is technically deep and,
hopefully, accurate. I found the book both interesting and educational. I get so tired of books that
misuse technology. Whether the author was misinformed or simply too lazy to do the right amount of
research, when a book gets the technology really wrong, I feel I've wasted my time.
This book succeeds wildly. I learned a lot and had fun in the process. For example, I learned a
lot about IDS technology. An IDS is an Intrusion Detection System, used for real-time monitoring of
a network and capable of analyzing the network's data for potential vulnerabilities and possible
attacks. I found the discussion of security fascinating and I was able to follow most of it. There
were times when the jargon got a bit ahead of me, but it didn't keep me from enjoying the book.
Zero-Day Exploit does an excellent job exploring one possible cyber-attack scenario. I highly
recommend it. Very entertaining. I give it 5 out of 5 packets.
Oh, and if you enjoy this book, check out Stealing the Network: How to Own the Box and Stealing
the Network: How to Own a Continent. All three of these books are published by Syngress Publishing
and distributed by our friends at O'Reilly. Cool!
By Dave Mark
MacAlly USB Combo Kit
Now here is a great gadget. A retractable cable is always handy. It eliminates tangle, and takes
up less space. One that handles multiple interfaces is indispensable. The MacAlly USB Combo Kit is
It's a four and a half foot retractable USB 2.0 and 1.1 A to B flat cable. That is only the
beginning, though. It comes with a slew of connectors, and a handy pouch, that make it so much more
To start, there are two other flavors of USB adapter, that allow you to connect to USB in every
way possible. There are RJ-11 connectors to turn the USB cable into a phone cable. Likewise, RJ-45
adapters make for a fine Ethernet patch cord.
All that, and it takes up less space than two cables this thing replaces. Did I say
indispensable? Well, it needs saying again. This one is a perfect stocking stuffer for everyone on
your list. Get one for yourself while you're at it. $30
By Michael R. Harvey
Belkin Digital Camera Link
Your iPod has a ton of hard drive space in it. Iive got just about every CD I own on mine, and
Iim not using half of the available space. So, what to do with all those extra blocks? How about
The system software of the iPod supports the storing of photos, after all. The Belkin Digital
Camera Link is a handy little device that lets you make use of the extra space, and built-in
capability to store images on your iPod. Itis a box powered by two AA batteries, and plugs into the
docking connector of the iPod. It also has a USB port to connect to the USB port on your digital
camera. Use is simple. Connect the iPod and the camera to the Camera Link, then push the button it
to initiate the transfer. The Camera Link has an LED that indicates what it is doing. Deciphering
the signals is easy. Just check the table on the back of the Camera Link. Easy as that. And, it
works with many digital camera models. Check Belkinis web site for a complete list of supported
cameras. This thing is handy to have along on vacation. You donit have to worry about having enough
flash memory cards, or hauling a laptop along. The Digital Camera Link is light weight, and nearly
the same size as the iPod. The only thing I wish it had was a built-in USB cable, to match the
docking cable integral to the box. It would save having to take along another wire. $80.
By Michael R. Harvey
LetterRip Professional 4.0 Mailing List Server
LetterRip Pro is an easy-to-use, high performance mailing list server for Macintosh. You can
easily get a server up and running in minutes. The server is optimized to send email to hundreds or
thousands of recipients with ease. A mailing list server can be used to set up email discussion
groups, manage moderated discussion lists or send announcements to large groups.
Email discussion lists are one of the fastest growing areas of the Internet. They allow people to
easily communicate with each other via email. They foster a sense of community. It's common to find
customers helping customers on a discussion list. When someone from your company answers a question
on a discussion list, it benefits not just the one person but all the people on the list.
LetterRip Pro can be used to get announcements to your current or potential customer base. Using
email (a very cost effective means of communication), messages can be sent quickly and easily.
Optionally, you can include message banners and footers with every message that goes through a list.
Banners and footers let you include advertisements or other information.
LetterRip Professional 4.0 is the newest release of LetterRip Professional. It is the first
release to run natively on OS X. New features in 4.0 include;
- OSX native server and administrator. Administrator was completely re-written.
- Much improved bounce handling features. You can now select an email header (from, subject,
body, etc.) and specify a header value for the server to reject those messages. You can even set an
expiration date and time for these.
- Subscription confirmation built into the server, no need for a separate processor
- Email administration built into the server, also no need for a separate processor
- Personalization on the "to" line of outgoing messages. You now have the option of the
recipient getting a message addressed to "email@example.com" instead of
- Improved support for servers that limit the number of messages that can be sent at one time.
This is crucial for some internet providers that believe that a message that is addressed to many of
their users (even if the addresses are valid) is spam. You can now select a default number of
recipients per message, or specify a particular domain and the number of recipients for that domain.
- Support for stripping html portions of email messages as well as blocking html on a list by
list basis. So, if your list gets infiltrated by a spammer those lengthy, graphic filled emails can
be rejected by the server.
We were running LetterRip 3.0.6 on a Centris 610. Since version 4 requires a PowerPC and OS 8.5
at a minimum, we upgraded the machine to a PowerMac 7200/90 and OS 9.0.4. While this is certainly
not the fastest machine available, it is a good use of some older, but still functional hardware you
may have laying around.
