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The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the mid-16th century it was
available in as many as eight different sizes, from soprano ...
The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the mid-sixteenth ... Notable
makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include ...
Bassoon, French basson, German Fagott , the principal bass instrument of the ...
In performance, the bassoon is held aslant on a sling. ... Article History.
Define bassoon: a large musical instrument that is shaped like a tube, makes low
sounds, and is played by blowing into a ... Origin and Etymology of bassoon.
Learn Bassoon History, How It's Made, How It's Played, About the Bassoon
Family, and Fun Facts | Creative Resources for Elementary Music Education.
May 18, 2016 ... HISTORY: Sometime before 1636 the one-piece instrument the curtall was
changed into a separately jointed instrument in France, come be ...
Bassoon definition, a large woodwind instrument of low range, with a ... Origin of
bassoon ... Pogliani gave up the bassoon for the fork, spoon, and saucepan.
bassoon (n.) Look up bassoon at Dictionary.com: 1727, from French basson (17c.
), from Italian bassone, augmentative of basso (see bass (adj.)). Compare ...
The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that plays in .....
Much of the early history of the bassoon is known through its representation in ...
Etymology. From German Fagott (“bassoon”), from Italian fagotto (“
bassoon”) ... Noun. fagott c. bassoon (musical instrument in the woodwind | <urn:uuid:a8692b1d-aff4-4054-aee4-fb7ceaaa65ed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ask.com/web?q=Origin+of+the+Bassoon&o=2603&l=dir&qsrc=3139&gc=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892249 | 403 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Nanotechnology Perceptions is a peer-reviewed academic journal of the Collegium Basilea in Basel, Switzerland. The issue dated March 27, 2006, is devoted completely to a series of essays written by members of the CRN Global Task Force.
This is how nanotechnology is introduced and described in the journal:
Nanotechnology -- the precise engineering of tiny but powerful machines -- is advancing quickly, leaping from the pages of science fiction into world-class research laboratories, and coming soon to a desktop near you.
Like electricity or computers before it, nanotechnology will bring greatly improved efficiency and productivity in many areas of human endeavor. In its mature form, known as molecular nanotechnology (MNT) or molecular manufacturing (MM), it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all parts of society. Personal nanofactories (PNs) may offer better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter products for the home, for communications, for medicine, for transportation, for agriculture, and for industry in general.
However, as a general-purpose technology, MM will be dual-use, meaning that in addition to its civilian applications, it will have military uses as well -- making far more powerful weapons and tools of surveillance. Thus, it represents not only wonderful benefits for humanity, but also grave risks.
Several factors will come together to make MM truly revolutionary.
- Cost: One PN can build another PN as easily as any other product, so nanofactories will be neither scarce nor expensive. Labor costs will also be minimal, since PNs will be automated. Small carbon-based molecules (feedstock) are quite inexpensive.
- Exponential manufacturing: One PN can be made to build two, or a small system can build one twice as big. Working in parallel, manufacturing capacity can double every few hours. Within just a few months, a single molecular manipulation device could be expanded to PN's with a combined capacity of thousands of tons per hour. The PN architecture can even scale to individual factories of industrial size.
- Precision: Atoms of each type are identical with each other, and products made from precisely placed atoms also will be identical—more reliable and easier to manufacture.
- High performance: Small machines are more powerful than large ones—perhaps a million times more powerful, when shrunk to nano-scale—and precise materials are perhaps 100 times stronger. Also, precise surfaces can have extremely low friction and wear. Nanofactory-built products could include large numbers of small, high-performance machines.
- General-purpose manufacturing: Structures will be made by automated placement of tiny building blocks, so changing the program (blueprint) will change the product. A wide range of components and products is possible, including computers, sensors, motors, and displays, and combinations thereof.
- Rapid prototyping: Because a nanofactory will make a complete product in a few minutes from any given blueprint, new product designs could be built and tested almost immediately, and at very low cost.
Progress toward developing the technical requirements for desktop molecular manufacturing is moving forward rapidly. The March 27 issue of Nanotechnology Perceptions begins to illustrate the radical changes that personal nanofactories will bring to society, and to all of our lives. | <urn:uuid:92a2b040-d9b3-402a-9a43-253cc90a0503> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://crnano.typepad.com/crnblog/2006/03/nanotechnology__1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94846 | 673 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The Old Testament 395
And the dry land was called Earth.
And the gathering together of the waters was called Seas.
And this happened on the third day
of the first month of a long lost year.
The hills melted like wax at His presence.
This is the beginning
It is the path among the possible paths
which thy planet Earth has picked.
It was four-billion-four-hundred-million years ago.
And the last impact of a super giant
meteorite on Earth
And the original superdense atmosphere had to a
large extent been blown away -- the original
primordial gases had long been lost.
But the thinner atmosphere which remained was
still many times thicker than the
atmosphere in modern times.
Now the formation of the Earth from smaller parts had left it in a hot and violent state -- almost all of Earth was molten rock. And so Earth began the processes of cooling off.
And it came to pass that, deep inside the Earth, a hot molten region swelled and rose. And it drifted up toward the surface of the Earth where it released its heat and cooled. And a cooler but still quite hot region near the surface slowly sank. And near the center of the Earth, it absorbed heat, and it grew hot. And when it grew hot enough, it swelled and rose.
And such circulating, up-and-downward-moving currents were happening everywhere within the Earth. Molten Earth was in a turmoil. And currents slowly moved Earth's heat from its center to its outer layers. Thus convection96 over distances of thousands of kilometers was occurring in the Earth.
And the heat that reached the outer layers moved to Earth's surface and escaped. And after passing through the atmosphere, the heat entered into outer space as radiation.
Now the surface of the Earth was solid. But it was very hot and glowing red. And it was dry -- the surface was so hot that no drop of water could exist on it without it being vaporized.
95 During the next several hundred-million years,
many impacts would still occur but by objects smaller than
96 The flow of heat by motion of the medium is called convection.
Copyright ©1999 by Jupiter Scientific Publishing Company
Back to the index of The Bible According to Einstein | <urn:uuid:1b245d34-45e8-4ff5-ad79-640bec6039fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jupiterscientific.org/science/baeparts/baep395.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95857 | 476 | 3.265625 | 3 |
The country, which lies astride the equator, consists of several geographical regions. The first is a narrow coastal strip that is low lying except for the Taita Hills in the south. The second, an inland region of bush-covered plains, constitutes most of the country's land area. In the northwest, straddling Lake Turkana and the Kulal Mts., are high-lying scrublands. In the southwest are the fertile grasslands and forests of the Kenya highlands. In the west is the Great Rift Valley, an irregular depression that cuts through W Kenya from north to south in two branches. It is also the location of some of the country's highest mountains, including Mt. Kenya (17,058 ft/5,199 m). Kenya's main rivers are the Tana and the Athi. In addition to the capital, other important cities include Mombasa (the chief port), Nakuru, Kisumu, Thika, Machakos, and Eldoret.
People of African descent make up about 99% of the population; they are divided into about 40 ethnic groups, of which the Bantu-speaking Kikuyu, Luhya, Kalenjin, Kamba, and Kisii and the Nilotic-speaking Luo are predominant. Small numbers of persons of South Asian and European descent live in the interior, and there are some Arabs along the coast. The official languages of Kenya are Swahili and English; many indigenous languages are also spoken. About 80% of the population is Christian; others follow indigenous beliefs and there are Muslim and Hindu minorities.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:dcd88ba3-0717-4b15-9462-7543b5e2730c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/world/kenya-land-people.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944109 | 349 | 3.234375 | 3 |
The "Explore Evolution" Companion
Explore Evolution is a book and website published under the auspices of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. The book, authored by Stephen C. Meyer, Paul Nelson, Jonathan Moneymaker, Scott Minnich, and Ralph Seelke, seeks to put as many old-time antievolution arguments into the science curriculum as possible, without explicitly mentioning their preferred alternative. This, they hope, will make their text the basis of widespread lawsuit-free K-12 instruction. This is a vain hope. The antievolution arguments themselves are erroneous; there is no valid secular purpose in teaching students falsehoods. Further, the history of these errors is, in ensemble, unique to the religious antievolution movement.
In setting forth their arguments in Explore Evolution, the authors consistently present mistaken, weak, or misleading synopses of concepts in evolutionary science; overlook, misrepresent, or otherwise ignore relevant confirming experiments and data; and present their antievolution objections last, with no attempt to rigorously assess the legitimacy of the criticism.
Students should be taught the best available science, the science that has shown its accountability by presentation to the scientific community, a history of scrutiny and testing by that community, and, in the end, general acceptance of its legitimacy by the scientific community. Evolutionary science has that accountability. The antievolutionary objections of Explore Evolution do not.
This project is aimed at bringing together resources that discuss Explore Evolution, and to provide a detailed compendium of critical analysis that the authors failed to incorporate in their pages.
See also: Open discussion of "Explore Evolution" | <urn:uuid:264ecfd2-5512-49a7-908e-a6cc168aaea3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://antievolution.org/cs/taxonomy/term/28 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.894471 | 331 | 2.890625 | 3 |
This month’s crude oil graph compares Russian and Saudi Arabian crude production. Russia is now #1 producer, around 1.3 mb/d higher than Saudi Arabia which lost production share. This means there are limits to Saudi Arabia’s capacity to pump oil.
The graph also shows that during the boom period in the 1st half of 2008 Russia could not increase production.
Let’s zoom into the 2003 period. There was the Venezuelan strike and then the Iraq war. Saudi Arabia could not offset these production losses as the claimed spare capacity could not be activated
5 years later, in 2008, extra demand from China for the Olympic games again challemged Saudi oil supplies. The peak didn’t last long. In the meantime projects like Khurais have come on-stream but it is not clear whether this is just offsetting decline in other Saudi fields or whether this is part of real additional capacity which can be sustained over many years. In any case, world oil demand is now highly vulnerable to what happens in oil-geologically limited crude oil supply systems.
All data are from: http://www.eia.doe.gov/ipm/ | <urn:uuid:45a59676-6203-4dca-9e9e-ed967722a433> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crudeoilpeak.com/?p=1800 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950491 | 244 | 2.671875 | 3 |
CFTR REVIEW PAGE
TYPES OF ION CHANNELS KNOWN
CLASSIFICATION OF ION CHANNELS
The three main groups of ion channels are 1) the voltage-gated channels such as the sodium and potassium channels of the nerve axons and nerve terminals, 2) the extracellular ligand-activated channels which includes channels such as GABA and glycine receptor channels, most of which are regulated by ligands that are "neurotransmitters". These channels are often named according to the ligand they bind to. 3) Intracellular ligand-gated ion channels. These include CFTR and some other ABC family members as well as ion channels involved in sense perception. These are often activated indirectly by GCPRs. Other common intracellular ligands which activate these kinds of channels include calcium ions, ATP, cyclic AMP and GMP as well as phosphadidyl inositol (PI). There are additional systems of nomenclature which have joined the second and third groups into the "chemically activated" or just simply "ligand gated" ion channels. It has been shown by sequence comparison that ion channels within the above groups will also show the greatest sequence similarity and are therefore most likely all be descended from a common ancestor. The mechanosensory and volume-regulated channels have their own grouping, but they are still in the process of being classified. We have made a fifth "catch-all" group, miscellaneous 2, which includes any ion channels not included in the above there. This group includes the GAP junctions, peptide ion channels like Gramicidin, and various venomous insect toxins like the conus toxins from cone shells. At the end is a section on Recent Discoveries.
A few words regarding the classification and naming of ion channels: Of the several possible ways of arranging ion channels into groups, so far the most successful seems to be a system based on how ion channels are regulated. It should be remembered that no method known is without drawbacks. For example, it is possible to arrange ion channels according to the ion that they conduct thru their pores rather then regulation mechanisms, however this method has the problem that very few other characteristics will be shared in common among the channels. For instance, the nAChR channel conducts sodium ions, as does the voltage-gated sodium channels of the neurons. But other important features are very obviously not be shared between these two very different ion channels, including gating mechanisms, as well as the sequence of amino acids making up the channels themselves (i.e. they are not related evolutionarily). Many researchers believe that until there is a classification system based solely on sequences and molecular structures, as well as evolutionary history of all ion channels at the level of the genome, the method of classification (even the one used here based on activation mechanisms) will have to suffice. A good example which exemplifies a need for this new kind of system is given by the finding that certain cyclic nucleotide gated channels share enough sequence similarity with voltage-gated ion channels that they may in fact belong to the voltage-gated channel superfamily rather than the ligand-gated superfamily they are presently placed in. Another problem with the present system is that while the glutamate ion channel, which is activated by the ligand glutamate, is often relegated to the family of ligand-gated ion channels, it shares no sequence similarity and therefore is probably unrelated evolutionarily to any other ligand-gated ion channels in this group.
EXTRACELLULAR LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNELS
nAChR: The "nicotine acetylcholine receptor" has the distinction of being the first ion channel sequenced: in 1983. It functions as a multimer of 5 subunits which form the channel (2 alpha, 1 beta, 1 gamma, 1 delta). It is found in nerve and muscle cells and is not to be confused with other nAChR receptors, some of which are not ion channels at all. The ion channel nAChRs include those found in nerves (nerves release acetylcholine which binds to nAChR in muscle cells). When the channels open, they let pass just about all cations, including sodium, potassium, and calcium; and this depolarizes the cell membrane which can in turn trigger voltage-gated channels which in turn causes muscle contraction. nAChR is considered to be a model ion channel mainly because of its historical importance due to its high abundance from natural sources which made it easier to study especially before molecular biology techniques became more refined. nAChR is used in many detailed studies on ion channel kinetics and allosterism and was first isolated and characterized from the fish Torpedo (tissue source was its electric organ. Torpedo is a marine ray). There are many different "variations" of the nAChR channel. For example, mammals have several just in the nervous system. The poison curare is known to shut down (and therefore act as an "antagonist" of) nAChR. Nicotine is an alkaloid drug from tobacco which exerts its physical effects on the body in part because it also binds to nAChR. However instead of simply shutting it down like curare did, nicotine activates it instead. Chlorpromazine, a tranquillizer, is able to block the channel pore. It is quite possible that general anesthetics exert their effects via direct binding to the transmembrane helices of ion channels such as nAChRs. The nAChR family, together with the GABA and Glycine chloride channel families forms a superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels which is based on strong sequence similarity. These neurotransmitter ligand-gated channels are not related to voltage-gated channels or to the glutamate ligand-gated ion channel. They all have 4 distinct transmembrane segments.
GABA and Glycine Receptors (these are both families of chloride channels). GABA(A) and glycine chloride channels have relatively complex gating characteristics and are made up of 5 subunits, with each containing 4 transmembrane helices (TMs), and are characterized as having multiple states of conductance apparently due to them having more than one possible open state. TM2 has been found to contribute to pore (i.e. the five TM2 segments from the 5 subunits come together to line pore). Chloride channels in excitable tissues function in the same way as the potassium channel in that they serve to "dampen" the electrical excitability of the neuron. GABA(A) and glycine receptor chloride channels function in the postsynaptic neuron as well as skeletal tissue. GABA(A) is so named because it binds to gamma-aminobuteryic acid. GABA and Glycine neurotransmitters act mostly on inhibitory neurons. Like glutamate, they are small molecules and therefore act as fast messengers in neurons. GABA inhibits ability of neurons to fire action potentials, and should not be confused with the unrelated GABA(B) receptor, which couples to the intracellular second messenger systems. As many as 1/3 of brain neurons use GABA. GABA is manufactured by the body from glutamate, however vitamin B6 is a necessary component. Lack of it can cause seizures. Alcohol and barbituates like Valium on the other hand act on GABA(A) receptors as agonists (activators), by increasing burst time of the channels. They bind at sites where GABA doesn't normally bind to, and potentiates the action of GABA when it binds at it's own site. This often makes these types of drugs beneficial for epilepsy. Glycine Receptors tend to be more localized in brain, but can be found in spinal cord and other places. Some molecules bind GABA(A) Receptors but do not open them, thereby blocking them from activation by the endogenous neurotransmitter itself. Diversity of GABA(A) receptors can be increased due to the fact that each channel is made up of distinct amounts of various individual protein subunits (each subunit is a distinct protein). There are 6 alpha subunit isoforms for GABA(A) receptors (3 beta and 3 gamma and one delta). All subunits have a GABA ligand-binding site, unlike nAChR in which only a single subunit is able to bind its ligand, ACh. Their mRNA transcripts can also be alternatively spliced to provide further diversity. Note: the majority of all known ion channels consist of more than one protein subunit, as with GABA(A) and Glycine Receptors. Glycine Receptor is also chloride channel, but binds glycine instead of GABA. The glycine and GABA(A) Receptors are both found in the post-synaptic membranes of neurons and are both composed of oligomers consisting of several homologous subunits (each subunit is about 50 KDa) with the amino terminus facing out of the cell and the second transmembrane helix lining the pore (like with nAChR). Each subunit most likely consists of 4 membrane-spanning helices, not unlike the nAChR subunits. The glycine receptor has 4 different alpha subunits and one beta subunit. Both GABA(A) and Glycine Receptors are involved in producing inhibitory responses and serve to dampen the action potential of neurons and show amino acid sequence similarities. All of the subunits are of similar size. Note: the various glutamate receptors are in a different family completely due to differences in sequences. Blocking inhibitory receptors causes convulsions. The GABA(A) Receptor is widely found in brain. The disease called "Startles Disease" results from a mutant form of the glycine receptor alpha-1 subunit. Patients with this disorder are subject to muscle rigidity in response to external stimuli believed to be due to a lowered affinity of the ion channel to its ligand, glycine, which results ultimately in a lowered chloride conductance into neurons. This reduces the inhibitory effects of chloride on certain neurons. Strychnine acts as a competitive antagonist. It binds the alpha-subunits of the Glycine Receptor. These channels, like the GABA(A) ion channel, form mostly heteromeric pentamers. Both GABA(A) and glycine receptors conduct chloride in the range of 10 to 90 pS. Both conduct bicarbonate anions as well. Glycine receptors can be found throughout the CNS, not unlike GABA(A). Note: GABA and Glycine neurotransmitters act mostly on the inhibitory type of neurons As many as 1/3 of the neurons in the brain have them.
There are 3 types of chloride channels: voltage-gated, ligand gated (like GABA and Glycine receptors), and CFTR. . There is no sequence homology between the three families. Chloride channels contribute to processes as diverse as membrane excitability, transepithelial transport, regulation of cell volume and regulation of pH of intracellular organelles.
5-HT, (includes )MOD-1 (Serotonin-gated ion channel) : 5-HT is a cation selective ion channel and so named because it is activated by 5-hydroxytryptamine. Note that the ligand-gated channels all seem to be related to each other (GABA, 5-HT, glycine, acetylcholine) except for the glutamate ligand-gated ion channel. Note: the neurotransmitters GABA, 5-HT, and glutamate can also produce much slower responses by binding receptors that are not ion channels, such as GCPR's. A serotonin-gated ion channel, MOD-1 was recently been discovered in C. elegans. (Note: 5-HT is serotonin). This channel helps control locamotory behavior. (Note: serotonin generally binds to either GPCR's like 5-HT, to mediate slow responses or the ionotropic 5-HT(3) receptor, a "non-selective cation channel which mediates fast membrane depolarizations.) MOD-1 has a predicted structure similar to nAChR family of ligand-gated channels like glycine and GABA receptors. MOD-1 has a reversal potential dependent on chloride concentration, but not cations. It is not blocked by calcium ions or 5-HT(3a)-specific antagonists. It is inhibited by metabotropic 5-HT receptor antagonists mianerin and methiothepin. MOD-1 functions as a 5-HT receptor in vivo.
P(2X) Is an ion channel known to respond to ATP. It has different structure than other ion channels and is in the same family as P(2) Purinogenic receptors. They are sodium and calcium channels and are made up of multiple subunits. They are known to be involved in neurotransmission.
Glutamate: NMDA, AMPA, Kainate Receptors, GluR-B Unlike the nAChR and glycine receptors which were cloned after using affinity chromatography, the glutamate receptors were found using expression cloning with cDNA and therefore without any protein chemistry involved. The majority of synapses important for fast excitatory transmission confined to the vertebrate CNS use glutamate as a neurotransmitter. The NMDA type of glutamate receptor ion channel selectively passes calcium ions over sodium or potassium and therefore can affect intracellular messaging. It is possible that its main role may not be in the generation or dampening of electrical signals (which they do since many pass sodium and potassium monovalent ions), but rather in signal transduction perhaps ultimately affecting learning. NMDA types are found in almost all neurons. Almost none are known to exist in the peripheral nervous system, which instead use ACh. Glutamate Receptors are relatively diverse due to the "mix-and-match" strategy using multiple subunits, as well as alternate splicing and are involved in long-lasting changes for example in learning and memory. High glutamate levels cause death of neurons and are perhaps involved directly or indirectly in causing neurological diseases such as ALS, Alzheimer's Disease, and Huntington's. There are at least three main types of glutamate receptors. Some glutamate receptor channels include NMDA, AMPA (quisqualate), and kainate receptors, so named because AMPA binds to AMPA receptors, kainic acid kainate receptors, etc. The subunits composing these ion channels are longer than nAChR family and very diverse. Some AMPA receptors may have their messenger RNA transcripts edited (called "RNA editing") which has been shown to make their channels become more permeable to calcium. Some animal venoms (spider, wasp) are known to affect Glutamate Receptors directly. Unlike the neurotransmitter ACh, transmitters like glutamate, glycine and GABA have no enzyme which breaks them down. It is therefore necessary for them to be removed from the cleft by diffusion or by sodium-coupled transporters. GluR0 is a recently discovered channel from prokaryotes. GluR-B is a glutamate-sensitive ion channel expressed in neurons of the CNS. It's pre-mRNA has recently been shown to undergo RNA-editing which results in an A to I (note: an I is similar to a G as far as hydrogen-bonding during translation) via deamination. This causes a change in protein sequence from a glutamine to an arginine, making the channel less permeable to calcium. GluR-B double knockout mice suffer from epileptic seizures and die soon after weaning. It still is not known if this example of RNA-editing is to "correct" for an DNA mistake, or to generate more diversity. There is an NMDA ion channel which binds glutamate. It acts as a calcium channel in synapses. ATP and serotonin have been found on rare occasions to act as fast excitatory transmitters in vertebrates.
ORCC : uncloned chloride channel. Activated by extracellular ATP perhaps via the purinergic receptor (P2u) ORCC: outwardly rectifying chloride channel. Found in epithelial tissues, it is probably the main contributor to chloride currents thru the apical cell membrane (30-70 pS) with an anion selectivity of I > Cl > Br. ORCC was discovered by patch clamp before CFTR was cloned and was assumed by many to be the "CF chloride channel". . Also called ICOR or ORDIC, it is activated in the presence of active CFTR (when there is no cAMP stimulation, ORCC remains inactive) or extracellular ATP. Perhaps ATP is released from CFTR. ORCC is activated by PKA indirectly and this is probably due to CFTR activation by its NBDs. It is likely CFTR releases ATP somehow into the extracellular environment and the ATP binds to purinergic receptors (P2u subtype?) and this activates ORCC.
P2X3: Receptor ion channels that bind extracellular ATP which in turn contributes to pain sensation resulting from tissue destruction and bladder discomfort (due to stretching) and sensations of warmth. (Note: the sensation of touch is the least understood of all the senses on the molecular level) The P2X3 receptor is localized to the apical cell membrane and opens when ATP binds it. It is believed that cytosolic ATP is released when tissues are damaged, which in turn excites these pain-sensing neurons, also called nociceptors. Knockout mice lacking this channel have been developed.
Inward Rectifying Channels: *ROMK (requires internal ATP), ROMK2, IRK (a potassium channel), BIR (potassium channel widely expressed in pancreas and heart), RACTK (a pH sensitive potassium channel found in kidney. Probably involves potassium removal in urine), Kir6.2, Kir1.1a, Kir6.1 (note: the sulfonylurea receptor SUR is an ABC protein found to heterodimerize with Kir6.1 and Kir6.2 Some theorize CFTR can take it's place at times.
Ligand-gated channels have subunits arranged as pentamers (5 subunits per ion channel)
VOLTAGE-GATED ION CHANNELS
Nearly all eukaryotic cells have some amount of voltage-sensitive ionic permeability, some more complex than others. Voltage-sensitive ion channels are diverse in the kinetics of their gating. Some are modulated by neurotransmitters or intracellular messengers.
Sodium Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: In 1978, these channels were first purified (Agnew et al.) from electric eel electric organs. Found to be a single peptide of almost 2000 amino acids in length (but with internal repeats corresponding to the equivelant of subunits). However, in other tissues such as mammalian skeletal muscle or brain, it can be found as subunits (4 subunits in the case of voltage-gated channels, but 5 in the fast ligand-gated receptors. GAP junctions have 6. It seems that the more subunits an ion channel is composed of, the less selective it is for its respective ions. This may be because the pore is correspondingly larger the more subunits it is composed of). The channel from electric eel was also found to have 30% of its weight in carbohydrates (500 sugars of mostly sialic acid and N-acetylglucosamine) and 6% as attached fatty acids. Some Sodium Voltage-gated channels may have as many as 6 different kinds of neurotoxins which bind and inhibit them to various degrees and each toxin appears to bind at a different site, which is unusual. Some of these toxins are classified as peptides, while others are alkaloids, cyclic polyethers, esters, and heterocycles. Most peptide neurotoxins are 60-100 amino acids in length, which allows them to assume a defined shape, but curiously, the peptide toxins made from cone shells are often only between 10 and 30 amino acids long. They accomplish their inhibitory task by forming disulfide bonds with each other. Usually 2 or 3 come together and form these larger structures. Voltage-gated Sodium channels are responsible for the action potential of neurons while the voltage-gated potassium channels help to re-establish the membrane potential back to normal. Pore sizes are estimated to be ~3x5A for the selectivity filter region. Potassium channels are more diverse, and yet it is also true that sufficient diversity exists among sodium channels for different monoclonal antibodies to distinguish sodium channels from different tissues (axons from muscle, etc). Sodium channels deactivate quickly compared to calcium channels. This is the reason calcium ions are used by the cell for more of a sustained response to external stimuli. Some other members of this family: mH1, mH2, SCN4A (skeletal muscle), PN1, PN3, SkM1, RSMK, Kat1, EAG, ELK, Drk1,
Potassium Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: Potassium ion channels are easily the most diverse of all ion channels; more so than even chloride and calcium channels. This diversity can make identification difficult during whole-cell recordings. Like chloride ion channels, they serve to 'dampen' excitation potentials in excitable cells. Also called "delayed rectifiers" in axons, these channels are composed of 4 membrane-spanning, pore-forming alpha subunits and 4 cytoplasmic beta subunits and function as inwardly rectifying potassium channels. Voltage-gated Potassium channels are often multi-subunit channels like nAChr and others, but sodium and calcium voltage-gated channels share the distinction of being composed of single subunits all around 2000 amino acids in length. It should be noted that the more subunits an ion channel is made out of, the less selective it tends to be to the passage of its respective ion. Cells use potassium channels to regulate pacemaker potentials, as well as regulating their overall excitability. Potassium channels have been worked with more than most channels and for that reason much is known about them. Inwardly rectifying potassium channel family members often differ widely in gating kinetics. There are many different types of the voltage-gated potassium channels (many more than there are sodium ion channel types) and all seem to be related to each other. Often, it is possible to find several different types within the same cell! Some of the types of K+ channels are: "A channels", which are fast but brief acting, "and others that differ in voltage dependence, sensitivity to modulators. KvLQT is a recently discovered potassium channel found in basolateral membrane of epithelial cells and is responsible for keeping potassium at right concentration to allow chloride to flow out of apical epithelia in airway thru CFTR. It is also involved in the syndrome "long QT". It is voltage-dependent. First cloned from mouse heart. T-cells of the immune system express Kv1.3 and IKCa1 channels, and blockade of these channels may be a possible treatment in autoimmune diseases like EAE (similar to MS). The hot pepper ingredient capsaicin selectively blocks K+ channels in the tongue. Some more members of this sub-family: HERG (cardiac), HCN, Kv, Kd (delayed rectifier), Kf (fast transient), KCa (calcium-activated), MaxiK (activated by Ca++), TASK-1 is a continuously activated potassium channel which serves to dampen cellular excitability in certain neurons in the brain. A list of more potassium voltage-gated channels: Shaker, Shal, Shab, Shaw, minK (miniature potassium channel, or IsK), KvLQT, KCNK channels Note: recent evidence suggests MaxiK channels may be involved in transepithelial chloride transport in lungs: Pflugers Arch 2001 Apr;442(1):1-11
Calcium Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: L (HVA), T (LVA), and N types found in skeletal muscle and heart muscle, these channels can best be described functionally as very diverse (in ion selectivity, metabolic regulation, pharmacology, and single-channel conductance). There is now a fourth type called "P type", found in Purkinje cells. First isolated in 1984 from transverse tubules of skeletal muscle, it is used primarily as a voltage sensor for excitation-contraction coupling in muscle. Voltage-gated calcium channels are found in protazoans like Paramecium as well as in almost every excitable cell in animals. They have a unique role in that they are involved in taking electrical signals and making chemical signals out of them. Some are involved in excitation while others in regulation of secretion, contraction (muscle) and gating (other ion channels). For example, intracellular calcium activates calmodulin, troponin and other proteins, which in turn activate enzymes that increase cAMP and phosphorylation, triggering muscle contraction or ciliary and flagellar motions. Voltage-gated Na+, K+, Ca++ channels have a basic design: a set of 6 transmembrane segments (S1-6) flanked by cytoplasmic hydrophilic segments plus an H5 sequence between S5 and S6. S4 has basic residues every 3rd or 4th position and is probably a voltage sensor. H5 helps control ion selectivity. Segments S2 and S3 of Na+ and K+ channels have a pattern of conserved charged residues also exhibited by calcium channels. There is sequence similarity among 5 classes of channels: Voltage-gated, calcium activated potassium channel, cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, a calcium channel for PI-mediated Calcium entry, and a potassium plant channel/transporter. Voltage-gated calcium channels in excitable cells are, like other K+ and Na+ channels, structurally homologus but phenotypically diverse. They are electrophysiologically characterized into L (long-lasting), T (transient), and N (for their involvement in norepinepherine). The L-type is found in Skeletal muscle and heart muscle. They are all very structurally homologus to voltage-gated Na+ channels. L-type voltage-gated calcium channels in the cell membrane of heart muscle (cells have action potentials which last relatively long time compared to nerve cells) let in calcium to cytoplasm. This causes more calcium to be released from the SR, which ultimately causes the contraction of muscle and a heartbeat. Some drugs act to increase contraction by controlling the amount of calcium inside the muscle cell. The disease HypoPP (hypokalemic periodic paralysis) is a skeletal muscle disorder caused by mutations in the S4 regions of L-type Calcium channels. Neuronal voltage-dependent calcium channels of the N and P/Q type can be modulated by activated G-proteins. Calmodulin is a dominant calcium sensor in the calcium-dependent inactivation of Ca(v)1.2 calcium channels. Calcium channels were discovered by Fatt and Katz in 1953 in crab muscle. They found sodium ions were not needed for the weak action potentials of muscle cells, but calcium was being used instead. They therefore described "calcium spike", an action potential based on the inflow of calcium ions, for the first time. Vertebrate smooth muscle cells use only calcium ions to generate the action potential. These channels are also used to a degree in conjunction with sodium channels in many other excitable cell types to help generate action potentials. Some voltage-gated calcium channels are deactivated by sustained intracellular calcium concentrations and are therefore self-limiting. Calcium ion channels tend to have conductance rates and open probabilities lower than that of sodium or potassium ion channels. Most single-channel measurements are therefore done at unphysiological concentrations of calcium ions.
Voltage-Gated Proton Ion Channels: Found in eosinophils and other phagocytic cells and are activated by the generation of reactive oxygen species by NADPH oxidase. Efflux of electrons causes a build-up of positive charge which these channels are responsible for offsetting.
Slowly-activated voltage-gated channels are new members which have only 1 transmembrane segment.
Voltage-gated channels have their subunits arranged as tetramers (4 subunits make up each channel)
The channel shaker from Drosophila has been found to have homologues (i.e. are related) in the plant Arabidopsis.
Anion Voltage-Gated Ion Channels: VDAC (voltage-dependent anion channel) This ion channel has a high conductance (over 600 pS) for anions. It is slightly selective for anions over cations and is somewhat voltage-dependent. These voltage-dependant Anion Channels have been found in the mitochondrial outer membranes. They have high conductances and beta-barrel secondary structures.
A class of voltage-activated channels that let pass both sodium and potassium have been found in cardiac pacemaker and Purkinje fibers. I(h), I(f), I(Q), and I(AR), are all names for the same channel. It is similar to K(ir) channels in that it is activated by negative potentials and close at positive potentials. They pass an inward current when open.
INTRACELLULAR LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNELS
Unlike the axons of neurons, which function as carriers of messages only, cells from tissues such as smooth muscle, secretory glands, and the parts of the neuron like dentrites and somota need to be able to modulate messages based on the state of the individual. They adjust the incoming messages by changing the intracellular concentrations of various second messengers as well as alteration of various coupling proteins and cofactors. While this method of regulation of ion channels is definitely slower (from seconds to minutes), it can be longer-lasting than more simple types of regulation like voltage-gated and extracellular ligand-gating.
ATP-sensitive Potassium Channels (ATP-K), includes ROMK2, IRK, BIR, RACTK, Kir These channels are regulated by ATP, and appear to be similar to CFTR in this way. Their pharmacology is controlled by the sulfonylureas glibenclamide and tolbutamide. These molecules also inhibit CFTR chloride currents, with a half-maximal concentration of ~20 and 150 uM for each. The ADAC (ATP depletion-activated cation channel encoded by the gene LTRPC7) and ATP-regulated Potassium Channel are also regulated by changes in intracellular levels of ATP. Some can be found in mitochondria, and may be involved in changes in volume of this organelle and therefore may indirectly control oxidative phorphorylation. It has been found that opening these channels during ischemia/reperfusion seems to provide cardioprotective effects.
CFTR CFTR: (also designated as ABCC7) is a chloride channel and a whole lot more. It was the first chloride channel to be cloned (1989, by chromosome walking). Expressed in epithelial tissues along with other chloride channels like the calcium-activated chloride channel, volume-regulated chloride channel, and a calcium-dependent channel activated by extracellular ATP and UTP. Evidence suggests CFTR, in addition to chloride, transports bicarbonate ions, as well as water. CFTR is predicted to help regulate the following channels: ORCC, ROMKK+, ENaC, and Cl-/HCO3- exchanger. CFTR is different from all other epithelial chloride channels in that it prefers chloride over iodide ions. It is possible iodide blocks the channel. No other halide blocks the pore. CFTR belongs to the ABC transporter family, a family most of whose members are transporters, not channels. Members of the ABC family expressed as a single protein tend to be found at cell surfaces, while ABC subunits in multi-subunit channels tend to be found in membranes of intracellular organelles like the ER. CFTR is activated both by phosphorylation of its R-domain by PKA (protein kinase A) as well as ATP binding at its nucleotide binding domains, namely NBD1.
Note: It is not unusual to refer to all anion channels found in living cells as "chloride channels" regardless of their selectivity for various anions, due to the fact that there are much more chloride ions than there are any other type of anion inside or outside of the cell. Anion channels tend to be less selective than cation channels overall. Some anion-selective channels also let cations thru if there happens to be an anion present during passage.
Calcium-activated Chloride Channels (ClCas): Found in epithelia and may be the reason initial attempts at CFTR mouse knockouts failed to develop lung pathology similar to CF lungs. These channels may augment chloride transport when CFTR is not present. ClCas play several important roles in different types of cells.
ENaC is an amiloride-sensitive sodium channel probably made up of 4 subunits, 2 alpha, one Beta and one gamma. Each subunit consists of 2 transmembrane helices. Found in all epithelia CFTR is found in, ENaC is involved in absorbing water. It has been suggested that ENaC is also a receptor because it has an unusually large extracellular domain region (with cysteine-rich-boxes). It may be activated by an extracellular protease. It is involved in sodium and water absorption in kidney as well as lung, bladder and colon. Shut down by the diuretic amiloride reagents, they are activated in the body by hormones like vasopressin and oxytocin. Current treatment for CF involves attempts to inhibit this channel, and hence water absorption in the lung lumen, using amiloride. Members of the DEG/ENaC channel family are involved in sensation of temperature (tongue) in mammals.
Calcium-activated Potassium Channels: (SK, BK) First one was reported by Gardos in 1958 in red blood cells. Potassium channels with small conductances expressed in non-excititory tissues like kidney. Subtypes include SK1, SK2, SK3. SK3 is expressed in all parts of the kidney and is probably the renal apamin receptor. Meech in 1974 found calcium-activated potassium channels in molluscan neurons. Driving force for the release of potassium is also encouraged by the increase in positive cell potential due to the increase in calcium concentration. BK channels have a voltage-dependence for activation. Calcium binds directly to BK channels. BK channels have the highest strongly-selective cation conductance of any known mammalian ion channel.
K(ATP) is a potassium channel activated by intracellular ATP binding. Inhibition of these channels leads to increased insulin secretion. S-type potassium channels are voltage-insensitive. M-channels are a class of potassium channels found in sympathetic neurons that shut off indirectly by the neurotransmitter ACh, which binds muscarinic ACh receptors. There are reports to a potassium channel activated by millimolar concentrations of sodium in vertebrate and invertebrate neurons.
cGMP Channel (CNG Channels) These tetrameric sodium and calcium channels are found in rod photoreceptor cells and are similar to the voltage-activated potassium channel, shaker. They are likely to be formed by the assembly of at least two different subunit types, alpha and beta. Second messenger-gated channels such as these have the same overall design as voltage-gated channels, with binding sites for second messengers in C-terminal region. But while the voltage-gated Na and Ca channel alpha-subunit has 4 internal repeats, it is present only once in the K+ channel (ex: shaker), and the cGMP-gated channel and newer ones. This means these potassium channels probably resemble more closely the ancestral ion channel, which is likely to be a tetramer of similar subunits. These channels are involved in light perception and bind cGMP and cause depolarization of the cell membrane upon photon reception. It is a photoreceptor cGMP-gated cation channel found vertebrates. Also a member of the voltage-gated channel family. CNGs are also found in sensory neurons, the brain, and many other tissues and are important in directly linking changes in intracellular cAMP and cGMP to electrical excitability. They may be among the targets of local anesthetics.
G-Protein Activated Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channels: GIRK2 (Kir 3.2) unlike its close relative IRK1 (Kir 2.1) which is constitutively active, GIRK2 is activated directly by a G-protein, and inactivated by mechanical stretch. They can be found in atrial myocytes. The sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) regulates Kir6.2 channel activity by enhancing surface expression.
PI-mediated Calcium Channel: IP(3) Receptor. Is a calcium ion channel responsible for phototransduction (i.e. vision) in invertebrates like Drosophila and is probably mediated by activation of PLC (phospho-lipase-c). This channel causes an increase in intracellular calcium levels (both from inside and outside cell). It is possible that a light-activated calcium channel may be the "transient receptor potential", or TRP gene. It shows sequence similarity to voltage-gated calcium channels. In neurons such as the Purkinje cerebellar cell, release of calcium due to InsP3 is involved in learning. Some IP3 Receptors include: IP(3)R-1,
TRP-PLIK (transient receptor potential-phospholipase C interacting kinase) is a recently characterized ion channel that is also a protein kinase. It has a wide tissue distribution and apparently is a non-selective calcium-permeant channel. It has a zinc finger alpha-kinase domain. Long TRP channels (LTRPs) include melastatin, MTR1 and TRP-PLIK. Melastatin has been linked to melanocytic tumor progression. MTR1 is associated with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and a predisposition to neoplasias. It is unknown how they are gated. Runnels, et al., Science 2/9/01 Vol 291 pgs 1043-1047
Calcium-activated Chloride Channels: These channels open upon an increase of cytoplasmic concentrations of calcium and are often grouped according to rate of conductance. SK channels are potassium channels also activated by calcium. They can be found in many organisms as well as many excitable cell types. Discovered by Bader in 1982. There are several subtypes with unknown roles. Mice over-expressing SK3 lead to an altered response in respiratory rhythm to hypoxic challenges (similar to sleep apnea and sudden infant death syndrome) and it causes problems during delivery of mouse pups. Lack of SK3 in mice resulted in "no macroscopically altered phenotype", however. SK potassium channels are found in excitable cells and are responsible for the slow after-hyperplolarization that often follows the action potential. Note: intracellular calcium increases during the action potential, which is what is responsible for SK activation. The channel's alpha-subunits interact with calmodulin-calcium. IP(3) Receptors are also found in the ER (endoplasmic reticulum) and binds inositol 1.4.5-triphosphate (IP3) inside the cell. The calcium IP(3) channel therefore helps control intracellular calcium concentrations (calcium in turn is regulated by amounts of IP(3). Drugs (like the Cardizem line from Avenis) which treat high blood pressure do so by blocking calcium channels.
Calcium Release Channels: calcium channels are required for voltage-gated depolarizations in most muscles, as well as control of intracellular processes and are therefore widely distributed in vertebrate tissues. Calcium channels have the distinction of being the most selective of all ion channels. P/Q type calcium channels involved in neurotransmission have been found to be the targets of autoantibodies produced by LES (Lambert-Eaton syndrome) patients. When a nerve cell signals to a muscle cell to contract, or a cell to release a neurotransmitter, etc, it does so by causing a calcium channel either in the cell membrane or in the ER or SR to open and release calcium into the cytoplasm. The increase in calcium ions into the cytoplasm controls many other processes, including cell death, protein secretion, cell metabolism, and development. It is also able to control the gating of still more ion channels as well as the activity of enzymes. Calcium channels were first discovered by Fatt and Ginsborg in 1958 in crab muscles. L-type calcium channels in the heart muscle are responsible for strength of contraction during heartbeat. These channels are phosphorylated by PKA as a result of an increase in cAMP production. This second message is produced when norepinephrine is released from nerve terminals and binds receptors in the heart muscle and provides for a stronger heartbeat during critical times known as 'flight-or-fight'. When the channel is phosphorylated, it increases the open probability of the channel, and hence the beating strength. CRAC are calcium-release activated calcium channels. Their identity remains unknown, and they are among the most selective of known calcium channels. They have been shown to be regulated by changes in cytoplasmic concentrations of calcium. They also exhibit dramatic changes in selectivity and conductivity in the presence of divalent cations.
Ryanodine Receptor (RyR) : Ryanodine is a very large alkaloid of ~5000 molecular weight. Ryanidine receptors are found in SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) in the interior of the cell and is closely associated physically and functionally with a voltage-gated calcium channel in cell membrane. These receptors are widespread in the CNS and therefore probably play critical roles in intracellular calcium dynamical changes. They are regulated at least in part by phosphorylation. The skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor (RyR1) is one of largest channels known. RyRs are associated with FK506 binding proteins (FKBPs) which play a role in intracellular calcium signaling. So large, in fact that its gross structure can be resolved by cryo-electron microscopy. A tetramer, it is a ligand-gated calcium channel. Each monomer is 5,037 aa. (565kda). In smooth muscle, the SR is located just 200 A from the cell membrane, which allows these channels to be activated by calcium flowing into cell via voltage-sensitive calcium channels in cell membrane. These channels are activated by an increase in positive cell potential. This is an example of how a "global" change in calcium can set off a "local" change (also called a "calcium spark") in calcium concentration inside the cell by the ryanodine receptor calcium channel localized in the SR. This "calcium spark" has the net effect of activating a third channel, the potassium channel called Big K+ (also abbreviated as BK) located in the cell membrane. The increase in potassium flow out of the cell due to this channel causes the cell potential to become negative once again (which deactivates the voltage-activated calcium channel) and therefore resets the whole process so it can begin again when the voltage-gated calcium channel is reactivated. Big K+, or BK, is a potassium channel localized to the cell membranes of smooth muscle cells. It lets potassium thru at a high rate when the channel is activated by a localized "calcium spark" produced by the ryanodine-sensitive calcium channel in the SR. BK is the channel responsible for resetting the cell membrane potential back to the negative resting state. BK channels consist of 4 alpha subunits (which form the pore) and an unknown number of beta subunits, of which there are 4 kinds, B1-B4. It is believed that the difference in beta subunit type gives each tissue it's own specificity. For example, the B1 subunit increases the channel's sensitivity to calcium and slows the kinetics of opening and closing of the channel. BK B1 knockout mice have severe constriction of arteries and therefore constant high blood pressure. BK channels are found in neurons and are near cell membrane calcium channels and respond to local calcium concentrations there. They are also found in the kidney and secretory cells. Each tissue's BK channels have different gating kinetics.
Calcium-Release Activated Channel (Icrac) is a highly calcium selective ion channel activated upon depletion of intracellular calcium levels and depletion of intracellular calcium stores. CaT1 (and a close relative called ECaC) is a relative and member of the now extensive TRP family found in mammalian cells (see below). SOC (store operated calcium channels; also called "capacitive calcium entry") are found in arteriolar smooth muscle. TRP channels are found in Drosophila (TRP5 is activated by extracellular calcium). Calcium ion concentrations inside cells are triggered by hormones and neurotransmitter molecules. A longtime mystery has involved the exact mechanism in which a fall in the concentration of calcium in the endoplasmic reticulum is able to cause an increase in calcium conductance thru the cell membrane and into the cell.
TRP Family: 20 known so far (July, 2001). TRP channels are unusual because some seem to have enzymatic activity in addition to being ion channels. These enzymatic activities may serve to couple to signalling and metabolic pathways within the cell. There appear to be 3 subfamilies, based on sequence identity. Each has 6 transmembrane helices which form a cationic channel. The two ends, acid and amino, have other functions. TRP proteins are believed to form tetramers in order to become an ion channel. This could provide for extensive diversity. One subfamily, the "long TRP channel" (LTRPC) appear to have extensive N and C terminal ends, with the acid end containing the enzymatic activity. Specifically, LTRPC7 is known to have a protein kinase domain, and can phosphorylate other proteins as well as itself. LTRPC2 has enzymatic ability to remove the terminal ribose-5-phosphate group from ADP-ribose. TRP4 and CaT1 may be the long-sought after store-operated calcium channels. There is evidence that TRP channels influence diseases such as cancer. The levels of some LTRPC-family members have been shown to change during progression of tumors like melanoma and prostate cancer. Nature 411 5/31/01 pg 542-3
Calmodulin (CaM) mediates Calcium modulation of several ion channels including those involved in calcium-induced calcium release (CICR). CaM in the heart has been found ligated to L-type calcium channels and is needed for calcium-induced inactivation and facilitation of the channel.
ENaC: is an amiloride-sensitive sodium channel and may be activated by an intracellular protease.
GORK is a delayed outwardly rectified potassium channel expressed in guard cells of Arabidopsis thaliana, and is also able to sense potassium
Note: intracellular-ligand gated channels are often controlled by GPCRs (G-protein coupled receptors). This is the case when regulation of ion channels can be measured in seconds as opposed to milliseconds. A well-known example of an ion channel being controlled indirectly by a GPCR via a G-protein includes the regulation of the heartbeat in cardiac muscle, here the G-protein is first activated by receptor and then binds to the ion channel and directly increases or decreases it's gating. Sometimes, the G-protein may bind an enzyme like adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C which may trigger cAMP or calcium ion build-up in cytoplasm which can then affect the ion channel. G-protein responses are slower and longer than other means of gating, such as voltage-gating of ion channels in neurons.
Aquaporins: AQP1 not only mediates water flux but is also a cGMP-gated ion channel. While most aquaporin channels passage water, some only allow specific molecules like glycerol thru.
Sensation of Taste: The exact mechanism by which taste molecules activate ion channels in the tongue depends a great deal on the molecule itself. Sodium ions (salty) travel directly thru the ion channel in the taste cell and therefore activate it directly. Protons (sour) actually block the channel directly, while other taste molecules act as ligands and open the channel by binding it. Molecules like sucrose (sweet) exert their action by binding a non-ion channel receptor, which sets off a series of enzymatic events culminating in phosphorylation and closing of a potassium channel. Molecules that taste bitter raise internal calcium concentrations which also shuts off the potassium channel.
MECHANOSENSITIVE AND CELL VOLUME-REGULATED ION CHANNELS
Mechanosensitive Ion Channels : also called SACs (stretch-activated ion channels) (ex: MscL from E.coli, has been solved to 3.5A) open and close in neurons in response to mechanical stimuli which cause sense of touch and hearing. They respond to membrane tension by opening a large water-filled pore. A mechanosensitive ion channel has been identified in the sensory brittle neuron of the fly Drosophila. The ion channel minK (short for "miniature potassium channel"), also called IsK, is found in kidney and upon depolarization of the cell membrane, slowly induces a potassium current from this channel. Swelling-activated (i.e. volume-regulated) chloride channels have been found in all cells so far studied. There is some evidence CFTR is able to control the ones that are found in epithelial cells. Some swelling-activated chloride channels may also be voltage-gated. This is a good example of how a classification system based only on how ion channels are regulated can be misleading. VRAC (volume-regulated anion channels) found in epithelial cells may be regulated by tyrosine kinases. A putative yeast calcium channel, CCH1, may be involved in increasing cytosolic calcium upon hypotonic shock. Mid1 is also found in yeast. It has been postulated that tension-driven gating may be due to an increase in the tilt angles of the transmembrane helices, which would enable the pore to open in a way analogous to the iris. Nonselective cationic SACs let pass calcium as well as sodium and potassium, while others are selective for potassium and perhaps chloride. SACs may be responsible for generating fast arrhythmias in the atrium of the heart.
Note about Mechanosensitive Ion Channels: While vision, olfaction, and taste all use G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to stimulate a signal to the brain, the senses of touch and sound use mechanical stimuli which regulates ion channels. They do so by directly converting mechanical forces into electrical signals.
CLC group of chloride channels: some possibly activated by strong hyperpolarizaiton as well as changes in cell volume. Not ligand gated.
In 1997 there were just over 12 different types of chloride channels known. Generally, chloride channels have been neglected as subjects of study compared to sodium, potassium, and calcium channels due in part to their once thought relative insignificance in cellular and organismal functions. CLC-O was the first and chloride channel cloned from the CLC family. The CLC family is the largest known chloride channel family. The CLC Group is present in many tissues and organisms, from the electric eel electric organ to vertebrae skeletal muscle and is widely expressed in most mammalian cells. CLC-O is also found in the electric ray Torpedo. It may be involved in cell volume regulation and is also found in the kidneys. CLC-1 is expressed in skeletal muscle SR and has a conductance of 1 pS (undetectable by patch clamp methods). CLC-2 has been discovered by Northern blotting to be ubiquitously expressed, including epithelia of the lung. It is activated by cell-swelling or strong hyperpolarization. One of the types of diseases caused by defects in a chloride channel are the "myotonias". CLC-1 mutations result in electrically hyperexcitable muscle membranes.. In 1992, a mutant form of the channel CLC-1 was cloned and determined to be the cause of a type of myotonia, a disease causing muscle stiffness and which exhibits both recessive and dominant forms. 3 separate point mutations were discovered to cause the dominant form, while the rest of the characterized mutations caused the recessive forms. The dominant form is called "Thompson's Disease, or myotonia congenita, and results in a lowered conductance of chloride in and out of muscle cells. The CLC family members are all conserved in sequence, and have 12 transmembrane domains. The yeast has scCLC as its single CLC chloride channel called GEF1. It was discovered by mutant yeast which lack ability to grow without high iron concentrations. A plant CLC named AtClC-d is able to compensate for this defect in yeast. CLC-5 is mainly expressed in the kidneys and is involved in Dent's disease, a rare X-linked form of nephrolithiasis, which results in hypercalciuria and proteinuria. The mutations which cause loss-of-function in CLC-5 cause the disease. As of 1996, the CLC channels CLC-4, CLC-6, and CLC-7, have not been expressed in functional form, and therefore are not proven to be chloride channels yet. It's possible that expression systems like xenopus do not have the correct accessory factors, or subunits necessary. It's also possible that their required function is as intracellular chloride channels and therefore harder to determine experimentally. CLC-K1 and CLC-K2 as well as CLC-3 have been reported to be slightly outwardly rectifying chloride channels. EriC is a CLC channel from E.coli and functions as a dimer which selectively conducts anions. CLH-5 is a CLC channel involved in touch sensation in nematode neurons. It may be volume-regulated.
TRP is a superfamily of ion channels required for production of mechanoreceptor currents by insect bristles (which are mechanosensory organs). It is probably a mechanically-gated ion channel.
Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs): A subfamily of the sodium selective ENaC/DEG channels, these channels are gated by a decrease in extracellular pH. ASIC3 has been shown in neurons when overexpressed to most likely be involved in sensing cardiac ischemia and perhaps triggers angina pain or heart attack. It may be that acid does not directly activate the channels, but release of a calcium ion from a binding site on the channel. Immke and McCleskey (Vollum Institure, Portland, OR). KCNK3 is a potassium-selective leak channel sensitive to protons in a potassium dependent manner.
KCNK potassium ion channels: they are highly regulated, potassium-selective leak channels, discovered around 1996. Even though they are new to the potassium ion channel family, they already outnumber all other potassium ion channels combined. KCNK channels are easy to identify because of their unique structure--they possess two pore-forming domains in each subunit. Although leak currents are fundamental to the function of nerves and muscles, the molecular basis for this type of conductance had been a mystery. For a review, see: Goldstein, et al. Nat Rev Neurosci 2001 Mar;2(3):175-84
GAP Junctions GAP Junctions were first detected by electrophysilogical measurements in 1959 by Furshpan and Potter in giant synapses. They are the reason synapses are now distinguished as either "electrical synapses" (like these) or "chemical synapses" (as with ACh, etc). These electrical synapses have been found in most multicellular tissues. Note: GAP Junctions are not to be confused with "tight junctions", where cells are ~0A apart. Here, cells are 20-30A apart. Most cells are around 200A apart, but have large pore diameters. GAP junctions are nonselective channels which are hexameric in structure. Connexins are the name of its subunits and are often found in close array. 16 are known so far in vertebrates. GAP junctions allow both anions and cations thru with equal frequency. Molecules up to 1000 A in diameter can pass thru. Fluorescent molecules pass easily and can be followed spectroscopically. Gap junction channels are present across both membranes of the 2 cells they connect. Gap Junctions and water pores tend to be arranged as hexamers (6 subunits per channel). Heart muscle cells are connected by gap junctions in order to sense signals from each other to begin contracting quickly.
Guard Cell Slow Anion Channel is important for the basis of water loss control in plants. It allows prolonged osmolite efflux which is necessary for stomatal closure. Curiously, a functional antibody raised against CFTR was found by N. Leonhardt, et al to be able to inhibit this process, as well as an ability to immunoprecipitate a polypeptide from guard cell protein extracts. The antibody also immunolabeled stomata in Vicia faba leaf sections.
MIP Family The MIP Family consists of major intrinsic proteins of the mammalian lens. At least 18 family members. Large variety of functions. Glycerol uptake in E. Coli, Drosophila brains, and aquaporins.
Intracellular Chloride Channels: A new family called CLICs found recently in the nuclear membrane due to sequence similarity with the microsomal chloride channel p64. Some have been shown to exist in soluble form inside the cell. These include p64, CLIC-1, and HuH1. Conductance of CLIC-1 has been measured at 162 pS. CLIC3 is found in the nucleus and binds MAP kinase ERK7, which implies it may be involved in regulation of cell growth. Another nuclear chloride ion channel, NCC27, is one of only a few cloned nuclear ion channels. It is a relatively small, 27,000D transmembrane protein with sequence similarity to p64. These channels are highly conserved across species and therefore could be involved in cell cycle regulation.
Eicosanoid-Modulated Chloride Channel: appears to be gated directly by EET.
Gramicidin A peptide antibiotic effective against some gram + bacteria. They consist of 15 amino acids that alternate between D and L forms. These structurally simple and easy to work with ion channels were the first to have their single currents measured. Gramicidin must form a dimer with another gramicidin molecule in order to form a working ion channel. One half of the dimer situates itself on one side of the membrane bilayer while the other half of the dimer is joined to it while sitting in the other half of the membrane bilayer. alamethicin channels are an antibiotic anion channel like gramicidin but are 20 amino acids long.
Influenza M(2) Protein The flu virus has an ion channel (4 single transmembrane tetramer) called M2. It is a proton channel. (H+ or H3O+, it isn't known for sure). It lets protons into viral membrane during endocytosis to activate HA. It is an integral membrane protein and is highly expressed in infected cells. It is only 97 amino acids long.
Alpha Toxin An ion channel toxin secreted from Staphlococcus bacteria which attacks red blood cells of the host. It binds to cholesterol in the membrane. It's structure has been determined to a resolution of 1.9A The central fluid-filled pore is 14-46 A in diameter. Other toxins known to influence membrane permeabilization include: Colicins, diphtheria toxin, aerolysin, tetanus toxin, mellitin from bee venom and margainin, a toxin from xenopus skin.
VPU HIV, the AIDS virus, has an ion channel called VPU which is weakly selective for cations (mRNA in oocytes exp and lipid bilayer exp). These channels are not found in viral membranes, however and are probably used to help virus bud.
Porins are found in gram negative bacterial outer membranes. They are generally nonselective. In some bacteria they may select slightly for cations. Porins have a high conductance rate for high molecular weight solutes up to 600 Da, They usually form tetrameric structures, Beta-sheets and have pore diameters of around 10 A in diameter; large enough to let cell wall constituents like oligosaccharides thru.
More Information About Ion Channels:
The human genome probably codes for at least 50 different kinds of ion channels. A single excitable cell membrane probably has between 5 and 10 different ones.
Some More Possible Chloride Channels?: note: all are unrelated. pIcln, phospholemman, p64, Ca-CC.
Expression and Distribution of Ion Channels:
Flies have ~50 ligand-gated ion channels; C. elegans around 100 out of its 19,000 total genes. C. elegans has 42 nAChR channels and 37 GABA(A)-like subunits. Drosophila has a number of families: 3 voltage-dependant chloride channels, 14 Trp-like channels, 24 amilioride-sensitive sodium channels, 2 porins, one ryanodine receptor, one IP(3) receptor, and 8 innexins. C. elegans has over 80 potassium channel genes and 90 neurotransmitter-gated ion channels, all of which are in the nervous system. Drosophila only 30. No voltage-activated sodium channels are found in C. elegans.
More Facts: Ion channels are more likely to be homologus (related) if they share the same method of regulation; for example, all voltage-gated ion channels are thought to have arisen from a common ancestor gene. To date, no disease-causing mutation has been found in the promoter region of an ion channel. Murine myotonia and hyperekplexia are ion channel diseases caused by insertion of transposons. ATP-sensitive potassium channels can often be impaired as a secondary effect of diabetes in pancreatic beta-cells.
Chloride channels are believed to be found in nearly every type of cell known, including yeast and bacteria. They are involved in volume regulation, transport across epithelia, acidification of intracellular organelles, stabilization of cell membrane potential and signal transduction. Chloride anions are the most abundant anions in both plant and animal tissues. Chloride is unusual in that it is one of the only anions found in equilibrium concentrations across cells. As of yet, there is no known pump that uses ATP to change chloride gradients, but chloride can be pumped to form gradients using electrical gradients.
Ion Channels: Molecules in Action Aidley 1996
Ionic Channels of Excitable Membranes Bertil Hille Sinauer Associates Inc. Sunderland, MA 1992
More Information About Recently Discovered Ion Channels:
From the October 11th issue of the journal Nature: "Calcium and cyclic nucleotides control sperm motility..... Here, we describe the cloning and functional characterization of the of an unusual sperm cation channel (CatSper)......Several voltage-dependent calcium channel (Cav) mRNAs and cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) proteins have been detected in sperm cell precursors...Furthermore, low-voltage-activated, dihydropyridine-sensitive 'T-type' channels and pharmacologically defined N- and R-type currents have been measured in spermatogenic cells." The CatSper gene is unique because it codes for a single, 6-transmembrane-spanning repeat (like voltage-dependent K+ channels such as Kv, and yet its pore region and overall homology is closest to a single domain of the much larger 4-repeat Cav channels. It was noted that CatSper protein has not yet been shown using heterologous expression systems to allow transport of calcium ions. Sperm lacking CatSper are poorly motile and are unable to fertilize eggs with intact zona pellucida. Dejian Ren et al., "a sperm ion channel required for sperm motility and male fertility" Nature Vol 413 603-609
In the journal Nature (2/2001) Hanno Tan et al. reported finding a mutation in the cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel gene, SCN5A, responsible for causing isolated cardiac conduction disease. They found that a missense mutation (G514C) changes the voltage-dependent gating behavior such that the ion channel deactivates more quickly when open. The channel also had a modified voltage dependence of activation. These effects combined to produce an overall sodium current that was lower than the wild-type ion channel produces, thus slowing cardiac impulse conduction. Nature Vol 409 2/22/01 pgs 143-147
KcsA is a potassium channel recently crystallized and solved to atomic resolution. It appears to use its selectivity filter as a gate. When in the closed state, it traps K+ ions by binding them with high affinity. When the channel is open, the affinity for K+ actually decreases and K+ flows thru the channel. VanDongen and Chapman (from Duke University) state "The cytoplasmic constriction seen in KcsA is not a universal gate, since it is not found in inward rectifying K channels and glutamate receptors.....Affinity switching allows the channel to be both highly selective and permeate efficiently." Biophysical Society Meeting 2/2001
"A vivid example of [the discovery of anion channels] has unfolded in the past few years with the identification of the genes causing diastrophic dysplasia, congenital chloride diarrhoea and Pendred syndrome. While these three disorders are clinically distinct, the associated genes ( DTDST, CLD and PDS, respectively) emanate from a well conserved family of genes that all encode anion transporters." Everett LA; Green ED Hum Mol Genet 1999;8(10):1883-91.
In the journal Cell, Komak et al. speculate that the chloride channel CLC-7 is responsible for the bone condition osteopetrosis, a disease where not enough bone is resorbed (the opposite of osteoporosis). In order for bone-digesting enzymes secreted from bone cells called osteoclasts to function, protons need to be pumped into the bone matrix. Chloride flow thru CLC-7 is apparently necessary for this process becaues it maintains electrical balance. Mice deficent in this ion channel had all the hallmarks of osteopetrosis. CLC-7 was found to be expressed in lysosomal membranes in normal cells. Cell 104:205-215 2001 | <urn:uuid:e1f863d0-867e-46f5-8b0a-deeaa34f31c4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.montana.edu/cftr/ionchannelprimers/beginners4.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945982 | 14,329 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Thoughts for parents and teachers.
Rules of the Road:
It's Your Life: Online Safety Video: Good Conversation Starter
Cyberbullying 2010: What the Research Tells Us
View more presentations from Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project.
Resources for teaching online safety.
Club Penguin: Example of Social Networking Sites for Kids.
OSPI List of Resources:
Many Great Resources from Cybraryman
Teenage Life Online: About 17 million youth ages 12 through 17 use the Internet. That represents 73% of those in this age bracket. This is a study by the Pew Internet & American Life Project reveals that teenagers’ use of the Internet plays a major role in their relationships with their friends, their families, and their schools.
Common Sense Media: Dedicated to improving the lives of kids and families by providing the trustworthy information, education, and independent voice they need to thrive in a world of media and technology.
Web Wise Kids: Our programs assist youth to confidently manage issues like sexting, bullying, piracy, fraud, online romances, cyber stalking, and other online hazards.
Google Family Safety Center: Provides parents and teachers with tools to help them choose what content their children see online.
Webonauts Internet Academy: A web original game for PBS KIDS GO! that gives kids 8- to 10-year-old an opportunity to have some fun while exploring what it means to be a citizen in a web-infused‚
Windows Live Family Safety: Use activity reports to monitor your kids’ computer activity. Choose websites, games, and programs they can access. Even set time periods when they can use the computer.
Norton Online Family: Rather than simply blocking sites, it encourages communication between you and your kids. You’ll gain a better understanding of what they do online, so you can better protect and guide them.
NetSmartz: Communication is an effective tool for parents and guardians when helping their children avoid the dangers that exist on the Internet. NetSmartz provides on- and offline learning activities for parents to facilitate discussions with their children and teens about Internet safety.
KidZui: The Internet puts the world at your elementary child’s fingertips and gives them the opportunity to explore, discover, and grow (plus have some fun along the way)!
KidsClick: Web search for kids by librarians.
STOP cyberbullying: Education can help considerably in preventing and dealing with the consequences of cyberbullying. The first place to begin an education campaign is with the kids and teens themselves. We need to address ways they can become inadvertent cyberbullies, how to be accountable for their actions and not to stand by and allow bullying (in any form) to be acceptable.
Power to Learn: Designed to provide parents with timely and relevant information related to children’s digital media safety these interactive units provide in-depth, practical and “how to” information.
Schools and libraries subject to CIPA: | <urn:uuid:081475c9-96f0-4a6b-a5e1-e7bf22499e92> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://sites.google.com/site/digitalliteracyworkshop/online-safety | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905869 | 625 | 3.375 | 3 |
Chalk up another mark of chimpanzee intelligence–they not only use tools for gathering food, but also to improve their sex lives.
The chimps don’t have to duck into a sex shop to gather their erotic implements—the tools they use literally grow on trees. Researchers have documented chimps in a Tanzanian colony using brittle leaves in their mating rituals.
In a botanical bit of foreplay, the male chimps grab dry leaves and break them apart with their hands or mouths, creating a distinctive raspy sound that signals their sexual readiness. Think of it as the chimp equivalent of putting “Let’s Get It On” on the stereo.
As researcher William McGrew explains (slightly graphically) to The New York Times:
“The male will pluck a leaf, or a set of leaves, and sit so the female can see him. He spreads his legs so the female sees the erection, and he tears the leaf bit by bit down the midvein of the leaf, dropping the pieces as he detaches them. Sometimes he’ll do half a dozen leaves until she notices.”
Eventually, McGrew continues, the female notices the male’s aroused state and “puts two and two together.” If she’s interested, the mating can commence.
And while this device may seem rather rudimentary compared to the sex toys that humans have come up with, McGrew says the leaves fit the definition of a tool, as the chimps are using a portable object in pursuit of a goal–in this case, hot chimp action.
Discoblog: For Chimps, a Rear End Is Worth a Thousand Faces
80beats: Chimps Don’t Run From Fire—They Dance With It
80beats: Chimp Gathers Stones for “Premeditated” Attacks on Zoo Visitors
80beats: Chimps Invent Improved Stick Technology to Catch More Termites
DISCOVER: Aping Culture—what’s left to separate chimps from us?
Image: flickr / Graham Racher | <urn:uuid:87af22dd-03bd-432d-be68-cbb50b85b05c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2010/05/04/chimps-use-tools-to-improve-their-sex-lives/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915301 | 443 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Skin is a complex entity consisting of a variety of cells and organelles, each of which has a particular function. The pathways by which the cosmetic actives are absorbed and the role of the vehicle on the skin can be better understood if one is familiar with skin structure and function. Skin protects the body’s organs from external environmental threats, including ultraviolet rays, and acts as a thermostat to maintain body temperature. It consists of several different layers, each with specialized functions. The major layers include the epidermis, the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis is a stratifying layer of epithelial cells that overlies the dermis consisting of connective tissue layer. An internal layer of adipose tissue, the hypodermis, further supports the epidermis and dermis. Various factors influence the absorption of substances through the skin. It is imperative that a cosmetic chemist be familiar with the fundamentals of the various factors that influence the absorption of substances through the skin before beginning bench work.
One of the principal functions of skin is to provide a barrier to the transportation of water and other substances. We live in a hostile environment, and the body would rapidly dehydrate without a tough, semi-impermeable skin. This barrier also helps prevent the entry of harmful substances into the body. Some materials, such as ethyl alcohol, nickel ions and poison ivy, can penetrate the barrier, but most substances cannot.
The epidermis consists of keratinocytes and is divided into several layers based on their state of differentiation. It can be further classified into the stratum corneum and the viable epidermis, which consists of the granular melphigian and basal cells. The stratum corneum is hygroscopic and requires at least 10% moisture by weight to maintain its flexibility and softness. The hygroscopicity is attributable in part to the water-holding capacity of keratin.1 When the horny layer loses its softness and flexibility it becomes rough and brittle, resulting in dry skin. The pH of the skin is normally between 5-6. This acidity is due to the presence of amphoteric amino acids, lactic acid, and fatty acids from the secretions of the sebaceous glands. The term “acid mantle” refers to the presence of these water-soluble substances on most regions of the skin. The buffering capacity of the skin is due in part to these secretions stored in the skin's horny layer.
In the context of percutaneous absorption, the well-known principle follows that molecules in solution move in a purely random fashion without charge and move within an electrical gradient. Such random movement is called diffusion. When the molecule is uncharged, it is a nonionic diffusion. Diffusion through the stratum corneum (SC) is slow and difficult, probably because of the high keratin content and low moisture reserve. In a molecular environment, molecules move in both directions, from the region of higher to that of lower concentration. The net transfer will be proportional to the concentration differential or gradient. Nevertheless, the principal mechanisms for both water-barrier function and molecule absorption of the skin are similar. Substances that are both water- and lipid-soluble are favored by the skin. Molecules traverse membranes either by passive diffusion or active transport. A passive diffusion process implies that the solute flux is linearly dependent on the solute concentration gradient. The active transport process typically involves a saturable mechanism.2 Simple permeation experiments using excised mammalian skin have shown that percutaneous flux is directly proportional to the concentration gradient.3 Therefore, experiments have established that transport across the skin occurs primarily by passive diffusion which is governed by Fick’s first law, which states that the rate of diffusion or transport across a membrane (dC/dt) is proportional to the difference in active concentration on both sides of the membrane (DC). Therefore:
-dC/dt = J = kp DC = kp (C1–C2)
Where C1 and C2 refer to active concentration on each side of the membrane and kp is proportionality constant. By convention it is assumed that C1 is greater than C2 and, therefore, there is net transport of actives across the membrane from compartment one to compartment two. The magnitude of the proportionality constant, kp, depends on the diffusion coefficient of the active, the thickness and the area of the absorbing membrane, and the permeability of the membrane to the specific cosmetic active. The biological process of cutaneous absorption involves a system in which cosmetic active diffuses through the upper epidermis barrier from compartment one (absorption site) to the compartment two (few upper epidermis layers).
J=flux of the permeant (moles cm-2 S-1);
kp=permeability coefficient of the permeant through the membrane (cm-1); and
DC=activity gradient across the membrane (moles cm-1).
The permeability coefficient kp is the inverse of the “resistance,” which the membrane offers to solute transport, and is defined by kp=KD/h, where:
K=membrane-aqueous phase partition coefficient of the solute
D=diffusion coefficient of the solute in the membrane (cm2 s –1)
h = diffusion path length through the membrane. The flux is a rate process and can be described in general terms as
The driving force for diffusion has to be the activity gradient, which, to a first approximation, can be equated to the concentration gradient across the permeability barrier. Consider a single membrane with aqueous phases on both sides—one a reservoir of solute, the other sink. Since a concentration gradient exists between the source and the sink, there is a flux of the solute molecules through the membrane. The primary function of a cosmetic active in a skin care product remains to assist or reinforce the barrier function of the skin or penetrate into the few upper epidermis layers to restore their physical appearance. This requires cosmetic active to be included in a pleasant-feeling base, reducing irritation, and it should remain in contact for an extended time period.
Cosmetic substances traverse the skin primarily either through the pores of the hair follicles, the sweat gland ducts or by passing through the protein/lipid domains of the stratum corneum. From the skin surface, the subsequent diffusion into the intra-cellular spaces and the cell takes place. In the initial transient diffusion stage, penetration occurs through the skin appendages, i.e. the hair follicles and the ducts. It then passes into the skin. The stratum corneum (SC) is a bio-membrane and distinguishes itself from the other membranes in the body in function and composition. It is made up of a matrix of protein-laden material surrounded by extracellular, multilamellar bilayers of lipid. The SC is less permeable for the lipophilic compounds compared to the water-soluble compounds. However, water-soluble molecules with low lipid solubility are usually thought to pass through the pores, whereas lipid-soluble materials pass through protein/lipid domains of the stratum corneum.
In order to facilitate the diffusion of water-insoluble actives, fatty acids having affinity for the lipid/protein domains of the stratum corneum have been used in the transportation of some pharmaceuticals. It has been established through experiments that the size of the molecule and its lipophilicity are major determinants of the penetration processes through the stratum corneum. This means the permeability of a molecule is directly related to its lipophilicity and inversely proportional to molecular size. Hence it is not surprising to find low levels of absorption for large polar molecules such as peptides. Nevertheless, even these molecules can transport measurably through the SC, albeit at extremely low rates.4,5,6
Percutaneous absorption involves the following sequences:
• Partitioning of the molecule into the SC from the applied vehicle phase;
• Molecular diffusion through the SC;
• Partitioning from the SC into the viable epidermis and
• Diffusion through the epidermis and upper dermis and capillary uptake.7
Humidity and temperature influence absorption of the substances through the skin. A 10-fold increase in the skin penetration of acetylsalicylic acid was obtained when the environment temperature was raised from 10 to 37°C. Hydration of the skin can be improved by occluding or covering the skin with plastic sheeting to prevent moisture loss. Indeed, safety testing of most raw materials is done in this manner (patch testing). Such penetration has been demonstrated quantitatively by in vivo and in vitro experiments.
A suitable vehicle also increases skin penetration of a cosmetic active. Many substances have shown enhanced absorption through the skin when dissolved in purified water, propylene glycol, butylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, olive oil, dimethyl isosorbide and dimethylformamide. Solvolysis reactions during dissolution processing can be overcome by the inclusion of a proper buffering system. The vehicle generally does not increase the rate of penetration into the skin, but serves as a carrier. The pH of the vehicle can also influence the rate of release of the active, since the thermodynamic activity of acidic and basic substances are affected by pH. Thus, for acidic substances, the activity changes rapidly when the pH is greater than the pKa of the substance. Similarly, for basic substances the activity is influenced when the pH of the vehicle is less than the pKw - pKb of the substance.8 The influence of the vehicle was also demonstrated with salicylic acid and its esters.9
Methyl salicylate is more lipophilic than the acid from which it has derived. When applied to the skin from vehicles composed of fatty or oily substances such as mineral oil, petrolatum, and silicones, the methyl salicylate has a higher penetration than salicylic acid. The amount of methyl salicylate absorbed was found to be proportional to its concentration. Insoluble cosmetic substances must be uniformly dispersed throughout the vehicle to assure homogeneity of the product. Milling to a finely divided state provides more surface area for contact with the dermal site and increases the rate of dissolution of poorly soluble substances.
Skin care products, especially products designed for the face, have evolved into a technological spearhead for cosmetic sciences during the past 20 years. Anti-aging concepts remain the hottest area of research. The type of vehicle selected to deliver cosmetic actives must be non-irritating and safe. It depends on whether penetration or protection is desired. A cosmetic formula should alleviate immediate dryness and restore innate moisture contents along with other replenishers at the epidermis/dermis level of the skin.
In cosmetics, molecule penetration is limited to the epidermis and, to some extent, to the dermis. Skin care preparations include emulsions (hydrous creams and lotions), pastes and jellies, anhydrous cream and lotion, ointments, hydro/alcoholic solution or gel, sprays and sticks. Among these, emulsions (oil in water and water in oil) have generally been the most desirable vehicles for the delivery of cosmetic actives to the desired site. An emulsion is perceived to be emollient, with moisturizing benefits, and can include UV-filtering effects, vitamins, antioxidants, plant-derived proteins or amino acids/peptides, plant-derived flavonoids, AHAs and other skin beneficial agents. The selection of a well-balanced emulsifier system is also essential for effective delivery of emollients and humectants. Mixtures of emulsifiers must be selected intelligently to maximize the benefits of the rest of the formulation.
How to Ensure a Long Shelf Life
The cosmetic chemist must make sure that the pH, viscosity and preservative systems will remain stable for two years under variable storage conditions. If there is any doubt regarding the instability of a cosmetic active in the main vehicle, the chemist should look for other delivery means such as chemical or polymeric modifications (magnesium ascorbyl phosphate) of an individual cosmetic ingredient or through other means such as encapsulation with liposomes, nanoparticles, microspheres (microencapsulations), multiple emulsions, microemulsions or by preloading spherical beads and sponges. The formulator should also be well aware of the safety and irritation prognosis. Duration of actions such as time release, sustained release or continuous release and delayed release are other important parameters which should be another criterion for the selection of the special delivery mechanism. The main vehicle in which the cosmetic carrier is to be incorporated requires very careful selection of raw materials that do not harm it on account of any physio-chemical instability. The final product must be elegant with an acceptable and pleasant skin feel.
Among the most popular cosmetic active delivery systems, liposomes have been successfully employed as carriers in skin care products for several years. Developed nearly 40 years ago, liposomes were initially developed as models of biological membranes. However, in recent years, chemists have discovered their potential as a drug/cosmetic delivery system. The lipid bilayer structures of liposomes mimic the barrier properties of biomembranes, and therefore they offer the potential of examining the behavior of membranes of a known composition. Thus, by altering the lipid composition of the bilayer or the material incorporated, it is possible to establish differences in membrane properties.
Model membranes have facilitated the study of the lipid-protein interactions occurring in biological membranes and have been used in a multitude of research projects concerning membrane structure and function. Liposomes are microscopic lipid vesicles that are formed when thin phospholipid films or lipid cakes are hydrated and stacks of liquid crystalline bilayers become fluid and swell. The hydrated lipid sheets detach during agitation and self-close to form large multilamellar vesicles (LMV) which prevent interaction of water with the hydrocarbon core of the bilayer at the edges. Larger multilamellar vesicles are reduced to liposome size by application sonication or mechanical energy (extrusion) used. Numerous techniques for liposome preparation result in either large or small vesicles that are either unilamellar or multilamellar.
Multilamellar vesicles (MLV), composed of numerous concentric baitlayers, are produced from mechanical agitation of a dispersion of dried lipid with an aqueous phase. Mechanical agitation is the simplest method for producing MLV. The technique produces a suspension of large liposomes, which are very heterogeneous in size and exhibit a relatively low level of aqueous encapsulation. However, homogeneous liposome formulations that exhibit reduced vesicle diameters are advantageous with respect to extended circulation half-life, and consequently, enhanced uptake by tissues and organs. Large unilamellar vesicles (LUV), prepared from MLV, exhibit the characteristics that are beneficial for enhanced delivery of the incorporated material. The most common method for LUV preparation is extrusion of MLV under pressure through membranes of known pore sizes. These LUVs are used to optimize the incorporation of a desired compound within liposomes, to limit the permeability of the membrane to the entrapped substance and to alter half-life.
Accordingly, with an efficient and robust system, a homogenous unilamellar liposome can exhibit diameters ranging from 100-200nm. Liposomes store water-soluble substances in their interiors like biological cells. The phospholipids forming these liposomes enhance the penetration of the encapsulated active agents into the stratum corneum. They are biodegradable and non-toxic in nature. Due to the higher fatty acids characteristic of the phospholipids molecule, they also provide the skin with high quality plant fats. Today’s liposomes are available with variable lipid contents, size, lamellarity and surface charge. Liposomes enable water-soluble and water-insoluble materials to be used together in a formulation without the use of surfactants or emulsifiers. It is also possible to entrap oils or oil-soluble materials in the liposome wall. Liposomes are regarded as suitable carriers because they can serve as a depot system for the sustained release of an entrapped compound. The best demonstrable feature of liposomes is that cosmetic ingredients exhibit better stability, penetration and efficacy at lower use levels.
With the many potential uses presented by these liposomes, beneficial application depends on the physical integrity and stability of the lipid bi- or multi-layer structure incorporated in an emulsion base. The best bet would be to select a base that comprises not only nonionic but non-reacting materials. Other precautions include keeping ethyl alcohol concentration below 5% and solvent concentration below 10%. In addition, high levels of salts (> 0.5%) should be avoided. An appropriate preservative system and the addition of liposomes in the final formula at 25°C or below are desirable.
Lipid nanoparticles are vesicles formed by lecithin encapsulated in an oil core and are thus ideal carriers for lipophilic substances. They enhance the bioavailability of the encapsulated material to the skin. High-pressure homogenization results in a 100% encapsulation of the oily phase. With positively charged nanoparticles, lipophilic UV filters and other active materials are efficiently targeted to hair or skin. In the nanoparticle dispersions, a particle size less than 60 nm can be obtained. The composition of nanoparticles is detailed below and shown at lower left.10
1. Membrane: 1-15% (5%), lecithin (phospholipids)
2. Oil: 1-40% (15%), triglycerides
3. Active Ingredients: 1-40% (5%), any substance soluble in the oil phase
4. Water: 25-95% (70%), alcohols: 0-20% (10%), ethanol.
There is no proof that liposomes penetrate intact into the stratum corneum. However, it is believed that they can deliver the cosmetic active by adhering to the corneocyte through diffusion as a result of fusion of bilayers of liposomes with the proteins and lipids of the stratum corneum. Continuing with the delivery system, there are three additional systems which are as important as liposomes, though their particle sizes are very small and do not penetrate as such into the skin. However, they facilitate the absorption of the cosmetic active efficiently in the few upper layers of the stratum corneum. Under emulsions there are three kinds of technologies available: multiple emulsions, nanoemulsions and microemulsions.