Upgrading to the new version could not have been easier. All of the necessary files are stored
in folder (LetterRip Files) in one of two places. They are either in the documents folder or in
"System Folder: Application Support". The files were then copied from the old machine into their
At this point, we install the new version of the server. Ready? Open the disk image and copy
the new version of LetterRip into the application folder. Launch it. Enter the serial number and
you are pretty much finished. I also copied the new admin application over so I could have a local
copy on that machine.
There is also an OS X native version of the LetterRip server and Admin tool on the disk image.
The instructions are simple, and easy to understand, you can view them at
The website also has a pretty thorough, but simple tutorial for setting up the server from
scratch. You can have a list mail server up and running in a few minutes!
System Requirements and Cost
A PowerPC computer and an Internet connection is necessary to run LetterRip 4.0. For non-OS X
installations, Mac OS 8.5 or later (9.2 recommended) and 128MB of RAM. For OS X installations, 10.2
and 256 MB of RAM is recommended.
LetterRip Pro can be downloaded from
The download will operate in a "demo" mode for a 30 day evaluation period. If you wish to
purchase, the cost is $395.00 (upgrades are $175.00). They accept credit cards, PayPal and purchase
By David Breffitt
STM Large Loop Backpack
This is one product space that seems to have something new and improved being introduced every
other Tuesday. We just got done covering a slew of great back packs in issue 6. There seems to be no
end to the variety of packs to be found. So, here we go again.
STM, an Australian company, was showing off their wares at MacWorld Boston last July. Their booth
was swamped. For good reason, too. They have a large array of packs, shoulder bag, and carrying
accessories for any sized laptop. Here, we look at the big one, the Large Loop. This back pack is
great. The materials and stitching are very good.
It's extremely comfortable with padded back, and very comfortable shoulder straps. This pack
would work great as a day hiking pack with the chest and belly straps. It's got two pouches for
holding water bottles, always an essential add-on that I wish more manufacturers would include. STM
putting it on their packs puts them well above the crowd.
It has three massive internal pockets. Closest to the back is a maw that can hold anything.
Really. Anything. Files, books, accessories, the kitchen sink. That previously mentioned padding on
the back keeps you from feeling any of it, too. The middle pocket is the high security zone where
you keep your laptop. It is very well padded all around. If you are putting something smaller than a
17" computer in there, you have an additional pad you can put in the bottom for added protection.
The zipper is a waterproof style, like the kind you might find on a diving dry suit. Just an added
bit of protection. The outer pocket has several pouches for holding accessories, phones, PDAs,
cables, etc.. It would be nice if there were a few more of these bigger internal pouches that could
be completely closed for managing the multitude of cables every mobile user carries. There are also
a few, smaller outside pouches that I will let you find. One of those outer pouches has a hole you
can run your ear buds through.
This pack is perfect for the mobile user who carries a lot of stuff on the road. It's extremely
comfortable, the ideal pack for anyone in need of a cool travel bag. In the U.S., STM products can
be purchased from Radtech (radtech.us). $95
By Michael R. Harvey
Griffin GarageBand Guitar Cable
In all the years I have been jamming on my guitar, I have only been able to record using a tape
recorder. I have looked into digitally recording into the Mac with some programs like Pro Tools and
Cake Walk, but just reading about them made my head spin. It wasnit until I recently purchased a new
eMac that I realized it could become reality.
The thing that really got me excited was the iLife application GarageBand that was preloaded on
the eMac. I goofed around with it for a bit, but it wasnit until I opened the Help that I discovered
it was possible to plug my guitar directly into the Macintosh, and record using GarageBand. All I
needed was an instrument cable that could do this.
Enter Griffin Technology and their GarageBand Guitar Cable. One end plugs into the guitar and the
other into the Audio In on the eMac. It couldnit be any easier!
After that, getting sound into GarageBand is simple. First, select New Track from the File menu.
Then hit New Track under the Track menu. There are two choices here. Real Instrument or Software
Instrument. Software Instrument lets the user pick a variety of pre-recorded instruments that can be
played using a provided digital keyboard. For this example, choose Real Instrument. Also, select
Monitor On in order to hear the guitar.
The Track Box gives you a few pre-set guitar sounds, plus clean. Choose any that catches your
fancy (I went with British Invasion). Also, give the effects a try (called Details in GarageBand).
The great variety of Details will floor you. This gives you far more control than looping some stomp
boxes through an amp.
So, how to record. Well, click the record button, then rock on. One thing GarageBand can do is
help you with timing. It has a metronome tool included (it definitely will help me improve my
I have a Gallien-Krueger guitar amp that is all transistor, and came with a Direct Out that I
wanted to try out. I was worried, though, that I would need a preamp to prevent damaging the
computer with too much input. I emailed technical support at Griffin Technology to ask. Their
response was prompt, and they told me it was perfectly safe as long as I had an Audio Input on the
So, plug the guitar into the amp, and the amp into the eMac using the GarageBand Guitar Cable.
Back in GarageBand, I set up another track, and played along with my previous track. Damn, Iim good!