Multiple emulsions are ideal three-compartment systems; i.e., an emulsion dispersed in a third phase. There are two types, O/W/O = O/W emulsion in oil phase and W/O/W = W/O emulsion in water phase. They have many distinctive attributes, especially the compartmentalization of actives in the three phases, controlled and sustained release of actives and W/O hydrating performance with O/W skin feel. They also provide longer lasting moisturizing effects comparable to a conventional emulsion. Additionally, they can enclose dissolved materials of diverse nature. These technologies have been widely used as a means to deliver several soluble cosmetic actives in internal aqueous droplets and the external continuous phase.
However, compartmentalization of such components with an oil layer can prevent the chemical interaction between them. The enzymes, vitamins, amino acids/proteins, radical scavenging materials and oil soluble compounds can be contained within the emulsion individually without chemical instability. The time release action can also be sustained by control of the breakdown process that occurs on application. In an emulsion liquid, droplets and/or liquid crystals are dispersed in a liquid. Most common emulsions differ in respect to droplet size range—from 5 to 50nm.
A microemulsion is a thermodynamically stable dispersion of one liquid phase into another, stabilized by an interfacial film of surfactant. The interfacial tension between the two phases is extremely low. This dispersion may be either oil-in-water or water-in-oil. A microemulsion consists of swollen micelles and may appear transparent in solutions/gel or milky. In the case of transparency, the particle size is less than 0.5nm and it appears that light passes right through the transparent emulsion. The clear gel or liquid system provides an elegant feel and lays down a smooth film on the skin. The thickness of the film can vary with the amount of the microemulsion applied. In the ringing microemulsion gel, the micelles are so densely packed that they enable the gel to ring.
Recently another emulsion class—nanoemulsions—has been distinguished from a microemulsion based on smaller droplet size in the submicron range (typically 100-200 nm). The nanoemulsion system has also been categorized as transparent or translucent depending on the droplet size and the difference in refractive index between the oil and continuous phase. Both microemulsions and nanoemulsions are acceptable in cosmetics because there is no inherent creaming, sedimentation, flocculation or coalescence observed within macroemulsions. Another advantage is the small-sized droplet with its high surface area allowing effective transport of the active to the skin. The incorporation of potentially irritating surfactants can often be avoided by using high-energy equipment during manufacturing.
So far, the response from the cosmetic houses to adopt these systems into their products has been very slow due to the manufacturing complexities and the non-availability of highly trained personnel in this area. From the research point of view, there have been further advances in product understanding and evolution. A brilliant research paper presented by Th. F. Tadros at 21st IFSCC Congress 2000, Berlin, described a current breakthrough in this field.
Another very sophisticated technology, microencapsulation, has been available for many years, but it has recently been improved and the technology expanded. Microencapsulation (functionalized vectors) are micron-sized capsules that can also encapsulate cosmetic active compounds in a matrix of membrane-like liposomes. The capsules are made up of naturally -derived materials from animal, fish or plant origin. These constructing materials may be collagen, glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate or polysaccharides of plant (soy and wheat) or marine origin (shells of crustaceans). In general, their dimensions vary from 200nm to several hundred nanometers. The active compound is wrapped in a thin, natural, tough membrane. The membrane will be broken under the enzymatic action of amylases or proteases, slowly releasing the contents of the nanocapsule.
In the same category, there is another class in the form of a sphere. In the sphere, a tough protein polysaccharide matrix encircles and traps an active ingredient. This spherical matrix is more resistant than the membrane wrapping the capsule, but is just as biodegradable and biocompatible. The diameter of spheres ranges from 0.2 mm to 900 mm, which is similar to the nanocapsules. These vectors, capsules and spheres can enclose active compounds having lipid solubility, hydrosoluble or insoluble pigments and micronized extracts. Like liposomes, the above mentioned spheres can be modified with a positive charge on their outer covering which can target keratin of the hair and skin.11
As a means of delivering pharmaceuticals, transdermal drug delivery (TDD) through patches has been in practice for more than two decades. This technology was successfully tapped by cosmetic companies in the 1990s with the introduction of anti-acne, anti-wrinkle, moisturizing, anti-blemish and pore-cleansing patches. There are many advantages that include the creation of a cosmetic reservoir that provides a continuously-controlled delivery profile. Other benefits include reduced frequency and longer duration of action. It also protects the cosmetic active from deterioration and washing off.
Oil Bodies, A New Delivery System
The newest dimension in the cosmetic active delivery system has been the introduction of oil body/oleosin technology. It was suggested as a potential delivery system for topical and oral active ingredients.12 This involves oil body forms derived from oilseeds. Oil bodies are discrete organelles found in oil seeds, pollen and some fruit, where they serve as the site for triacylglyceride storage. They are comprised of a triacylglyceride core (TAG) surrounded by a half-unit phospholipid membrane and an outer shell of specialized proteins known as oleosin. Oil bodies can be formulated into a variety of cosmetic and personal care products. According to the inventors, preliminary in vivo (tape stripping) and in vitro (Franz assay) dermal penetration studies demonstrated that oil bodies facilitate the delivery of certain small molecule actives (e.g. salicylic acid and retinyl palmitate) and large protein molecules, respectively, through the stratum corneum.
Retinol Molecular Film Fluid is also a relatively new entry in this arena. It was developed as a compound which, on application, forms a thin uniform monolayer film that facilitates the transfer of actives to the stratum corneum. Retinol (vitamin A) is a highly unstable compound and requires special skills and techniques to be included in cosmetic products. Retinol molecular film is a specially designed delivery system for retinol. It is a very thin monolayer functional film which was developed by incorporating cyclomethicone, dimethiconol, soybean oil, octyl cocoate, sphingolipids and retinol obtained at 12,000 p.s.i, under microfluidizing conditions. This oil-soluble molecular film is very occlusive and also shows a significant moisturizing profile under TEWL techniques.13
The poly acrylo nitrile polymers controlled release system is a new skin care concept that synchronizes the release of an active ingredient along with a fragrance as a sensory marker. This sensory marker conveys the efficacy of the product. It is a controlled release mechanism obtained through the polymerized Poly Acrylo Nitrile (PAN) systems. Initial studies indicate that this can function as an “invisible patch”ensuring a longer duration of skin assimilation, while the continued release of a “marker,” in this case fragrance, assists in consumer perception of an actively working material.14,15
There are many ways to deliver cosmetic actives to the skin. Some of the techniques are worth mentioning and some are trade secrets. Most of the techniques have come from pharmaceutics and have been successfully adapted as is or with some modifications. Cosmetic chemists should do their homework before selecting a particular cosmetic active delivery system. They should have in-depth knowledge about the physico-chemical parameters of the cosmetic active that are compatible with raw materials selected to construct the final formula. Cosmetic chemists should be able to select an appropriate preservative system and perfume. The process requires the careful selection of non-reacting emulsifiers, as well as stabilized, mild, and superb feeling emollient esters that may also help to improve the shelf life. The final product should be elegant feeling, free of oiliness and long-lasting. The product as a whole should be result-oriented. l
1. Blank, I.H., Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum, J. Inves. Dermatol., 18, 433, 1952.
2. Friedman, M.H., Principles and Models of Biological Transport, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1986, 74.
3. Blank, I. H. and Scheuplein, R.J., Transport into and within the skin, Br. J. Dermatol. 81,4., 1969.
4. Bodde, H. E., Verhoef, J. C., and Ponec, M., Transdermal peptide delivery, Biochem. Soc. Trans., 17, 943, 1989.
5. Burnette, R.R. and Marrero, D., Comparison between the ionophoric and passive transport of thyrotropin releasing hormone across nude mouse skin, J.Pharm. Sci., 75, 738, 1986.
6. Chien, Y.W., Siddiqui, O., Shi, W., Lelawongs, P., and Liu, J., Direct current ionophoric transdermal delivery of peptide and protein drugs, J. Pharm. Sci., 78, 376, 1989.
7. Albery, W.J. and Hadgraft, J. Percutaneous absorption theoretical description, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 31, 129, 1979.
8. Scheuplein, R.J., Mechanism of percutaneous absorption. J. Invest. Dermatol, 45, 334, 1965.
9. Higuchi, T., J. Soc. Cosm., Chem., 11: 85, 1960.
11. Bioetica Inc., Portland, ME.
12. Markly, Nancy, Oil body/Oleosin Technology: Novel raw material and delivery system for the cosmetic industry, SemBiosSys Genetics Inc., 29th St., NE, Calgary, Alberta Canada.
13. Lipotech, S.A. C/O Centerchem Inc., Glover Av., Norwalk, CT.
14. Sam Shefer, Adi Shefer, Controlled Release Technologies, PO Box 6233, East Brunswick, NJ 08816.
15. Charles Kliment, Hymedix International, Inc., hymedix @ mail. webspan.net | <urn:uuid:23406fae-501a-46d7-a259-b976814e81f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.happi.com/contents/view_features/2005-11-09/skin-care-delivery-systems-84814/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920527 | 6,268 | 3.375 | 3 |
Finances and the Family Physician:-
What is the scope ofFamily Medicine?
American Board of Family Medicine Official Definition of Family Medicine
“Family medicine is the medical specialty which provides continuing, comprehensive health care for the individual and family. It is a specialty in breadth that integrates the biological, clinical and behavioral sciences. The scope of family medicine encompasses all ages, both sexes, each organ system and every disease entity.” | <urn:uuid:eb2f57cf-55fe-41e4-8ea2-cb85e3451474> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://medicalslidespowerpoint.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934317 | 88 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Spratly Islands Conflicting Claims
Claims by Country
South China Sea
Gulf of Thailand
|Brunei||UNCLOS||no formal claim||no||n/a|
|Philippines||significant portions||8 islands||no||n/a|
|UNCLOS = UN Convention on the Law Of the Sea|
|n/a = not applicable|
|*excluding buffer zone along littoral states (calculations for buffer unknown)|
Competing territorial claims over the South China Sea and its resources are numerous, with the most contentious revolving around the Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands (the Xisha and the Nansha in Chinese; the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa in Vietnamese). The Spratlys are claimed in total by China, Vietnam, and Taiwan, whereas Malaysia laid claim to parts of the continental shelf underlying the southernmost islands in the chain. Indeed, ownership of virtually all of the South China Sea is contested. The disputed islands in the South China Sea assumed importance only after it was disclosed that they were near the potential sites of substantial offshore oil deposits.
In 1939 the Japanese military government announced its decision to take possession of the Spratlys. France protested on 04 April 1939 when Japan announced it had placed the Spratlys "under its jurisdiction." In 1941 Japan forcibly took over the islands as part of its World War II strategy. During the War, France defended the Spratlys from Japanese military forces. In 1949 Vietnam "inherited" from France all former French rights over the Paracel Islands and the Spratlys Islands. Vietnam emphasizes "actual exercise of sovereignty over mere geographic contiguity" as a basic ground for its claim. In the 1951 "San Francisco Peace Treaty" Japan relinquished all titles and claims to the Paracel Islands and the Spratlys Islands. From 1956 to 1963, Vietnamese naval troops built "sovereignty steles" in the Spratlys.
The most proactive claimant in the region is China. In 1909 it seized some islands in Xisha (the Paracels). In 1946 it seized Itu Aba (in the Spratlys) and Phu Lan Island (in the Paracels). In 1950's China seized additional Hoang Sa (Paracels) islands, which it forcibly repeated in 1974. Vietnam claims that these acts were unlawful and that the United States in 1974 conspired with China for the take-over of the Paracels.
In January 1974, Chinese military units seized islands in the Paracels occupied by South Vietnamese armed forces, and Beijing claimed sovereignty over the Spratlys. Following their conquest of South Vietnam in the spring of 1975, units of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) nevertheless moved to occupy the Spratly Islands previously held by the Saigon regime. In 1978 Vietnam and the Philippines agreed to negotiate but failed to settle their conflicting claims to the Spratly Islands. Foreign Minister Thach, during a late-1982 visit to Indonesia, took a conciliatory position in discussing Vietnam's and Indonesia's competing claims to the Natuna Islands, and in 1984 Hanoi made a similar gesture to Malaysia in order to help resolve their conflicting claims over Amboyna Cay.
In a 1988 incident, possibly related to Cambodia because it potentially strengthened China's position at a future bargaining table, the ongoing dispute between China and Vietnam over sovereignty to the Spratly Islands erupted into an unprecedented exchange of hostilities. The situation was reduced to an exchange of accusations following the armed encounter. Vietnam's repeated calls for China to settle the dispute diplomatically won rare support for Vietnam from the international community, but elicited little response from Beijing. A conciliatory mood developed on both sides of the Sino- Vietnamese border in 1989, partly because Vietnam's proposal to withdraw completely from Cambodia responded to a basic Chinese condition for improved relations.
Mischief Reef is part of the Spratly Islands. Mischief Reef was discovered by Henry Spratly in 1791 and named by the German Sailor Heribert Mischief, one of his crew. China has sent naval vessels into the area and has constructed crude buildings on some of the islands. Beijing maintains that the shacks are there solely to serve Chinese fishing boats. Manila describes the buildings as "military-type" structures. According to reconnaissance photos by the Philippine Air Force, these structures do not look like fishermen's sanctuaries. They seem to have radar systems which are not normally associated with the protection of fishermen.
Itu Aba Island is used by Taiwan, ROC fishermen as a rest stop. Itu Aba Island is located at the northwest end of the northern part of the Spratly Archipelago near the Cheng Ho Reefs (Tizard Bank). In 1938 the Indochina Meteorological Service set up a weather station on Itu-Aba island which remained under French control from 1938 to 1941. When World War II erupted in 1941 Japan took control of said weather station.
On 08 June 1956 Taiwan sent troops to occupy Thai Binh Island (Itu Aba - Peace Island), the largest island in the Spratlys. Vietnam claims that "as late as December 1973, the Far Eastern Economic Review of Hongkong reported that a marker still stood there with the inscription: 'France - Ile Itu Aba et Dependences - 10 Aout 1933." The northwestern part of the Tizard Bank consists of Itu Aba in the west, Center Cay in the center, and on the east side Sand Cay, all claimed by Taiwan since 1955.
Since the end of World War Two, the ROC navy has guarded the island for over fifty years; they have a major responsibility to ensure the security of the South China Sea. A Taiwan, ROC garrison is stationed on Itu Aba on a permanent basis, making the building of roads and military installations an important task. As a result, the island now has well-built roads, and the soldiers keep it as clean as a well-kept park.
The Kalayaan Islands, as Filipinos call some of the Spratlys, lie in a shallow section of the South China Sea west of the Philippine archipelago. Kalayaan is a rich fishing area that had been identified as a potential source of petroleum deposits. Tomas Cloma, a Manila lawyer, visited the islands in 1956, claimed them for himself, named them Kalayaan (Freedomland), then asked the Philippine government to make them a protectorate.
Vietnam brands as erroneous the Philippine theory that the Spratly Islands were "res nullius" when Tomas Cloma "pretended to 'discover' the Vietnamese Truong Sa islands in 1956". Manila regularly tried to extract from the United States a declaration that it would defend the Philippines' claim to the Kalayaans as part of the Mutual Defense Treaty between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America, but the United States just as regularly refused so to interpret that treaty.
The Philippine government first put forth informal claims to Kalayaan in the mid-1950s. Philippine troops were sent to three of the islands in the Kalayaans in 1968, taking advantage of the war situation in the Republic of Vietnam. In 1974, the Philippine government declared that it had garrisoned five of the islands. In 1978 Marcos made formal claims by declaring that fifty-seven of the islands were part of Palawan Province by virtue of their presence on the continental margin of the archipelago. The Philippine military continued to garrison marines on several islands.
Layang Layang (Swallow's Reef, although there are no swallows present) is a small reef in the Spratly Islands, and is currently operated and managed by the government of Malaysia. Swallow Reef is the only reef in Swallow Atoll, which is exposed to the sea. The island is long and narrow, stretching from the northeast to the southwest. It is small in area, around 0.1 square kilometers.
The amazing fact about Swallow Reef is that this tiny, exposed islet was practically man-made! It was built by the Malaysian government, which collected sand and connected two isolated reefs by filling the channel between them. The Malaysian government opted to build an airstrip, dive resort and military installation on this reef since in 1983. Seventy soldiers live on this island and the dive resort is open to any visiting scuba divers. Swallow Reef is fast hecoming another of Malaysia's premier dive destination.
The Spratly Islands dispute eased since the 1990s. This was due, in part, to China's rising economic stature and the interdependency it, in turn, fostered amongst Asian nations. China knows that any crisis in the South China Sea could severely restrict the commercial shipping traffic that is vital to their continued prosperity. Another contributor to the relative calm is fact that proven oil reserves in the area are disappointingly low.
|Join the GlobalSecurity.org mailing list| | <urn:uuid:dc8023a2-534c-495e-be2a-8857b4a44c7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/spratly-conflict.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944704 | 1,839 | 2.953125 | 3 |
NANOROBOTICS - MEDICINE OF FUTURE
Recent technological developments indicate that doctor might one day start prescribing nanorobotics as pills for serious ailments !
Researchers in Havard University have recently developed nanoscale robots using DNA, to seek and destroy cancer cells. These tiny clam-shaped bots hold a dose of medicine inside them. They probe a body for cancerous cells and release the medicine only at such locations, leaving healthy cells untouched. This way, the efficacy of the drug is very high, as the treatment is focussed on affected areas.
|Cell targeting DNA nanorobot|
Researchers call DNA Origami to build the nanorobot. In an experiment they released millions of nanorobots in to health and cancerous human blood cells. After a few days they found that around the half of the leukaemia cells had been destroyed leaving healthy cells untouched. By adding more drugs and locks, the nanorobots can be used to vanquish almost all leukaemia cells in a patient's body.
Elsewhere researchers are exploring how a combination of nanorobots and stem cells can be used to regenerate dead cells in brain, retina and other vial part of the body. Stem cells are basic building blocks that are capable of producing new cells to regenerate damaged organs or nerves. Simply injecting stem cells into the body does not help so much, as the efficacy of the treatment is low. So researchers are trying to attach stem cells to nanofibres or nanorobots and then inject the combination precisely at the damaged location.
|Nanorobot attached to cell|
The ability of nanorobots to interact with basic building blocks of our body is likely to transform the face of disease detection and drug delivery.In future, it is believed that powerful drugs will be combined with nanorobots and injected into the body or may be prescribed even as capsule, to identify affected areas and release medicine effectively. | <urn:uuid:ce79ec82-0606-4270-aafd-5a5cf4806120> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://technewselectronics.blogspot.fr/2012/09/nanorobotics-medicine-of-future-recent.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93791 | 405 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Inheritance is a useful feature that Aria Templates makes easy to manage. You can reuse and extend an existing class quite simply.
Just declare your child class as inherited from a parent one by using the
$extends keyword. Like in Java programming language, multiple inheritance is not available. A single class can only inherit from one parent class.
When your class inherit an another one, it then inherit from all properties, statics, constructor and destructor.
In Aria Templates, any object inherit from
aria.core.JsObject. Thus, your class automatically has access to several helpers coming from this parent root object, like for example logging methods:
$logError(), and many more.
Finally, note that, besides single inheritance, two other restrictions apply to inheritance in Aria Templates:
- It is not possible for a class to use the same name as its parent.
- A Singleton cannot be extended.
An interface is a description of a set of methods, properties and events, but not containing implementation code at all. Classes (or implementations) can decide to implement one or more interfaces, and therefore specifically provide the code for these methods, properties and events.
Interfaces are generally used in programming languages as a way to define a clear contract between a functionality provider and its client(s), and hide the implementation details, in order to easily be able to change them.
Programming with interfaces can make code more elegant, more decoupled, more extensible and more easily unit testable.
Interfaces in Aria Templates support the following features:
An interface can be defined through Aria.interfaceDefinition, as shown in the following sample:
An interface definition contains the following parts:
$classpath(mandatory) - the classpath is a unique identifier of the interface, just like in Java, and in Aria Templates classes. It corresponds to the package name + the interface name.
$extends(optional) - the classpath of another interface declared with Aria.interfaceDefinition, which will be the super interface of this one.
- If an interface extends another interface, all interface members declared in the super interface, including methods, properties and events, are automatically inherited as if they were declared in this interface.
- Unlike in Java, multiple interface inheritance is not possible in Aria Templates. However, a class can implement several interfaces if needed.
$interface(mandatory) - This section contains empty methods and empty properties that must be implemented in classes that implement the interface.
- Interface members can be:
- A function: can be declared with either an empty function, or the string
"Function", or a json structure with the
$typeproperty containing "Function". With this last syntax, it is possible to specify that the function is asynchronous by setting the
$callbackParamproperty. This property must contain the index of the argument of the function which contains the callback. Declaring asynchronous functions in an interface is especially useful when using interceptors.
- An object or array: declared as shown in the above example. Note that the reference to the object or the array must stay the same in the object from its construction until it is disposed. This is because interface wrappers never update the references to the properties.
- An interface must be declared with a json structure with the
$typeproperty containing "Interface", and the
$classpathproperty containing the classpath of the interface. When creating the interface wrapper containing such a member, the corresponding member from the whole object must implement the interface specified here and only its interface wrapper will be published in the interface wrapper.
- A function: can be declared with either an empty function, or the string
$events(optional) - set of event definitions, using the same syntax as in Aria Templates classes.
Once an interface has been defined through Aria.interfaceDefinition, it can be used in class definitions as shown in the following example:
- When declaring that a class is implementing an interface through the
$implementskeyword, the class must contain in its prototype (or in the prototype of one of its super-classes) all the methods declared in the interface, otherwise, an error is logged and the class load fails.
- There is no check for the presence in the class of the properties (objects or arrays) defined in the interface, as it cannot be checked at class load time (properties are usually available only when creating an instance of a class).
- Events declared in the interface are automatically imported in the class definition. They must not be declared again in the class definition.
If an object is an instance of a class which implements an interface, it is possible to retrieve a wrapper on that object that only contains the members (methods, properties and events) declared in the interface and prevents access to the remaining members of the object. This is useful to be sure that only members of the interface are actually used, so that the code using the interface is really decoupled from the interface implementation.
To get an instance of an interface wrapper, simply call the
$interface method on the object, with the classpath of the interface to get. For example, with the
ariadoc.snippets.core.classes.Fruit class declared above:
Interfaces can declare events in the
$events part of the interface definition. Events declared in the interface are automatically imported in the class definition. They must not be declared again in the class definition.
If an interface declares events, its wrapper object will automatically contain the following additional methods:
These methods are wrappers on the methods from aria.core.JsObject, with the following specific aspects:
- when registering a listener on a wrapper object, when the event is raised, the
srcproperty of the event object will contain the wrapper object and not the whole object
$unregisterListenersfrom a wrapper object cannot unregister events registered with another wrapper object or with the complete object, it can only unregister events registered with the same wrapper object
$unregisterListenersfrom the complete object can unregister events registered with any wrapper object
The first thing you have to understand as far as dependencies are concerned is their type. Aria Templates can handles 2 different kinds of dependencies:
- Static dependencies
- You can express them using the
$dependencieskeyword in your classDefinition. This keyword takes as argument an array that contains all the different classpaths that you know your class is strongly dependent on.
- This is more or less like the import declaration in Java.
- Dynamic dependencies
- This kind of dependency is to be used when you know that your class will only needs it under certain circumstance. Thus, you can use the helper method Aria.load on the Aria singleton object.
- This helper takes also as argument a JSON configuration object, in which you can specify an array of classpaths to be loaded. Once all the classes are loaded, a callback is used to trigger code execution.
Natively, all Aria Templates objects are Observable. Because of the implicit inheritance from the original root object (
aria.core.JsObject) on all of your classes, Aria Templates gives you the ability to declare and listen to events. Any class could listen to events that could be raised by any other class.
The emitter class declares the events it is able to fire using the
$events keyword property on the classDefinition. This property is basically a list of event names along with their description and potential custom properties.
Then, to raise an event, you simply have to use
$raiseEvent(eventName) method. (Which again is there implicitly because of aria.core.JsObject inheritance)
On the other hand, a listener class should just simply declares that it is listening using the | <urn:uuid:bfd309bc-cd19-40ec-8826-bb6a99019f48> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ariatemplates.com/usermanual/latest/around_classes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.853042 | 1,628 | 2.828125 | 3 |
The "Ames" Optical Illusion:
In the late forties, visual researcher Adelbert Ames Jr. designed a series of visual illusions to demonstrate how the mind forms hypotheses about reality and depth. In one such illusion, Ames tested aspects of depth perception in a specially designed, distorted room.
He constructed a trapezoidal room for the observer to view by gazing through a peephole. In reality, one corner of the room is farther from the observer than the other corner. But when viewed from a particular angle, the room appears normal.
If a man would stand in the far corner and a small boy in the near corner, the boy appears larger than the man because of the distorted perspective. Although the observer knows that adults are usually bigger than children, he still experiences the illusion!
The Ames Optical Illusion Room (Pretty Cool, Even With The 70's Outfits!)
How the room was constructed.
You Can Find More Unusual Optical Illusions Here: Just For Fun
Copyright 2006-2009 Vision Health | <urn:uuid:a08f4147-8ace-4ea1-91e9-dd35fee0daa7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eyes-and-vision.com/optical-illusion-ames.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916698 | 209 | 2.734375 | 3 |
As discussed in pages 37 to 41, a management plan is a formal or informal arrangement between a fishery management authority and stakeholders. It provides information for all those with interests in a fishery, or an ecosystem, on key aspects on the resources, the ecosystem, the nature and importance to humans of the fisheries, and all aspects of how the fisheries will be managed. Whether or not there is a management plan in existence for a particular fishery or set of fisheries at present, the formal development of an EAF management plan will be an important guide to developing an ecosystem approach. The plan will be an essential tool in implementing the approach.This Appendix describes a process for development of a management plan that could help managers and stakeholders to ensure that the final plan satisfactorily addresses the goals and needs of all the legitimate stakeholders, that it considers the major interactions between fisheries and species and that it is comprehensive and achievable.
DEFINE THE SCOPE OF THE FISHERY MANAGEMENT PLAN UNDER EAF
Identify the fishery or fisheries, geographic area and stakeholders: The spatial coverage of the management plan must coincide with a well-defined ecosystem. Ecosystems, however, are not clearly defined entities with definite and fixed boundaries, and they may cross or be contained within fishery management areas. A preliminary specification of the area concerned is necessary, if only to allow the identification of stakeholders with common or competing interests. EAF will need to recognize the existing fisheries, management entities and jurisdictions and build on these as necessary to ensure that management recognizes and is consistent with the ecosystem boundaries.
Identify and evaluate the broad issues: This is the first step in developing operational objectives for a fishery or ecosystem and provides a preliminary evaluation of the issues associated with a fishery. The step is intended to identify the potential consequences, positive and negative, that the existing fishery or fisheries and the current or potential management tools may have for the ecosystem and the stakeholders. The evaluation should consider the human (economic and social) and ecological components of sustainable development and it should start from and be guided by the high-level policy goals set at the national or regional level. The high level policy goals are likely to be found in the national or local legislation, such as a national fisheries act and environmental acts.
Under EAF, consideration of the impacts of fisheries will need to be expanded to include not only sustainable use of the target resources and its benefits for humans but also impacts on and benefits from other living and non-living ecosystem components. This would include, for example, the direct effects of fishing on discarded species and on the habitat, as well as the indirect effects of the fishery on ecosystem structure and processes, for example by altering the balance of predator and prey or influencing competition between different species. Any issues related to implementing the current or future management should also be examined.
|The first step in developing operational objectives for a fishery or ecosystem is to undertake a preliminary evaluation of the issues associated with a fishery. The evaluation should consider the ecological and human (economic and social) aspects of the fishery or fisheries as well as issues related to implementing the current or future management (ability to achieve). An analysis of broad issues, and the finally agreed operational objectives, should start from and be guided by the high-level policy goals set at the national or regional level.|
COMPILE AND ANALYSE BACKGROUND INFORMATION
When all the potentially important issues have been agreed, relevant information on all aspects of the fisheries and ecosystem, including the people dependent on them for their livelihoods, must be compiled and analysed to allow for the formulation of more detailed objectives. This information will be important for later steps in the process.
The information requirements are outlined on pages 9 and 10 of this document.
Setting the broad objectives: The broad objectives for the fishery provide statements of the intended outcomes of the fishery management plan in addressing the set of issues identified in Step 1 above. These broad objectives provide a link between the principles and policy goals and the specific detail on what a particular fishery is trying to achieve. For example, working from the general terms of a fisheries policy, the broad management objectives for a given fishery might be identified as to:
It is important that those responsible for setting the broad objectives consult with those with responsibility for implementing the relevant policies and agreements. In most situations, this will involve several levels of government and several major stakeholder groups.
Developing operational objectives from broad objectives: The broad objectives provide more detail than the issues identified in Step 1 but they are still too broad to be implemented by a manager and they must be translated into even more specific operational objectives. Operational objectives should have direct and practical meaning for the fishery being considered. They provide the yardstick against which the performance of the fishery and its management can be evaluated. Operational objectives should be achievable, able to be measured and linked to a specific time period. The process for deriving operational objectives from policy goals should be as transparent and participatory as possible to ensure interested parties feel a sense of ownership and to encourage compliance.
There is a practical limit to how many operational objectives (and linked indicators) are useful for management decision-making. There should be a process of screening the possibilities, and only the most important and feasible ones should be selected. The consultation and decision process will vary from one fishery to another, but it will involve three tasks:
These tasks should be undertaken in full consultation with representatives of the stakeholders. It will also be important to involve technical experts who can provide relevant technical and scientific information where it is needed. In some cases, it may be found that the information available is inadequate to address some important concern or to resolve differences of opinion, and there will be the need for additional data analysis or collection before further progress can be made. However, even if good information is not available and cannot be produced, the process should still be followed using the best available information, which could be in the form of expert opinions and unbiased qualitative judgements.
Task 1: identify the issues under each of the broad objectives
This task involves a further step in breaking down the goals found in the national fisheries legislation, into the detailed concerns, or issues, at a level at which they could be directly addressed by a manager or management agency.
For example, starting from the following broad objective:
to manage harvested species within ecologically sustainable levels by avoiding overfishing and maintaining and optimizing long-term yields.
the following issues relevant to this objective and referring to the target-species could be identified for the fishery in question:
- the spawning stock declining to a level that could lead to reduced recruitment;
- the older age classes being removed from the stock by fishing leading to a lower long-term yield (growth overfishing);
- the stock is reduced to very low densities in some parts of its range, leading to lower productivity and less efficient fishing operations;
The broader EAF issues would also need to be identified. For example, the target-species in this fishery could be important prey for the target-species in another valuable fishery. In that case it may be necessary to ensure that the abundance of the prey species was not reduced by the first fishery to a level at which the productivity and yield of the predator was adversely affected.
By a similar process, other broad objectives might be translated into specific issues against which operational objectives can be set. For example, specific issues related to an ecosystem approach could include: minimizing the catch of selected vulnerable or endangered species, maintaining the area of identified essential habitats, maintaining selected prey populations at high abundance to allow for predator feeding, and achieving an acceptable net economic return on capital.
In identifying the issues, it is important to ensure that all possible interactions between a fishery and the ecosystem have been considered. As a part of the process that has been followed in Australia to implement “ecologically sustainable development” for their fisheries, useful guides and frameworks have been developed for identifying issues in fisheries and prioritising them. Ecologically sustainable development in fisheries is effectively equivalent to EAF and the Australian guidelines are useful in EAF as well. Two reports of particular relevance are:
- Fletcher, W.J., Chesson, J., Fisher, M., Sainsbury, K.J., Hundloe, T., Smith, A.D.M. & Whitworth, B. 2002. National ESD Reporting Framework for Australian Fisheries: The “How To” Guide for Wild Capture Fisheries. FRDC Project 2000/145, Canberra, Australia.
- Fletcher, W.J., Chesson, J., Sainsbury, K.J., Hundloe, T. & Fisher, M. 2003. National ESD Reporting Framework for Australian Fisheries: The ESD Assessment Manual for Wild Capture Fisheries. FRDC Project 2002/086, Canberra, Australia.
The full reports can be found at www.fisheries-esd.com
Task 2: rank the issues
This stage involves reviewing the detailed issues which have been identified in Task 1 above, and identifying the most important of them that need to be addressed by management. Operational objectives, indicators and reference points will need to be developed for the high-priority issues so that suitable management measures can be identified and progress in achieving the objectives can be monitored. One way of identifying the high-priority issues is to conduct a risk assessment. A risk assessment can range from a qualitative and opinion-based exercise to a quantitative and data-based assessment.The choice of the approach to follow will usually depend on the amount of information available and the capacity of the group to develop and utilize mathematical models. Where the information or skills to undertake a more quantitative approach are not available, it is still possible to use the best available information to estimate the likelihood of an undesirable event happening and the consequences, in relation to the operational objectives, if that event did occur. For example, scores on a scale of, say, 1 to 5 could be allocated separately to the likelihood and the consequence of an event. The relative priority of that event would then be the risk value, which is calculated as the score for the likelihood multiplied by the score for the consequence. Comparing the risk values for different events provides a means of prioritizing the events, or issues.
The two reports listed under Task 1 also provide useful guidance on this task.
Task 3: develop operational objectives for priority issues
Each issue is then dealt with in the management plan in a manner that depends on its allocated risk value. Issues with high risk values are elaborated into detailed operational objectives and comprehensive plans made for addressing them in the EAF management plan. Some issues with medium risk values might require identification of a mechanism in the plan for ongoing review and some form of back-up plan. Low-risk issues might be noted in the plan, explaining why they are considered low risk.
SELECT INDICATORS AND REFERENCE POINTS FOR EACH OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVE
The next step is to agree on indicators, reference points and performance measures for each of the objectives identified. Under EAF, the standard single species reference points and indicators will usually need to be complemented with others addressing the ecological, social and economic operational objectives.
Each indicator should be an ecosystem or population property that is thought to be modified by the impact of the fishery so that its value would change if the fishery impact changes. The final selection of indicators and reference points should also take the technical, management and operational issues of a given fishery into account. The management agency must have the capacity to measure the indicators and to monitor them regularly.
All stakeholders should feel confident that the indicators are both meaningful and workable.
The overall aim in setting indicators, reference points and performance measures is to provide a framework to evaluate whether the management rules are having the desired effect and to assess the performance of the fishery in achieving its objectives.
The next step in developing the management plan is to choose a suitable management measure or set of measures for achieving each objective. The management measures are intended to control or moderate the impact of the fishery on the target resources, bycatch species and the ecosystem.
In practice, a management regime or management strategy will consist of a mixture of different management measures, each intended to help to achieve one or more operational objectives. Together, this mixture of measures should achieve the full set of objectives for that fishery or ecosystem.
The development of measures and decision rules should ideally be underpinned by good information that, in data-rich situations would include results from rigorous data analyses, including modelling the dynamics of the system or sub-system. In data-poor situations, the best available information should be objectively analysed and considered. In both cases, validated stakeholder information, including traditional ecological knowledge where it is available, should be included. As far as possible, management measures that have minimum undesirable impacts on all operational objectives should be selected.
It is more difficult to formulate effective rules and management measures in a multispecies fisheries than in a single species fishery or one with only a few target species because of differences in the productivity of the species caught. In a multispecies fishery, decisions about adjustments to management rules should be based on indices that reflect the general state of the resources and take into account the operational objectives for both high productivity and low productivity species.
DEVELOP A MONITORING, ASSESSMENT AND REVIEW PROCESS
The EAF management plan should include arrangements for undertaking regular reviews to assess the success of the management measures in attaining the agreed objectives. The reviews should involve all stakeholders and allow for objective examination of the actual performance of the management measures. The review should examine progress in achieving the objectives and identify and correct any problems that have occurred. To do this, participants in the review will need to be well-informed by comprehensive reports produced by technical experts, based on analyses of data and information collected by an effective and well-directed monitoring programme during the implementation of the management plan. In addition, the review panel should consider information and perceptions from the stakeholders.
It will usually be necessary to conduct both short-term and long-term reviews. Short-term reviews could be undertaken every year to ensure that nothing unexpected is occurring in the ecosystem and allow for minor adjustments to the management measures where necessary. Short-term reviews will be important for regular, often annual, adjustments to more flexible management measures such as total allowable catches or allowable fishing effort. Long-term reviews, typically every three to five years, will be more comprehensive and may re-evaluate the entire management plan, including checking to see whether the operational objectives are still suitable for all involved. | <urn:uuid:1136bdd8-54b8-4c9e-9499-e1887f6b55b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0191e/A0191E14.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930676 | 2,996 | 3.28125 | 3 |
The legal front in the war on terrorism is marked by controversy. Several cases against alleged terrorists are now in the U.S. court system—in civilian criminal courts and military tribunals established by President Bush in November 2001. But they are not all proceeding smoothly, and questions about how terrorists should be prosecuted persist. The unconventional nature of the "war on terror" raises new questions about the laws of war, particularly whether or not those that exist even apply. The legal handling of suspected terrorists occupy is a complicated matter; they're not exactly prisoners of war, but they're accused of crimes in a war. The administration has detained hundreds of these "enemy combatants" in Guantanamo Bay, and has indicted others in civilian and military courts. The case of Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, set to be heard by the Supreme Court on March 28, challenges the legitimacy of the post-9/11 military tribunals and the jurisdiction of the courts.
Has the U.S. government been successful in prosecuting alleged terrorists?
The exact number of terror-related prosecutions and convictions is difficult to ascertain. U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales said in December 2005 that many cases "highlight both the extent of our success and the reality of the continuing threat. They show that we're doing the right thing, and doing it to great effect." But critics argue indictments have been slow in coming, and convictions are often not based on direct acts of terrorism, but rather on lesser charges. Furthermore, prosecutorial misconduct has hindered or even overturned convictions, notably in the case of three Arab immigrants who were part of a Detroit sleeper cell. In 2004 the judge threw out that case, once considered a major victory in the war on terrorism. Many alleged terrorists remain detained in Guantanamo Bay, which some see as helping to prevent future terror attacks on the United States and others view as a violation of international law.
What are some of the major cases in the “war on terror”?
a) Suspected terrorists tried in civilian criminal court
- Zacarias Moussaoui. Moussaoui, a French national, was indicted in December 2001 for various counts of conspiracy, including conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and murder. He was arrested on immigration charges in August 2001, indicted in relation to the September 11 attacks, and eventually pled guilty (though he said in court he was not a part of 9/11, but had rather conspired in a future al-Qaeda attack) in 2005. The sentencing trial is now underway in a civilian criminal court, and Moussaoui could get the death penalty. The case, however, has not followed many traditions of a civilian trial—for example, the government had witnesses in custody inaccessible to the defense—and the judge in the case expressed concerns about prosecuting Moussaoui in a civilian court. Recent accusations of prosecutorial misconduct have made an appeal likely.
- John Walker Lindh. Lindh, a U.S. citizen often referred to as "the American Taliban," was arrested in Afghanistan in 2001, where he was fighting for the Taliban against the Northern Alliance. He was there before September 11 but denied being part of al-Qaeda and conspiring to kill Americans. He was indicted on ten counts in 2002, but ended up signing a plea agreement admitting to supplying services to the Taliban. Lindh was sentenced to twenty years.
- Richard Reid. Reid, a British citizen, is known as the "shoe bomber" because of his attempt to blow up an American Airlines flight with explosives hidden in his shoe in December 2001. He pled guilty in 2002 and is serving a life sentence in a Boston prison.
- Jose Padilla. Jose Padilla, the U.S. citizen arrested in 2002 for planning to build a dirty bomb, was originally detained as an enemy combatant and only recently indicted in Miami on different criminal counts: conspiracy to murder U.S. nationals, conspiracy to provide material support to terrorists and providing material support to terrorists. The Supreme Court was deciding whether or not to hear his appeal for habeas corpus when the government transferred him from military to civilian custody.
b) Suspected terrorists tried in military tribunals
- Hamdan v. Rumsfeld. Salim Ahmed Hamdan, a Yemeni national and former driver for Osama bin Laden, is a Guantanamo detainee who was indicted in July 2004—after the decision that detainees deserved some kind of hearing—on the charges of "attacking civilians; attacking civilian objects; murder by an unprivileged belligerent; destruction of property by an unprivileged belligerent; and terrorism." He was supposed to face these charges in a military tribunal, but Hamdan challenged the legitimacy of these tribunals. Since the case was last heard by the lower courts, the Detainee Treatment Act was signed into law, and the Supreme Court must now determine its relevance
c) Cases of uncharged terror suspects
- Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. Yaser Esam Hamdi, a U.S. citizen captured in Afghanistan, was detained in Guantanamo for several years. The case, which went before the Supreme Court in 2004, determined that U.S. citizens classified as enemy combatants could challenge their detainment in U.S. courts. However, the court ruled that detainment itself was legal. Critics, such as attorney Elaine Cassel in an article titled "Who Really Won?" argue the burden of proof falls wrongly and impossibly on the detainee. After this decision, instead of giving Hamdi a hearing, the government released him to Saudi Arabia, once he renounced his U.S. citizenship.
- Rasul v. Bush. Complementing Hamdi, this case determined that foreign nationals could also challenge their detainment in U.S. courts. David Golove, professor of law at New York University says these decisions were rather startling in that in past wars, civilian courts had not claimed such jurisdiction during a war. This new direction, he suggests, is due to the ambiguity of the detainees' status.
What is the Detainee Treatment Act?
The Detainee Treatment Act became law in December 2005, after Hamdi and Rasul. It asserts, among other provisions, that detainees can only appeal to U.S. courts once they have been convicted by a military commission or designated as an enemy combatant. There is much debate as to whether the act applies to pending cases or only to future ones. The first issue the Supreme Court must decide in Hamdan, then, is whether the Detainee Treatment Act prevents it from hearing the case to begin with. The McCain amendment, attached to the act, prohibits cruel treatment, which some have said contradicts the act itself.
Why do some cases go to civilian courts and others to tribunals?
Golove says what determines whether a case goes to a military tribunal or criminal court is "almost entirely arbitrary. It's dependent on momentary considerations that arise." Some experts say U.S. officials chose to try Moussaoui and Reid in federal court because prosecutors were confident of the strength of each case in those venues. Incentives for prosecuting alleged terrorists in tribunals include more lenient rules on evidence and how it is obtained, such as through coercive interrogation. (The Bush administration recently announced a new rule that prohibits statements made under torture; that a statement was made under torture, however, is easy to deny.)
Proponents of the tribunals argue that trying suspected terrorists in civilian courts would flood the system and could expose intelligence essential for national security. Golove counters that national security, while a valid concern, is not a new problem; there has always been tension between the need for national security and the need for a fair trial, which requires the defendant has access to all information. U.S. Appellate Court Judge Richard Posner, law professor at the University of Chicago, says it's important to distinguish between commissions held during and after a war, however. With the Nuremberg trials, held after WWII, security was not the concern it is now.
Prior to September 11, the U.S. government had prosecuted all terrorists in civilian criminal courts. After 9/11 and the beginning of the "war on terror," Congress granted President Bush war powers and he soon ordered the establishment of military tribunals. Writing in Foreign Affairs, Human Rights Watch executive director Kenneth Roth argued that applying war rules—including the use of military tribunals—to the "war on terror" has dangerous implications, since this conflict appears open-ended and its boundaries are unclear. International law expert Ruth Wedgwood responded in the same journal issue that "a war is in fact waging, and criminal law is too weak a weapon."
Why are military tribunals so controversial?
Military tribunals are not new; they are traditionally used to try war crimes. But even critics who concede that there are valid concerns about prosecuting suspected terrorists in criminal courts—and that military tribunals do have a place in the war on terrorism—find fault with these commissions, which are different than those held in the past. This is the first time, for example, that defendants do not have access to all evidence against them. Noah Feldman, a CFR adjunct senior fellow and professor of law at New York University, suggests this produces a Kafkaesque scenario—a prisoner could be asked if he remembers meeting "person X," for example, without hearing who that person is. He argues that the United States should follow the principle of due process.
Gary Solis, visiting professor of law at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, expresses doubts about whether detainees in the war on terrorism are eligible for full legal rights. "Why should they benefit from the United States Constitution that Americans have fought and died for for 200 years?" he asks. At the same time, Solis emphasizes the need to follow international law. The government argues that someone determined to be an "enemy combatant," as opposed to a prisoner of war, is not protected by the Geneva Conventions or other international treaties. But Solis says that even if suspected terrorists are not prisoners of war, they are entitled to the same basic humane treatment as "protected persons" under the Geneva Conventions' Common Article III, which applies to all armed conflicts.
What are the implications of these cases?
Golove says the Bush administration's "basic claim is there is no law that governs what they do," and that such a claim is dangerous. Feldman says Hamdan "has major constitutional implications," and it also reflects to the world the U.S. commitment to the rule of law. In a 2004 amicus brief, Feldman—who advised the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) and later members of the Iraqi Governing Council on the Interim Iraqi Constitution—argued that the military commissions would set a bad precedent for tribunals abroad, particularly the Iraqi Special Tribunal trying Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi Special Tribunal, like the current U.S. military commissions, does not allow access to all evidence. Several experts suggest these cases may signal the end of the military commissions. Golove doubts the Supreme Court will find these military tribunals illegal, since establishing tribunals could be construed as exercising war power. But it might decide "these tribunals have been constituted in a way that's not proper," and as a result, be deemed "without jurisdiction to act." | <urn:uuid:63cb4a48-98d4-404c-9022-ce8185bc26ed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cfr.org/terrorism-and-the-law/prosecuting-terrorists-after-september-11/p10246 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969853 | 2,331 | 2.546875 | 3 |
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Cloward–Piven strategy is a political strategy outlined in 1966 by American sociologists and political activists Richard Cloward (1926-2001) and Frances Fox Piven (b. 1932) that called for overloading the U.S. public welfare system in order to precipitate a crisis that would lead to a replacement of the welfare system with a national system of "a guaranteed annual income and thus an end to poverty". Cloward and Piven were a married couple who were both professors at the Columbia University School of Social Work. The strategy was formulated in a May 1966 article in left-wing magazine The Nation entitled "The Weight of the Poor: A Strategy to End Poverty".
The two were critical of the public welfare system, and their strategy called for overloading that system to force a different set of policies to address poverty. They stated that many Americans who were eligible for welfare were not receiving benefits, and that a welfare enrollment drive would strain local budgets, precipitating a crisis at the state and local levels that would be a wake-up call for the federal government, particularly the Democratic Party, thus forcing it to implement a national solution to poverty. Cloward and Piven wrote that “the ultimate objective of this strategy [would be] to wipe out poverty by establishing a guaranteed annual income...” There would also be side consequences of this strategy, according to Cloward and Piven. These would include: easing the plight of the poor in the short-term (through their participation in the welfare system); shoring up support for the national Democratic Party then-splintered by pluralist interests (through its cultivation of poor and minority constituencies by implementing a national solution to poverty); and relieving local governments of the financially and politically onerous burdens of public welfare (through a national solution to poverty).
Cloward and Piven’s article is focused on forcing the Democratic Party, which in 1966 controlled the presidency and both houses of the United States Congress, to take federal action to help the poor. They stated that full enrollment of those eligible for welfare “would produce bureaucratic disruption in welfare agencies and fiscal disruption in local and state governments” that would “deepen existing divisions among elements in the big-city Democratic coalition: the remaining white middle class, the working-class ethnic groups and the growing minority poor. To avoid a further weakening of that historic coalition, a national Democratic administration would be constrained to advance a federal solution to poverty that would override local welfare failures, local class and racial conflicts and local revenue dilemmas.” They wrote:
The ultimate objective of this strategy—to wipe out poverty by establishing a guaranteed annual income—will be questioned by some. Because the ideal of individual social and economic mobility has deep roots, even activists seem reluctant to call for national programs to eliminate poverty by the outright redistribution of income.
Michael Reisch and Janice Andrews wrote that Cloward and Piven "proposed to create a crisis in the current welfare system – by exploiting the gap between welfare law and practice – that would ultimately bring about its collapse and replace it with a system of guaranteed annual income. They hoped to accomplish this end by informing the poor of their rights to welfare assistance, encouraging them to apply for benefits and, in effect, overloading an already overburdened bureaucracy."
Impact of the strategy
Cloward and Piven themselves, in papers published in 1971 and 1977, argued that mass unrest in the United States, especially between 1964 and 1969, did lead to a massive expansion of welfare rolls, though not to the guaranteed-income program that they had hoped for. Political scientist Robert Albritton disagreed, writing in 1979 that that the data did not support this thesis; he offered an alternative explanation for the rise in welfare caseloads.
In his 2006 book Winning the Race, commentator John McWhorter attributed the rise in the welfare state after the 1960s to the Cloward-Piven strategy, but wrote about it negatively, stating that the strategy "created generations of black people for whom working for a living is an abstraction."
According to historian Robert E. Weir in 2007, "Although the strategy helped to boost recipient numbers between 1966 and 1975, the revolution its proponents envisioned never transpired."
Some commentators have blamed the Cloward-Piven strategy for the near-bankruptcy of New York City in 1975.
Conservative Fox News commentator Glenn Beck has referred to the Cloward-Piven Strategy on his broadcast since 2009, stating that it forms part of the basis for President Barack Obama's economic policy. On February 18, 2010, he said, "you’ve got total destruction of wealth coming... It’s the final phase of the Cloward-Piven strategy, which is collapse the system."
Richard Kim, writing in 2010 in The Nation (in which the original essay appeared), called such assertions "a reactionary paranoid fantasy..." but says that "the left's gut reaction upon hearing of it--to laugh it off as a Scooby-Doo comic mystery--does nothing to blunt its appeal or limit its impact." The Nation later stated that Beck blames the "Cloward-Piven Strategy" for "the financial crisis of 2008, healthcare reform, Obama's election and massive voter fraud" and has resulted in the posting of much violent and threatening rhetoric by users on Beck's website, including death threats against Frances Fox Piven. For her part, Piven vigorously continues to defend the original idea, calling its conservative interpretation "lunatic". | <urn:uuid:8bbac8c4-c618-42df-8d50-adb9718218d1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.politicalforum.com/political-opinions-beliefs/195705-what-goals-objectives-american-liberalism.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957358 | 1,132 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Remote weather station are powered by solar panels
Mountain environments can be unpredictable and need constant monitoring, especially for potential hazards brought about by climate change.
Weather stations have become an invaluable tool for scientists monitoring the conditions 2,000 metres up the Alps.
Stations in remote parts of Italy's Valle d'Aosta have been linked to the mobile telephone network with the help of new technology.
They enable scientists to forecast temperature, snow and rainfall, wind direction back in their offices.
"This allows us to have at our desks real-time data measured in remote sites," said Umberto Morra di Cella, a researcher at the Valle d'Aosta environment agency.
"This means we can always verify that the equipment is up and running, but we can also remotely gather the data we need, even when there are intense storms and it is impossible to reach the stations," he said.
Solar panels supply power to the remote stations, which can be reached by helicopter for occasional hands-on maintenance work.
Climate change might also have a bearing on the frequency of extreme weather events in the Alps.
The Italian valley has been affected by life-threatening floods and landslides in every decade since the 1970s, and more recently in the year 2000.
Researchers can gather mountain data from their offices
"Our territory is particularly fragile and we have counted almost 5,000 mud or landslides in history and we have had a whole series of floods," said geologist Sara Ratto.
"In the last 10 years we have implemented systems to give us the information to see if we about to have a very serious weather event," she added.
Researchers hope technology will help them spot the signs of floods and mudslides before they take place.
Valle d'Aosta's forecasting department compares gathered data from a network of stations to information catalogued from past environmental disasters.
Mr Morra di Cella said the Alpine region was particularly sensitive to climate shifts.
"Rapid changes impact heavily on ecosystems and the social system in the Alpine region," he said.
Rising temperatures are resulting in ice melting more quickly than before, and another group of scientists are monitoring a hanging glacier in danger of falling.
The remote 4,400 metre Grand Jorasse Peak is being monitored with time-lapse and 3D imaging technology.
Researches hope to be able to anticipate when a chunk of ice is going to fall off.
Fabrizio Diotri, environmental engineer at the Secure Mountain Foundation said: "This is not a static object, but is a dynamic one. We study this evolution because knowing the volumes of these ice masses is very important for risk managers." | <urn:uuid:639e64ff-6764-4c35-b5a4-6135dda88a4d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8654841.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957457 | 553 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Watson Lecture: Cassini-Huygens at Saturn
The current Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn has already produced a string of new discoveries, changing our understanding of the planet's diverse rings and moons, and yielding insight into the early history of Earth and our solar system. Dennis Matson of the California Institute of Technology and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory will describe some of these findings on Wednesday, April 25, in the third program of the winter/spring 2007 Earnest C. Watson Lecture Series.
"It was a real shock when the Huygens probe landed on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and the landscape that it found looked very much like that of a stream-produced alluvial fan," Matson said. "So far away and yet so much like the Earth!"
Matson will present his lecture, "Cassini-Huygens at Saturn: Discovery of New Worlds, Some Familiar and Some Alien," at 8 p.m. in Beckman Auditorium, 332 S. Michigan Avenue, south of Del Mar Boulevard, on the Caltech campus in Pasadena. Seating is available on a free, no-ticket-required, first-come, first-served basis.
Matson is a senior research scientist at JPL, and also project scientist for the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn and Titan. Cassini-Huygens is a joint project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency.
Caltech has offered the Watson Lecture Series since 1922, when the late Caltech physicist Earnest Watson conceived it as a way to explain science to the local community.
For more information, call (626) 395-4652. Outside the greater Pasadena area, call toll-free, 1(888) 2CALTECH (1-888-222-5832).
Contact: John Avery (626) 395-8736 email@example.com
Visit the Caltech Media Relations website at: http://pr.caltech.edu/media. | <urn:uuid:4674632b-5a1b-4b8b-94dd-13d455e09150> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.caltech.edu/content/watson-lecture-cassini-huygens-saturn | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.880838 | 431 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The country plans to build nuclear reactors with combined capacity of 5,000 MW by 2030, according to the basic scenario of a draft updated energy strategy posted on the Energy and Coal Ministry's website.
By the end of this year there are plans to make a decision at the legislative level to build third and fourth generating units at the Khmeltnytsky Nuclear Power Plant with combined capacity of 2,000 MW. They are to be launched in 2018 and 2020 respectively. The approximate cost is estimated at UAH42 billion.
The cost of building another 3,000 MW of new nuclear capacity is estimated at UAH96 billion. Construction is expected to begin in 2022, with the capacity coming on line in 2025-2030. However, the projects could be accelerated if demand for electricity grows.
Construction of new nuclear power capacity will require anywhere between UAH138 billion, according to the basic scenario, and UAH202 billion under the optimistic scenario, or $17.25 billion to $25.25 billion.
In addition, Ukraine plans to extend the life of eleven existing generating units at NPP by 20 years in the period to 2030. Ten generating units with combined capacity of 10,000 MW will reach the end of their service life in 2012-2019, and one more with capacity of 1,000 MW will come to the end of its service life in 2025.
Nuclear power generates 47-48% of Ukraine's electricity. All of the country's NPP are operated by state company NAEK Energoatom.
2. India and France are close to signing a deal regarding to establishing India's largest Nuclear Power plant that will generate 9,900 Mega Watt (MW) of electricity.
Theyhope to seal the deal in the second half of this year, said an official of this project denying to reveal the total budget.
Indian state run company Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCI) along with private company Larsen & Toubro (L&T) are going to set up six units of 1,650 MW each nuclear power plants (new advanced EPR reactors) at Jaitapur in Maharashtra, for which India has seek the technical help of French Energy major Areva.
3. Sunday Telegraph UK - The prospect of new nuclear power stations being built in the UK for the first time in 20 years has moved a significant step forward after EDF Energy awarded a £2bn contract to build a plant at Hinkley Point in Somerset.
Sunday Telegraph UK - Rolls-Royce confirmed today it had won a Ministry of Defence contract worth more than £1bn (US$1.56 billion) to make reactor cores for Britain's nuclear submarine fleet.(RR/)
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on ycombinator or StumbleUpon. Thanks | <urn:uuid:970ce530-bfc9-4427-8d1f-b9b7fe5b6277> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nextbigfuture.com/2012/06/ukraine-india-and-uk-on-verge-of-new.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933422 | 575 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Want to know more about how the climate is changing in your area, and who’s writing about it?
On Earth Day, Earth Journalism Network, an arm of Internews, a nonprofit global media development organization, launched an interactive map, Climate Commons. It combines up-to-date information on climate change indicators like temperature, rainfall, and carbon-dioxide emissions across the US with geotagged stories about climate-related events and trends in different places.
A legend on the left side of the screen allows visitors to toggle between various types of climate data, which are color-coded on the map, while a sidebar on the right displays a list of stories for the area on display. As visitors zoom in, the climate data become more fine-grained and the story feed excludes articles outside the visible portion of the map. Visitors can also winnow the list with search terms or by using five built-in filters: general, humans, weather, oceans, and environment.
Part of the idea, according to Internews, is that the map can help identify strengths, weaknesses, and other patterns in climate coverage:
As an example of the kinds of insights Climate Commons can reveal, users who zoom into the area around Amarillo, Texas will note that the region received four times the normal precipitation in February of this year. This was due to a huge blizzard that dumped as much snow on North Texas (19 inches in some places) as Chicago received all last winter. But users will also note that there are no news stories available on the map about this event, suggesting that the mainstream media has not tied it to climate change (although the AP did mention the likely relationship between the storm and climate change in national and regional stories.)
Meanwhile, residents of Maine, for instance, can learn about a study which shows that climate change is likely to bring more rain than snow, and more storms that damage beaches. Climate Commons allows them to easily access such information, and how they can try and prevent or adapt to impacts, even if they don’t learn about it through regular media channels.
All of the climate data, which visitors can access through the map, come from publicly available sources, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the US Geological Survey.
James Fahn, director of the Earth Journalism Network, and a frequent contributor to CJR, explained that his team collects the news articles using Google Alerts and search terms such as “climate change” plus “sea level,” “forests,” or “cities.” Google’s software does some geo-location, but Fahn’s team, working with tech partner Axis Maps, developed algorithms that do a text analysis and look at the source of the publication to help determine an article’s geographic context. Even then, Fahn’s team has to go into each piece—about 25 to 50 per day, on average—and make a final determination about where to place them on the map.
“That’s something that we’ve learned with all these geo-journalism projects,” Fahn said. “You can do a lot with automated features and posting data, but you gotta have humans in there, checking, verifying, and ensuring that it all makes sense.”
Internews stressed that Climate Commons “is still a work in progress,” however, and Fahn’s team is still working out some kinks. On Friday, a geotag over Wichita, KA, led to a short post about the European Union’s (EU) decision cut funding for climate change adaptation. There was no link to Kansas and the post, which appeared on the blog of one of the EU’s sustainable development programs, wouldn’t qualify as news coverage.
Asked about the Wichita geotag, Fahn said his team would get better at geo-locating stories. As for the sources of information that the map is pulling in, he added there would also be an effort to focus on trustworthy outlets, but that idea was also to cast a wide net since traditional, or mainstream, media outlets often overlook locally or regionally focused climate coverage.
Climate Commons, which was made possible by a grant from Google Earth Outreach, is one of several geo-journalism projects that the Earth Journalism Network has undertaken. Last June, in partnership with O Eco, an environmental news agency in Brazil, Internews helped launch InfoAmazonia, an interactive map that combines satellite and other publicly available data about deforestation, wildfires, and other environmental indicators in the Amazon with geotagged stories.
That project, which Internews calls its “flagship” in geo-journalism, continues to expand. According to its coordinator, Gustavo Falieros, a Brazilian journalist and Knight International News Fellow, the InfoAmazonia recently added “interactive photo galleries, video mashups and a new ‘distribution widget’ that will allow journalists and NGOs to customize their own maps and data layers.”
Willie Shubert, one of Fahn’s team members, said that in coming months, the Earth Journalism Network hopes to improve upon Climate Commons in a similar manner, adding new information layers, including one on climate policies and regulations, and a time scale that will allow users to see not just current data, but changes over weeks, months, and years. They also want to attract new media partners for the project. They’ve got a ways to go still, but with some tinkering, the map could prove to be excellent resource for visualizing and tracking climate coverage nationwide. | <urn:uuid:c18328c9-892c-4ffa-a172-28863c110686> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cjr.org/the_observatory/interactive_map_climate_change.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944219 | 1,172 | 3.359375 | 3 |
The Causes of the Vietnam War
Andrew J. Rotter
Most American wars have obvious starting points or precipitating causes: the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775, the capture of Fort Sumter in 1861, the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, and the North Korean invasion of South Korea in June 1950, for example. But there was no fixed beginning for the U.S. war in Vietnam. The United States entered that war incrementally, in a series of steps between 1950 and 1965. In May 1950, President Harry S. Truman authorized a modest program of economic and military aid to the French, who were fighting to retain control of their Indochina colony, including Laos and Cambodia as well as Vietnam. When the Vietnamese Nationalist (and Communist-led) Vietminh army defeated French forces at Dienbienphu in 1954, the French were compelled to accede to the creation of a Communist Vietnam north of the 17th parallel while leaving a non-Communist entity south of that line. The United States refused to accept the arrangement. The administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower undertook instead to build a nation from the spurious political entity that was South Vietnam by fabricating a government there, taking over control from the French, dispatching military advisers to train a South Vietnamese army, and unleashing the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to conduct psychological warfare against the North.
President John F. Kennedy rounded another turning point in early 1961, when he secretly sent 400 Special Operations Forces-trained (Green Beret) soldiers to teach the South Vietnamese how to fight what was called counterinsurgency war against Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam. When Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, there were more than 16,000 U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam, and more than 100 Americans had been killed. Kennedy's successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, committed the United States most fully to the war. In August 1964, he secured from Congress a functional (not actual) declaration of war: the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. Then, in February and March 1965, Johnson authorized the sustained bombing, by U.S. aircraft, of targets north of the 17th parallel, and on 8 March dispatched 3,500 Marines to South Vietnam. Legal declaration or no, the United States was now at war.
The multiple starting dates for the war complicate efforts to describe the causes of U.S. entry. The United States became involved in the war for a number of reasons, and these evolved and shifted over time. Primarily, every American president regarded the enemy in Vietnam--the Vietminh; its 1960s successor, the National Liberation Front (NLF); and the government of North Vietnam, led by *Ho Chi Minh--as agents of global communism. U.S. policymakers, and most Americans, regarded communism as the antithesis of all they held dear. Communists scorned democracy, violated human rights, pursued military aggression, and created closed state economies that barely traded with capitalist countries. Americans compared communism to a contagious disease. If it took hold in one nation, U.S. policymakers expected contiguous nations to fall to communism, too, as if nations were dominoes lined up on end. In 1949, when the Communist Party came to power in China, Washington feared that Vietnam would become the next Asian domino. That was one reason for Truman's 1950 decision to give aid to the French who were fighting the Vietminh,
Truman also hoped that assisting the French in Vietnam would help to shore up the developed, non-Communist nations, whose fates were in surprising ways tied to the preservation of Vietnam and, given the domino theory, all of Southeast Asia. Free world dominion over the region would provide markets for Japan, rebuilding with American help after the Pacific War. U.S. involvement in Vietnam reassured the British, who linked their postwar recovery to the revival of the rubber and tin industries in their colony of Malaya, one of Vietnam's neighbors. And with U.S. aid, the French could concentrate on economic recovery at home, and could hope ultimately to recall their Indochina officer corps to oversee the rearmament of West Germany, a Cold War measure deemed essential by the Americans. These ambitions formed a second set of reasons why the United States became involved in Vietnam.
As presidents committed the United States to conflict bit by bit, many of these ambitions were forgotten. Instead, inertia developed against withdrawing from Vietnam. Washington believed that U.S. withdrawal would result in a Communist victory--Eisenhower acknowledged that, had elections been held as scheduled in Vietnam in 1956, "Ho Chi Minh would have won 80% of the vote"--and no U.S. president wanted to lose a country to communism. Democrats in particular, like Kennedy and Johnson, feared a right-wing backlash should they give up the fight; they remembered vividly the accusatory tone of the Republicans' 1950 question, "Who lost China?" The commitment to Vietnam itself, passed from administration to administration, took on validity aside from any rational basis it might once have had. Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy all gave their word that the United States would stand by its South Vietnamese allies. If the United States abandoned the South Vietnamese, its word would be regarded as unreliable by other governments, friendly or not. So U.S. credibility seemed at stake.
Along with the larger structural and ideological causes of the war in Vietnam, the experience, personality, and temperament of each president played a role in deepening the U.S. commitment. Dwight Eisenhower restrained U.S. involvement because, having commanded troops in battle, he doubted the United States could fight a land war in Southeast Asia. The youthful John Kennedy, on the other hand, felt he had to prove his resolve to the American people and his Communist adversaries, especially in the aftermath of several foreign policy blunders early in his administration. Lyndon Johnson saw the Vietnam War as a test of his mettle, as a Southerner and as a man. He exhorted his soldiers to "nail the coonskin to the wall" in Vietnam, likening victory to a successful hunting expedition.
When Johnson began bombing North Vietnam and sent the Marines to South Vietnam in early 1965, he had every intention of fighting a limited war. He and his advisers worried that too lavish a use of U.S. firepower might prompt the Chinese to enter the conflict. It was not expected that the North Vietnamese and the NLF would hold out long against the American military. And yet U.S. policymakers never managed to fit military strategy to U.S. goals in Vietnam. Massive bombing had little effect against a decentralized economy like North Vietnam's. Kennedy had favored counterinsurgency warfare in the South Vietnamese countryside, and Johnson endorsed this strategy, but the political side of counterinsurgeny--the effort to win the "hearts and minds" of the Vietnamese peasantry-- was at best underdeveloped and probably doomed. Presidents proved reluctant to mobilize American society to the extent the generals thought necessary to defeat the enemy.
As the United States went to war in 1965, a few voices were raised in dissent. Within the Johnson administration, Undersecretary of State George Ball warned that the South Vietnamese government was a functional nonentity and simply could not be sustained by the United States, even with a major effort. Antiwar protest groups formed on many of the nation's campuses; in June, the leftist organization Students for a Democratic Society decided to make the war its principal target. But major dissent would not begin until 1966 or later. By and large in 1965, Americans supported the administration's claim that it was fighting to stop communism in Southeast Asia, or people simply shrugged and went about their daily lives, unaware that this gradually escalating war would tear American society apart.
From The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Ed. John Whiteclay Chambers II. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. Copyright © 1999 by Oxford UP.
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Definitions for mac address
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word mac address
Media Access Control address; a unique identifying number assigned to most network devices.
A media access control address is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications on the physical network segment. MAC addresses are used as a network address for most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet. Logically, MAC addresses are used in the media access control protocol sublayer of the OSI reference model. MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface controller and are stored in its hardware, such as the card's read-only memory or some other firmware mechanism. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered identification number and may be referred to as the burned-in address. It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware address, hardware address or physical address. This can be contrasted to a programmed address, where the host device issues commands to the NIC to use an arbitrary address. An example is a SOHO router, for which the ISP grants access to only one MAC address so the router must use that MAC address on its Internet-facing NIC. Therefore the router administrator configures a MAC address to override the burned-in one.
The numerical value of mac address in Chaldean Numerology is: 3
The numerical value of mac address in Pythagorean Numerology is: 6
Images & Illustrations of mac address
Find a translation for the mac address definition in other languages:
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From FDR’s brushes with death to Eleanor’s midnight ride with Amelia Earhart, here are 10 things you may not know about this presidential pair.
1. Franklin Roosevelt was related to 11 other presidents.
It seems like every day there is a new report tracing the genealogical roots of the American presidents: Abraham Lincoln and George W. Bush were seventh cousins (four times removed), and Jimmy Carter and George Washington were ninth cousins (six times removed). No president, however, can boast as many commander-in-chief connections as Franklin Delano Roosevelt who, by blood or marriage, was related to 11 other former presidents: John Adams, James Madison, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Benjamin Harrison, William Howard Taft and, of course, Theodore Roosevelt, FDR’s fifth cousin. Roosevelt’s famous family tree doesn’t end at the White House. He was also reportedly related to several other historic figures, including Winston Churchill, Douglas MacArthur and two famed Confederate leaders: Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee.
2. Another famous relative? His wife, Eleanor.
Fifth cousins (once removed), Franklin and Eleanor had met briefly as children—although neither remembered the occasion. Though both were Roosevelts, they had grown up in competing New York branches of the family, Franklin from Hyde Park and Eleanor from Oyster Bay on Long Island. A chance meeting in 1902, shortly before Eleanor’s debutante ball, reacquainted the pair, who began dating later that year after a New Year’s reception at the White House hosted by Eleanor’s uncle, President Theodore Roosevelt. Though the outgoing Franklin and introverted Eleanor seemed to have little in common, they had both grown up in households seemingly haunted by illness. Franklin’s father James was 54 when his son was born, and chronic heart problems eventually rendered him an invalid until his death when Franklin was a teenager. Eleanor’s mother and brother both died early from diphtheria, and her alcoholic father Elliot (Teddy’s younger brother) died a few years later, leaving her orphaned at the age of 10. Whether or not it was this sad shared bond that united them, their relationship progressed quickly, and less than a year later they became engaged, when he was 22 and she was just 19.
3. When Franklin and Eleanor married, Teddy Roosevelt gave the bride away.
In fact, the wedding date itself was selected with the sitting president in mind: March 17, 1905, when he was already scheduled to be in New York for the St. Patrick’s Day parade. Teddy, who by all accounts adored his niece, was thrilled to be there, but perhaps inevitably it was the Rough Rider who garnered almost all the attention. The president’s attendance at the ceremony was front-page news (including in the New York Times), leaving Eleanor convinced that more people had come to see her uncle than her and Franklin. TR stole the show again when he met with reporters before leaving the reception. When asked for his thoughts on the Roosevelt-Roosevelt union, he quipped, “It is a good thing to keep the name in the family.”
4. Sara Delano Roosevelt was a prototypical “monster-in-law.”
Not everyone was thrilled with the marriage. Franklin’s domineering mother Sara had opposed it from the start. She thought the couple was too young to marry, was far from pleased with Eleanor’s family history and was unimpressed with the shy, retiring bride-to-be herself. She went so far as to whisk Franklin away on a foreign vacation in the hopes of changing his mind. She lost that battle, but Sara went on to wage familial war with her daughter-in-law for the rest of her life. Her gift to the newlyweds (a brownstone on Manhattan’s Upper East Side) may have seemed a generous gesture, but it came with powerful strings attached: Sara bought the adjoining building for herself, had connecting doors installed on every floor and proceeded to pop over whenever she pleased. She even hired (and fired) Eleanor and Franklin’s staff and eventually took control of much of the upbringing for their five children. Eleanor, naturally upset with the situation, found Franklin unsympathetic to her plight. Which is not surprising when you realize that Sara had kept her only child on just as tight a leash for his entire life. In fact, until her death in 1941—after FDR was already president—it was Sara who handled the Roosevelt family finances, doling out allowances to Franklin (and Eleanor) as she saw fit.
5. Franklin Roosevelt had a unique connection to the USS Arizona.
In 1913, FDR became Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Navy (a post previously held by cousin Teddy). The following year, he attended a keel-laying ceremony at the Brooklyn Navy Yard for a Pennsylvania-class battleship officially known as BB-39. Fifteen months later, when the ship was launched, it was christened the USS Arizona, after America’s newest state. On December 7, 1941 the Arizona was bombed during the attack on Pearl Harbor and 1,177 of its men went down with the ship. The next day, Roosevelt appeared before Congress asking for a declaration of war against Japan. Few people had noted Roosevelt’s connection to the Arizona’s beginning and end until staffers at the National Archives discovered photos of Roosevelt’s 1914 appearance in 2012. The images show a smiling Roosevelt sauntering down the gangplank, just seven years before he was stricken with polio and permanently paralyzed from the waist down.
6. The 1944 presidential election pitted Franklin Roosevelt against one of his neighbors.
In his campaign for an unprecedented fourth term in office, Roosevelt faced Republican Thomas E. Dewey, a former federal prosecutor and Manhattan District Attorney. Dewey had been born in Michigan, but made his home north of New York City, in a rural part of Dutchess County. In fact, he lived less than 30 miles from the Roosevelt family home at Hyde Park. This marks the last time that both major-party candidates for president lived in the same state, though it actually had happened three times before, in 1860, 1904 and 1920. Roosevelt and Dewey also shared another bond; both had served as governors of New York, with Dewey elected 10 years after Roosevelt had left the office to assume the presidency.
7. FDR was an avid stamp collector.
Roosevelt’s passion for stamps began when he was a small child and continued throughout his life, resulting in a collection of 1.2 million pieces. Wherever he travelled, his stash of albums went with him in a special trunk. While Roosevelt himself admitted that his collection was large but not necessarily selective or valuable, he did have several unique pieces created expressly for him by foreign heads of state. Roosevelt was so enthusiastic about his philatelic pursuit that he met regularly with Postmaster General James A. Farley to go over plans for upcoming releases, even sketching a few designs himself. While president, Roosevelt spent much of his downtime working on his collection, a welcome respite from the difficult burdens of leading the nation through both the Great Depression and World War II. Turns out it made for good PR, too. The White House released dozens of photos of a tranquil, focused FDR at work, seemingly “putting the world in order.” After his death, his collection was sold at auction, attracting significant interest and selling for more than three times its estimate—one collector even paid $500 for a simple catalogue in which Roosevelt had indicated which stamps he already owned. Roosevelt would no doubt be thrilled that more than 80 countries have released stamps bearing his image.
8. Eleanor Roosevelt held the first press conference by a first lady.
In fact, between 1938 and 1945 she held 348 of them. Encouraged by both her husband and good friend Lorena Hickok, an AP reporter, Eleanor became a shrewd manager of her public image, using it to further the cause of women’s rights. Female reporters, who were by tradition excluded from press conferences held by her husband, found a welcome audience with the first lady—only women were invited to attend. If a news organization wanted to cover Eleanor, who was now increasingly creating her own headlines, they had to keep women on their payroll, no small comfort in the midst of the Great Depression. Her support of female reporters also led her to create the “Gridiron Widows,” a rebuke to Washington’s Gridiron Club for their refusal to admit women as members, for which she organized and hosted several high-profile benefits. Her interest piqued by the time she spent with these writers, Eleanor started a side career as a journalist, writing a daily syndicated column (which continued until her death in 1962) and contributing more than 50 articles to some of the nation’s leading magazines.
9. Franklin Roosevelt narrowly avoided disaster on his way to the Tehran Conferences.
The USS William D. Porter might be the unluckiest ship in U.S. naval history. Commissioned in 1943, its first assignment was as escort for several other vessels, including the battleship USS Iowa, when they crossed the Atlantic that November. Who was on board the Iowa? President Roosevelt, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and several high-ranking military officials, on their way to a top-secret summit in Iran with Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill. The Porter’s bad luck started early, when it rammed into another ship while still in the dock. The next day saw another accident. While performing a routine drill (during which disarmed weapons were to be used), a fully operational depth charge fell off the ship and detonated, sending the rest of the convoy into a near panic, sure that Axis submarines were nearby. But it was the events of the following day, November 14 that sealed the ship’s fate. The Porter was once again performing drills, this time using what were supposed to be fake torpedoes. The problem was, the fourth round fired wasn’t a fake, it was live, and it was aimed directly at the Iowa. However, the whole convoy was under strict orders to maintain radio silence, so the Porter instead sent light signals to try to warn the Iowa. After several mistaken messages, word finally got through and the Iowa safely maneuvered out of harm’s way. While many on-board the Iowa were terrified at the prospect of an attack, FDR took it all in stride, ordering his Secret Service agents to wheel him ship-side, so he could watch the events unfold. In the aftermath of the incident, the Porter’s entire crew was arrested (a naval first), with most demoted to shore duty. But when one of the men was assigned to hard labor for his role in torpedo disaster, FDR had the sentence reduced.
10. Amelia Earhart was supposed to teach Eleanor Roosevelt how to fly.
The Roosevelts met famed aviator Amelia Earhart at a White House state dinner in April 1933, and she and the first lady quickly hit it off. Near the end of the night, Amelia offered to take Eleanor on a private flight, that night if she wanted to. Eleanor agreed, and the two women snuck away from the White House (still in evening clothes), commandeered an aircraft and flew from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore. After their nighttime flight, Eleanor got her students’ permit, and Earhart promised to give her lessons. When Earhart went missing in 1937, both Roosevelts were shocked by the news. Franklin immediately authorized a massive search effort covering more than 250,000 square miles of the Pacific and costing more $4 million. However, Earhart was never found, and Eleanor Roosevelt never got her flying lessons. | <urn:uuid:7f0803b3-e5e0-4135-b1d9-70897da3d5fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-roosevelts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98252 | 2,466 | 3.0625 | 3 |
|Brain: Brodmann area 4|
|Brodmann area 4 of human brain.|
Brodmann area 4 is about the same as the precentral gyrus. The borders of this area are: the precentral sulcus in front (anteriorly), the medial longitudinal fissure at the top (medially), the central sulcus in back (posteriorly), and the lateral sulcus along the bottom (laterally).
This area of cortex, as shown by Wilder Penfield and others, has the pattern of a homunculus. That is, the legs and trunk fold over the midline; the arms and hands are along the middle of the area shown here; and the face is near the bottom of the figure. Because Brodmann area 4 is in the same general location as primary motor cortex, the homunculus here is called the motor homunculus.
The term area 4 of Brodmann-1909 refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. It is located predominantly in the precentral gyrus. Brodmann-1909 regarded it as topographically and cytoarchitecturally homologous to the human gigantopyramidal area 4 and noted that it occupies a much greater fraction of the frontal lobe in the monkey than in the human. Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): the cortex is unusually thick; the layers are not distinct; the cells are relatively sparsely distributed; giant pyramidal (Betz) cells are present in the internal pyramidal layer (V); lack of an internal granular layer (IV) such that the boundary between the external pyramidal layer (III) and the internal pyramidal layer (V) is indistinct; lack of a distinct external granular layer (II); a gradual transition from the multiform layer (VI) to the subcortical white matter.
|Telencephalon (cerebrum, cerebral cortex, cerebral hemispheres) - edit|
frontal lobe: precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex, 4), precentral sulcus, superior frontal gyrus (6, 8), middle frontal gyrus (46), inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area, 44-pars opercularis, 45-pars triangularis), prefrontal cortex (orbitofrontal cortex, 9, 10, 11, 12, 47)
temporal lobe: transverse temporal gyrus (41-42-primary auditory cortex), superior temporal gyrus (38, 22-Wernicke's area), middle temporal gyrus (21), inferior temporal gyrus (20), fusiform gyrus (36, 37)
limbic lobe/fornicate gyrus: cingulate cortex/cingulate gyrus, anterior cingulate (24, 32, 33), posterior cingulate (23, 31),
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:ed94a200-54a9-4c97-894f-7d468ef2dd6f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Brodmann_area_4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.725974 | 642 | 3.578125 | 4 |
PsycBOOKS added the following titles to its coverage list in January 2011. Of the titles added, 1 was an APA book and 20 were designated Classic Books. Classic books are landmark titles in psychology and are selected by APA experts.
1. Advanced methods for conducting online behavioral research, © 2010, by Gosling, Samuel D.; Johnson, John A. (Eds.). ISBN: 1-4338-0695-9
2. Advancement of learning and novum organum (rev. ed.), © 1944, by Bacon, Francis
3. Body and mind: An inquiry into their connection and mutual influence, specially in reference to mental disorders (enlarged and rev. ed.), © 1873, by Maudsley, Henry
4. An essay on the principles of mental hygiene, © 1873, by Gorton, D. A.
5. History of civilization in England, Vol. 2 (from 2nd London ed.), © 1872, by Buckle, Henry Thomas
6. History of the conflict between religion and science, © 1902, by Draper, John William
7. The human mind: A system of mental philosophy, for the general reader, © 1873, by Murphy, James G.
8. Illustrations of the influence of the mind upon the body in health and disease: Designed to elucidate the action of the imagination, © 1873, by Tuke, Daniel Hack
9. Lord Bacon’s essays, with a sketch of his life and character, reviews of his philosophical writings, critical estimates of his essays, analysis, notes, and queries for students and select portions of the annotations of Archbishop Whately, © 1867, by Bacon, Francis; Boyd, James R. (Ed.)
10. Mental medicine: A theoretical and practical treatise on medical psychology (3rd ed.), © 1873, by Evans, Warren Felt
11. New elements from old subjects: Presented as the basis for a science of mind, to which are added I. The philosophy of numeration, II. The philosophy of government, III. The philosophy of definitions, as applications of the aforesaid elements, © 1874, by Gaskell, John
12. On the origin of species: or, The causes of the phenomena of organic nature: A course of six lectures to working men, © 1873, by Huxley, Thomas H.
13. Oriental and linguistic studies: The Veda, the Avesta; the science of language, © 1872, by Whitney, William Dwight
14. Philosophy and civilization in the Middle Ages, © 1922, by De Wulf, Maurice 15.Primary object lessons, for training the senses and developing the faculties of children: A manual of elementary instruction for parents and teachers (18th ed. rewritten and enlarged), © 1874, by Calkins, N. A.