Well, Iill definitely get better with the ability to record my guitar into GarageBand now thanks to
the Griffin GarageBand Guitar Cable, and so will the musicians on your list. $25. p another track,
By Michael R. Harvey | <urn:uuid:2fb1c396-a082-4e36-9ee5-eae44386ef85> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.20/20.12/2012KoolTools/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939641 | 3,214 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Class A Truck stop for American Truck Drivers & Owner Operators
How to calculate Bridge Formula ?
1. Axles are measured to the nearest foot between the extremes on any group of two or more consecutive axles.
2. Gross weights for 5 and 6 axle vehicles apply to combinations only. For vehicles not in combination (straight trucks), only 4 axles shall be used in determining maximum gross weight.
3. Two consecutive sets of tandems may carry 34,000 pounds each providing the overall distance between the first and last axles of such consecutive sets of tandems is 36 feet or more.
4. If the distance between the centers of the first and third axles in a group of consecutive axles does not exceed 96 inches, the group is a tandem.
5. The maximum weight of any single axle is 20,000 pounds and the maximum weight of any tandem is 34,000.
6. To compensate for these weight restrictions, some tractors have a fifth wheel (also called as "slider"), that can slide forward ro backward on the tractor frame. This sliding motion shifts and balances the trailer's kingpin weight put on each axle without moving the cargo around. Sliders let you adjust the wheelbase in order to be in compliance with the bridge law. | <urn:uuid:41578bfa-1ebc-42fc-9a79-cdf1d990ec08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetruckersplace.com/BridgeFormula.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930553 | 263 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Welcome to WallStreetPedia™ -- The Wall Street Encyclopedia
To create the most complete and definitive source of information about the past and present of WallStreet.
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Wall Street is a street in lower Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States. It runs east from Broadway to South Street on the East River, through the historical center of the Financial District. Wall Street was the first permanent home of the New York Stock Exchange; over time Wall Street became the name of the surrounding geographic neighborhood. Wall Street is also shorthand (or a metonym) for the "influential financial interests" of the American financial industry, which is centered in the New York City area. Several major U.S. stock and other exchanges remain headquartered on Wall Street and in the Financial District, including the NYSE, NASDAQ, AMEX, NYMEX, and NYBOT.
The name of the street derives from the fact that during the 17th century, Wall Street formed the northern boundary of the New Amsterdam settlement. In the 1640s basic picket and plank fences denoted plots and residences in the colony. Later, on behalf of the Dutch West India Company, Peter Stuyvesant, in part using African slaves, led the Dutch in the construction of a stronger stockade. A strengthened 12-foot (4 m) wall of timber and earth was created by 1653 fortified by palisades. The wall was created, and strengthened over time, as a defense against attack from various Native American tribes, New England colonists, and the British. In 1685 surveyors laid out Wall Street along the lines of the original stockade. The wall was dismantled by the British in 1699. And while the original name referred to the Walloons, the French speaking Belgians that helped populate this settlement in the beginning, the name was now easily taken to refer to the wall that once was here.
In 1889, the original stock report, Customers' Afternoon Letter, became the The Wall Street Journal, named in reference to the actual street, it is now an influential international daily business newspaper published in New York City. For many years, it had the widest circulation of any newspaper in the United States, although it is currently second to USA Today. It has been owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Corp. since 2007.
Decline and Revitalization:
The Manhattan Financial District is one of the largest business districts in the United States, and second in New York City only to Midtown. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the corporate culture of New York was a primary center for the construction of skyscrapers (rivaled only by Chicago). The Financial District, even today, actually makes up a distinct skyline of its own, separate from but not soaring to quite the same heights as its midtown counterpart a few miles to the north.
Built in 1914, 23 Wall Street was known as the "House of Morgan" and for decades the bank's headquarters was the most important address in American finance. At noon, on September 16, 1920, a bomb exploded in front of the bank, killing 38 and injuring 300. Shortly before the bomb went off a warning note was placed in a mailbox at the corner of Cedar Street and Broadway. While theories abound about who was behind the Wall Street bombing and why they did it, after twenty years investigating the matter, the FBI rendered the file inactive in 1940 without ever finding the perpetrators.
1929 brought the "Great Crash" of the stock market, ushering in the Great Depression. During this era, new development of the Financial District had stagnated. The construction of the World Trade Center was one of the few major projects undertaken during the last three quarters of the 20th century and, financially, it was not originally as successful as planned. Some point to the fact that it was actually a government-funded project, constructed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey with the intention of spurring economic development in downtown. All the tools necessary to international trade were to be housed in the complex. However, at the beginning much of the space remained vacant.
Nonetheless, some large and powerful firms did purchase space in the World Trade Center. Further, it attracted other powerful businesses to the immediate neighborhood. In some ways, it could be argued that the World Trade Center changed the nexus of the Financial District from Wall Street to the Trade Center complex. When the World Trade Center was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks, it left somewhat of an architectural void as new developments since the 1970s had played off the complex aesthetically. The attacks, however, contributed to the loss of business on Wall Street, due to temporary-to-permanent relocation to New Jersey and further decentralization with establishments transferred to cities like Chicago and Boston.