16. Problems of life and mind, © 1873, by Lewes, George Henry
17. Problems of philosophy or principles of epistemology and metaphysics, © 1905, by Hyslop, James Hervey
18. The sciences of nature versus the science of man: A plea for the science of man, © 1871, by Porter, Noah
19. Some of the philosophical essays on socialism and science, religion, ethics, critique-of-reason and the world-at-large, © 1906 (reprinted 1917) by Dietzgen, Joseph; Beer, M. (Trans.); Rothstein, Th. (Trans.); Untermann, Ernest (Trans.); Dietzgen, Eugene; Dietzgen Jr., Joseph (Eds.)
20. A theory of fine art, © 1874, by Torrey, Joseph
21. A treatise concerning the principles of human knowledge, with prolegomena, and with annotations, select, translated, and original, © 1878, by Berkeley, George; Krauth, Charles P.
Note: To read any of the these ebooks – go to the Library’s Databases A-Z page. Scroll down and click PsycBOOKs. Once in the database, type in the book title. | <urn:uuid:1ee496d5-f59b-4a0e-a7df-9e182638f423> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.capella.edu/blogs/library/2011/03/15/new-psycbooks-added-january-2011/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906899 | 869 | 2.625 | 3 |
This image shows Rocks explored by the Rover.
Click on image for full size
Image from: JPL/NASA
Rocks explored by the Rover
This diagram shows the path traveled by the Mars Pathfinder Rover during its 80 day mission. During its travels, the Rover took measurements at a number of different rocks. These measurements helped scientists classify the rocks.
These rocks were scattered all around the Pathfinder landing site. The Rover visited many rocks. Scientists gave them names like: Pop Tart, Ender, mini-Matterhorn, Wedge, Baker's Bench, Flat Top, and the Broken Wall. We will not show you all the rocks visited by the Rover, only the few listed below. Rocks not in this list can be found in the Mars Pathfinder Image Archive.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!
Learn about Earth and space science, and have fun while doing it! The games
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Even though the rocks seem to be much the same, scientists can see three basic differences in these rocks. The three classes are: dark, bright, redder than the dark rock, but not at red as pink pink, perhaps...more
This image shows the rock called Pooh Bear. Soil found near Pooh Bear seemed to be a clumpy kind, made of little fine grains and cloddy. This was different from the soils found near the rock Scooby Doo,...more
Mars Global Surveyor made a measurement of pyroxene on the surface of Mars. Scientists looking at results from the Mars Pathfinder Rover's study of the rocks of Mars could not find evidence of pyroxene...more
People were really excited when Pathfinder landed on Mars on July 4, 1997. The Mars Pathfinder mission (MPF for short!) was sent to Mars to look at the rocks and soil of Mars. The MPF was actually 2 parts,...more
The Mars Pathfinder was launched on a rocket last December. The spacecraft landed on Mars on July 4th, 1997. If you had the chance to visit Mars, you might take pictures of your trip. This is exactly what...more
The rocks explored by the Mars Pathfinder's Rover are classified into two groups according to how they eroded. Rocks put in place as a result of an impact which forms a crater are usually much less eroded...more
The Mars Odyssey was launched April 7, 2001. After a six-month journey, the Odyssey arrived at Mars on October 24, 2001. The instruments onboard the Mars Odyssey will study the minerals on the surface...more | <urn:uuid:9e43d902-b335-4e07-b713-48b0235304f3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.windows2universe.org/mars/exploring/MPF_rocks.html&edu=elem | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958137 | 537 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Botanical Inventories in the Rocky Mountains Subject of Talk at AMK Ranch
June 8, 2010 — Plant species, especially those in the Greater Yellowstone Area, are the topic of the first summer seminar Thursday, June 17, at the University of Wyoming-National Park Service (UW-NPS) Research Center. The center is located at the AMK Ranch in Grand Teton National Park.
The event begins at 6:30 p.m. at the AMK Ranch, north of Leeks Marina and will feature the dedication of the Grand Teton National Park Virtual Herbarium. A barbecue will be held at 5:30 p.m. with a $5 per person fee; reservations are not required. For more information, call the UW-NPS Center at (307) 543-2463.
The featured speaker is Ron Hartman, UW professor of botany and Rocky Mountain Herbarium (RMH) director/curator. The RMH is the largest collection of Rocky Mountain plants in the U.S.
A national peer-review study recognized UW's RMH as the nation's leader in plant inventory and regional vascular plant biodiversity documentation. The study, the first of its kind that documents plant collecting activity across the United States, was recently published in "Systematic Botany," a journal devoted to taxonomy, biogeography and evolution of all plant groups, including fossils.
The authors wrote that UW has produced "remarkable" results in local plant collecting and "the number of specimens in RMH from the 1990s (3,677) is more than 40 times that of the average for the other 70 herbaria."
A presentation and demonstration of the Grand Teton virtual herbarium by UW Coe Library's Larry Schmidt and Mary Ann Harlow follows Hartman's talk. They will demonstrate how to access from a home computer pictures of more than 6,000 plant specimens within Grand Teton National Park.
The UW-NPS Research Center provides a base for university faculty members and governmental scientists from throughout North America to conduct research in the diverse aquatic and terrestrial environments of Grand Teton National Park and the Greater Yellowstone Area. | <urn:uuid:b7910167-d269-4451-acfd-ba843b88e1a7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uwyo.edu/uw/news/2010/06/botanical-inventories-in-the-rocky-mountains-subject-of-talk-at-amk-ranch.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923371 | 444 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Navigating the Website
The Next Generation website is organized into five sections:
Lessons & Worksheets
There are lessons and worksheets for each of the program's five themes: risk, life insurance, health insurance, disability insurance, and financial planning. These sections include:
- Educator's Guide—Each module includes a PDF guide with tips for implementing the lessons and answers to the student worksheets.
- Student Worksheets—Printables include glossaries, handouts, and worksheets as individual PDFs so that you can print the pages to use with your class. As you review each lesson, we recommend that you have a copy of the student worksheets available so that you can review the relevant student documents.
- Pre-/Post-Unit Quizzes—For each topic, there's a downloadable quiz that you can use as an assessment tool to determine students' prior knowledge and/or evaluate their understanding of the lessons presented. Interactive versions of these quizzes are also available in the student section for students to complete on their own. See www.scholastic.com/nextgeneration/studentresources.htm
- Videos—There is a featured video for each unit and a guide with suggestions for integrating these videos into the lessons and presenting them to students. A complete list of videos is available in the separate video section on the site.
Note: You can also download a PDF of the complete Educator's Guide from the link below. You may choose to provide students with a printout of all the student pages, or you may want to copy and distribute individual activity sheets related to the lesson you're teaching.
A series of videos has been included to complement the lessons and reinforce key messages presented in the program. Several of the videos describe real-life scenarios told from the perspectives of the young people who experienced them. These videos illustrate the importance of insurance protection to help students understand how insurance could impact their lives. In addition, there are several humorous videos designed to present financial-management messages in a more lighthearted way.
The videos have been included to help you launch the lessons and engage students in discussions. Notations in the Educator's Guide in the "Lessons & Worksheets" section include suggestions for when to incorporate the videos into the learning modules.
Each video includes a brief description and the total running time. As with the lessons, we recommend that you preview the videos before sharing them with students. In addition, you will also find a downloadable video guide with previewing and post-viewing questions for several of the program's featured videos.
The student section of the website has been designed for you to share with students. Students can access this section of the site only by going to www.scholastic.com/nextgeneration/studentresources.htm. When you click on "Student Resources" from the teacher site, it will open in a new browser window, which is what students will see.
Explore the "Student Resources" and direct your students to this site for the following materials:
- Quizzes—Interactive versions of each of the five pre-/post-unit quizzes are available for students to complete on their own. Once they complete a quiz, students can print their answers and discuss them in class.
- Glossaries—Key terms related to each of the five modules or themes are available for students to access as they complete worksheets and exercises.
- Family Activities—These are activities for students to use with their families. Encourage students to take these activities home and share them with their parents and caregivers to find out what kinds of insurance and financial-planning strategies their families use. Help students start dialogues with their families as they themselves become more aware of and interested in the relevance of financial protection and planning in their own lives.
- Videos—Students can watch the videos related to each module.
The lessons and activities satisfy a number of learning standards in financial literacy as well as other subjects such as life skills, math, and language arts. Where possible, we have linked lessons to these content standards within each module. The site includes a matrix that aligns the lessons and activities with national education standards.
- National Standards in K-12 Personal Finance Education: http://jumpstart.org/national-standards.html
- National Council of Teachers of Mathematics: www.nctm.org/standards
- Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning: http://www2.mcrel.org/compendium/browse.asp
- Common Core State Standards Initiative: www.corestandards.org/read-the-standards
The list of helpful links includes resources that may be useful to you as reference when teaching students about insurance and financial planning. | <urn:uuid:ed28666d-1326-44d1-834c-c9bc996d2446> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3757766 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936119 | 979 | 2.59375 | 3 |
This document was published with and applies to ArcGIS 9.3.
A 10 version also exists.
A 10 version also exists.
In this topic
ArcObjects is a set of platform independent, component based geographic data models written in C++. ArcObjects offer services to support and build geographic information system (GIS) solutions and are the foundation of the ArcGIS family of products evolved progressively to suit the requirements of GIS developers and users.
ArcObjects services can be categorized as base services, data access, map analysis, map presentation, developer components and Web development framework, and user interface and extensions. The services are organized under ArcGIS Desktop, ArcGIS Engine, and ArcGIS Server to tailor the needs of the GIS developer. See the following illustration that shows the services organized with each product:
ArcGIS Desktop applications contain many dialog boxes and property pages allowing end users to work effectively with the functionality of the object. ArcObjects containing properties to be modified by users of these applications should have property pages created for these properties.
Not all objects require property pages.
The base services, data access, map analysis, and map presentation categories contained in all three ArcGIS products, comprise the majority of the GIS functionality exposed to developers and users in ArcGIS. This commonality of functions among all the products is important for developers to understand, since it means that when working in a particular category, much of the development effort can be transferred between the ArcGIS products with little change to the software (this is how the ArcGIS architecture is developed).
Use of the ArcObject is in a custom application. ArcObjects in ArcGIS Engine must support a variety of uses; simple map dialog boxes, multithreaded servers, and complex Windows desktop applications are all possible uses of ArcGIS Engine objects. The dependencies of the objects in ArcGIS Engine must be thoroughly understood. The impact of adding dependencies external to ArcObjects must be carefully reviewed, since new dependencies can introduce undesirable complexity to the installation of the application built on ArcGIS Engine.
The ArcObject is used in the server framework where clients of the object are usually remote. The remoteness of the client can vary from local—possibly on the same machine or network—to distant, where clients can be on the Internet. ArcObjects running on the server must be scalable and thread-safe to allow execution in a multithread environment. | <urn:uuid:310b87aa-9536-489a-8976-a777b07eb727> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://resources.esri.com/help/9.3/arcgisengine/java/doc/b0a96bd8-fc78-4573-9a70-e108cf6a4580.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911317 | 508 | 2.75 | 3 |
It may be difficult to imagine a world where human beings are even more connected than we are now. Yet the reality is that when it comes to connectivity, we’re barely scratching the surface in terms of where we’ll be in the future.
Many anticipate that this growth will be largely driven by mobile-connected devices like smart phones and tablets. To understand the scope of where we are heading with mobile computing, consider this data from a recent Cisco report:
- The number of mobile-connected devices will exceed the world’s population in 2012
- There will be over 10 billion mobile-connected devices in 2016
- Monthly global mobile-data traffic will surpass 10 exabytes per month in 2016
- Over 100 million smart-phone users will each consume more than 1 GB of data per month in 2012
- Global mobile-data traffic will increase eighteenfold between now and 2016
- Mobile-network connection speeds will increase ninefold by 2016
- Two-thirds of the world’s mobile data traffic will be video by 2016
What this data suggests is that the way we use computing devices is drastically changing. For most of the so-called PC era, those who used computers did so primarily chained to a desk. Once the notebook came along, the primary computing device become portable — but not necessarily mobile. That’s why I agree with Harry McCracken’s assertion that we need a new definition for what we call a PC.
The reality is that computing in its purest sense of the word can be done on a multitude of devices in consumers’ hands today. Smart phones and tablets will drive the bulk of what we consider mobile computing in the future because those devices are truly mobile computers.
Analyzing the Cisco data, it becomes clear that in order to hit many of the statistics shared in the report, not only will more humans be connected, but they will also each have a number of connected devices. And as hard as it may be to imagine, what we do in terms of mobile computing today will look drastically different in five years. The way we consume Web content will be different and the way we use our mobile devices to interact with the world around us will be different. This reality can be scary for some, but it’s also empowering for many.
Consider parts of the world like China, Africa and the Middle East where connectivity could provide profound economic opportunity. In fact, the same Cisco report highlights that China will exceed 10% of global mobile-data traffic in 2016. It also points out that the Middle East and Africa will have the strongest mobile-data-traffic growth of any region.
Opportunities for business, trade, commerce and more at every level will become even more embedded into the fabric of societies as the world gets more connected. That doesn’t mean that we won’t face challenges in this increasingly connected and digital age. Things like privacy and security will continue to be challenges that take us into waters where we haven’t tread before.
Many of us Americans are used to having the ability to communicate with anyone at nearly any time. Mobile phones have profoundly changed the way we communicate and stay in touch. As more and more consumers all over the planet get their hands on an increasing number of connected smart devices, the world will feel even smaller than it already does.
The reality, though, is that the infrastructure needed to support this vision is nowhere near in place. That is why I wrote about why technology is so important to America’s future. This global vision is, of course, much larger than America, but American innovation will be a catalyst to drive global connectivity forward.
Bajarin is the director of consumer-technology analysis and research at Creative Strategies Inc., a technology-industry analysis and market-intelligence firm in Silicon Valley. | <urn:uuid:f7591645-312c-4529-9ec4-6513b3e3b560> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://techland.time.com/2012/02/21/the-connected-human-how-the-world-is-about-to-get-even-smaller/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93068 | 784 | 2.625 | 3 |
Geyser Teacher Resources
Find Geyser educational ideas and activities
Showing 1 - 20 of 181 resources
Hydrogen Bubbles - Exploding Bubbles
The thinking, and science, behind hydrogen-powered cars is beautifully demonstrated in this episode. Spangler shows how, by itself, oxygen is not combustible. However, when some hydrogen gas is added, that changes! His assistant scoops...
2 mins 6th - 12th Science
Epic Poetry Unit
The Odyssey is the core text in this unit study of the hero's journey motif. Along the way, kids research Greek and Roman history, mythology, art, and epic poetry. The 104-page packet is perfect for homeschool or classroom situations and...
6th - 10th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed | <urn:uuid:4552fa94-70e7-4cc9-99ff-0c133056a452> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/geyser | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906877 | 163 | 3.40625 | 3 |
It is ironic that one of the most common dental disorders is also the most neglected. The way the teeth fit together when the jaw closes and chews is of profound importance to the long-term health of your teeth.
If surfaces of the teeth interfere with how the jaw moves, the teeth can be worked loose or the enamel can be worn away. The muscles that move the jaw are very powerful and can do major damage to the teeth when the biting surfaces don't fit together properly.
The problem can be compounded if teeth interfere with functional muscle patterns, the jaw muscles will attempt to "erase" the part of the tooth that interferes by grinding against it all the more. This can lead to even more severe wear or it may crack off a cusp or split the tooth. Or it may loosen the tooth or cause it to move out of alignment. The excessive muscle activity often results in pain in the muscle itself. All of the jaw muscles can become sore including the temporal muscles that are the source of many so-called tension headaches.
Some excessive muscle activity may be caused by emotional stress. But with some special exceptions, damage done by stress induced grinding and clenching can be minimized to a manageable level by equalizing the biting surfaces that are in conflict with jaw movements. Proper fitting of braces for teeth can solve the problem by gently moving the teeth into a more optimal position.
The power of the jaw muscles may surprise you. Some people can exert over 900 pounds of compressive force with their jaw muscles so you can imagine how much damage such force can do when you close into a single tooth and then work it from side to side. The effect is very much like working a fence post loose as the bone around the root breaks down. If you can put your finger on any tooth in your mouth, and then squeezing your teeth together causes the tooth to move, you can be sure that it is just a matter of time before there will be a problem with that tooth.
Sometimes the muscle forces that work the tooth sideways stimulates bone around the root to build up and become stronger. When that happens, the tooth actually bends in its socket and this creates a microscopic chipping away close to the gum line to form a deep groove in the tooth. This is called an abfraction. These deep grooves at the gum line are often mistaken for toothbrush abrasion, but scientists have shown us that the grooves are actually the results of bending of the tooth in its socket. These grooves can lead to much sensitivity in those teeth because the opening into the tooth exposes nerves that can be exquisitely sensitive. Correction of the bite with Dental Braces to remove excessive lateral forces on the teeth in most instances either eliminates the sensitivity completely or reduces it to a much more acceptable level.
Patients should be aware that much confusion surrounds the importance of a harmonious bite, including many misconceptions that have been fostered by flawed research that has failed to properly relate the bite interferences to the position and condition of the temporomandibular joints. Knowledgeable clinicians, however, are very much aware of this relationship and can achieve excellent results with braces for teeth that will help make both your teeth and your jaw muscles more comfortable by bringing your whole biting into harmony.
By Peter E. Dawson, DDS | <urn:uuid:d41b2a13-f689-4591-83fd-4251d07defbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.1stbraces.com/a/186/braces-for-teeth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955754 | 672 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Among the tender bulbs grown as annuals are some that make excellent cut flowers. Ones recommended for cutting gardens include the following kinds, which can be planted outdoors in late spring after the danger of frost has past.
Among the most unique of the tender bulbs, this has exotic blooms with an unusual shape. These have a vase life of about seven to ten days. They are used as a form flower. This is a good choice for Ikebana-style designs.
The fiery red petals with yellow margins curl upwards. Though the blooms are usually red, some varieties may have yellow or purple petals. The stamens are particularly long and conspicuous. These gigantic blooms can be up to five inches across. These open in the summer.
This bulb grows as a climbing vine that attaches itself harmlessly to nearby plants or structures.
Only winter hardy to zone ten, this tropical species does well in full sun and partial shade. It is resistant to deer.
Sometimes called spider lily, there are several species of nerine that are used for cut flowers. These are native to South Africa. They have a vase life of about a week to two weeks. The stems are used as form flowers. The individual florets can be included in corsages. They bloom during the late summer and fall.
The trumpet shaped blossoms are named for the curling, wispy petals. An individual blossom may only be an inch or so wide. However, they open in huge clusters with as many as 20 per flower head. These open at the top of the flower stalks, which are about 1˝ feet in height.
Dainty and elegant looking, nerine flowers come in different colors. These include white, pink, and red.
Nerine bulbs are only hardy in zones eight through ten. Elsewhere, they’re treated as annuals and lifted at the end of the season.
Several species of spider flowers are available, including one called Guernsey lily, which has pink blossoms.
There’s nothing quite like ranunculus as cut flowers. They can’t be beat. These stems last for about a week. They are used as a mass flower.
These stunning blossoms open during mid to late summer in a wide range of colors. These include white, all shades of pink, red, and orange as well as yellow. Reaching over 1˝ feet in height, the round flowers look somewhat like peonies.
These are only hardy in zones eight through ten. Elsewhere, they’re grown as a tender annual by digging and taking indoors for the winter.
Ranunculus need full sun, and are resistant to deer.
Also known as Peruvian daffodil, this makes a dramatic cut flower. It has everything you would ask for in a cut flower. As a cut flower, they last for about a week or so. Due to their unusual form, they are used as an accent and line flower.
The pure white petals are slightly ruffled, and surround the greenish-tan centers. The most intriguing thing about these is the long, curly, petal-like appendages for which the spider lily is named.
Growing over 1˝ feet in height, the stems have clusters of blooms.
This bulb is winter hardy in zones eight and nine. Elsewhere, it can be grown as a summer bulb and lifted in the fall for storage indoors. The plant needs full sun, and is deer resistant. | <urn:uuid:dd991e8d-597d-4108-9ca5-82470e6a894f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art48149.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964741 | 737 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Sunday, July 03, 2005
Franklin Co. history fortified
By Mason Adams
The home of Robert Hill, likely the county's first permanent settler, was dedicated Saturday as a Franklin County Historic Site.
ROCKY MOUNT - In the 18th century, settlers in Western Virginia thought of land ownership in terms of hundreds of acres.
Thus it was that Robert Hill, generally considered Franklin County's first permanent settler, ended up with at least 1,700 acres that included nearly all of Rocky Mount, as well as stretches along what are now Virginia 40 and U.S. 220. Along with the land came a lot of sacrifice: Hill lost two of his five sons to deaths by arrow and tomahawk, respectively. A third was either killed by a panther or trying to break a bucking horse, depending on whom you believe. Hill's other two sons, however, went on to become major players in the early history of Franklin County.
On Saturday, Hill's home, a fortified settlement built in 1743 and located in what would become southern Rocky Mount, was celebrated and remembered when his descendants, history buffs and local officials gathered to dedicate it as a Franklin County Historic Site.
"What we want to do is save what's left," said Linda Stanley of the Franklin County Historical Society. "This is a preservation effort, not a rebuilding of the fort."
Hill and his wife, Violet, came from Pennsylvania down the Great Philadelphia Wagon Road, also called the Carolina Road and occasionally the Great Warriors Path. The exact route of the road is still debated, but Stanley thinks it came over Windy Gap from Roanoke.
The Hills initially squatted on land near the Wagon Road before eventually securing a land grant later in the century. To protect his family and neighbors from roving raids by American Indians that still traveled the road, Hill built his house out of stones found in the area. The fortified home never housed soldiers, but it served as a refuge during times of attack.
It was only partially successful.
One of Hill's sons was shot and killed by an arrow while standing in the doorway of the house. Another was killed and scalped while near Bald Knob, according to historian and former Rocky Mount lawyer Keister Greer. That son was buried nearby, in what is now Tanyard Cemetery.
Robert Hill died about a year into the Revolutionary War, but other family members played key roles. His wife, Violet, supplied food to American soldiers and their animals. Both of his surviving sons fought in the war, and one of them, Thomas Hill, participated in the pivotal battle for Guilford Courthouse, which helped end British general Lord Charles Cornwallis' attempts to conquer the backcountry South and which sent him toward Yorktown and the end of the war.
Thomas Hill went on to become a major figure in early Rocky Mount, as he and James Callaway owned the bulk of the land in town. His brother, Swinfield Hill, became one of the first justices in Franklin County.
Franklin County was founded in 1786.
The Robert Hill home and surrounding property stayed in the family for 174 years before finally changing hands in 1917. Eventually it came into the possession of B.A. Davis Jr., the father of longtime Franklin County Circuit Court Judge B.A. "Monk" Davis III. In 1960, a brush fire destroyed a large portion of the home, which by then had grown to include 10 rooms and five chimneys. Legend has it that after the fire, B.A. Davis Jr. stuffed four of the five chimneys with dynamite and exploded them. The rest of the house, except for the original chimney and structure, was bulldozed, Stanley said.
These days, the property is owned by Christian Heritage Academy. The Hill house went ignored until one day when a teacher noticed a parent dismantling it.
"The teacher called up the historical society and said, 'Come out and take a look at it,'" Stanley said.
Using volunteers and inmate labor, the Franklin County Historical Society cleaned up the fort. Now, a marker denotes the home as a county historic site, and a kiosk allows visitors to hear a brief audio presentation.
Cecil Hill, a descendant of Swinfield Hill who now lives in Roanoke, described visiting the site.
"I walked up and put my hand on the stone," he said. "It would make the hair on your head stand up ... I'm really grateful the people here are progressing with this. When my grandson comes out - 10 generations after Robert Hill - he can lay his hands on the stones and found out what I found out."
(C)2005 The Roanoke Times | <urn:uuid:56090b8d-803c-4260-989a-7e6f1fb606d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://boards.ancestry.com/localities.northam.usa.states.virginia.counties.franklin/1032/mb.ashx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978733 | 970 | 2.953125 | 3 |
FirstEnergy GHG Reduction Goals 2011
|Filer||New York State Comptroller|
|Subject(s)||Climate Change; Greenhouse Gas Emissions|
|Resolved Clause Summary||Greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals|
|Status||Withdrawn; Company will address|
Many utilities have established goals for reduction of green house gasses (“GHG”) and other pollutants. Pollution reduction goals have been set in anticipation of additional regulation by the Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) and to mitigate the economc, public health and environmental consequences of these emissions.
In October 2006, a report authored by former chief economist of the World Bank, Sir Nicolas Stem, estimated that climate change will cost between 5% and 10% of global domestic product (“GDP”) if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced, and that GHG‘s can be reduced at a cost of approximately 1% of global GDP per year.
In October 2009, a National Academy of Sciences report stated that the burning of coal to generate electricity in the U.S. causes about $62 billion a year in "hidden costs" for environmental damage, not including the costs for damage associated with GHG emissions.
The electric generating industry accounts carbon dioxide emissions than any other sector, including the transportation and industrial sectors. U. S. fossil fueled power plants account for nearly 40% of domestic carbon dioxide emissions.
On May 13, 2010, the EPA finalized regulations requiring many existing and new industrial facilities, including power plants, refineries and cement production facilities to obtain operating permits for emission of carbon dioxide and other green house gasses. These requirements are scheduled to take effect in the first half of 2011
Many utilities, including Xcel Energy, Calpine Corporation and Progress Energy are shutting down or replacing power plants, having determined that doing so is more cost~effectivet11an retrofitting the plants to comply with new U.S. EPA regulations. "
The Tennessee Valley Authority announced in August,2010, plans to idle 1000 MW of coal generating capacity over the next five years and add 1000 MW of gas and 1140 MW of nuclear generating capacity along with 1900 MW of energy efficiency and distributed renewable resources.
Some of the Company's electric industry peers who have set GHG emissions reduction targets include American Electric Power, Entergy, Duke Energy, Exelon, National Grid and Consolidated Edison. Those with GHG intensity targets include CMS Energy, PSEG, NiSource and Pinnacle West.
RESOLVED, shareholders request that the Company adopt quantitative goals for the reduction of greenhouse gas and other air emissions, including plans to retrofit or retire it's existing coal plants; and that the Company report to shareholders by September 30, 2011, on its plans to achieve this goal. Such a report will omit proprietary information and be prepared at reasonable cost. | <urn:uuid:234978b3-9bc7-465e-aa2f-b464414e94f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ceres.org/investor-network/resolutions/firstenergy-ghg-reduction-goals-2011 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924779 | 589 | 2.65625 | 3 |
When I got to the BioCurious lab yesterday evening, they were just cleaning up some old coffee makers. These, I learned, had been turned into sous vide cookers in that day’s class.
New lab at BioCurious
Sous vide cookers are sort of the gourmet rage at the moment. One normally costs several hundred dollars, but BioCurious offered a class for $117 where seventeen participants learned to build their own cookers and took them home at the end. They actually cooked steak during the class–and I’m told that it come out very good–but of course, sous vide cookers are also useful for biological experiments because they hold temperatures very steady.
The class used Arduinos to provide the temperature control for the coffee pots and other basic hardware, so the lesson was more about electronics than biology. But it’s a great illustration of several aspects of what BioCurious is doing: a mission of involving ordinary people off the street in biological experiments, using hands-on learning, and promoting open source hardware and software.
Other classes have taught people to insert dyes into cells (in order to teach basic skills such as pipetting), to run tests on food for genetically modified ingredients, and to run computer analyses on people’s personal DNA sequences. The latter class involved interesting philosophical discussions about how much to trust their amateur analyses and how to handle potentially disturbing revelations about their genetic make-up. All the participants in that class got their sequencing done at 23andme first, so they had sequences to work with and could compare their own work with what the professionals turned up.
Experiments at BioCurious are not just about health. Synthetic biologists, for instance, are trying a lot of different ways to create eco-friendly synthetic fuels.
BioCurious is not a substitute for formal training in biochemistry, biology, and genetics. But it is a place for people to get a feel for what biologists do and for real biologists without access to expensive equipment to do research of their dreams.
In a back room (where I was allowed to go after being strenuously warned not to touch anything–BioCurious is an official BSL 1 facility, and they’re lucky the city of Sunnyvale allowed them to open), one of the staff showed a traditional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) machine, which costs several thousand dollars and is critical for sequencing DNA.
Traditional commercial PCR
A couple BioCurious founders analyzed the functions of a PCR and, out of plywood and off-the-shelf parts, built an OpenPCR with open hardware specs. At $599, OpenPCR opens up genetic research to a far greater audience.
BioCurious staffer with OpenPCR
How low-budget is BioCurious? After meeting for a year in somebody’s garage, they finally opened this space three weeks ago with funds raised through Kickstarter. All the staff and instructors are volunteers. They keep such a tight rein on spending that a staffer told me they could keep the place open by teaching one class per week. Of the $117 students spent today for their five-hour class, $80 went to hardware.
BioCurious isn’t unique (a similar space has been set up in New York City, and some movements such as synthetic biology promote open information), but it’s got a rare knack for making people comfortable with processes and ideas that normally put them off. When executive director Eri Gentry introduces the idea to many people, they react with alarm and put up their hands, as if they’re afraid of being overwhelmed by technobabble. (I interviewed Gentry (MP3) before a talk she gave at this year’s O’Reilly Open Source Convention.)
Founder and executive director Eri Gentry
BioCurious attacks that fear and miscomprehension. Like Hacker Dojo, another Silicon Valley stalwart whose happy hour I attended Friday night, they wants an open space for open-minded people. Hacker Dojo and BioCurious will banish forever the stereotype of the scientist or engineer as a socially maladroit loner. The attendees are stringently welcoming and interested in talking about what they do in says that make it understandable.
I thought of my two children, both of whom pursued musical careers. I wondered how they would have felt about music if kids weren’t exposed to music until junior high school, whereupon they were sat down and forced to learn the circle of fifths and first species counterpoint. That’s sort of how we present biology to the public–and then, even those who do show an interest are denied access to affordable equipment. BioCurious is on the cusp of a new scientific revolution.
Eri Gentry with Andy Oram in lab | <urn:uuid:2f009d09-3d8a-41fe-ab5a-45ec31d385ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://radar.oreilly.com/2011/10/biocurious-opens-its-lab-in-su-1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963894 | 998 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Inverse circular function (Inverse Trigonometric Functions)
The functions sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x, cot-1x, cosec-1x and sec-1x are called inverse circular or inverse trigonometric functions. sin-1x should not be confused with
(sin x)-1 which is equal to .
Each of the inverse circular functions is multivalued. To make each inverse circular function single valued we define principal values as follows. If x is positive, the
principal values of all the inverse circular functions lie between 0 and . If x is negative, the principal values of sin-1x, cosec-1x and tan-1x lie betweenand 0, and
those of cos-1x, sec-1x and cot-1x lie between and . From now onwards we take only the principal values.
Hence sin = x = sin-1x where (range) and x [-1, 1] (domain).
This ensures that the function = sin-1x is one-one and onto.
Similarly cosec = x = cosec-1x where and x (-, -1] [1, ).
cos = x = cos-1x where [0, ] and x [-1, 1].
sec = x = sec-1x where and x (-, -1] [1, ).
tan = x = tan-1x where and x (-, ).
cot = x = cot-1x where (0, ) and x (-, ).
The domains and ranges of inverse trigonometric (or inverse circular) functions are:
|sin-1 x||[- 1, 1]|
|cos-1 x||[- 1, 1]||[0, ]|
|cot-1 x||R||(0, )|
|sec-1 x||(- , - 1] [1, )|
|cosec-1 x||(- , - 1] [1, )|
The graphs of = sin-1x, = cos-1x and = tan-1x are:
(i) sin-1(sin) = if and only if - and sin(sin-1x) = x where -1 x 1.
(ii) cosec-1(cosec) = if and only if -< 0 or 0 <
and cosec(cosec-1x) = x where - < x -1 or 1 x < .
(iii) tan-1(tan) = if and only if -<< and tan(tan-1x) = x where - < x < .
(iv) cos-1(cos) = if and only if 0 and cos(cos-1x) = x where -1 x 1.
(v) sec-1(sec) = if and only if 0 < or <
and sec(sec-1x) = x where - < x -1 or 1 x < .
(vi) cot-1(cot) = if and only if 0 << and cot(cot-1x) = x where - < x < .
Some Important Results
sin-1(-x) = - sin-1(x)
cosec-1(-x) = -cosec-1(x)
tan-1(-x) = -tan-1(x)
cos-1(-x) = - cos-1(x)
sec-1(-x) = - sec-1(x)
cot-1(-x) = - cot-1(x)
Within the domain of their definition
sin-1x = = cosec-1= cos-1
= , x > 0
= cosec-1 = cot-1 x > 0
cot-1 x = cos-1 = sec-1
, x 0, y 0
2cos-1x = cos-1 (2x2 - 1), x > 0
cos-1x - cos-1y =
sin-1x + sin-1y =
sin-1x - sin-1y = sin-1 , x 0, y 0
tan-1x + tan-1y =
x > 0, y > 0
2tan-1x = , x 0 | <urn:uuid:a7ce3bf1-4ff4-4abe-a572-e6163968bf1e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://aieeeconcepts.blogspot.com/2010/04/inverse-trigonometric-functions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.686122 | 938 | 3.234375 | 3 |
JUNIPER Overview Information
Juniper is a short to medium-height tree that grows wild in some parts of Europe, North America, and Asia. There are many varieties of juniper, but Juniperus communis is the most common in North America.
People use the juniper berry to make medicine. Medicinal preparations include the extract of juniper berry, as well as the essential oil of juniper berry. Don’t confuse juniper berry oil with cade oil, which is distilled from juniper wood (Juniperus oxycedrus).
Juniper is used for digestion problems including upset stomach, intestinal gas (flatulence), heartburn, bloating, and loss of appetite, as well as gastrointestinal (GI) infections and intestinal worms. It is also used for urinary tract infections (UTIs) and kidney and bladder stones. Other uses include treating snakebite, diabetes, and cancer.
Some people apply juniper directly to the skin for wounds and for pain in joints and muscles. The essential oil of juniper is inhaled to treat bronchitis and numb pain.
In foods, the juniper berry is often used as a condiment and a flavoring ingredient in gin and bitter preparations. The extract and essential oil are used as a flavoring ingredient in foods and beverages.
In manufacturing, the juniper oil is used as a fragrance in soaps and cosmetics.
Juniper extract and juniper oil are used in cosmetics including lipstick, foundation, hair conditioners, bath oils, bubble bath, eye shadow, and many other products.
How does it work?
Juniper berries contain chemicals that might decrease inflammation and gas. It might also be effective in fighting bacteria and viruses. Juniper might also increase the need to urinate.
JUNIPER Side Effects & Safety
Juniper, juniper berry, and juniper extract are LIKELY SAFE when consumed in normal food amounts.
Juniper is POSSIBLY SAFE for most adults when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts short-term, when inhaled appropriately as a vapor, or when applied to the skin in small areas. Using juniper on the skin can cause some side effects including irritation, burning, redness, and swelling. Avoid using it on large skin wounds.
Taking juniper by mouth long-term or in a high dose is LIKELY UNSAFE as it can cause kidney problems, seizures, and other serious side effects.
Special Precautions & Warnings:Pregnancy and breast-feeding: It’s UNSAFE to use juniper if you are pregnant or trying to become pregnant. Juniper’s effects on the uterus might interfere with fertility or cause a miscarriage. It’s also best to avoid using juniper if you are breast-feeding. Not enough is known about how juniper might affect a nursing infant.
Diabetes: Juniper berry might lower blood sugar. There is some concern that it might lower blood sugar too much in people with diabetes.
Stomach and intestinal disorders: Juniper berry might irritate the stomach and intestines, making disorders in these organs worse.
High blood pressure, low blood pressure: Juniper berry might affect blood pressure and could make blood pressure control more difficult.
Surgery: Juniper might affect blood sugar levels, making blood sugar control more difficult during and after surgery. Stop using juniper at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.
Moderate Interaction Be cautious with this combination
- Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interacts with JUNIPER
Juniper might decrease blood sugar. Diabetes medications are also used to lower blood sugar. Taking juniper along with diabetes medications might cause your blood sugar to go too low. Monitor your blood sugar closely. The dose of your diabetes medication might need to be changed.
Some medications used for diabetes include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glipizide (Glucotrol), tolbutamide (Orinase), and others.
Minor Interaction Be watchful with this combination
- Water pills (Diuretic drugs) interacts with JUNIPER
Juniper seems to work like "water pills" by causing the body to lose water. Taking juniper along with other "water pills" might cause the body to lose too much water. Losing too much water can cause you to be dizzy and your blood pressure to go too low.
Some "water pills" include chlorothiazide (Diuril), chlorthalidone (Thalitone), furosemide (Lasix), hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ, Hydrodiuril, Microzide), and others.
The appropriate dose of juniper depends on several factors such as the user’s age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for juniper. Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using. | <urn:uuid:e9481dd9-2336-41f6-98d1-6ac6556b94a6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-724-juniper.aspx?activeingredientid=724&activeingredientname=juniper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900773 | 1,112 | 3 | 3 |
In 2012 the number of U.S. children in foster care dropped for the sixth straight year, falling to about 400,000 compared to more than 520,000 a decade ago, according to the federal Department of Health and Human Services.1 The latest figures show there were 400,540 children in foster care as of September 30, down from 406,412 a year earlier and from approximately 523,000 in 2002. Privatization has continued to play a role in reducing the number of children who enter the foster care system.
Child Welfare Privatization in the States
In 2012 several states continued to implement privatized child welfare efforts. For a comprehensive implementation guide for state advocates of child welfare privatization, policymakers can review an October 2012 policy brief by the State Policy Advocacy and Reform Center, Privatization of Child Welfare Services: A Guide for State Advocates which provides an overview of child welfare privatization and how advocates can be involved in efforts to privatize child welfare services.2
Florida: Florida privatized its foster care system a decade ago, contracting out casework and other services, which has contributed to a dip in the number of children in care. Its foster care numbers dropped from about 29,000 in 2006 to under 20,000 for the 2011 fiscal year. Florida’s privatization has also led to innovative caseworker practices.3 Private providers collaborated with the state to develop a new computer system to better track the children in foster care and the actions taken by case workers on any child's case. Case workers ensure that children are seen every 30 days as mandated by state law. If the 30-day deadline passes, a supervisor and others are notified. In October 2012, 99 percent of children in both in-home and out-of-home care were seen within 30 days. When case managers in private agencies make their monthly visits, they take a picture of the child with their mobile device which has a GPS time, date and location stamp. This information is then uploaded to the system where the photos are stored. Access to this system is shared by staff, supervisors, judiciary and law enforcement. An independent study of our nation's child welfare systems ranked Florida's as the fourth best in the country. In the Foundation for Government Accountability’s first "Right For Kids Ranking"—the first such ranking comparing states' child welfare performance—Florida scored high on reducing the overall foster care population, reducing abuse in foster care, rapid response to child abuse inquiries, and finding permanent homes for children.4
Kansas: Since 1996, Kansas has been one of only a few states to privatize the majority of its child welfare services. In January 2013 the Kansas Department for Children and Families (DCF) Secretary Phyllis Gilmore announced that the department had signed eight new contracts for reintegration, foster care and adoption services, and for family preservation services.5 These contracts are scheduled to go into effect July 1, 2013. “This has proven to be an effective, successful way to serve children and families while demonstrating a model of collaboration between private business and state government,” Secretary Phyllis Gilmore said.6 “These new contracts follow that tradition by continuing to partner with the private sector to improve our child welfare practices while using our resources more effectively and efficiently.”7 In FY 2012, more than 5,000 children a month were served by private providers of reintegration, foster care and adoption services. Family preservation services helped 2,613 families. The new providers awarded the contracts have created ongoing efficiencies allowing approximately 175 more families to be served each year.
Kentucky: In January 2013 the Kentucky Senate Health and Welfare Committee considered the challenges facing the state’s child welfare system. Sen. Julie Denton, R-Louisville, said she expects to file legislation pressing for changes in the handling of child abuse and neglect cases when the session reconvenes in February 2013.8 One recommendation, Denton said, will be to privatize foster care in Kentucky. Denton said child protective services would continue to investigate cases, but would not have to provide foster care services.