Wall Street itself and the Financial District as a whole are crowded with highrises by any measure. Further, the loss of the World Trade Center has actually spurred development in the Financial District on a scale that hadn't been seen in decades. This is in part due to tax incentives provided by the federal, state and local governments to encourage development. A new World Trade Center complex, centered on Daniel Liebeskind's Memory Foundations plan, is in the early stages of development and one building has already been replaced. The centerpiece to this plan is the 1,776-foot (541 m) tall Freedom Tower. New residential buildings are already sprouting up, and buildings that were previously office space are being converted to residential units, also benefiting from the tax incentives. Better access to the Financial District is planned in the form of a new commuter rail station and a new downtown transportation center centered on Fulton Street.
Wall Street's culture is often criticized as being rigid. This is a decades-old stereotype stemming from the Wall Street's establishment's protection of their interests, and the link to the WASP establishment. More recent criticism has centered on structural problems and lack of a desire to change well-established habits. Wall Street's establishment resists government oversight and regulation. At the same time, New York City has a reputation as a very bureaucratic city, which makes entry into the neighborhood difficult or even impossible for middle class entrepreneurs.
Since the founding of the Federal Reserve banking system, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the Financial District has been the point where monetary policy in the United States is implemented (although it is decided in Washington, D.C. by the Federal Reserve Bank's Board of Governors). As such, New York State is today unique in that it is the only state that constitutes its own district of the Federal Reserve Banking system. This is perhaps partly owed to population distribution in the United States of the time, however. Until the 1960s, New York was the most populated state in the U.S.; it now ranks third, behind California and Texas. The NY Federal Reserve's president is the only regional Bank president with a permanent vote and is traditionally selected as its vice chairman. The bank has a gold vault 80 feet (25 m) beneath the street. This depository is the largest in the world, larger even than Fort Knox.
Wall Street's architecture is generally rooted in the Gilded Age, though there are also some art deco influences in the neighborhood. Landmark buildings on Wall Street include Federal Hall, 14 Wall Street (Bankers Trust Company Building), 40 Wall Street (The Trump Building), and the New York Stock Exchange at the corner of Broad Street.
Over the years, certain elite persons associated with Wall Street have become famous. Although their reputations are usually limited to members of the stock brokerage and banking communities, several have gained national and international fame. Some earned their fame for their investment strategies, financing, reporting, legal or regulatory skills, while others are remembered for their greed. One of the most iconic representations of the market prosperity is the Charging Bull sculpture, by Arturo Di Modica. Representing the bull market economy, the sculpture was originally placed in front of the New York Stock Exchange, and subsequently moved to its current location in Bowling Green.
Wall Street vs. Main Street:
As a figure of speech contrasted to "Main Street," the term "Wall Street" can refer to big business interests against those of small business and the working of middle class. It is sometimes used more specifically to refer to research analysts, shareholders, and financial institutions such as investment banks. The idea of "Main Street" conjures up images of locally owned businesses and banks. While the phrase "Wall Street" is commonly used interchangeably with the phrase "Corporate America", it is also sometimes used in contrast to distinguish between the interests, culture, and lifestyles of investment banks and those of Fortune 500 industrial or service corporations.
The older skyscrapers often were built with elaborate facades; such elaborate aesthetics haven't been common in corporate architecture for decades. The World Trade Center, built in the 1970s, was very plain and utilitarian in comparison (the Twin Towers were often criticized as looking like two big boxes, despite their impressive height).
Wall Street, more than anything, represents financial and economic power. To Americans, Wall Street can sometimes represent elitism and power politics and cut-throat capitalism, but it also stirs feelings of pride about the market economy. Wall Street became the symbol of a country and economic system that many Americans see as having developed not through colonialism and plunder, but through trade, capitalism, and innovation.
In Popular Culture:
Herman Melville's classic short story Bartleby the Scrivener is subtitled A Story of Wall Street and provides an excellent portrayal of a kind and wealthy lawyer's struggle to reason with that which is unreasonable as he is pushed beyond his comfort zone to "feel" something real for humanity.
In William Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury, Jason Compson hits on other perceptions of Wall Street: after finding some of his stocks are doing poorly, he blames the Jews.
On January 26, 2000, the band Rage Against The Machine filmed the music video for "Sleep Now in the Fire" on Wall Street, which was directed by Michael Moore. The band at one point stormed the Stock Exchange, causing the doors of the Exchange to be closed early (2:52 P.M.). Trading on the Exchange floor, however, continued uninterrupted.
The film Wall Street exemplifies many popular conceptions of Wall Street, being a tale of shady corporate dealings and insider trading.
In the film National Treasure a clue to finding the Templar Treasure leads the main characters to Wall Street's Trinity Church.
TNA Wrestler Robert Roode is billed from "Wall Street in Manhattan, New York".
Because Wall Street was historically a commuter destination, it has seen much transportation infrastructure developed with it in mind. Today, Pier 11 at the foot of the street is a busy ferry terminal, and the New York City subway has three stations under Wall Street itself:
1. Wall Street (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line) at Wall Street & William Street.
2. Wall Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line) at Wall Street & Broadway.
3. Broad Street (BMT Nassau Street Line) at Wall Street & Broad Street.
Financial Districts Worldwide:
Wall street is most closely rivaled by the City of London (London's "Square Mile", also known as "The City", the original city at the heart of Greater London). Other notable financial districts around the world include:
Singapore's Shenton Way at Raffles Place
Chicago's Chicago Loop
San Francisco's Financial District
Hong Kong's Central
Shanghai's Lujiazui in Pudong
Paris's La Défense
Toronto's Bay Street
Athens's Sofokleous Street
Bombay's Dalal Street
Sydney's Martin Place
Karachi's Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar Road
Sao Paulo's Paulista Avenue
Mexico City's Paseo de la Reforma
If you have information or links that you would like included in WallStreet-Pedia™, please email us at: | <urn:uuid:5ce886e1-7ab2-4a2e-ad65-57ffddf6d63d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wallstreet.pedia.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962854 | 2,474 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Two chicken vaccines have recombined to produce more virulent viruses in Sydney and Melbourne, research has found, prompting the regulator to examine new controls over the approval and use of veterinary vaccines.