Nebraska: In 2012 Nebraska continued to work through a number of difficulties with its partially privatized child welfare system. In 2009, the state began contracting with private companies and nonprofits to provide child welfare and juvenile justice services after national indices showed that Nebraska removed too many children from their homes. However, after huge cost overruns and financial instability among the child welfare contractors, Nebraska mostly abandoned its privatization effort in 2012. Instead, the legislature passed a series of reforms that included:
- The establishment of a Children’s Commission, as well as an Inspector General for child welfare;
- A requirement of greater transparency and reporting on child welfare spending, with a separate child welfare budget, financial benchmarks, and a strategic plan;
- A plan for a statewide, automated child welfare online information system;
- Higher payments for foster parents, licensing reforms, and a requirement that the state Department of Health and Human Services apply for a federal foster care demonstration project waiver, which would allow greater financial flexibility; and
- Bringing most privatized case management back under Department of Health and Human Services’ control, subject to new caseload standards.9
By March 2012, four of the five original contractors had ended or lost their contracts, and the state had resumed responsibility for all cases outside of the Omaha area. In Omaha the Nebraska Families Collaborative (NFC) manages all cases in the metropolitan area (40 percent of the state’s child welfare cases) and is the last remaining contractor in the privatization effort. The Health and Human Services Committee will decide by April 2013 whether to continue the privatization contract with the NFC.
The NFC does seem to be making some positive changes in Nebraska’s child welfare system. Between March and October 2012 there was a 5 percent drop in the number of state wards in Nebraska’s child welfare system, resulting in a 12-year low. Thus the NFC network is responsible for more than 60 percent of the reduction in cases statewide.10 As Dan Daly, a vice president of Boys Town in Nebraska, explained in the Omaha World-Herald, “It's no accident that NFC is the remaining lead agency. From the start, NFC had the infrastructure, staffing, funding and business model—and a committed network of local child care providers with experience and expertise in child and family care—to make system reform a success.”11
For a detailed description of the privatization missteps and future improvements necessary to make Nebraska a privatization success, see the February 2012 study by Reason Foundation and the Platte Institute, Next Steps for Child Welfare Reform in Nebraska.12
Oklahoma: Oklahoma is moving ahead with a plan to privatize aspects of foster care and improve the welfare of children in state custody. Lawmakers passed five bills in 2012 that changed the organization, leadership, operation and transparency of the Department of Human Services. Many of the changes resulted from a settlement agreement to a class-action lawsuit against the state filed on behalf of ill-served foster care children in Oklahoma. The legislation requires the Department of Human Services to privatize all types of community-based out-of-home placement, including traditional foster care, kinship care, emergency foster care, contract foster care, and therapeutic foster care, on or before July 1, 2013.
Pennsylvania: In 2012 the Pennsylvania Department of Human Services (DHS) unveiled a program in Philadelphia called “Improving Outcomes for Children”, which puts neighborhood-based contractors in charge of managing foster care cases.13 DHS has since announced the first two groups that will get contracts as "community umbrella agencies." Beginning in early 2013, NorthEast Treatment Centers will be paid approximately $15 million, and Asociación Puertorriqueños en Marcha will get approximately $10 million to manage abuse and neglect cases in parts of North Philadelphia, according to the Philadelphia Inquirer. The reorganization will make them the sole case managers for the 4,095 children in foster care and the 949 families receiving at-home help.
DHS staff will monitor contractors and organize and lead meetings that families, private caseworkers, and others must attend. The public agency will train the private groups, which will also provide services to children and families. DHS remains legally responsible for children in its system and for investigating abuse and neglect reports. In Philadelphia, the privatization planning took three years and involved 150 experts. The rollout will happen over the next four years.
1 Associated Press, “Number of U.S. Children in Foster Care Drops for Sixth Straight Year,” July 31, 2012.
2 Madeline Freundlich and Charlotte McCullough, Privatization of Child Welfare Services: A Guide for State Advocates, Washington DC: State Policy Advocacy and Reform Center, October 2012. http://goo.gl/KWxL5 (accessed January 28, 2012.)
3 “Public/Private Partnerships and Technology make Children in Florida Safer,” The News-Press (Fort Myers, Florida), December 17, 2012.
5 “Foster Care, Adoption Providers Announced,” Cherokee County News-Advocate, January 8, 2013.
8 Jessie Halladay, “Senate Panel Hears Criticism of Child Protection Agency,” The Courier-Journal, January 10, 2013.
9 Kevin O’Hanlon, “State to Lose more than $3 Million for Failed Child Welfare Privatization,” Lincoln Journal Star, August 31, 2012.
10 Dan Daly, “State’s Reform Improvements Show Privatization Working,” Omaha World-Herald, October 27, 2012.
13 Carolyn Davis, “DHS Change will Emphasize Private Oversight,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 7, 2012. | <urn:uuid:388f70fc-8a70-4473-9d9b-33264f757762> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.reason.org/news/printer/apr-2013-child-welfare-privatizatio | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94946 | 2,017 | 2.8125 | 3 |
During the month of April Mars will be in conjunction relative to the Earth. This means the Sun is in the line-of-sight between Earth and Mars, and communication between the two planets is almost impossible. For conjunction, the rovers and orbiting spacecraft at Mars continue to operate, but do not send the data to Earth. This recorded data will be sent to Earth when Mars moves away from the sun and the line-of-sight between Earth and Mars is reestablished. During conjunction the THEMIS image of the day will be a visual tour of Gale Crater, the location of the newest rover Curiosity.
As we begin to move back eastward across the southern part of Gale Crater, this image shows more of the dark material deposited from the large channel through the SW rim of the crater. In this image that material has a sharp edge (center of frame) where it overlays the crater floor.
Orbit Number: 31708 Latitude: -5.79428 Longitude: 137.335 Instrument: VIS Captured: 2009-02-06 02:41
Please see the THEMIS Data Citation Note for details on crediting THEMIS images.
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory manages the 2001 Mars Odyssey mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. The Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) was developed by Arizona State University, Tempe, in collaboration with Raytheon Santa Barbara Remote Sensing. The THEMIS investigation is led by Dr. Philip Christensen at Arizona State University. Lockheed Martin Astronautics, Denver, is the prime contractor for the Odyssey project, and developed and built the orbiter. Mission operations are conducted jointly from Lockheed Martin and from JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. | <urn:uuid:bdf1928b-aaed-4540-8b5d-3c7bb22ffa9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA16978 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903221 | 361 | 3.78125 | 4 |
The Atlantic has an interesting article about the high probability of "space rocks" hitting the earth, possibly as high as a 1 in 10 chance of a major catastrophe each century. Not a new theme, but the article has some new developments suggesting it is more common than once thought. Includes a 10 minute video.
Microsoft's much anticipated WorldWide Telescope was released today (in the past hour actually). Article in New York Times and TED speech.
Hubble harvests 100 new planets during a 7-day sweep of the bulge of the Milky Way.. If confirmed it would almost double the number of known planets to about 230. "I think this work has the potential to be the most significant advance in discovering extra-solar planetary systems since the first planets were discovered in the mid-1990s."
First Evidence of life coming from space. One third a ton a day raining down, according to these researchers. | <urn:uuid:9fce5dc1-49d7-4af8-a8a3-269f8fa21d83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.metafilter.com/tags/astronomy/1915 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965162 | 186 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Indiana's Draft vs. the Common Core: A Comparison of Math Standards
As you may know by now, Indiana is experiencing some education turmoil. My colleague Andrew Ujifusa of State EdWatch described the situation as "a mixture of fierce education policy fights, governance struggles under a spotlight, and wrangling over the hottest K-12 topic in the nationthe common core."
The state is considering replacing the Common Core State Standards in math and English/language arts, which it adopted in 2010, with a set of standards that blend the common core and Indiana's previous state standards. For now, many teachers are walking the line between the common core and the preceding standards.
Some educators claim the blended standards are quite similar to the common core. A principal told Ujifusa that the change will be more noticeable in math, and a math specialist said the "'body of knowledge' hasn't been dramatically disrupted, even though the grades at which certain standards are introduced have shifted." (Another math specialist told him the merged standards are just "a confusing mess.")
But let's take a closer look at some math standards, using 6th grade as our case study. (For a comparison of the writing standards, head to Ujifusa's blog post here.)
Indiana's new draft standards for 6th grade fall within four domains: number sense and computation; algebra and functions; geometry and measurement; and data analysis, statistics, and probability. These domains include a total of 45 standards.
The common-core math standards for 6th grade are broken into five domains: ratios and proportional relationships; the number system; expressions and equations; geometry; and statistics and probability. In total, there are 29 standards within these domains. Some standards have more than one partand including those as well, there are about 45 standards total.
The first standard under the statistics domain for Indiana's draft standards is: "Recognize a statistical question as one that anticipates variability in the data related to the question and accounts for it in the answers."
For the common core, the first standard under the statistics domain reads: "Recognize a statistical question as one that anticipates variability in the data related to the question and accounts for it in the answers."
Yes, they're exactly the same. What about the last standard within the statistics domain? For the common core, the standard is: "Relating the choice of measures of center and variability to the shape of the data distribution and the context in which the data were gathered." And for the Indiana draft standards? Once again, it's the same.
The standards under the number sense domains have more differences, though some only in the order the standards are presented. For instance:
The first number sense standard for Indiana is: "Understand that positive and negative numbers are used together to describe quantities having opposite directions or values (e.g., temperature above/below zero, elevation above/below sea level, credits/debits, positive/negative electric charge); use positive and negative numbers to represent and compare quantities in real-world contexts, explaining the meaning of 0 in each situation." In the common core, that very same standard is fourth on the list within the number system domain.
The first number system standard in the common core is: "Interpret and compute quotients of fractions, and solve word problems involving division of fractions by fractions, e.g., by using visual fraction models and equations to represent the problem." That exact same standard is the 11th standard on the Indiana draft.
Here's a place where the two sets of standards do differ in terms of content.
Within the Indiana draft standards, the sixth standard under number sense and computation is: "Convert between any two representations (fractions, decimals, percents) of positive rational numbers without the use of a calculator." The common-core math standards for 6th grade do not include that language at all.
There is lots more to dig into here, and doubtless the state board of education will be doing that before it votes on the new standards April 9.
UPDATED (March 13): David Galvin, a spokesman for the Indiana Department of Education, emailed to say the board will actually be voting on the standards later in April, at a date to be determined. "The reason for the delay is because the standards review teams need more time to address the nearly 1,100 public comments," he wrote. | <urn:uuid:26869a65-698d-48f2-b66e-2d0909326798> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2014/03/indianas_draft_vs_the_common_c.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938092 | 904 | 2.859375 | 3 |
A 700,000-year-old fossil proves astoundingly well preserved
Claudia Feh, Association Pour le Cheval de Przewalski
A frozen fossil of a horse has yielded the oldest genome sequence ever compiled. Clocking in at about 700,000 years old, the horse DNA is nearly 10 times older than the previous record holder, the genome of an 80,000-year-old Denisovan, an extinct evolutionary cousin of Neandertals and modern people.
The extreme age of the horse’s genetic material has raised hopes that scientists can find even more primitive DNA, perhaps a million years old or more. The ancient DNA also provides scientists with some of the first clues about the genetic changes that accompanied horse domestication. | <urn:uuid:0092a4ac-816b-4df4-a39d-8e505fa4a0fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ancient-horses-dna-fills-picture-equine-evolution | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913431 | 155 | 3.3125 | 3 |
The Trans-Atlantic Flight of the 'America'
June 29th - July 1st, 1927
After his 1926 flight over the North Pole, then-Commander Richard E. Byrd, USN, was not happy with simply being the leader of the first flight over the North Pole. Byrd had planned the first trans-Atlantic flight completed by the U.S. Navy in 1919. So, in February of 1927, Floyd Bennett, long-time partner of Byrd and co-pilot of his famed North Pole flight, announced the intention to attempt to win the 'Orteig Prize', the $25,000 reward offered in 1919 by Raymond Orteig, owner of the Hotel Lafayette in New York City, for the first successful non-stop flight from New York City to Paris. Byrd was interested in the flight, albeit for simply scientific purposes.
The Mighty Atlantic
In March of 1927, Byrd announced he had the backing of the 'American Trans-Oceanic Company, Inc.', which was established in 1914 by Rodman Wanamaker with the purpose of building the aircraft to complete the harrowing journey. Having gained the financial backing of Wanamaker's department store (where the airplane for Byrd's first historic flight was displayed), Byrd seemed, for a time, to be a serious contender, and heavy favorite, for winning the Orteig Prize, despite competitors from several other nations, including France, England, and Italy.
Choosing a right aircraft seemed to be a simple task for Byrd for he picked a craft he was familiar with. The Fokker C-2 monoplane was chosen as it was a very similar airframe and design to the Fokker F.VII which he had used for his Arctic flight a few years earlier seem a logical choice. The C-2 had three reliable 220hp Wright J-5 engines, the necessary range and plenty of room for his scientific instruments critical to the flight. It was given, by the U.S. government, the tail registration number of NX-206.
However, during a test flight of Byrd's airplane on April 16th, 1927, Byrd observed the tail of the aircraft as it sped down the runway. The plane went over its nose and crashed at Hasborough, New Jersey, injuring three of the four aboard, and slightly damaging the plane. Byrd fractured his wrist, but Bennett, who was pinned against an engine, suffered a broken leg and collarbone, dislocated shoulder, and serious head injuries, while George O. Noville, the plane's flight and fuel engineer, endured an operation to remove a blood clot.
Bennett, left, shakes hands and wishes luck to Byrd, right
Anthony Fokker, the airplane's designer, did not even suffer a scratch. With Bennett hospitalized for several weeks to come, Byrd was forced to find a replacement for him, delaying the anticipated flight.
Byrd needed a solid navigator and instrument pilot as the replacement. At the suggestion of Fokker, Byrd selected Bernt Balchen as Bennett's replacement on the crew. Balchen, a Norwegian test pilot for Fokker, and former member of Roald Amundsen's airship expedition to the North Pole in 1926, was personally given $500 by Fokker for accepting the assignment, and also was outfitted for the journey by Wanamaker's department store in Paris.
Nevertheless, a French attempt at the prize was flown by Captains Charles Nungesser and Francois Coli, leaving May 8th from Le Bourget airfield in France, headed for New York. The plane, a Levasseur PL-8 biplane, painted with his World War I insignia of a black heart, two burning candles, a coffin, and skull and cross bones, and named l'Oiseau Blanc (French for 'white bird"), set out over the Atlantic Ocean, never to be seen again.
On May 11th, the financial backers of Byrd's attempt, including Rodman Wanamaker of the same-named department store, announced that Byrd's airplane would not be allowed to head to Paris until Nungesser and Coli's fate had been determined one way or the other. At that same time, a young and relatively unknown American airmail pilot named Charles Lindbergh arrived in New York City from a transcontinental flight in his plane, a Ryan B-1 Brougham named "The Spirit of St. Louis". On the morning of May 20, 1927, Lindbergh flew from New York and, thirty-three and a half hours later on May 22nd, landed safely near Paris, alone and non-stop, claiming the Orteig Prize.
Rodman Wanamaker, the store's president and Byrd's chief backer, however insisted the plane be named, "America", after a Curtiss boat plane he financed for another trans-Atlantic journey years earlier. The "America" was christened in a public ceremony on May 21, 1927, (almost at the same moment that, in France, Lindbergh successfully landed) sponsored by Mrs. Hector Munn and Mrs. Gurnee Munn, the daughters of Rodman Wanamaker. The two women broke over the bow of the plane bottles of water brought from the Delaware River at the point where General Washington crossed with his troops. Also present at the ceremony were Pierre Mory, the French Vice Consul in New York City; Grover M. Whalen, Vice President of the American Trans-Oceanic Company; Harry F. Byrd, Governor of Virginia, and brother of Commander Byrd; as well as Commander Byrd's mother and wife.
Looking upon the trans-oceanic flight now as valuable training and scientific experience, and not as a prize-winning venture, Byrd continued his preparations for the flight. Meanwhile, another Orteig contender, the Bellanca monoplane named 'Colombia', piloted by Clarence D. Chamberlin and backed by Charles A. Levine, who was also a passenger on the flight, flew the second non-stop flight across the Atlantic, landing in Berlin, Germany, on June 6th, 1927, after over 42 hours of flight, and having traveled a distance of 3,905 miles.
Early in the morning of June 29th, 1927, the "America" rolled down the specially-built ramp designed to maximize its use of runway space, and took off from Roosevelt Field in New York City, bound for Paris, France, with a crew of 4 under the command of then-Commander Richard E. Byrd. Also aboard were Bert Acosta and Bernt Balchen as relief pilots and Lieutenant George O. Noville as flight engineer & wireless radio operator.
The flight crew of "America" from left to right - Lieutenant George O. Noville, Lieutenant Commander Richard E. Byrd, Bertrand Acosta, and Bernt Balchen. This photo was taken shortly after they landed in France.
Byrd had been delaying the flight, waiting ideal weather, but was marred by some of the worst weather imaginable for flying. After flying out of New England and over Newfoundland, Acosta accidentally lost control of the aircraft, sending her down towards the sea. A last-moment correction from Balchen saved the ship and crew from the cold waters. At one point in the flight, radio troubles developed when Noville's feet became tangled in the wiring of the radio set.
Through clouds, fog, heavy winds, and rain, the "America" flew out onward to the east, with Byrd scribbling repeatedly in his diary, "Impossible to navigate". At regular intervals, the plane's position was tracked, but as the plane approached the coast of France, the compass begun to malfunction.
After a flight of over forty hours, the airplane managed to arrive over Paris, but was unable to land due to heavy fog, even after 6 hours (and, at observers reported, nearly hitting the Eiffel Tower).
"I'll never forget those last few moments," said Byrd, nearly twenty years after the event. "It was the most dramatic thing that ever happened to me and that includes the flight over the North Pole and the later trips over the South Pole."
Balchen took the controls of the aircraft, flying the plane 150 miles back to the west and, low on fuel, forced a water landing 300 yards off the shore near Ver-sur-Mer, in Normandy. The tail of the plane became bent, a two-foot wide slash opened in the side of the fuselage, the landing gear became erased from the plane, and the three propellers all broke.
The monoplane finally sunk and settled in the water up to its wing-level, but Balchen saved the lives of the crew, who had to row via a rubber raft stowed aboard to the shore. However, in the process of ditching, Acosta snapped his collarbone.
"On land," Byrd recalled, "we started knocking on doors in the tiny village in the middle of the night. We looked like bums. Our high school French was lousy. The residents wouldn't believe we had just dropped in from America. They closed doors in our faces. Finally, we convinced the lighthouse keeper that we had just come from New York. He convinced the mayor, and at long last we were welcomed to France."
In fact, for the special trip, Commander Byrd, a retired naval officer, was sworn in as a U.S. Air Mail Pilot before he left on the journey to make all the mail carried aboard the flight official. As a result of the water landing, some of the 150 pounds of airmail letters (some accounts, however, state only 300 letters) were water-soaked in their mail pouches, robbing them of their stamps.
Later, autographs of the four crew members would substitute as provenance for savvy collectors of the flown nature of their covers and envelopes whose stamps when lost in the ditching.
After being plummeted by the rough waves of the sea, the French Navy secured the airframe with several boats, and hauled the "America" closer to shore where it immediately fell victim to souvenir hunters who quickly reduced portions of the fuselage down to its steel frame, but the three engines were quickly recovered to prevent further damage from saltwater, with the rest of the airplane was towed to Cherbourg, where French naval mechanics attempted to salvage the craft. The crew remained in the village of Ver-sur-Mer for one night and left for Paris the next day.
The four-person crew were also greeted in Paris by Gurnee Munn, the 9-year-old grandson of Rodman Wanamaker, and the four were welcomed in matter causing Byrd to state, "France gave us her very best."
Byrd met with and presented the French president, Gaston Doumergue, with a piece of Betsy Ross' original American flag that had been flown special on the flight. In recognition of his leadership of the extraordinary flight, Byrd was named a commandant in the Legion d'Honneur of France. The crew also laid a bronze wreath in tribute at the tomb of France's unknown warrior of World War I
Page 14 of the Passenger List of the Steamship S.S. Leviathan.
Click the image to see the names of Byrd, Acosta, and Noville (all highlighted)
The four men left France aboard the steamship 'Leviathan', the flag ship for United States Lines, along with Clarence Chamberlin, who was returning from his flight from New York to Berlin a month earlier. Back in America, both Byrd and Noville were also awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, the highest award in the U.S. military for aviation achievements.
Postscript Richard E. Byrd returned to America a national hero, and a grand ticker-tape parade akin to the one he received just two years prior for his arctic exploits. In 1928, he took two ships and three airplane on his first expedition to Antarctica. On November 29, 1930, he flew, along with three others, the first flight over the South Pole. In total, he mounted four expeditions to the Antarctic, the last being in 1947. He was also responsible for establishing three permanent research station in Antarctica during 'Operation Deep Freeze'., He was ultimately promoted to Rear Admiral in the U. S. Navy, and awarded the Medal of Honor for his service in exploration. He died in Boston on March 11,1957, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery (Section 2, Site 4969-1)
Bernt Balchen continued to fly with Byrd, and 1929, came the first pilot to fly over the South Pole. During World War II, Balchen was responsible for setting up a training camp for Norwegian expiates near Toronto named "Little Norway", and later in the war, oversaw the construction of the U.S. air base in Thule, Greenland. Promoted to Colonel in the U.S. Air Force, he commanded the 10th Rescue Squadron in Alaska. He retired in 1956, and passed away on October 17, 1973. He is one of the few Norwegian-born people buried at Arlington National Cemetery (Section 2, Site 4969-2) .
Bertrand Acosta continued to work as a test pilot when, in November of 1936, he flew to Valencia in Spain to head the "Yankee Squadron", aiding the loyalists against Generalissimo Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War. Returning to America in 1937, he continued to fly until 1946, when his health declined. In 1951 he collapsed and was hospitalized with tuberculosis. He died in a sanatorium in Spivak, Colorado, on September 1,1954 and was buried at Valhalla Memorial Park in North Hollywood, California, under the Portal of the Folded Wings.
George Noville continued to serve with Byrd, and journeyed with him as his executive officer on the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition. He retired from the Navy with the rank of Commander, and he later started an aeronautical engineering consulting firm in Los Angeles. He passed away in January of 1963.
Floyd Bennett recovered from his injuries and continued to fly until April of 1928, when developed pneumonia during a rescue flight with Balchen to Greenly Island, north of Newfoundland, to save the crew of the German airplane "Bremen" which had crash-landed after flying the Atlantic. He died April 25, 1928 in Quebec, Canada, much to the shock of the entire nation. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery (Section 3, Site1852-B-E). New York City's first municipal airport was named 'Floyd Bennett Field' in his honor.
The beach where the "America" put down in France later became associated with another America triumph. During the second World War, the beach was given the codename, "Omaha" and was the site where the 29th Infantry Division landed on June 6th, 1944, during D-Day and the Allied invasion of Normandy.
Click here to own a piece of the 'America' | <urn:uuid:28a826ce-73e5-490f-9a48-2d6fc35635b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/America-NX206.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977127 | 3,094 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The discovery was one of those fortunate accidents. Walter Mischel, a psychologist at Stanford, was interested in the stability of personality traits. In the late 1960s, he decided to study individual differences in young children’s ability to delay gratification.
His own daughters were preschoolers in the university’s Bing Nursery School. With their help, Mischel worked out the procedure for an experiment in self-control, using their classmates as subjects. He would place a marshmallow on a plate in front of a four-year-old and tell the child that he or she could earn a second marshmallow by waiting to eat the first one. This challenge is extremely difficult for a preschooler. Some children ate the marshmallow as soon as the researcher left the room, while others could wait as long as 15 or 20 minutes.
Mischel and his colleagues showed that they could increase the delay times for children who were weak in self-control by teaching them better strategies, like imagining the marshmallow was a cloud rather than a yummy treat. Many of the children with good self-control seemed to use these strategies spontaneously. Then he moved on to other experiments.
A decade later, as his daughters were chatting about their friends at dinner, he realized that the ones who were doing poorly in school were the same children who’d had short delay times in the old marshmallow experiment. He started asking about other children who had participated and realized that he needed to do a follow-up study.
Of the original 653 kids, Mischel managed to track down 185 when they were 15-18 years old. He found that good self-control in preschool predicted better SAT scores and ability to concentrate in high school, while poor self-control predicted later problems with self-regulation and coping with stress.
Self-control is a basic brain capacity that supports almost everything else that the brain does. The skills that make up self-control include cognitive flexibility (the ability to try a new approach when the old strategy isn’t working), resistance to distraction, and impulse control. These abilities help people to plan and organize behavior to achieve their goals.
Some of the individual differences in self-control are inherited, but it’s also possible to improve these abilities through practice, even in adulthood. Roy Baumeister showed that self-control is a limited resource, but like a muscle, it also grows stronger when it’s used.
Many parents will get a bigger payoff for building their children’s self-control than for trying to improve their intelligence. The reason is because most middle-class children already receive enough cognitive stimulation to develop intelligence close to its full potential. In contrast, many children have room to increase their self-control, and another long-term study suggests that doing so would improve their lives.
For more than three decades, Terri Moffitt, Avshalom Caspi and their colleagues followed one thousand people born in Dunedin, New Zealand in the early 1970s. Self-control from ages three to eleven was associated with more success at age 32 across a wide range of measures.
People with better childhood self-control were more likely to be in good financial shape and physically healthy as adults than those with worse self-control. Higher self-control also predicted a lower risk of becoming a single parent, a criminal, or a substance abuser. These differences existed even after variations in intelligence or social class were taken into account, and the long-term consequences of adolescent mistakes like dropping out of school or teen pregnancy accounted for only part of the effect.
In a group of British twins, the same researchers directly compared fraternal, same-sex pairs, who are as related as regular siblings but matched for age and gender. The twin with better self-control at age five had a lower risk of smoking, poor grades, and antisocial behavior at age twelve, despite sharing the same family environment.
The researchers found correlations between childhood self-control and adult success across the entire range of self-control, not just differences between people with poor self-control and everyone else. Being in the top 20% was better than being in the second quintile, and so on. This finding suggests that building self-control is likely to improve the lives of most kids—even the ones who are already above average at it.
Photo courtesy of Shutterstock.com. | <urn:uuid:215bc8c6-fc14-4a3b-9b25-9c77910df048> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bigthink.com/the-secrets-of-self-control/self-control-who-needs-it-you-and-your-kid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982245 | 896 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant suffered three meltdowns last year. Paired with hydrogen explosions, these meltdowns allowed radioactive material to escape. So what's the effect on the environment and human health?Many thousands of people were killed by the Japanese earthquake and tsunami, but they are still looking for anyone harmed by the nuclear meltfowns. So far, they have only found some discolored butterflies.
The first clues come from what’s called the pale grass blue butterfly. This delicate insect's wings change color and pattern in response to environmental changes.
Eagle Forum Legislative Alerts
Sunday, August 19, 2012
SciAm magazine reports: | <urn:uuid:6a775b6a-6da9-405d-be36-335cdb58930d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.eagleforum.org/2012/08/discolored-butterflies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945816 | 139 | 3.359375 | 3 |
OLPC as Datalogger
The OLPC is designed with an audio input that is intended to be used as a sensor input as well as plain old audio. When this is used as a sensor input, the OLPC becomes a datalogger, i.e. a basic tool of scientific investigation. This is consistent with constructionist educational philosophy which says that you teach science by enabling the child to become a scientist.
It is proposed to have data logging features in the Oscilloscope application on the laptop. This would enable children to specify an interval at which to sample the voltage and record it with time stamps. It would also be able to draw a graph of a set of recorded readings. --Arjunsarwal
There is already a thriving educational market selling sensors of various sorts, dataloggers, and datalogging software. Here are some examples to review for background information.
- This page has a list of homebrew sensors built by Lego Mindstorms enthusiasts
- Here is an example of how a little sensor can teach a lot of science (broken as of April 7, 2011)
- World-Stethoscope is a simple V/F converter. It works fine with OLPC Etoys.
- A few IC's that might be useful: | <urn:uuid:d3e29169-873d-403f-a92f-d3ae44292647> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wiki.laptop.org/go/OLPC_as_Datalogger | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947871 | 259 | 2.734375 | 3 |
George W. Bush, Not Barack Obama, Tied Racial Discrimination To Suffering In New Orleans, And He Was Right
On September 15, 2005, in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, George W. Bush talked about how a history of racial discrimination and poverty contributed to suffering by the people of New Orleans. So, it wasn’t Barack Obama who tied racism to New Orleans but rather George W. Bush.
That poverty has roots in a history of racial discrimination, which cut off generations from the opportunity of America. We have a duty to confront this poverty with bold action. So let us restore all that we have cherished from yesterday and let us rise above the legacy of inequality. When the streets are rebuilt, there should be many new businesses, including minority-owned businesses, along those streets. | <urn:uuid:06bdbcab-5a46-4fd7-8a1d-a606aefa2fcb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.alan.com/2012/10/02/george-w-bush-not-barack-obama-tied-racial-discrimination-to-suffering-in-new-orleans-and-he-was-right/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936153 | 162 | 2.921875 | 3 |
2004 Regular Session
By: Senator(s) Horhn, Simmons, Walls, Frazier, Thomas, Butler, Jackson (11th), Harden, Jackson (32nd), Jordan, Turner, Albritton, Chamberlin, Clarke, Dawkins, Dearing, Flowers, King, Little, Moffatt, Morgan, Nunnelee, Ross, Tollison, White, Williamson
A CONCURRENT RESOLUTION COMMEMORATING THE 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE LANDMARK UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT DECISION IN THE CASE OF BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION.
WHEREAS, on May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education ruled unanimously that segregation of public schools "solely on the basis of race" denied black children equal educational opportunity, even though "physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may have been equal." The plaintiff's case was argued by Thurgood Marshall, later to become the first black Supreme Court Justice.; and
WHEREAS, May 17, 2004, will mark the 50th Anniversary of the Court's decision to desegregate America's public schools. This ruling paved the way for significant opportunities in our society-especially for equal justice, fairness and education. We've kicked off our own celebration to raise awareness about the horizons of opportunities opened up by that decision and the continuing need to make real improvements in public education today that fulfill the promise of equal opportunity to a quality education and great schools for every child; and
WHEREAS, in this landmark decision, the U.S. Supreme Court stated: "We conclude that in the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"; and
WHEREAS, the Court looked at educational conditions of the segregated African American and white students in Clarendon, South Carolina, New Castle, Delaware, Prince Edward, Virginia, Topeka, Kansas, and the District of Columbia. The findings were compiled for lower courts before reaching the Supreme Court. These conditions included: teacher qualifications; pupil-teacher ratio; curricula; school buildings and facilities; transportation modes and travel time to and from school and extracurricular activities; and
WHEREAS, the Court found that the racial segregation affected students' motivation and retarded education and mental development. Learning is hurt by segregation, racism, stereotypes or reduced student achievement expectations; and
WHEREAS, to commemorate this landmark decision, the Census Bureau has assembled data on the educational attainment and school enrollment of blacks-then and now:
Enrollment: 69% is the percentage of black children ages 5 and 6 who were enrolled in school in 1954. By 2002, enrollment of black children of those ages was 96%. 24% is the percentage of young, black adults ages 18 and 19 who were enrolled in school in 1954. In 2002, the comparable enrollment was 58%.
High School Graduates: 15% is the percentage of blacks age 25 and over in 1952 who were at least high school graduates. By 2002, this rate had risen to 79%. 1.6 Million is the number of blacks 25 years and over with at least a high school diploma in 1957. This number had risen to 16.0 million by 2002.
College Graduates: 2% is the percentage of blacks age 25 and over in 1952 who were college graduates. By 2002, the rate had risen to 17%. 252,000 is the number of blacks who had at least a bachelor's degree in 1957. In 2002, 3.5 million blacks had at least a bachelor's degree.
Students: 4.5 Million is the number of blacks enrolled in schools (nursery through college) in 1955. This number had risen to 11.7 million by 2002. 155,000 is the number of black college students in 1955. By 2002, this number had risen to 2.3 million. 926,000 is the number of black high school students in 1955. In 2002, this number was 2.6 million; and
WHEREAS, the full effect of the Brown decision is yet to be realized. Our country is still struggling with issues concerning college admission standards, workplace diversity and Americans with disabilities; and
WHEREAS, Justice O'Connor in the Grutter decision espoused the legacy of Brown: "This Court has long recognized that 'education is the very foundation of good citizenship.' Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483, 493 (1954). For this reason, the diffusion of knowledge and opportunity through public institutions of higher education must be accessible to all individuals regardless of race of ethnicity. Effective participation by members of all racial and ethnic groups in the civic life of our Nation is essential if the dream of one Nation, indivisible is to be realized"; and
WHEREAS, the Brown decision paved the way for 50 years worth of school integration and diversity as well as significant fairness and justice opportunities throughout our society, and it is with pride that we celebrate the 50th anniversary of this landmark case to recommit our state to the promise of public education for all citizens:
NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED BY THE SENATE OF THE STATE OF MISSISSIPPI, THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES CONCURRING THEREIN, That we do hereby commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the landmark United States Supreme Court decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, 347 US 483 (1954), and recommit ourselves to its legacy.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, That this resolution be forwarded to the State Board of Education and State Superintendent of Education for dissemination to all public school districts in the State of Mississippi, and be made available to the Capitol Press Corps. | <urn:uuid:4c544884-dfc4-41ab-94b1-0c3c9586c033> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://billstatus.ls.state.ms.us/documents/2004/html/SC/SC0617SG.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944669 | 1,179 | 2.875 | 3 |
[An asterisk is prefixed to all the newly written paragraphs throughout the work.]
A GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE POPULAR SPORTS, PASTIMES, AND MILITARY GAMES, TOGETHER WITH THE VARIOUS SPECTACLES OF MIRTH OR SPLENDOUR, EXHIBITED PUBLICLY OR PRIVATELY, FOR THE SAKE OF AMUSEMENT, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS IN ENGLAND.
Object of the Work, to describe the Pastimes and trace their Origin--The Romans in Britain--The Saxons--The Normans--Tournaments and Jousts--Other Sports of the Nobility, and the Citizens and Yeomen--Knightly Accomplishments--Esquireship--Military Sports patronised by the Ladies--Decline of such Exercises and of Chivalry--Military Exercises under Henry the Seventh and under Henry the Eighth--Princely Exercises under James the First--Revival of Learning--Recreations of the Sixteenth Century--Old Sports of the Citizens of London--Modern Pastimes of the Londoners--Cotswold and Cornish Games--Splendour of the ancient Kings and Nobility--Royal and noble Entertainments--Civic Shows--"Merry England "--Setting out of Pageants--Processions of Queen Mary and King Philip of Spain in London--Chester Pageants--Public Shows of the Sixteenth Century--Queen Elizabeth at Kenelworth Castle--The Master of the Revels--Rope-dancing, tutored Animals, and Puppet-shows--Minstrelsy, Bell-ringing, etc.--Baiting of Animals--Pastimes formerly on Sundays--Royal Interference with them--Dice and Cards--Regulation of Gaming for Money by Richard Cœur de Lion, etc.--Statutes against Cards, Ball-play, etc.--Archery succeeded by Bowling--Modern Gambling--Ladies' Pastimes Needle-work--Dancing and Chess-play--Ladies' Recreations in the Fourteenth Century--The Author's Labours--Character of the Engravings.
OBJECT OF THE WORK.--In order to form a just estimation of the character of any particular people, it is absolutely necessary to investigate the Sports and Pastimes most generally prevalent among them. War, policy, and other contingent circumstances, may effectually place men, at different times, in different points of view, but, when we follow them into their retirements, where no disguise is necessary, we are most likely to see them in their true state, and may best judge of their natural dispositions. Unfortunately, all the information that remains respecting the ancient inhabitants of this island is derived from foreign writers partially acquainted with them as a people, and totally ignorant of their domestic customs and amusements; the silence, therefore, of the contemporary historians on these important subjects leaves us without the power of tracing them with the least degree of certainty; and as it is my intention, in the following pages, to confine myself as much as possible to positive intelligence, I shall studiously endeavour to avoid all controversial and conjectural arguments. I mean also to treat upon such pastimes only as have been practised in this country; but as many of them originated on the continent, certain digressions, by way of illustration, must necessarily occur; these, however, I shall make it my business to render as concise as the nature of the subject will permit them to be.
THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN.--We learn, from the imperfect hints of ancient
history, that, when the Romans first invaded Britain, her inhabitants were a bold, active, and warlike people, tenacious of their native liberty, and capable of bearing great fatigue; to which they were probably inured by an early education, and constant pursuit of such amusements as best suited the profession of a soldier; including hunting, running, leaping, swimming, and other exertions requiring strength and agility of body. Perhaps the skill which the natives of Devonshire and Cornwall retain to the present day, in hurling and wrestling, may properly be considered as a vestige of British activity. After the Romans had conquered Britain, they impressed such of the young men as were able to bear arms for foreign service, and enervated the spirit of the people by the importation of their own luxurious manners and habits; so that the latter part of the British history exhibits to our view a slothful and effeminate race of men, totally divested of that martial disposition, and love of freedom, which so strongly marked the character of their pro-genitors; and their amusements, no doubt, partook of the same weakness and puerility. 1
THE SAXONS.--The arrival of the Saxons forms a new epoch in the annals of this country. These military mercenaries came professedly to assist the Britons against their incessant tormentors the Picts and the Caledonians; but no sooner had they established their footing in the land, than they invited more of their countrymen to join them, and turning their arms against their wretched employers, became their most dangerous and most inexorable enemies, and in process of time obtained full possession of the largest and best part of the island; whence arose a great change in the form of government, laws, manners, customs, and habits of the people.
The sportive exercises and pastimes practised by the Saxons appear to have been such as were common among the ancient northern nations; and most of them consisted of robust exercises. In an old Chronicle of Norway, 2 we find it recorded of Olaf Tryggeson, a king of that country, that he was stronger and more nimble than any man in his dominions. He could climb up the rock Smalserhorn, and fix his shield upon the top of it; he could walk round the out-side of a boat upon the oars, while the men were rowing; he could play with three darts, alternately throwing them in the air, and always kept two of them up, while he held the third in one of his hands; he was ambidexter, and could
cast two darts at once; he excelled all the men of his time in shooting with the bow; and he had no equal in swimming. In one achievement this monarch was outdone by the Anglo-Saxon gleeman, represented on the twenty-first plate, who adds an equal number of balls to those knives or daggers. The Norman minstrel Tallefer, before the commencement of the battle at Hastings, cast his lance into the air three times, and caught it by the head in such a surprising manner, that the English thought it was done by the power of enchantment. Another northern hero, whose name was Kolson, boasts of nine accomplishments in which he was well skilled: "I know," says he, "how to play at chess; I can engrave Runic letters; I am expert at my book; I know how to handle the tools of the smith; I can traverse the snow on skates of wood; I excel in shooting with the bow; I use the oar with facility; I can sing to the harp; and I compose verses." 1 The reader will, I doubt not, anticipate me in my observation, that the acquirements of Kolson indicate a much more liberal education than those of the Norwegian monarch; it must, however, be observed, that Kolson lived in an age posterior to him; and also, that he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which may probably account in great measure for his literary qualifications. Yet, we are well assured that learning did not form any prominent feature in the education of a young nobleman during the Saxon government: it is notorious, that Alfred the Great was twelve years of age before he learned to read; and that he owed his knowledge of letters to accident, rather than to the intention of his tutors. A book adorned with paintings in the hands of his mother attracted his notice, and he expressed his desire to have it; she promised to comply with his request on condition that he learned to read it, which it seems he did; and this trifling incident laid the groundwork of his future scholarship. 2
Indeed, it is not by any means surprising, under the Saxon government, when the times were generally very turbulent, and the existence of peace exceedingly precarious, and when the personal exertions of the opulent were so often necessary for the preservation of their lives and property, that such exercises as inured the body to fatigue, and biassed the mind to military pursuits, should have constituted the chief part of a young nobleman's education: accordingly, we find that hunting, hawking, leaping, running, wrestling, casting of darts, and other pastimes which necessarily required great exertions of bodily strength, were taught them in their adolescence. These amusements engrossed the whole of their attention, every one striving to excel his fellow; for hardiness, strength, and valour, out-balanced, in the public estimation, the accomplishments of the mind; and therefore literature, which flourishes best in tranquillity and retirement, was considered as a pursuit unworthy the notice of a soldier, and only requisite in the gloomy recesses of the cloister.
Among the vices of the Anglo-Saxons may be reckoned their propensity to
gaming, and especially with the dice, which they derived from their ancestors; for Tacitus 1 assures us that the ancient Germans would not only hazard all their wealth, but even stake their liberty, upon the turn of the dice; "and he who loses," says the author, "submits to servitude, though younger and stronger than his antagonist, and patiently permits himself to be bound, and sold in the market; and this madness they dignify by the name of honour." Chess was also a favourite game with the Saxons; and likewise backgammon, said to have been invented about the tenth century. It appears moreover, that a large portion of the night was appropriated to the pursuit of these sedentary amusements. In the reign of Canute the Dane, this practice was sanctioned by the example of royalty, and followed by the nobility. Bishop Ætheric, having obtained admission to Canute about midnight upon some urgent business, found the king engaged with his courtiers at play, some at dice, and some at chess. 2 The clergy, however, were prohibited from playing at games of chance, by the ecclesiastical canons established in the reign of Edgar.
THE NORMANS.--The popular sports and pastimes, prevalent at the close of the Saxon era, do not appear to have been subjected to any material change by the coming of the Normans: it is true, indeed, that the elder William and his immediate successors restricted the privileges of the chase, and imposed great penalties on those who presumed to destroy the game in the royal forests, without a proper licence. By these restrictions the general practice of hunting was much confined, but by no means prohibited in certain districts, and especially to persons of opulence who possessed extensive territories of their own.
TOURNAMENTS AND JOUSTS.--Among the pastimes introduced by the Norman nobility, none engaged the general attention more than the tournaments and the jousts. The tournament, in its original institution, was a martial conflict, in which the combatants engaged without any animosity, merely to exhibit their strength and dexterity; but, at the same time, engaged in great numbers to represent a battle. The joust was when two knights, and no more, were opposed to each other at one time. These amusements, in the middle ages, which may properly enough be dominated the ages of chivalry, were in high repute among the nobility of Europe, and produced in reality much of the pomp and gallantry that we find recorded with poetical exaggeration in the legends of knight-errantry. I met with a passage in a satirical poem among the Harleian MSS. of the thirteenth century, 3 which strongly marks the prevalence of this taste in the times alluded to. It may be thus rendered in English:
OTHER SPORTS OF THE NOBILITY, AND THE CITIZENS AND YEOMEN.--While the principles of chivalry continued in fashion, the education of a nobleman was confined to those principles, and every regulation necessary to produce an accomplished knight was put into practice. In order fully to investigate these particulars, we may refer to the romances of the middle ages; and, generally speaking, dependence may be placed upon their information. The authors of these fictitious histories never looked beyond the customs of their own country; and whenever the subject called for a representation of remote magnificence, they depicted such scenes of splendour as were familiar to them: hence it is, that Alexander the Great, in his legendary life, receives the education of a Norman baron, and becomes expert in hawking, hunting, and other amusements coincident with the time in which the writer lived. Our early poets have fallen into the same kind of anachronism; and Chaucer himself, in the Knight's Tale, speaking of the rich array and furniture of the palace of Theseus, forgets that he was a Grecian prince of great antiquity, and describes the large hall belonging to an English nobleman, with the guests seated at table, probably as he had frequently seen them, entertained with singing, dancing, and other acts of minstrelsy, their hawks being placed upon perches over their heads, and their hounds lying round about upon the pavement below. The two last lines of the poem just referred to are peculiarly applicable to the manners of the time in which the poet lived, when no man of consequence travelled abroad without his hawk and his hounds. In the early delineations, the nobility are frequently represented seated at table, with their hawks upon their heads. Chaucer says,
[paragraph continues] The picture is perfect, when referred to his own time; but bears not the least analogy to Athenian grandeur. In the romance called The Knight of the Swan, it is said of Ydain, Duchess of Roulyon, that she caused her three sons to be brought up in "all maner of good operacyons, vertues, and maners; and when in their adolescence they were somwhat comen to the age of strengthe, they," their tutors, "began to practyse them in shootinge with their bow and arbelstre, 1 to playe with the sword and buckeler, to runne, to just, to playe with a poll-axe, and to wrestle; and they began to bear harneys, to runne horses, and to approve them, as desyringe to be good and faythful knightes to susteyne the faith of God." We are not, however, to conceive that martial exercises in general were confined to the education of young noblemen: the sons of citizens and yeomen had also their sports resembling military combats. Those practised at an early period by the young Londoners seem to have been
derived from the Romans; they consisted of various attacks and evolutions performed on horseback, the youth being armed with shields and pointless lances, resembling the ludus Trojæ, or Troy game, described by Virgil. These amusements, according to Fitz Stephen, who lived in the reign of Henry II., were appropriated to the season of Lent; but at other times they exercised themselves with archery, fighting with clubs and bucklers, and running at the quintain; and in the winter, when the frost set in, they would go upon the ice, and run against each other with poles, in imitation of lances, in a joust; and frequently one or both-were beaten down, "not always without hurt; for some break their arms, and some their legs; but youth," says my author, "emulous of glory, seeks these exercises preparatory against the time that war shall demand their presence." The like kind of pastimes, no doubt, were practised by the young men in other parts of the kingdom.
KNIGHTLY ACCOMPLISHMENTS.--The mere management of arms, though essentially requisite, was not sufficient of itself to form an accomplished knight in the times of chivalry; it was necessary for him to be endowed with beauty, as well as with strength and agility of body; he ought to be skilled in music, to dance gracefully, to run with swiftness, to excel in wrestling, to ride well, and to perform every other exercise befitting his situation. To these were to be added urbanity of manners, strict adherence to the truth, and invincible courage. Hunting and hawking skilfully were also acquirements that he was obliged to possess, and which were usually taught him as soon as he was able to endure the fatigue that they required. Hence it is said of Sir Tristram, a fictitious character held forth as the mirror of chivalry in the romance entitled The Death of Arthur, that "he learned to be an harper, passing all other, that there was none such called in any countrey: and so in harping and on instruments of musike he applied himself in his youth for to learne, and after as he growed in might and strength he laboured ever in hunting and hawking, so that we read of no gentlemen who more, or so, used himself therein; and he began good measures of blowing blasts of venery, and chase, and of all manner of vermains; and all these terms have we yet of hunting and hawking; and therefore the book of venery, and of hawking and hunting, is called the Boke of Sir Tristram." In a succeeding part of the same romance, King Arthur thus addresses the knight: "For all manner of hunting thou bearest the prize; and of all measures of blowing thou art the beginner, and of all the termes of hunting and hawking thou art the beginner." 1 We are also informed that Sir Tristram had previously learned the language of France, knew all the principles of courtly behaviour, and was skilful in the various requisites of knighthood.
[paragraph continues] Another ancient romance says of its hero, "He every day was provyd in dauncyng and in songs that the ladies coulde think were convenable for a nobleman to conne; but in every thinge he passed all them that were there. The king for to assaie him, made justes and turnies; and no man did so well as he, in runnyng, playing at the pame, 1 shotyng, and castyng of the barre, ne found he his maister." 2
ESQUIRESHIP.--The laws of chivalry required that every knight should pass through two offices: the first was a page; and, at the age of fourteen he was admitted an esquire. The office of the esquire consisted of several departments; the esquire for the body, the esquire of the chamber, the esquire of the stable, and the carving esquire; the latter stood in the hall at dinner, carved the different dishes, and distributed them to the guests. Several of the inferior officers had also their respective esquires. 3 Ipomydon, a king's son and heir, in the romance that bears his name, written probably at the commencement of the fourteenth century, is regularly taught the duties of an esquire, previous to his receiving the honours of knighthood; and for this purpose his father committed him to the care of a "learned and courteous knight called Sir ’Tholomew." Our author speaks on this subject in the following manner:
Here we find reading mentioned; which, however, does not appear to have been of any great importance in the middle ages, and is left out in the Geste of King Horne, another metrical romance, 5 which seems to be rather more ancient than the former. Young Horne is placed under the tuition of Athelbrus, the king's steward, who is commanded to teach him the mysteries of hawking and hunting, to play upon the harp,
to carve at the royal table, and to present the cup to the king when he sat at meat, with every other service fitting for him to know. The monarch concludes his injunctions with a repetition of the charge to instruct him in singing and music:
And the manner in which the king's carver performed the duties of his office is well described in the poem denominated "The Squyer of Lowe Degree." 1
MILITARY SPORTS PATRONISED BY LADIES.--Tournaments and jousts were usually exhibited at coronations, royal marriages, and other occasions of solemnity where pomp and pageantry were thought to be requisite. Our historians abound with details of these celebrated pastimes. The reader is referred to Froissart, Hall, Holinshed, Stow, Grafton, etc., who are all of them very diffuse upon this subject; and in the second volume of the Manners and Customs of the English are several curious representations of these military combats both on horseback and on foot.
One great reason, and perhaps the most cogent of any, why the nobility of the middle ages, nay, and even princes and kings, delighted so much in the practice of tilting with each other, is, that on such occasions they made their appearance with prodigious splendour, and had the opportunity of displaying their accomplishments to the greatest advantage. The ladies also were proud of seeing their professed champions engaged in these arduous conflicts; and, perhaps, a glove or riband from the hand of a favourite female might have inspired the receiver with as zealous a wish for conquest, as the abstracted love of glory; though in general, I presume, both these ideas were united; for a knight divested of gallantry would have been considered as a recreant, and unworthy of his profession.
DECLINE OF MILITARY EXERCISES.--When the military enthusiasm which
so strongly characterised the middle ages had subsided, and chivalry was on the decline, a prodigious change took place in the nurture and manners of the nobility. Violent exercises requiring the exertions of muscular strength grew out of fashion with persons of rank, and of course were consigned to the amusement of the vulgar; and the education of the former became proportionably more soft and delicate. This example of the nobility was soon followed by persons of less consequence; and the neglect of military exercises prevailed so generally, that the interference of the legislature was thought necessary, to prevent its influence from being universally diffused, and to correct the bias of the common mind; for, the vulgar readily acquiesced with the relaxation of meritorious exertions, and fell into the vices of the times, resorting to such games and recreations as promoted idleness and dissipation.
DECLINE OF CHIVALRY.--The romantic notions of chivalry appear to have lost their vigour towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century, especially in this country, where a continued series of intestine commotions employed the exertions of every man of property, and real battles afforded but little leisure to exercise the mockery of war. It is true, indeed, that tilts and tournaments with other splendid exhibitions of military skill, were occasionally exercised, and with great brilliancy, so far as pomp and finery contribute to make them attractive, till the end of the succeeding century. These splendid pastimes were encouraged by the sanction of royalty, and this sanction was perfectly political; on the one hand, it gratified the vanity of the nobility, and, on the other, it amused the populace, who, being delighted with such shows of grandeur, were thereby diverted from reflecting too deeply upon the grievances they sustained. It is, however, certain that the jousts and tournaments of the latter ages, with all their pomp, possessed but little of the primitive spirit of chivalry.
MILITARY EXERCISES UNDER HENRY VII.--Henry VII. patronised the gentlemen and officers of his court in the practice of military exercises. The following extract may serve as a specimen of the manner in which they were appointed to be performed: "Whereas it ever hath bene of old antiquitie used in this realme of most noble fame, for all lustye gentlemen to passe the delectable season of summer after divers manner and sondry fashions of disports, as in hunting the red and fallowe deer with houndes, greyhoundes, and the bowe; also in hawking with hawkes of the Tower; and other pastimes right convenyent which were to long here to rehearse. And bycause it is well knowen, that in the months of Maie and June, all such disports be not conveniently prest and redye to be executed; wherefore, in eschewing of idleness, the ground of all vice," and to promote such exercises as "shall be honourable, and also healthfull and profitable to the body," we "beseech your most noble highness to permit two gentlemen, assosyatying to them two other gentlemen to be their aides," by "your gracious licence, to furnish certain articles concerning the feates of armes hereafter ensuinge":--"In the first place; On the
xxijth daye of Maie, there shall be a grene tree sett up in the lawnde of Grenwich parke; whereuppon shall hange, by a grene lace, a Vergescu 1 Blanke, in which white shield it shalbe lawfull for any gentleman that will annswear this chalenge ensewing to subscribe his name.--Secondly; The said two gentlemen, with their two aides, shalbe redye on the xxiijth daie of Maie, being Thursdaye, and on Mondaye thence next ensewinge, and so everye Thursday and Monday untill the xxth daye of June, armed for the foote, to annswear all gentlemen commers, at the feate called the Barriers, with the Casting-speare, and the Targett, and with the bastard-sword, 2 after the manner following, that is to saie, from vj of the clocke in the forenoone till sixt of the clocke in the afternoone during the tyme.--Thirdly; And the said two gentlemen, with their two aiders, or one of them, shall be there redye at the said place, the daye and dayes before rehearsed, to deliver any of the gentlemen answeares of one cast with the speare bedded with the morne, 3 and seven strokes with the sword, point and edge rebated, without close, or griping one another with handes, upon paine of punishment as the judges for the time being shall thinke requisite.--Fourthly; And it shall not be lawfull to the challengers, nor to the answearers, with the bastard sword to give or offer any foyne 4 to his match, upon paine of like punishment.--Fifthly; The challengers shall bringe into the fielde, the said daies and tymes, all manner of weapons concerning the said feates, that is to saie, casting speares bedded with mornes, and bastard swords poynt and edge rebated, and the answerers to have the first choice." 5
* The Harleian MS. just cited contains accounts of the proclamation and articles of a tilting to be held at the palace of Richmond on the birth of the Princess Mary, daughter of Henry VIII.; of a joust at Grenwich in 1516; and of a "Justinge, Tournay, and Fightinge at Barrier holden at the Palace of Westminster," in 1540. 6
MILITARY EXERCISES UNDER HENRY VIII.--Henry VIII. not only countenanced the practice of military pastimes by permitting them to be exercised without restraint, but also endeavoured to make them fashionable by his own example. Hall assures us, that, even after his accession to the throne, he continued daily to amuse himself in archery, casting of the bar, wrestling or dancing, and frequently in tilting, tournaying, fighting at the barriers with swords, and battle-axes, and such like martial recreations, in most of which there were few that could excel him. His leisure time he spent in playing at the recorders, flute, and virginals, in setting of songs, singing and making of ballads. 7 He was also exceedingly fond of hunting, hawking, and other sports of the field; and indeed his example so far prevailed, that hunting, hawking, riding the
great horse, charging dexterously with the lance at the tilt, leaping, and running, were necessary accomplishments of a man of fashion. 1 The pursuits and amusements of a nobleman are placed in a different point of view by an author of the succeeding century; 2 who, describing the person and manners of Charles, Lord Mountjoy, regent of Ireland, in 1599, says, "He delighted in study, in gardens, in riding on a pad to take the aire, in playing at shovelboard, at cardes, and in reading of play-bookes for recreation, and especially in fishing and fish-ponds, seldome using any other exercises, and using these rightly as pastimes, only for a short and convenient time, and with great variety of change from one to the other." The game of shovelboard, though now considered as exceedingly vulgar, and practised by the lower classes of the people, was formerly in great repute among the nobility and gentry; and few of their mansions were without a shovelboard, which was a fashionable piece of furniture. The great hall was usually the place for its reception.
PRINCELY EXERCISES UNDER JAMES I.--We are by no means in the dark respecting the education of the nobility in the reign of James I.; we have, from that monarch's own hand, a set of rules for the nurture and conduct of an heir apparent to the throne, addressed to his eldest son Henry, prince of Wales. From the third book of this remarkable publication, entitled "ΒΑΣΙΛΙΟΚΟΝ ΔΩΡΟΝ, or, a Kinge's Christian Dutie towards God," I shall select such parts as respect the recreations said to be proper for the pursuit of a nobleman, without presuming to make any alteration in the diction of the royal author.
"Certainly," he says, "bodily exercises and games are very commendable, as well for bannishing of idleness, the mother of all vice; as for making the body able and durable for travell, which is very necessarie for a king. But from this court I debarre all rough and violent exercises; as the foote-ball, meeter for lameing, than making able, the users thereof; as likewise such tumbling trickes as only serve for comœdians and balladines to win their bread with: but the exercises that I would have you to use, although but moderately, not making a craft of them, are, running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at the caitch, or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair and pleasant field-games. And the honourablest and most recommendable games that yee can use on horseback; for, it becometh a prince best of any man to be a faire and good horseman: use, therefore, to ride and danton great and courageous horses;--and especially use such games on horseback as may teach you to handle your arms thereon, such as the tilt, the ring, and low-riding for handling of your sword.
"I cannot omit heere the hunting, namely, with running houndes, which is the most honourable and noblest sort thereof; for it is a theivish forme of hunting to shoote with gunnes and bowes; and greyhound hunting is not so martial a game.
"As for hawkinge, I condemn it not; but I must praise it more sparingly,
because it neither resembleth the warres so neere as hunting doeth in making a man hardie and skilfully ridden in all grounds, and is more uncertain and subject to mischances; and, which is worst of all, is there through an extreme stirrer up of the passions.
"As for sitting, or house pastimes--since they may at times supply the roome which, being emptie, would be patent to pernicious idleness--I will not therefore agree with the curiositie of some learned men of our age in forbidding cardes, dice, and such like games of hazard: when it is foule and stormie weather, then I say, may ye lawfully play at the cardes or tables; for, as to diceing, I think it becometh best deboshed souldiers to play at on the heads of their drums, being only ruled by hazard, and subject to knavish cogging; and as for the chesse, I think it over-fond, because it is over-wise and philosophicke a folly."
His majesty concludes this subject with the following good advice to his son: "Beware in making your sporters your councellors, and delight not to keepe ordinarily in your companie comœdians or balladines."
REVIVAL OF LEARNING.--The discontinuation of bodily exercises afforded a proportionable quantity of leisure time for the cultivation of the mind; so that the manners of mankind were softened by degrees, and learning, which had been so long neglected, became fashionable, and was esteemed an indispensable mark of a polite education. Yet some of the nobility maintained for a long time the old prejudices in favour of the ancient mode of nurture, and preferred exercise of the body to mental endowments; such was the opinion of a person of high rank, who said to Richard Pace, secretary to King Henry VIII., "It is enough for the sons of noblemen to wind their horn and carry their hawke fair, and leave study and learning to the children of meaner people." 1 Many of the pastimes that had been countenanced by the nobility, and sanctioned by their example, in the middle ages, grew into disrepute in modern times, and were condemned as vulgar and unbecoming the notice of a gentleman. "Throwing the hammer and wrestling," says Peacham, in his Complete Gentleman, published in 1622, "I hold them exercises not so well beseeming nobility, but rather the soldiers in the camp and the prince's guard." On the contrary, Sir William Forest, in his Poesye of Princelye Practice, a MS. in the Royal Library, 2 written in the year 1548, laying down the rules for the education of an heir apparent to the crown, or prince of the blood royal, writes thus:
[paragraph continues] However, I doubt not both these authors spoke agreeably to the taste of the times in which they lived. Barclay, a more early poetic writer, in his Eclogues
first published in 1508, has made a shepherd boast of his skill in archery; to which he adds,
RECREATIONS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, published in 1660, gives us a general view of the sports most prevalent in the seventeenth century. "Cards, dice, hawkes, and hounds," says he, "are rocks upon which men lose themselves, when they are imprudently handled, and beyond their fortunes." And again, "Hunting and hawking are honest recreations, and fit for some great men, but not for every base inferior person, who, while they maintain their faulkoner, and dogs, and hunting nags, their wealth runs away with their hounds, and their fortunes fly away with their hawks." In another place he speaks thus: "Ringing, bowling, shooting, playing with keel-pins, tronks, coits, pitching of bars, hurling, wrestling, leaping, running, fencing, mustering, swimming, playing with wasters, foils, foot-balls, balowns, running at the quintain, and the like, are common recreations of country folks; riding of great horses, running at rings, tilts and tournaments, horse-races, and wild-goose chases, which are disports of greater men, and good in themselves, though many gentlemen by such means gallop quite out of their fortunes." Speaking of the Londoners, he says, "They take pleasure to see some pageant or sight go by, as at a coronation, wedding, and such like solemn niceties; to see an ambassador or a prince received and entertained with masks, shows, and fireworks. The country hath also his recreations, as May-games, feasts, fairs, and wakes." The following pastimes he considers as common both in town and country, namely, "bull-baitings and bear-baitings, in which our countrymen and citizens greatly delight, and frequently use; dancers on ropes, jugglers, comedies, tragedies, artillery gardens, and cock-fighting." He then goes on: "Ordinary recreations we have in winter, as cards, tables, dice, shovelboard, chess-play, the philosopher's game, small trunks, shuttlecock, billiards, music, masks, singing, dancing, ulegames, frolicks, jests, riddles, catches, cross purposes, questions and commands, merry tales of errant knights, queens, lovers, lords, ladies, giants, dwarfs, thieves, cheaters, witches, fairies, goblins, and friars." To this catalogue he adds: "Dancing, singing, masking, mumming, and stage-plays, are reasonable recreations, if in season; as are May-games, wakes, and Whitson-ales, if not at unseasonable hours, are justly permitted. Let them," that is, the common people, "freely feast, sing, dance, have puppet-plays, hobby-horses, tabers, crowds, 1 and bag-pipes": let them "play at ball and barley-brakes"; and afterwards, "Plays, masks, jesters, gladiators, tumblers, and jugglers, are to be winked at, lest the people should do worse than attend them."
A character in the Cornish Comedy, written by George Powell, and acted at Dorset Garden in 1696, says, "What is a gentleman without his recreations? With these we endeavour to pass away that time which otherwise would lie heavily upon our hands. Hawks, hounds, setting-dogs, and cocks, with their appurtenances, are the true marks of a country gentleman." This character is supposed to be a young heir just come to his estate. "My cocks," says he, "are true cocks of the game--I make a match of cock-fighting, and then an hundred or two pounds are soon won, for I never fight a battle under."
OLD SPORTS OF THE CITIZENS OF LONDON.--In addition to the May-games, morris-dancings, pageants and processions, which were commonly exhibited throughout the kingdom in all great towns and cities, the Londoners had peculiar and extensive privileges of hunting, hawking, and fishing; they had also large portions of ground allotted to them in the vicinity of the city for the practice of such pastimes as were not prohibited by the government, and for those especially that were best calculated to render them strong and healthy. We are told by Fitz Stephen, in the twelfth century, that on the holidays during the summer season, the young men of London exercised themselves in the fields with "leaping, shooting with the bow, wrestling, casting the stone, playing with the ball, and fighting with their shields." The last species of pastime, I believe, is the same that Stow, in his Survey of London, calls "practising with their wasters and bucklers"; which in his day was exercised by the apprentices before the doors of their masters. The city damsels had also their recreations on the celebration of these festivals, according to the testimony of both the authors just mentioned. The first tells us that they played upon citherns, 1 and danced to the music; and as this amusement probably did not take place before the close of the day, they were, it seems, occasionally permitted to continue it by moonlight. We learn from the other, who wrote at the distance of more than four centuries, that it was then customary for the maidens, after evening prayers, to dance in the presence of their masters and mistresses, while one of their companions played the measure upon a timbrel; and, in order to stimulate them to pursue this exercise with alacrity, the best dancers were rewarded with garlands, the prizes being exposed to public view, "hanged athwart the street," says Stow, during the whole of the performance. This recital calls to my mind a passage in Spenser's "Epithalamium," wherein it appears that the dance was sometimes accompanied with singing. It runs thus:
LATER PASTIMES OF THE LONDONERS.--A general view of the pastimes practised by the Londoners soon after the commencement of the eighteenth century
occurs in Strype's edition of Stow's Survey of London, published in 1720. 1 "The modern sports of the citizens," says the editor, "besides drinking, are cock-fighting, bowling upon greens, playing at tables, or backgammon, cards, dice, and billiards; also musical entertainments, dancing, masks, balls, stage-plays, and club-meetings, in the evenings; they sometimes ride out on horse-back, and hunt with the lord-mayor's pack of dogs when the common hunt goes out. The lower classes divert themselves at football, wrestling, cudgels, nine-pins, shovelboard, cricket, stowball, ringing of bells, quoits, pitching the bar, bull and bear baitings, throwing at cocks," and, what is worst of all, "lying at ale-houses." To these are added, by an author of later date, Maitland, in his History of London, published in 1739, "Sailing, rowing, swimming and fishing, in the river Thames, horse and foot races, leaping, archery, bowling in allies, and skittles, tennice, chess, and draughts; and in the winter seating, sliding, and shooting." Duck-hunting was also a favourite amusement, but generally practised in the summer. The pastimes here enumerated were by no means confined to the city of London, or its environs: the larger part of them were in general practice throughout the kingdom.
COTSWOLD AND CORNISH GAMES.--Before I quit this division of my subject, I shall mention the annual celebration of games upon Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, to which prodigious multitudes constantly resorted. Robert Dover, an attorney, of Barton on the Heath, in the county of Warwick, was forty years the chief director of these pastimes. They consisted of wrestling, cudgel-playing, leaping, pitching the bar, throwing the sledge, tossing the pike, with various other feats of strength and activity; many of the country gentlemen hunted or coursed the hare; and the women danced. A castle of boards was erected on this occasion, from which guns were frequently discharged." Captain Dover received permission from James I. to hold these sports; and he appeared at their celebration in the very clothes which that monarch had formerly worn, but with much more dignity in his air and aspect." 2 I do not mean to say that the Cotswold games were invented, or even first established, by Captain Dover; on the contrary, they seem to be of much higher origin, and are evidently alluded to in the following lines by John Heywood the epigrammatist: 3
[paragraph continues] Something of the same sort, I presume, was the Carnival, kept every year, about the middle of July, upon Halgaver-moor, near Bodmin in Cornwall; "resorted to by thousands of people," says Heath, in his description of Cornwall, published in 1750. "The sports and pastimes here held were so well liked by Charles II. when he touched here in his way to Sicily, that he became a brother of the
jovial society. The custom of keeping this carnival is said to be as old as the Saxons."
SPLENDOUR OF THE ANCIENT KINGS AND NOBILITY.--Paul Hentzner, a foreign writer, who visited this country at the close of the sixteenth century, says of the English, in his Itinerary, written in 1598, that they are "serious like the Germans, lovers of show, liking to be followed wherever they go by whole troops of servants, who wear their master's arms in silver." This was no new propensity: the English nobility at all times affected great parade, seldom appearing abroad without large trains of servitors and retainers; and the lower classes of the people delighted in gaudy shows, pageants, and processions.
If we go back to the times of the Saxons, we shall find that, soon after their establishment in Britain, their monarchs assumed great state. Bede tells us that Edwin, king of Northumberland, lived in much splendour, never travelling without a numerous retinue; and when he walked in the streets of his own capital, even in the times of peace, he had a standard borne before him. This standard was of the kind called by the Romans tufa, and by the English tuuf: it was made with feathers of various colours in the form of a globe, and fastened upon a pole. 1 It is unnecessary to multiply citations; for which reason I shall only add another. Canute the Dane, who is said to have been the richest and most magnificent prince of his time in Europe, rarely appeared in public without being followed by a train of three thousand horsemen, well mounted and completely armed. These attendants, who were called house carls, formed a corps of body guards or household troops, and were appointed for the honour and safety of that prince's person. 2 The examples of royalty were followed by the nobility and persons of opulence.
In the middle ages, the love of show was carried to an extravagant length; and as a man of fashion was nothing less than a man of letters,. those studies that were best calculated to improve the mind were held in little estimation.
ROYAL AND NOBLE ENTERTAINMENTS.--The courts of princes and the castles of the great barons were daily crowded with numerous retainers, who were always welcome to their masters' tables. The noblemen had their privy counsellors, treasurers, marshals, constables, stewards, secretaries, chaplains, heralds, pursuivants, pages, henchmen or guards, trumpeters, and all the other officers of the royal court. 3 To these may be added whole companies of minstrels, mimics, jugglers, tumblers, rope-dancers, and players; and especially on days of public festivity, when, in every one of the apartments opened for the reception of the guests, were exhibited variety of entertainments, according to the taste of the times, but in which propriety had very little share; the whole forming a scene of pompous confusion, where feasting, drinking, music, dancing, tumbling, singing, and buffoonery, were jumbled together, and mirth excited too often at the expense of common decency. 4 If we turn to the third Book of
[paragraph continues] Fame, a poem written by our own countryman Chaucer, we shall find a perfect picture of these tumultuous court entertainments, drawn, I doubt not, from reality, and perhaps without any exaggeration. It may be thus expressed in modern language: Minstrels of every kind were stationed in the receptacles for the guests; among them were jesters, that related tales of mirth and of sorrow; excellent players upon the harp, with others of inferior merit seated on various seats below them, who mimicked their performances like apes to excite laughter; behind them, at a great distance, was a prodigious number of other minstrels, making a great sound with cornets, shaulms, flutes, horns, pipes of various kinds, and some of them made with green corn, 1 such as are used by shepherds' boys; there were also Dutch pipers to assist those who chose to dance either "love-dances, springs, or rayes," or any other new-devised measures. Apart from these were stationed the trumpeters and players on the clarion; and other seats were occupied by different musicians playing variety of mirthful tunes. There were also present large companies of jugglers, magicians, and tregetors, who exhibited surprising tricks by the assistance of natural magic.
Vast sums of money were expended in support of these spectacles, by which the estates of the nobility were consumed, and the public treasuries often exhausted. But we shall have occasion to speak more fully on this subject hereafter.
CIVIC SHOWS.--In London, pageants and displays, or triumphs, were frequently required at the reception of foreign monarchs, or at the processions of our own kings and queens through the city to Westminster previous to their coronation, or at their return from abroad, and on various other occasions; besides such as occurred at stated times, as the lord mayor's show, the setting of the midsummer watch, and the like. A considerable number of different artificers were kept, at the city's expense, to furnish the machinery for the pageants, and to decorate them. Stow tells us that, in his memory, great part of Leaden Hall was appropriated to the purpose of painting and depositing the pageants for the use of the city.
The want of elegance and propriety, so glaringly evident in these temporary exhibitions, was supplied, or attempted to be supplied, by a tawdry resemblance of splendour. The fronts of the houses in the streets through which the processions passed were covered with rich adornments of tapestry, arras, and cloth of gold; the chief magistrates and most opulent citizens usually appeared on horseback in sumptuous habits and joined the cavalcade; while the ringing of bells, the sound of music from various quarters, and the shouts of the populace, nearly stunned the ears of the spectators. At certain distances, in places appointed for the purpose, the pageants were erected, which were temporary buildings representing castles, palaces, gardens, rocks, or forests, as the occasion required, where nymphs, fawns, satyrs, gods, goddesses, angels, and
devils, appeared in company with giants, savages, dragons, saints, knights, buffoons, and dwarfs, surrounded by minstrels and choristers; the heathen mythology, the legends of Chivalry and Christian divinity, were ridiculously jumbled together, without meaning; and the exhibition usually concluded with dull pedantic harangues, exceedingly tedious, and replete with the grossest adulation. The giants especially were favourite performers in the pageants; they also figured away with great applause in the pages of romance; and, together with dragons and necromancers, were created by the authors for the sole purpose of displaying the prowess of their heroes, whose business it was to destroy them.
Some faint traces of the processional parts of these exhibitions were retained at London in the lord mayor's show about twenty or thirty years ago; 1 but the pageants and orations have been long discontinued, and the show itself is so much contracted that it is in reality altogether unworthy of such an appellation.
* MERRY ENGLAND.--Outside military pastimes, and the sports of princes, or of noblemen, and gentlefolk at large, it must not be forgotten that the townsmen had many an opportunity of amusement and enjoyment after their own heart. In pre-Reformation days their feasts and frolics and plays were usually associated with, or at all events somewhat slightly allied to the observances of religion. In his chapter on "Gilds and Misteries," Mr J. A. Wylie, the historian of Henry IV., gives a vivid and faithful picture of this side of town gild life of the fifteenth century:--
"England was then 'Merry England,' and sad and sober pleasure was not the people's creed. The brethren did not put in their weekly shot merely to dole groats to pittancers, or help the bedrid and brokelegged, or find poor scholars to school, or dower poor girls, or burn their soul-candles round the corpse of a dead brother, or follow at his forthbringing and ’terment. Such duties were soon relegated to chaplains, who were paid and lodged at the cost of the gild. The gildsmen lived for mirth, joy, sweetness, courtesy and merry disports. Once every year came the Gild-day, usually on a Sunday or one of the greater feasts, when the brethren, fairly and honestly arrayed in their new hoods, gowns, and cloaks, in livery suit of murrey, crimson, white, or green, would assemble at daybreak, and form up in the house or hall of their craft. In front rode the beadle or crier, in scarlet tabard or demigown. Next came the pipers, trumpers, corners, clarioners, cornemusers, shalmusers, and other minstrelsy, clad in verdulet, rayed plunket, or russet motley; and then the craftsmen, mounted or a-foot, moving in procession through the streets to the church where their chantry was appointed. They carried with them a huge wax serge, sometimes weighing fifty pounds, to burn before the shrine of their saint. Then began the morn-speech, communion, or speaking together, which was usually held in the church while the mass was proceeding, where the year's accounts were squared, the gild
chattels were laid on the checker, points were promulgated, defaulters announced, new members enrolled, and the Master, Skevins, Proctors, Dean, Clerk, Summoner, and other officers elected for the coming year. Hence they returned to the hall for the general feast, otherwise known as the drink, the meat, or the mangery. The walls would be hung with hallings of stained worsted, and dight with birch boughs, and the floor over-strawed with mats, or a litter of sedge and rushes, that swarmed with the quick beasts that tickle men o’ nights. The benches were fit with gay bankers, before tables set on trestle-trees spread with board-cloths of clean nap. On these was laid a garnish of pewter or treen, together with the masers and silver spoons bequeathed by brethren since dead. Men and women alike brought their beaker of ale, and the poor received their share of the good things by the custom of the day. Each member was required to bring his wife or his lass, and the sick brother or sister had still to pay his score, though he might have his bottle of ale and his mess of kitchen stuff sent to his own house if he wished. If any disturbed the fellowship with brabbling or high language, the Dean delivered him the yard [of scourging], or fined him in two pounds of wax, to be paid in to the light-silver. The cook was often a brother of the gild, and skilled waferers were always to be had for a price. When all had washed and wiped, the Graceman placed them in a row with his silver wand, and the Clerk stood up and called 'Peace,' while prayers were said for England and the Church.
* "The feast began with good bread and brown ale. Then came the bruets, joints, worts, gruel aillies and other pottage, the big meat, the lamb tarts and capon pasties, the cockentrice or double roast (i.e. griskin and pullet stitched with thread, or great and small birds stewed together), and served in a silver posnet or pottinger, the charlets, chewets, collops, mammenies, mortreus, and other such toothsome entremets of meat served in gobbets and sod in ale, wine, milk, eggs, sugar, honey, marrow, spices, and verjuice made from grapes or crabs. Then came the subtleties, daintily worked like pigeons, curlews, or popinjays in sugar and paste, painted in gold and silver, with mottoes coming out of their bills; and after them the spiced cake-bread, the Frenchbread, the pastelades, doucets, dariols, flauns, pain-puffs, rastons, and blancmanges, with cherries, drajes, blandrells, and cheese, and a standing cup of good wine left by some former brother to drink him every year to mind.
* "When the cloth was up and the boards were drawn, came the merrymaking and the hoy-trolly-lolly. They laughed and cried at the jester's bourds, or the gitener's glee; they watched the tregetoners sleight, or they diced and raffled, while the sautryours and other minstrels harped, piped, gitterned, flutted, and fitheled a merry fit aloft. As they left the hall they gathered about the leapers and tumblers, or thronged the bearward and the apeward to enjoy the grins, mous, and gambols of their darlings, or formed a ring about the bear-stake to see the baiting with the dogs. Or the summer afternoon would be spent in running a bull, when the poor brute's skin was daubed with smear,
its tail cut, and its horns sawn off, the sport being to goad it with dogs and sticks and see who could get near enough to cut a few hairs from its grease back.
* "But the great diversion of our forefathers was mumming. Give them but free air and an antic guise, and they would mask and mime with all the seriousness of children at play. Every mistery must have its riding, and every gild its procession. At Beverley, on St Helen's Day, the gildsmen dressed up a boy as a queen to represent the saint. One old man marched before her with a cross, and another with a spade; the music played up, and the brethren and sistern followed the parade to church. At Candelmas, a man in woman's dress represented the Virgin Mary, and carried 'what might seem' a baby in his arms, Joseph and Simeon walked behind him, and two angels carrying a heavy candlestick, with twenty-four wax lights. At York they showed the Vices and Virtues by means of the petitions in the Lord's Prayer, or they acted out the articles of the Creed, while the gildsmen in their livery rode with the players on the route. At Leicester the images of St Martin and the Virgin were borne through the streets with music and singing, twelve of the gildsmen making up as the Apostles, each with his name stuck in his cap. At Norwich, on St George's Day, they chose their George and a man to bear his sword and be his carver; two of the brethren bore the banner and two 'the wax,' and the rest rode with them in their livery round the town. The Norwich peltyers (skinners) dressed up 'a knave-child innocent,' with a large candle in his hand, and led him through the city to the minster, 'betwyxen two good men,' in memory of St William, the boy martyr, to foster hatred against the Jews. At Canterbury, every 6th of July, at the city march, a cart was drawn about the streets, showing a boy vested as 'Bishop Becket' struck down before an altar by four other children, who played the knights; and as the martyr fell beneath their blows, real blood was spurted on his forehead from a leather bag, which was carried in reserve for use at a given signal. At Cambridge, the scholars of Michaelhouse played a comedy in masks, beards, and embroidered cloaks. In London, the brethren of the fraternity of SS. Fabian and Sebastian carried 'the Branch' springing from the root of Jesse, dressed out with lighted candles, to the church of St Bololph, Aldersgate. On St Nicholas Eve (Dec. 5th), the chorister boys in every cathedral, and probably in every collegiate and parish church where singing boys were found, elected one of their number to be their 'Barne-Bishop,' or 'St Nicholas Bishop,' and to rule the services of the church, in mitre, ring, gloves, cope, surplice, rochet, and full pontificals. He rode or strutted about the streets with his crozier borne before him, blessing the crowd, and collecting their pennies in a glove, with his canons, chaplains, clerks, vergers, and candle-bearers till Childermas.
* "Each season brought its ales, its mayings-round-the-shaft, its Piffany mummings, its Candelmas, Hochtide, and Yule; but Corpus Christi was the feast of feasts, when the gildsmen carried torches, candles, and banners around the
[paragraph continues] Blessed Sacrament as it passed through the streets, and all the town turned out at sunrise to watch the annual play.
* "They could play you gracious mysteries grounded in Scripture, such as the story of the Children of Israel, or of Moses in Egypt, or legends of the martyrdom of Saints Salenia and Feliciana, or of St Catherine of Alexandria and the angels feeding her in her torture house, and smashing the wheel like bruchel glass, or the miracles of St Nicholas, the hearer of prayer, who sent the hand-some suitors in the very nick of time to the poor but virtuous gentleman with the pretty penniless daughters, and brought the little boys back to life after they had been cut up in the pickle-butt by the naughty taverner. . . . Such exhibitions were usually known in England as 'the miracles,' or 'the marvels,' and occasionally 'the mysteries'; we trace them wherever town records are preserved, and they penetrated even to the remotest manor-house and the most secluded village." 1
SETTING OUT OF PAGEANTS.--In an old play, The Historie of Promos and Cassandra, by George Whetstone, printed in 1578, 2 a carpenter, and others, employed in preparing the pageants for a royal procession, are introduced. In one part of the city the artificer is ordered "to set up the frames, and to space out the rooms, that the Nine Worthies may be so instauled as best to please the eye." The "Worthies" are thus named in an heraldical MS. in the Harleian Library: 3 "Duke Jossua; Hector of Troy; kyng David; emperour Alexander; Judas Machabyes; emperour Julyus Cæsar; kyng Arthur; emperour Charlemagne; and syr Guy of Warwycke"; but the place of the latter was frequently, and I believe originally, supplied by Godefroy, earl of Bologne: it appears, however, that any of them might be changed at pleasure. Henry VIII. was made a "Worthy" to please his daughter Mary, as we shall find a little further on. In another part of the same play the carpenter is commanded to "errect a stage, that the wayghtes 4 in sight may stand"; one of the city gates was to be occupied by the fowre Virtues, together with "a consort of music"; and one of the pageants is thus whimsically described:
[paragraph continues] The stage direction then requires the entry of "Two men apparelled lyke greene men at the mayor's feast, with clubbs of fyreworks"; whose office, we are told, was to keep a clear passage in the street, "that the kyng and his trayne might pass with ease." In another dramatic performance of later date, Green's Tu Quoque, or the City Gallant, published in 1614, a city apprentice says, "By this light, I doe not thinke but to be lord mayor of London before I die; and have
three pageants carried before me, besides a ship and an unicorn." The following passage occurs in Selden's Table Talk, under the article Judge, "We see the pageants in Cheapside, the lions and the elephants; but we do not see the men that carry them; we see the Judges look big like lions; but we do not see who moves them."