A study by a team from the Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health at the University of Melbourne and NICTA found that two different vaccine viruses used to control a chicken respiratory disease — the herpesvirus infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) — have recombined, or crossed, to form two new virulent forms of the ILT virus.
The findings are published today in the journal Science.
As a result of the discovery, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) is considering new measures to regulate the use of vaccines in animals, the body said.
Australian strains of ILT vaccine were developed from the 1950s. In 2008, shortly after authorities approved a European strain for use, two new ILT strains were observed in outbreaks of disease in New South Wales and Victorian flocks.
Study author Joanne Devlin, a Doctor of Veterinary Science at the University of Melbourne, said the viruses emerged “mainly around the outskirts of Melbourne and Sydney, which is where a lot of our poultry production takes place”.
The first emerged in 2008, “and that was a year that we had around 33 cases, or outbreaks, of this disease. [The second] emerged in 2008 as well, but it wasn’t until 2010 where we saw a peak in outbreaks, and around 49 outbreaks in that year,” Dr Devlin told an online briefing for the Australian Science Media Centre. “Interestingly, these new strains of the virus emerged shortly after a new vaccine strain was introduced into Australia, and that was originally a European-origin vaccine strain. Until that point we’d only used Australia-origin vaccine strain to control this disease.”
The flock mortality rate was up to 17%, which amounted to several thousand birds, she said.
While recombination was previously recognised as a risk associated with live virus vaccines, the likelihood of it happening in the field was thought to be insignificant.
The current vaccines are considered effective even against the new recombinant strains of the infectious laryngotracheitis viruses, the research team found. But they said producers should be careful only to administer one ILT vaccine at a time.
“It’s relatively common for there to be multiple live attenuated vaccines like this used in animal populations, and we suspect that this sort of event could potentially happen in other animal species as well, with other viruses,” said co-author Glenn Browning, Associate Dean of Research and Graduate Studies in the Faculty of Veterinary Science at the University of Melbourne. “So we believe that what we’ve seen here has potentially got wider implications than just this particular disease in poultry.”
John Owusu, from APVMA, said the regulatory body would carry out a risk assessment of its entire live vaccine portfolio. “Some of the things we’ll be looking at will be the family of the virus, and with other vaccines, the group they belong to,” Dr Owusu said.
“We’ll be looking at whether or not the parent virus that was used to manufacture the vaccine is exotic or local. We’ll also be looking at whether there’s any published information about the vaccine having the potential to recombine. We will also have a look at issues such as the method of administration of the vaccine, the vaccinated population and its density.
“In the long term we think we’ve got to have tools that will allow us to assess new vaccines for the potential to recombine, and in doing so we will engage government departments such as the TGA, as well as industry, and build on the experience and expertise to develop new requirements that industry must fulfil when people offer new live vaccines.”
Ian Gust, a Professorial Fellow in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at the University of Melbourne, said the equivalent of the ILT vaccine for people was the varicella vaccine, used to treat the varicella zoster virus, one of eight herpes viruses that affects humans and commonly causes chicken pox. “That vaccine is given to children, but it’s given individually,” Professor Gust told the online briefing.
“While there are two licensed vaccines available in Australia, both of them use exactly the same starting strain … of the varicella virus. It would be extremely unusual for a vaccine session in a doctor’s office to involve vaccines from two different manufacturers sequentially. Almost invariably the material comes from the same manufacturer.
“There are a large number of live attenuated vaccines used in man. They’ve been used for the last 50 years, and they’ve got an extremely good safety record.” | <urn:uuid:65f43bd7-3415-415a-afdd-9fa6ee617c5b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://theconversation.com/vaccines-for-chickens-have-created-virulent-new-viruses-8234 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957467 | 1,018 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Katharine Goodwin is a junior Political Science major and serves as our Programming Intern this year. Next year, Katharine will continue to work with the Lieben Center as she takes on the role of Peer Education Intern.
When people think of historical women, they name women from many many years ago. But I believe it is important to celebrate today’s women because it will make harder for history to erase them.
It has long been a (incorrect) notion that women can be mothers or they can be professionals, but they cannot be both. While many historical women have proved this notion wrong, Licia Ronzulli is still fighting to prove to the world that you can do both.
Originally working in health management, Ronzulli was elected as the northwest Italian representation to the European Parliament in September 2009. A year later she was became an international inspiration when she brought her then six weeks old daughter to work with her as a gesture for the rights of mothering women in the work force. She said that this was not a political move, but rather a “maternal” one because she was still breastfeeding at the time. She also highlighted many mothers struggle between daily choices between their child’s needs and their work demans. Ronzulli did not stop bringing her daughter to work after that day. Her daughter has grown up attending parliament meetings with her mother and can be seen “helping” her mother vote on important policies.
While she may not be as well known as other powerful women, Ronzulli plays an influential role in the work force. She has defied sexist notions that women must choose between their job and their babies. She has found harmony between these two characteristics that affect many people. | <urn:uuid:c4d92fa6-48a3-4e65-b30b-0b96ce81cf86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://liebencenter.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988643 | 357 | 2.671875 | 3 |
These aquatic canines possess crocodile- or shark-like jaws filled with teeth and can smell blood in the water over great distances.
Str 18, Dex 13, Con 15, Int 2, Wis 11, Cha 6
A scraghound's saliva is an infectious brew of contagion. Creatures bitten by a scraghound are often afflicted with bloodfire fever, a disease characterized by deep internal pain, as if the victim's blood were on fire. Its symptoms include loss of muscular coordination and physical strength as well as lethargy and fatigue.
Bloodfire fever: Bite-injury; save Fort DC 14; onset 1 day; frequency 1/day; effect 1d3 Str damage, 1d3 Dex damage and target is fatigued; cure 2 consecutive saves. The save DC is Constitution-based.
A scraghound can notice creatures by scent in a 180-foot radius underwater and can detect blood in the water at ranges of up to a mile. | <urn:uuid:94a240ac-91d5-4825-ad3a-364340a1cfcb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://sites.google.com/site/pathfinderogc/bestiary/monster-listings/magical-beasts/trollhound/scraghound | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939608 | 199 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Stonehenge has influenced many groups over the eons, as it was intended to do. The Druids did not build Stonehenge, but they incorporated it into their rituals. Thus, history tends to credit them with erecting Stonehenge. Religious rituals, or those semi-religious rituals that form in highly structured social groups, are put into place to control the membership and give them outlets for emotions that would otherwise be disruptive. Emotions such as jealousy or fear can scatter a membership, but if given an outlet that tends to support the groups goal, build and support the group rather then tear it apart.
Human sacrifices are one such ritual, as the sacrificed one acts as a scapegoat, becoming a symbol for whatever has caused rage in the membership. The leaders, of course, select someone they wish to get rid of, a troublemaker or an independent thinker. Stonehenge by its very shape implies sacrifice, but it did not cause this behavior in the Druids, as using scapegoats and rituals involving sacrifice occur in all cultures and all parts of the world. The close proximity to such an edifice as Stonehenge to any sacrificial rituals would naturally align into a mental association over time, and this is what occurred - a coincidence, made into cause and effect by historians. | <urn:uuid:4e29b220-d140-4f0b-88c7-aeeba20a9a5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.zetatalk4.com/myths/m56.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969765 | 262 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Sir Oliver Lodge
... the celebrated scientist was born at Penkhull, Stoke-on-Trent - he achieved world fame for his pioneering work in radio and was the first man to transmit a message by wireless. He also invented electric spark ignition. This focus marks the 150th anniversary of Lodge's birth on June 12, 1851.
Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph (1851-1940),
British physicist and writer, best known for his contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy.
Lodge was born on June 12 1851 at 'The Views' Penkhull, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire. He was the eldest son of Oliver Lodge and Grace nee Heath. Educated at University College, London. From 1881 to 1890 he was a Professor of Physics at University College in Liverpool.
He was knighted and made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1902. Lodge's original work in physics includes investigations of lightning, the voltaic cell and electrolysis, and electromagnetic waves. He also studied the nature of the ether, a medium permeating all space, and of the ether drift, the supposed relative motion between the ether and any body within it.
In wireless telegraphy Lodge perfected and named the "coherer" (1894), a radio-wave detector invented by the French physicist Edouard Branly. It was one of the most important types of detector developed before electronic tubes. During his last years Lodge was a firm believer in psychic phenomena.
His writings include The Ether of Space (1909), Raymond (1916), Making of Man (1924), and My Philosophy (1933).
On August 22 1877 he married Mary Marshall, of Brampton House, Newcastle-under-Lyme and they had six sons and six daughters. Lodge died on 22nd August 1940 at Normanton House near Salisbury.
1881 Census entry for the Oliver Lodge household:-
Dwelling: 17 Parkhurst Rd
Census Place: Islington, London, Middlesex, England
Marr | Age | Sex
|Oliver Joseph LODGE||M 29 M||Head||Penkhull, Staffordshire||Dr Of Science Lndn Asst Prof Of Physics ... College Lndn Prof Bedford Clg Lndn|
|Mary F.A. LODGE||M 30 F||Wife||Camberwell, Surrey|
|Infant LODGE||1 m M||Son||Islington, Middlesex|
|Emily GRAHAM||U 58 F||Serv||Wexford, Ireland||Professional Nurse|
|Mary HART||U 27 F||Serv||Shillingstone, Dorset||Domestic Servant Cook|
|Sarah COLLETT||U 18 F||Serv||Cambridge||Domestic Servant Housemaid|
There are Oliver and Lodge Roads in Penkhull and a Lodge Grove at Porthill.
Sources: The way we were, June 2001, John Abberley; Microsoft Encarta; People of the Potteries; 1881 Census. | <urn:uuid:ee8c83eb-c9ce-4ba1-8de0-50b548ec3325> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thepotteries.org/focus/003.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925161 | 637 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Big Data, is the hottest topic in tech news. Everyone talks about what Big Data is, but rarely does anyone show how data mining algorithms actually work. This post is to show how to make a simple stock data decision tree model, and how to understand it.
Data was downloaded from a free online source for the John Deere stock ticker DE, from August 3, 2012 to May 3, 2012. Data shows DE Open, DE High, DE Low, DE Volume, and other stock indicators such as Dow Jones, NYSE, Shanghai, Nasdaq, Greek, Euro VKG, Price of Corn, and to Buy DE stock Yes/No. Buy DE is calculated based upon if DE Close Price > DE Open Price.
Machine Learning J48 Algorithm
The machine learning tool processes all the attributes against the Buy Deere Yes or No goal. Then it spits out rules as to which attributes cause a Buy Yes or a Buy No. The algorithm used to process this data is the J48 or C4.5 Algorithm that provides a decision tree. This is a set of rules of how the data relates to Buy Yes, or Buy No decision. The model was 72% effective, and a valid model at the time.
How To Read The Output
Going Left: if Euro VKG stock ticker is Green, than the next ticker to look at is DJIA, and if Dow is Green than it is a Buy DE stock decision. If the Dow is Red, the next stock to look at is the GREK, if it is Green than do not buy DE, if it is Red, than Yes, purchase DE.
Going Right: if Euro VKG is Red, then you want to look at NASDAQ, if Green, then you want to look at the price of Corn, if corn is Green than it is a don’t buy decision. If the price of Corn is red, then yes purchase DE. If NASDAQ is red, then it is a no buy decision.
The decision tree rules are straight forward and easy to follow. However, this model cannot be used as the data is outdated and there are not enough attributes that makes me feel secure in actually purchasing the stock ticker. There are far more factors that are affecting the price of DE stock other than those mined in this algorithm. At that time the Euro Markets were the highest impact on DE stock. If we were to run this algorithm today, we may find completely different factors that impact stock price.
Models are created based on the data type you input into the software. It is up to the data scientist to find the right algorithm or algorithms to mine the data. In the real world, algorithms that are more than two thirds accurate cannot be ignored. It can take some time to find the right model, and becomes even more complex with big data. | <urn:uuid:c3fa2b8a-af94-4f75-9d35-0d9652d078f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.312analytics.com/what-is-machine-learning-big-data-modeling/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954156 | 583 | 2.625 | 3 |
This expanded edition of John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism includes the text of his 1868 speech to the British House of Commons defending the use of capital punishment in cases of aggravated murder. The speech is significant both because its topic remains timely and because its arguments illustrate the applicability of the principle of utility to questions of large-scale social policy.
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Rent Utilitarianism 2nd edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by John Stuart Mill. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:3efa2fc5-4dcc-461b-83a1-dd90a74e532e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/utilitarianism-2nd-edition-9780872206052-087220605x | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927303 | 147 | 2.53125 | 3 |
1. Two words: COOKIE BOWLS.
3. Use a muffin liner to eat a popsicle without any trouble:
4. The RIGHT way to eat a cupcake:
5. If your butter is too hard, grate it:
6. Do this:
7. Learn how to evenly distribute a sandwich:
8. Invent this:
9. Use a straw to get the most out of a strawberry:
10. Never reach for ketchup again:
11. The “Sprayracha”:
12. Turn chips into a snack bowl:
13. And learn the right way to eat oreos:
- More than 35 people have died in a suicide bombing attack on Istanbul's international airport, Turkish officials said.
- The president of the EU Council says the bloc's leaders want UK's exit plans "to be specified as soon as possible."
- More athletes — nearly all of them golfers — have pulled out of the Rio Olympics over Zika virus concerns. | <urn:uuid:30294bbf-aab3-4462-82c1-e91d751d5fc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.buzzfeed.com/daves4/13-life-changing-ways-to-eat-food?p=2&r=true&z=3I8F4M | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868777 | 213 | 2.609375 | 3 |
14 The Analysis Window - Overview
The Analysis Window occupies the right third of the BibleWorks Main Window. Its primary function is to display an analysis of the Biblical text in the Browse Window. It also provides the user interface for the BibleWorks Editor and the BibleWorks User Notes facility. The various functions of the Analysis Window are accessed by a set of tabs across the top of the window. The functions of these tabs are described below.
Each of the tabs represents a separate tool to help you analyze the text in the Browse Window. To activate a tab all you have to do is click on the tab. There are many times when you want to use two tools at once and have them both visible. You can do this by splitting the Analysis Window into two columns. Each column will have a portion of the total tabs available. To split the Analysis Window click on the long red arrow on the right side of the tabs. The BibleWorks Window will then look something like this:
Configuring a 4th Column
Note that there are now two Analysis Windows. You have the option of displaying the Analysis Tabs in either one or two columns. You can switch back and forth between one column mode and two column mode by clicking on the red arrow on the upper right of the first Analysis Window column. You can rearrange buttons in an Analysis Window simply by clicking and dragging with the left mouse button. You can also move tabs from one column to the other by the same procedure.
If you right click on the red tab you will see a context menu with two configuration options. One turns the tab wrapping on and off. The other affects how the Analysis Window is split into two windows. If "Maintain main window size" is checked, the total BibleWorks Window width will be preserved. If it is not checked, expanding the Analysis Window will result in a second Analysis Column that is the same width as the first, thus making the BibleWorks Window wider.
The Word Analysis Tab displays lexical and other verse-specific information automatically as you move the mouse cursor over text in the Browse Window. The information displayed in the Word Analysis Window depends on the nature of the text under the mouse cursor, whether it is Greek, Hebrew, or other-language Bible text tagged for Strong's numbers. For details see the section on the Analysis Window.
The Resource Summary Tab contains an instance of the Resource Summary Window. This is a Window that displays a summary of available information related to Greek and Hebrew words under the mouse cursor in the Browse Window. It includes a list of abbreviated Lexicon entries as well as a list of locations where the current verses is cited. For details see the section on the Resource Summary Window.
The User Notes Tab contains a copy of the BibleWorks Editor that is dedicated to use as a repository of User Verse Notes. For a detailed description of the Editor functions see the section on The BibleWorks Editor. For a description of the procedures for keeping notes attached to Bible verses and chapters see the section on Taking Notes on Verses.
The Editor Tab contains a copy of the BibleWorks Editor. This is a full-featured editor that has all the features of WordPad plus many features specific to BibleWorks. It has full support for Unicode plus a wealth of useful features including hypertext links, Scripture links, inserted bitmaps, full undo and redo, automatic outlining, Bible Text insertion (by verse or in tabular form), and text zoom. For a detailed description of the Editor functions see the section on The BibleWorks Editor.
The X-Refs Tab displays cross-references from a variety of cross-reference sources. The X-Refs tab enables you to switch between sets of cross-references, to export lists of cross-references, and to create your own set of cross-references. You can view the cross-references in any version you wish, regardless of your search version or Browse Window display versions. For details see the section on the X-Refs Tab.
The Search Statistics Tab displays a detailed statistical analysis of the search. The statistical analysis can be configured in a variety of ways, and the analysis can be exported as text or as a graphic. For details see the section on the Search Statistics Tab.
The Words Tab provides a list of the words contained in the full version, a list of words in the verses contained in the current search results, and a list of words searched. For details see the section on the Words Tab.
The Context tab provides a list of the words in the current Bible outline pericope, a list of the words in the current Biblical book, and a list of the words in the current chapter. For details see the section on the Context Tab.
The Version Info Tab displays information about the Bible version which has the focus in the Browse Window. For detailed information see the section on the Version Info Tab.
The Browse Tab
The Browse Tab provides an additional view of the current Browse Window context. The Browse Tab enables you to set the Browse Window to multi-version mode to view the current verse in more than one Bible version, while having the Browse Tab in a single version to view the verse within its context. For detailed information see the section on the Browse Tab.
The Verse Tab
The Verse Tab updates as the mouse moves over the Browse Window and shows content from the CNTTS Apparatus, the NET Bible notes, the ESV Study Bible, the Tischendorf Apparatus, Metzger's Textual Commentary, etc. For detailed information see the section on the Verse Tab.
The Mss Tab
The Manuscripts Tab provides access to a set of Greek New Testament transcriptions and images. For details see the section on the Mss Tab.
The Use Tab
The Use Tab shows a list of all occurrences of a word in the local context as the mouse is moved over words in the Browse Window. See the section on the Use Tab for details. | <urn:uuid:97f0ba58-3d97-498b-bfeb-e57fc3d68165> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bibleworks.com/bw9help/bwh10_AnalysisWindow.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.851853 | 1,217 | 2.953125 | 3 |
If you've ever been tempted to wake your dog during a dream, try and resist. It's best to "let sleeping dogs lie."
You've probably seen it happen—your sleeping dog suddenly lets out a woof as his legs begin to twitch. Is he dreaming?
Many scientists say there is evidence to support the idea that dogs do, in fact, experience dreams. Researchers using an electroencephalogram (EEG) have tested canine brain wave activity during sleep. They've found that dogs are similar to humans when it comes to sleep patterns and brain wave activity. Like humans, dogs enter a deep sleep stage during which their breathing becomes more irregular and they have rapid eye movements (REM). It is during REM sleep that actual dreaming and, often, involuntary movements take place. Dogs may move their legs as if they are running, whine or whimper as if excited, and breathe rapidly or hold their breath for short periods.
Not all dogs dream equally. Research suggests that small dogs dream more than larger dogs. A Toy Poodle may dream once every ten minutes while a Golden Retriever may only dream once every 90 minutes. Dreaming also seems to occur more frequently in puppies. This may be because they are processing huge quantities of newly acquired experiences.
What do dogs dream about? Since no dog has ever told anyone about a dream he's had, we can only guess. It's likely that dogs dream in a similar fashion to humans, replaying the everyday activities that make up their existence, like chasing, playing, and eating.
If you've ever been tempted to wake your dog during a dream, try and resist. It's best to "let sleeping dogs lie." Dogs, like humans, need uninterrupted sleep for healthy mental activity. | <urn:uuid:da68bf2e-1a17-4c24-b765-37660fb33423> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pedigree.com/all-things-dog/article-library/Do-Dogs-Dream.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971702 | 357 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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