PROCESSIONS OF QUEEN MARY AND KING PHILIP OF SPAIN IN LONDON.--In the foregoing quotations, we have not the least necessity to make an allowance for poetical licence: the historians of the time will justify the poets, and perfectly clear them from any charge of exaggeration; and especially Hall, Grafton, and Holinshed, who are exceedingly diffuse on this and such like popular subjects. The latter has recorded a very curious piece of pantomimical trickery exhibited at the time that the Princess Mary went in procession through the city of London, the day before her coronation:--At the upper end of Gracechurch Street there was a pageant made by the Florentines; it was very high; and "on the top thereof there stood foure pictures; and in the midst of them, and the highest, there stood an angell, all in greene, with a trumpet in his hand; and when the trumpetter who stood secretlie within the pageant, did sound his trumpet, the angell did put his trumpet to his mouth, as though it had been the same that had sounded." Holinshed, speaking of the spectacles exhibited at London, when Philip king of Spain, with Mary his consort, made their public entry in the city, calls them, in the margin of his Chronicle, "the vaine pageants of London"; and he uses the same epithet twice in the description immediately subsequent; "Now," says he, "as the king came to London, and as he entered at the drawbridge, [on London Bridge,] there was a vaine great spectacle, with two images representing two giants, the one named Corinens, and the other Gog-magog, holding betweene them certeine Latin verses, which, for the vaine ostentation of flatterye, I overpasse." He then adds: "From the bridge they passed to the conduit in Gratious Street, which was finely painted; and, among other things," there exhibited, "were the Nine Worthies; of these King Henry VIII. was one. He was painted in harnesse, having in one hand a sword, and in the other hand a booke, whereupon was written Verbum Dei. He was also delivering, as it were, the same booke to his sonne King Edward VI. who was painted in a corner by him." 1
The Nine Worthies appear to have been favourite characters, and were often exhibited in the pageants; those mentioned in the preceding passage were probably nothing more than images of wood or pasteboard. These august personages were not, however, always degraded in this manner, but, on the contrary, they were frequently personified by human beings suitably habited, and sometimes mounted on horseback. They also occasionally harangued the spectators as they passed in the procession.
CHESTER PAGEANTS.--The same species of shows, but probably not upon so extensive a scale, were exhibited in other cities and large towns throughout
the kingdom. I have now before me an ordinance for the mayor, aldermen, and common councilmen of the city of Chester, to provide yearly for the setting of the watch, on the eve of the festival of Saint John the Baptist, a pageant, which is expressly said to be "according to ancient custome," consisting of four giants, one unicorn, one dromedary, one luce, one camel, one ass, one dragon, six hobby-horses, and sixteen naked boys. This ordinance is dated April 26th, 1564. 1 In another MS. of the same library, it is said, "A.D. 1599, Henry Hardware, esq. the mayor, was a godly and zealous man"; he caused "the gyauntes in the midsomer show to be broken," and not to goe; "the devil in his feathers," alluding perhaps to some fantastic representation not mentioned in the former ordinance, "he put awaye, and the cuppes and cannes, and the dragon and the naked boys." In a more modern hand it is added, "And he caused a man in complete armour to go in their stead. He also caused the bull-ring to be taken up," etc. But in the year 1601, John Ratclyffe, beer-brewer, being mayor, "sett out the giaunts and midsommer show, as of oulde it was wont to be kept." 2 In the time of the Commonwealth this spectacle was discontinued, and the giants, with the beasts, were destroyed. At the restoration of Charles II. it was agreed by the citizens to replace the pageant as usual, on the eve of the festival of St John the Baptist, in 1661; and as the following computation of the charges for the different parts of the show are exceedingly curious, I shall lay them before the. reader without any further apology. We are told that "all things were to be made new, by reason the ould modells were all broken." The computist then proceeds: "For finding all the materials, with the workmanship of the four great giants, all to be made new, as neere as may be lyke as they were before, at five pounds a giant the least that can be, and four men to carry them at two shillings and six pence each." The materials for the composition of these monsters are afterwards specified to be "hoops of various magnitudes, and other productions of the cooper, deal boards, nails, pasteboard, scaleboard paper of various sorts, with buckram, size cloth, and old sheets for their bodies, sleeves, and shirts, which were to be coloured." One pair of the "olde sheets" were provided to cover the "father and mother giants." Another article specifies "three yards of buckram for the mother's and daughter's hoods"; which seems to prove that three of these stupendous pasteboard personages were the representatives of females. There were "also tinsille, tinfoil, gold and silver leaf, and colours of different kinds, with glue and paste in abundance." Respecting the last article, a very ridiculous entry occurs in the bill of charges, it runs thus: "For arsnick to put into the paste to save the giants from being eaten by the rats, one shilling and fourpence." But to go on with the estimate. "For the new making the city mount, called the maior's mount, as auntiently it was, and for hreing of bays for the same, and a man to carry it, three pounds six shillings and eight pence." The bays mentioned in this and the succeeding article was hung round the bottom of the frame, and extended to the ground, or
near it, to conceal the bearers. "For making anew the merchant mount, as it aunciently was, with a ship to turn round, the hiring of the bays, and five men to carry it, four pounds." The ship and new dressing it, is charged at five shillings; it was probably made with pasteboard, which seems to have been a principal article in the manufacturing of both the moveable mountains; it was turned by means of a swivel attached to an iron handle underneath the frame. In the bill of charges for "the merchant's mount," is an entry of twenty pence paid to a joyner for cutting the pasteboard into several images. "For making anew the elephant and castell, and a Cupid," with his bow and arrows, "suitable to it," the castle was covered with tinfoil, and the Cupid with skins, so as to appear to be naked, "and also for two men to carry them, one pound sixteen shillings and eight-pence. For making anew the four beastes called the unicorne, the antelop, the flower-de-luce, and the camell, one pound sixteen shillings and fourpence apiece, and for eight men to carry them, sixteen shillings. For four hobby-horses, six shillings and eight-pence apiece; and for four boys to carry them, four shillings. For hance-staves, garlands, and balls, for the attendants upon the mayor and sheriffs, one pound nineteen shillings. For makinge anew the dragon, and for six naked boys to beat at it, one pound sixteen shillings. For six morris-dancers, with a pipe and tabret, twenty shillings."
The sports exhibited on occasions of solemnity did not terminate with the pageants and processions; the evening was generally concluded with festivity and diversions of various kinds to please the populace. These amusements are well described in a few lines by an early dramatic poet, whose name is not known; his performance is entitled A pleasant and stately Morall of the Three Lordes of London, black letter, no date: 1
The "cresset light" was a large lanthorn placed upon a long pole, and carried upon men's shoulders. There is extant a copy of a letter from Henry VII. to the mayor and aldermen of London, commanding them to make bon-fires, and to show other marks of rejoicing in the city, when the contract was ratified for the marriage of his daughter Mary with the prince of Castile. 2
PUBLIC SHOWS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.--These motley displays of pomp and absurdity were highly relished by the nobility, and repeatedly exhibited by them, on extraordinary occasions. For want of more rational entertainments, they maintained for ages their popularity, and do not appear to
have lost the smallest portion of their attraction by the frequency of representation. Shows of this kind were never more fashionable than in the sixteenth century, when they were generally encouraged by persons of the highest rank, and exhibited with very little essential variation; and especially during the reign of Henry VIII. His daughter Elizabeth appears to have been equally pleased with this species of pageantry; and therefore it was constantly provided for her amusement by the nobility whom she visited from time to time, in her progresses or excursions to various parts of the kingdom. 1 I shall simply give the outlines of a succession of entertainments contrived to divert her when she visited the Earl of Leicester at Kenelworth Castle, and this shall serve as a specimen for the rest.
QUEEN ELIZABETH AT KENELWORTH.--Her majesty came thither on Saturday, the ninth of July 1575; 2 she was met near the castle by a fictitious Sibyl, who promised peace and prosperity to the country during her reign. Over the first gate of the castle there stood six gigantic figures with trumpets, real trumpeters being stationed behind them, who sounded as the queen approached. "By this dumb show," says my author, "it was meant that in the daies of King Arthur, men were of that stature; so that the castle of Kenelworth should seem still to be kept by King Arthur's heirs and their servants." Laneham says these figures were eight feet high. Upon her majesty entering the gateway, the porter, in the character of Hercules, made an oration and presented to her the keys. Being come into the base court, a lady "came all over the pool, being so conveyed, that it seemed she had gone upon the water; she was attended by two water nymphs, and calling herself the Lady of the Lake, she addressed her majesty with a speech prepared for the purpose." The queen then proceeded to the inner court, and passed the bridge, which was railled on both sides, and the tops of the posts were adorned with "sundry presents and gifts," as of wine, corn, fruits, fishes, fowls, instruments of music, and weapons of war. Laneham calls the adorned posts "well-proportioned pillars turned": he tells us there were fourteen of them, seven on each side of the bridge; on the first pair were birds of various kinds alive in cages, said to be the presents of the god Silvanus; on the next pair were different sorts of fruits in silver bowls, the gift of the goddess Pomona; on the third pair were different kinds of grain in silver bowls, the gift of Ceres; on the fourth, in silvered pots, were red and white wine with clusters of grapes in a silver bowl, the gift of Bacchus; on the fifth were fishes of various kinds in trays, the donation of Neptune; on the sixth were weapons of war, the gift of Mars; and on the seventh, various musical instruments, the presents of Apollo. The meaning of these emblematical decorations was explained in a Latin speech delivered by the author of it. Then an excellent band of music began to play
as her majesty entered the inner court, where she alighted from her horse, and went upstairs to the apartments prepared for her.
On Sunday evening she was entertained with a grand display of fireworks, as well in the air as upon the water.
On Monday, after a great hunting, she was met on her return by Gascoigne the poet, so disguised as to represent a savage man, who paid her many high-flown compliments in a kind of dialogue between himself and an echo.
On Tuesday she was diverted with music, dancing, and an interlude upon the water.
On Wednesday was another grand hunting.
On Thursday she was amused with a grand bear-beating, to which were added tumbling and fire-works. Bear-beating and bull-beating were fashionable at this period, and considered as proper pastimes for the amusement of ladies of the highest rank. Elizabeth, though a woman, possessed a masculine mind, and preferred, or affected to prefer, the exercises of the chace and other recreations pursued by men, rather than those usually appropriated to her sex.
On Friday, the weather being unfavourable, there were no open shows.
On Saturday there was dancing within the castle, and a country brideale, with running at the quintain in the castle yard, and a pantomimical show called "the Old Coventry Play of Hock Thursday," performed by persons who came from Coventry for that purpose. In the evening a regular play was acted, succeeded by a banquet and a masque.
On the Sunday there was no public spectacle.
On the Monday there was a hunting in the afternoon, and, on the queen's return, she was entertained with another show upon the water, in which appeared a person in the character of Arion, riding upon a dolphin twenty-four feet in length; and he sung an admirable song, accompanied with music performed by six musicians concealed in the belly of the fish. Her majesty, it appears, was much pleased with this exhibition. The person who entertained her majesty in the character of Arion is said to have been Harry Goldingham, of whom the following anecdote is related: "There was a spectacle presented to Queen Elizabeth upon the water, and among others, Harry Goldingham was to represent Arion upon the back of a dolphin; but finding his voice to be very hoarse and unpleasant when he came to perform his part, he tears off his disguise, and swears that he was none of Arion, not he, but even honest Harry Goldingham; which blunt discovery pleased the queen better than if it had gone thorough in the right way. Yet he could order his voice to an instrument exceedingly well." 1
On Tuesday the Coventry play was repeated, because the queen had not seen the whole of it on Saturday.
On Wednesday, the twentieth of the same month, she departed from Kenelworth.
[paragraph continues] Various other pastimes were prepared upon this occasion; but, for want of time and opportunity, they could not be performed.
* THE MASTER OF THE REVELS.--From very early days there was an official of the English court termed the Master of the Revels. This was a permanent office quite distinct from the one who had temporary control over all Christmas or Epiphany merriment. It was his duty to superintend and provide for plays, interludes, and every variety of entertainment, apart from field sports, for the king's court. It was stated in 1660 that "the allowance of Playes, the ordering of Players and Playmakers, and the Permission for Erecting of Playhouses, Hath time out of minde, wherof the memory of man is not to the Contrary belonged to the Master of his Majesties Office of the Revells." In 1544 Henry VIII. appointed, by letters patent, Sir Thomas Cawardin, Knight, to this office, with an annual fee of £10, and powers to appoint a deputy. Queen Elizabeth made a like grant, in 1579, to Edmond Tilney, Esquire; King James in 1603 to George Buck, Esquire, in 1613 to Sir John Ashley, and in 1622 to Ben. Jonson; and Charles I., in 1629, jointly to Henry Herbert, Knight, and Simon Thelwall, Esquire. Sir Henry Herbert and Mr Thelwall at the Restoration claimed to exercise their office. This was resisted by playwrights and others, with the result that various interesting documents and statements were produced in support of their claims. In these it was stated that the office originated in the days of the Saxons; that "mountebanks, lotteries, clockwork motions, ordinary motions, extra motions, dancing horses and mares, ropedancers, and slights of hand" all required licenses from the Master of the Revels, as well as "all Comedies, Tragedies, Poems, Ballads, half-sides, drolleries, and all billes relating to jokes." Moreover, Edward Hayward, gentleman, as deputy to Sir Henry Herbert, claimed to enjoy "all ancient privileges at Court, the ordering of maskes in the Innes of Law, halls, houses of great personages, and societies, all Balls, Dancing schooles, and musick, except his Majesty's and the priviledges of the Corporation touching freemen, if it extend soe farre; Pageantry and other publique tryumphes, the rurall feasts called Wakes, where there is constant revelling and musick, Cockpitts, fencing and fencing schooles, nocturnal feasts, and banquettings in publique houses when attended with minstrelsy, singing, and Dancing, together with the ordering of all mommeries, fictions, Disguises, scenes, and masking attire, all which (in the judgment of an able Lawyer) are within the verge and comprehension of the Master of the Revells Patent from the words Jocorum, Revelorum, et Mascorum."
* The words of the original patent gave jurisdiction throughout the whole kingdom of England, and Mr Hayward's claim for a very liberal interpretation was apparently granted. On July 23rd, 1663, Mr Hayward, in conjunction with Mr Poyntz, instructed Edward Thomas, one of the messengers belonging to his Majesties office of the Revels, to proceed to Bristol, with a view to the approaching fairs, and to acquaint the mayor with the king's grant to them, and the Lord Chamberlain's mandate, "touching musick, cockfightings, maskings,
prizes, stage-players, tumblers, vaulters, dancers on the ropes, such as act, sett forth, shew or present any play, shew, motion, feats of activity, or sights whatsoever." 1 Thomas was given power to grant temporary licenses to persons from Wales or remote parts, who seldom or never came to London, but others were to be required to take out licenses at the London office. Any presuming to act or exhibit unlicensed, were to be taken into custody, and kept until bound with good security to appear within ten days at the London office under penalty of £20. In 1668, Charles II. appointed Alexander Stafford, gentleman, Master of the Revels.
* Various interesting particulars relative to the Master of the Revels can be gleaned from the State Papers of the Public Record Office. There are full accounts extant of the expenditure of Richard Gibson, Master of the Revels, from 1509 to 1522, which show the extravagant character of the mummings and disguisings at the court of the young king. 2 Crimson, purple, blue, and yellow velvet; cloth of gold of Venice; blue, green, white, black, yellow, and crimson satin; blue, crimson, and yellow sarcenet; brabant cloth; crimson copper tinsel of Bruges; cotton cloth; white fustian; gray furs; and ostrich feathers were all used in the attiring of a single year. In February 1511, revels were held on a most costly scale in the house of Black Friars, Ludgate, and in White Hall, Westminster. On New Year's Day and Epiphany 1512, Gibson had the ordering of a pageant called "Dangerus Fortress." In the following year the pageant was called "The Rydie Mount," which was planted with broom to signify Plantaganet, and with red and white roses. At the foot were six lords, above them six minstrels, and at the entrance two armed men. It was drawn by two "mighty woord wossys or wyld men," and after the descent of the lords, the mount opened and showed six ladies. The six "lords" were the king, Mr Brandon, Earl of Essex, Sir Henry Guildford, Mr Nevell, and Mr Thomas Chene. The disguisings of Twelfth Night, 1514, cost the then great total of £404, 6s. 9d. The Twelfth Night revel at Greenwich, in 1516, as ordered by Gibson, was called "The Gardyn de Esperans." In 1520, a mummery was held at Greenwich on New Year's Eve; Gibson had to prepare dresses for fourteen persons. On January 5th, 1521, the king went "in meskellyng apparell" by water to visit the Cardinal with nineteen gentlemen. There were maskings on Shrove Monday and Shrove Tuesday, 1521, at Greenwich, in which the king took part; and he also played his share in several maskings both at Greenwich and York Place in the following year.
* Queen Elizabeth's expenditure on revels, early in her reign, outrivalled the extravagance of her father. From the first Christmas after her accession down to April 1567, the provisions and payments made by the Master of the Revels reached the then gigantic total of £4588, 1s. 10d. 3 Towards the end of the
reign the expenses under this head were but small. In May 1594 Edmund Tilney, Master of the Revels, received a warrant of £311, 2s. 2d. for wares delivered and works done in the office of the revels, and for three years' wages of the officers. 1 In January 1597 2200 was assigned to the Master for wares and works, and three years' officers' wages; and also £66, 6s. 8d. yearly as composition for defraying the charges of the office for plays only, according to a rate of a late composition. 2
* In 1603 Sir George Buck succeeded to the Mastership of the Revels. On July 10th, 1615, Sir George wrote to the Lord Chamberlain, saying that the King had been pleased, at the Queen's intercession on behalf of Samuel Danyell, to appoint a company of youths to perform comedies and tragedies at Bristol, under the name of the Youths of Her Majesty's Royal Chamber of Bristol; he had consented to it, without prejudice to the rights of his office; but he reminded the Chamberlain that he had received no wages for two years, and begged for payment of the arrears. 3
* Sir Henry Herbert, the next Master of the Revels, got into rather serious trouble in the summer of 1674, almost immediately after his appointment, by licensing the poet Middleton's play A Game at Chess, which was a thinly-veiled political attack on Spain, that gave great umbrage to the Spanish ambassador. 4 Sir Henry Herbert was confirmed in his office on the accession of Charles I.
* In 1631 the churchwardens and constables of Blackfriars, on behalf of the whole parish, petitioned Bishop Laud to revive an order made by the Council and the Corporation in June 1600, limiting the playhouses to one each side of the Thames, and an order of 1619 suppressing the house in Blackfriars. They tabulated their reasons, which were briefly as follows: (1) hindrance to shop-keepers from great recourse to the plays, especially of coaches, their goods being broken and beaten off their stalls; (2) coaches so numerous in an afternoon that the inhabitants could not take in their beer or coals; (3) the passage through Ludgate and to the water was stopped; (4) if any fire occurred it could not be quenched; (5) baptisms and burials often disturbed; and (6) persons of honour and quality resident in the parish are restrained by the coaches from ingress and egress. 5
* In May 1633, some strolling players visited Banbury. The mayor and justices, suspecting them to be wandering rogues, if not more dangerous persons, called on them for their license, they produced a patent which they pretended to be granted by the crown, and also a commission from the Master of the Revels. Believing these papers to be forgeries, or wrongly obtained, they arrested the six men, examined them, and committed them to prison, till the council's pleasure should be signified. The patent and commission and examinations were forwarded to London. The company had been acting, as they alleged, at Leicester, Market Bosworth, Stratford, Meriden, and Solihull, and at Sir Thomas Lucy's, and Sir William Spencer's. 6
* Sir Henry Herbert received £200, as Master of the Revels, in October 1660, together with a warrant to advance him yearly such sums as might be needful for his office. 1 The official immediately under the master was termed the Yeoman of the Revels; his salary was usually, £50 a year. In May 1661, one John Tredeskyn was brought before Sir Henry Herbert charged with showing "severall strainge cretures" without authority from the office of the revels; but in the following month he obtained a royal warrant to continue as before to show to all who wish it his "rare and ingenious collection of rarities in art and nature," which had been for many years exhibited by him and his father before him. 2 In July of the same year an order was made for the suppression of all stage players, tumblers, rope dancers, and showmen unless approved and authorised by the Master of the Revels, as some persons had obtained recently commissions from the king, acted plays and exhibited shows full of scandal, and abused their commissions by selling or lending them.
* George Jolly obtained a license from the revel office on January 1st, 1663, to raise a company of players for acting tragedies, comedies, pastorals, and interludes, throughout England, provided they outstayed not forty days in one place, and acted nothing offensive, nor in the time of divine worship, nor at prohibited seasons. At the same time general orders were issued that "what company soever, either stage players, musicians, mountebanks, or such as go about with monsters and strange sights," as had no authority confirmed by the Master of the Revels, should have their commissions taken from them and sent to the office. 3 In July of that year the king empowered the mayor and sheriff and magistrates of Norwich, as he understood that the meaner sort of people were diverted from their work through the frequency of lotteries, puppet-shows, etc., to determine the length of stay of such shows in the city notwithstanding any licenses from the revel office. 4
ROPE-DANCING, TUTORED ANIMALS, AND PUPPET-SHOWS.--Great delight was taken in seeing men and animals perform such feats as appeared to be entirely contrary to their nature; as, men and monkeys dancing upon ropes, or walking upon wires; dogs dancing minuets, pigs arranging letters so as to form words at their master's command; hares beating drums, or birds firing off cannons. These exhibitions, for all of them have in reality been brought to public view, are ridiculed by the Spectator, in a paper dated the 3rd of April 1711. The author pretends that he received the following letter from a show-man who resided near Charing-Cross.
"Honoured Sir,--Having heard that this nation is a great encourager of ingenuity, I have brought with me a rope-dancer that was caught in one of the woods belonging to the great Mogul. He is by birth a monkey, but swings upon a rope, takes a pipe of tobacco, and drinks a glass of ale, like any reasonable
creature. 1 He gives great satisfaction to the quality; and if they will make a subscription for him, I will send for a brother of his out of Holland, that is a very good tumbler; and also for another of the same family whom I design for my merry-andrew, as being an excellent mimic, and the greatest droll in the country where he now is. I hope to have this entertainment in readiness for the next winter; and doubt not but it will please more than the opera or the puppet-show. I will not say that a monkey is a better man than some of the opera heroes; but certainly he is a better representative of a man than any artificial composition of wood and wire."
The latter part of this sarcasm relates to a feigned dispute for seniority between Powel, a puppet-showman, who exhibited his wooden heroes under the little piazza in Covent Garden, and the managers of the Italian opera; which is mentioned in a preceding paper 2 to this effect: "The opera at the Haymarket, and that under the little piazza of Covent Garden, are at present the two leading diversions of the town; Powel professing in his advertisements to set up Whittington and his Cat against Rinaldo and Armida."--After some observations, which are not immediately to the present purpose, the author proceeds: "I observe that Powel and the undertakers of the opera had both of them the same thought, and I think much about the same time, of introducing animals on their several stages, though indeed with different success. The sparrows and chaffinches at the Haymarket fly as yet very irregularly over the stage, and instead of perching on the trees, and performing their parts, these young actors either get into the galleries, or put out the candles; whereas Powel has so well disciplined his pig, that in the first scene he and Punch dance a minuet together. I am informed that Powel resolves to excel his adversaries in their own way, and introduce larks into his opera of Susanna, or Innocence betrayed; which will be exhibited next week with a pair of new elders."
From the same source of information, in a subsequent paper, 3 we may find a catalogue of the most popular spectacles exhibited in London at the commencement of the last century. Our author has introduced a projector, who produces a scheme for an opera entitled The Expedition of Alexander the Great; and proposes to bring in "all the remarkable shows about the town among the scenes and decorations of his piece"; which is described in the following manner: "This Expedition of Alexander opens with his consulting the Oracle at Delphos; in which the Dumb Conjurer, who has been visited by so many persons of quality of late years, is to be introduced as telling his fortune; at the same time Clench of Barnet 4 is represented in another corner of the temple, as ringing the bells of Delphos for joy of his arrival. The Tent of Darius is to be
peopled by the ingenious Mrs Salmon, where Alexander is to fall in love with a piece of waxwork that represents the beautiful Statira. When Alexander comes to that country in which, Quintus Curtius tells us, the dogs were so exceedingly fierce, that they would not loose their hold, though they were cut to pieces limb by limb, and that they would hang upon their prey by their teeth when they had nothing but a mouth left, there is to be a scene of Hockley in the Hole, in which are to be represented all the diversions of that place, the Bull-Baiting only excepted, which cannot possibly be exhibited in the theatre by reason of the lowness of the roof. The several Woods in Asia, which Alexander must be supposed to pass through, will give the audience a sight of Monkies dancing upon ropes, with many other pleasantries of that ludicrous species. At the same time, if there chance to be any strange animals in town, whether birds or beasts, they may be either let loose among the woods, or driven across the stage by some of the country people of Asia. In the last Great Battle, Pinkethman is to personate king Porus upon an Elephant, and is to be encountered by Powel, representing Alexander the Great upon a Dromedary, which, nevertheless, he is desired to call by the name of Bucephalus. On the close of this great Decisive Battle, when the two Kings are thoroughly reconciled, to show the mutual friendship and good correspondence that reigns between them, they both of them go together to a puppet-show, in which the ingenious Mr Powel junior may have an opportunity of displaying his whole art of machinery for the diversion of the two monarchs." It is further added, that, "after the reconciliation of these two kings, they might invite one another to dinner, and either of them entertain his guest with the German artist, Mr Pinkethman's Heathen Gods, or any of the like Diversions which shall then chance to be in vogue."
The projector acknowledged the thought was not originally his own, but that he had taken the hint from "several Performances he had seen upon our stage; in one of which there was a Raree Show, in another a Ladder Dance, and in others a posture or a moving picture with many curiosities of the like nature."
MINSTRELSY, BELL-RINGING, ETC.--The people of this country in all ages delighted in secular music, songs, and theatrical performances; 1 which is abundantly evident from the great rewards they gave to the bards, the scalds, the gleemen, and the minstrels, who were successively the favourites of the opulent, and the idols of the vulgar. The continual encouragement given to these professors of music, poetry, and pantomime, in process of time swelled their numbers beyond all reasonable proportion, inflamed their pride, increased their avarice, and corrupted their manners; so that at length they lost the favour they had so long enjoyed among the higher classes of society; and, the donations of the populace not being sufficient for their support, they fell away from affluence to poverty, and wandered about the country in a contemptible condition,
dependent upon the casual rewards they might occasionally pick up at church-ales, wakes, and fairs.
Hentzner, who wrote at the conclusion of the sixteenth century, says, "the English excel in dancing and music, for they are active and lively." A little further on he adds, "they are vastly fond of great noises that fill the ear, such as the firing of cannon, beating of drums, and the ringing of bells; so that it is common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to get up into some belfry and ring the bells for hours together for the sake of exercise." 1 Polydore Vergil mentions another remarkable singularity belonging to the English, who celebrated the festival of Christmas with plays, masques, and magnificent spectacles, together with games at dice and dancing, which, he tells us, was as ancient as the year 1170, and not customary with other nations; 2 and with respect to the Christmas prince, or lord of the misrule, he was, as the same author informs us, a personage almost peculiar to this country. 3
BAITING OF ANIMALS.--It were well if these singularities were the only vulnerable parts of the national character of our ancestors; but it must be confessed that there are other pastimes which equally attracted their attention, and manifested a great degree of barbarism, which will admit of no just defence. Sir Richard Steele, reprobating the inhumanity of throwing at cocks, makes these pertinent observations: "Some French writers have represented this diversion of the common people much to our disadvantage, and imputed it to a natural fierceness and cruelty of temper, as they do some other entertainments peculiar to our nation; I mean those elegant diversions of bull-baiting, and prize-fighting, with the like ingenious recreations of the bear-garden. I wish I knew how to answer this reproach which is cast upon us, and excuse the death of so many innocent cocks, bulls, dogs, and bears, as have been set together by the ears, or died an untimely death, only to make us sport." 4
PASTIMES FORMERLY ON SUNDAYS.--I know not of any objection that can have more weight in the condemnation of these national barbarisms, than the time usually appropriated for the exhibition of them; which, it seems, was the after part of the Sunday. The same portion of time also was allotted for the performance of plays, called, in the writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, "vaine playes and interludes "; 5 to which are added, "dice and card-playing, dancing, and other idle pastimes." Stephen Gosson, a very zealous, if not a very correct writer, declaiming vehemently against plays and players, says of the latter, "because they are permitted to play every Sunday, they make four or five Sundayes at leaste every weeke." 6 Nor is he less severe upon those who frequented such amusements: "To celebrate the Sabbath," says he, "they go to the theatres, and there keepe a general market of bawdrie; by
which means," as he afterwards expresses himself, "they make the theatre a place of assignation, and meet for worse purposes than merely seeing the play." A contemporary writer, endeavouring to prove the impropriety of an established form of prayer for the church service, among other arguments, uses the following: "He," meaning the minister, "posteth it over as fast as he can galloppe; for, eyther, he hath two places to serve; or else there are some games to be playde in the afternoon, as lying for the whetstone, heathenishe dauncing for the ring, a beare or a bull to be baited, or else a jackanapes to ride on horsebacke, or an interlude to be plaide; and, if no place else can be gotten, this interlude must be playde in the church. We speak not of ringing after mattins is done." 1 To what has been said, I shall add the following verses, which made their appearance rather earlier than either of the foregoing publications; and they describe, with much accuracy I doubt not, the manner of spending the Sunday afternoons according to the usage of that time: but it is proper previously to observe, that such amusements on holidays were by no means peculiar to the young gallants of this country, but equally practised upon the continent.
ROYAL INTERFERENCE WITH SUNDAY PASTIMES.--Citations to this purpose might be made from infinity of pamphlets, written professedly against the profanation of the Sabbath: it was certainly an evil that called loudly for redress; and the pens of various writers, moral and religious, as well of the clergy as the laity, have been employed for that purpose. There are some few treatises on this subject that do honour to their authors; but far the larger part of them are of a different description, consisting of vehement and abusive declamations, wherein the zeal of the writers is too frequently permitted to run at random, without the least restraint from reason and moderation, and, what is still worse, without that strict adherence to the truth which the seriousness of the subject necessarily required. It must be granted, however, that the continued remonstrances from the grave and religious parts of the community were not without effect. In the twenty-second year of the reign of Elizabeth, the magistrates of the city of London obtained from the queen an edict, "that all heathenish playes and interludes should be banished upon Sabbath days"; 3 a but this restriction, I apprehend, was confined to the jurisdiction of the lord mayor; for, it is certain that such amusements were publicly exhibited in other districts, and especially
at the Paris Garden in Southwark, a place where these sort of sports were usually exhibited; and where three years afterwards a prodigious concourse of people being assembled together on a Sunday afternoon, to "see plays and a bear-baiting, the whole theatre gave way and fell to the ground; by which accident many of the spectators were killed, and more hurt." This lamentable misfortune was considered as a judgment from God, and occasioned a general prohibition of all public pastimes on the Sabbath-day. The wise successor of Elizabeth, on the other hand, thought that the restrictions on the public sports were too generally and too strictly applied, and especially in the country places; he therefore published on the 24th of May 1618 the following declaration: "Whereas we did justly, in our progresse through Lancashire, rebuke some puritanes and precise people, in prohibiting and unlawfully punishing of our good people for using their lawfull recreations and honest exercises on Sundayes and other holy dayes, after the afternoone sermon or service: It is our will, that after the end of divine service, our good people be not disturbed, letted, or discouraged, from any lawful recreation, such as dauncing, either for men or women; archery for men, leaping, vaulting, or any other such harmless recreation; nor for having of May-games, Whitson-ales, and morris-daunces, and the setting up of May-poles, and other sports therewith used; so as the same be had in due and convenient time, without impediment or neglect of divine service. But withall, we doe here account still as prohibited, all unlawfull games to be used upon Sundayes onely, as beare and bull-baitings, interludes, and, at all times in the meaner sort of people by law prohibited, bowling." This proclamation was renewed by Charles I. in the eighth year of his reign; which occasioned many serious complaints from the puritanical party; but, three years afterwards, a pamphlet was published which defended the principles of the declaration; wherein the author, who was a high churchman, endeavours to fine away the objections of its opponents. In one part he says, "those recreations are the meetest to be used, which give the best refreshment to the bodie, and leave the least impression in the minde. In this respect, shooting, leaping, pitching the barre, stool-ball, and the like, are rather to be chosen than diceing or carding." This publication was immediately answered by the other party, who certainly had the best end of the argument, and were not sparing in their severity, but wounded the ordinance itself through the sides of its defender. The more precise writers objected not only to the profanation of the Sabbath, but to the celebration of most of the established festivals and holidays, as we find from the following verses of Neogeorgus:
DICE AND CARDS.--The Saxons and the Danes, as we have observed already, 1 were much addicted to gaming; and the same destructive propensity was equally prevalent among the Normans. The evil consequences arising from the indulgence of this pernicious pleasure have in all ages called loudly for reprehension, and demanded at last the more powerful interference of the legislature. The vice of gambling, however, is by no means peculiar to the people of this country: its influence is universally diffused among mankind; and in most nations the same strong measures that have been adopted here are found to be absolutely necessary to prevent its extension beyond the limits of subordination. Dice, and those games of chance dependent upon them, have been most generally decried; and cards, in latter times, are added to them as proper companions. Cards, when compared with dice, are indeed of modern invention, and originally, I doubt not, were productive only of innocent amusement; they were, however, soon converted into instruments of gambling equally dangerous as the dice themselves, and more enticing from the variety of changements they admit of, and the pleasing mixture of chance with skill, which often gives the tyro an advantage over the more experienced player; that is, supposing fair play on both sides; but woeful experience has convinced many that this is not always the case.
REGULATION OF GAMES FOR MONEY, BY RICHARD CŒUR DE LION, ETC.--Towards the close of the twelfth century, we meet with a very curious edict relative to gaming, and which shows how generally it even prevailed among the lower classes of the people at that period. This edict was established for the regulation of the Christian army under the command of Richard I. of England and Philip of France, during the crusade in 1190: It prohibits any person in the army beneath the degree of a knight from playing at any sort of game for money: knights and clergymen might play for money, but no one of them was permitted to lose more than twenty shillings in one whole day and night, under the penalty of one hundred shillings, to be paid to the archbishops in the army; the two monarchs had the privilege of playing for what they pleased; but their attendants were restricted to the sum of twenty shillings; and, if they exceeded, they were to be whipped naked through the army for three days. 2
STATUTES AGAINST DICE, CARDS, BALL-PLAY, ETC.--The decrees established by the council held at 'Worcester, in the twenty-fourth year of Henry III., prohibited the clergy from playing at dice, or at cards: but neither the one nor the other of these games are mentioned in the succeeding penal statutes, before the twelfth year of Richard II., when diceing is particularised, and expressly forbidden; though perhaps they were both of them included under the general title of games of chance, and dishonest games, mentioned in the proclamation of Edward III. which, with other pastimes therein specified, were generally practised to the great detriment of military exercises, and of archery in particular.
In the eleventh year of Henry VII. cards are first mentioned among the games prohibited by the law; 1 and at that time they seem to have been very generally used; for, the edict expressly forbids the practice of card-playing to apprentices, excepting the duration of the Christmas holidays, and then only in their masters' houses. 2 We learn from Stow, that these holidays extended "from All-Hallows evening to the day after Candlemasday, when," says the historian, "there was, among other sports, playing at cards for counters, nailes, and points in every house, more for pastime than for gain." 3 The recreations prohibited by proclamation in the reign of Edward III., exclusive of the games of chance, are thus specified; throwing of stones, 4 wood, or iron; playing at hand-ball, foot-ball, club-ball, and cambucam, which I take to have been a species of goff, and probably received its name from the crooked bat with which it was played. These games, as before observed, were not forbidden from any particular evil tendency in themselves, but because they engrossed too much of the leisure and attention of the populace, and diverted their minds from the pursuits of a more martial nature. I should not forget to add, that "bull-baiting and cock-fighting" are included with "other dishonest games as trivial and useless." In 5 the reign of Edward IV. we find coits, closh or claish, kayles or nine-pins, half-bowl, hand-in and hand-out, with quick-borde, classed among the unlawful amusements; 6 which list was considerably augmented in the succeeding reigns, and especially in the eighteenth year of Henry VIII., when bowling, loggating, playing at tennis, dice, cards and tables, or back-gammon, were included. 7
In the preamble to the Parliamentary Statutes as early as the sixth year of Edward III., there is a clause prohibiting of boys or others from playing at barres, or snatch-hood, or any other improper games, in the king's palace at Westminster during the sitting of the parliament; neither might they, by striking, or otherwise, prevent any one from passing peaceably about his business.
ARCHERY SUCCEEDED BY BOWLING.--The general decay of those manly and spirited exercises, which formerly were practised in the vicinity of the metropolis, has not arisen from any want of inclination in the people, but from the want of places proper for the purpose; such as in times past had been allotted to them are now covered with buildings, or shut up by enclosures, so that, if it were not for skittles, dutch-pins, four-corners, and the like pastimes, they would have no amusements for the exercise of the body; and these amusements are only to be met with in places belonging to common drinking-houses, for which reason their play is seldom productive of much benefit, but more frequently becomes the
prelude to drunkenness. This evil has been increasing for a long series of years; and honest Stow laments the retrenchments of the grounds appropriated for martial pastimes which had begun to take place in his day. "Why," says he, "should I speak of the ancient exercises of the long bow, by the citizens of this city, now almost clean left off and forsaken? I over-pass it; for, by the means of closeing in of common grounds, our archers, for want of room to shoot abroad, creep into bowling-alleys and ordinarie diceing-houses neer home, where they have room enough to hazard their money at unlawful games." 1 He also tells us, that "Northumberland house, in the parish of St Katherine Coleman, belonging to Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, in the thirty-third year of Henry the Sixth; but of late, being deserted by that noble family, the gardens were converted into bowling-alleys, and the other parts of the estate into diceing-houses. But bowling-alleys and houses for the exercise of diceing and other unlawful games are at this time so greatly increased in the other parts of the city and its suburbs, that this parent spot," or, as he afterwards calls it, "the ancient and only patron of misrule, is forsaken of its gamesters." And here we may add the following remark from an author somewhat more ancient than Stow: 2 "common bowling-alleyes are privy mothes that eat up the credit of many idle citizens, whose gaynes at home are not able to weigh downe theyr losses abroad; whose shoppes are so farre from maintaining their play, that theyr wives and children cry out for bread, and go to bedde supperlesse ofte in the yeere." In another place, his reflections are more general, and he exclaims, "Oh, what a wonderful change is this! our wreastling at armies is turned to wallowing in ladies' laps, our courage to cowardice, our running to royot, our bowes into bowls, and our darts into dishes."
MODERN GAMBLING.--The evils complained of by these writers were then in their infancy; they have in the present day (1801 attained to a gigantic stature; and we may add to them E.O. tables, as also other tables for gambling distinguished by the appellation of Rouge et Noir, Pharo-banks, and many more fashionable novelties, equally as detrimental to morality, and as equally destructive to the fortunes of those who pursue them, as any of the recreations of the former times. Even horse-racing, which anciently was considered as a liberal sport, and proper for the amusement of a gentleman, has been of late years degraded into a dangerous species of gambling, by no means the less deserving of censure, because it is fashionable and countenanced by persons of the highest rank and fortune. The good old Scotch poet little dreamed of such an innovation, when he lamented that horse-racing was falling into disrepute through the prevalency of games of chance. His words are these:
* The warmth with which dice-playing and every form of gaming is condemned in the writings of the Fathers and the later expounders of Christianity is a sufficient proof of its prevalence throughout Europe. With the introduction of cards in the fourteenth century, the flame of gambling burnt with renewed ardour, and provoked fresh remonstrances from the guardians of religion. In England gambling attained to an extraordinary pitch in the reign of Henry VIII., the king being himself an unscrupulous gamester; and the practice flourished under the highest auspices during the reign of Elizabeth and James I. Sir Miles Partridge threw dice with Henry VIII. for the great Jesus bells in "the tower of St Paul's, London, and won them; but the ropes afterwards catched about his neck, for in Edward the Sixth's days he was hanged for some criminal offences." 1
* Modern club gaming in England is said to date from 1777 or 1778. In a pamphlet as to gambling by an M. P., published in 1784, it is stated that thirty years before there was but one gaming club in the metropolis, and the stakes very low, namely crowns or half-crowns, but at that date the clubs were numerous, and the fashion of high stakes generally prevalent. 2
* Roulette or Roly Poly tables, so called from the balls used in them, were introduced into England about 1739, and were first set up at Tunbridge Wells.
* The first English lottery named in history was drawn 1569. It consisted of 400,000 lots at ten shillings each, and was drawn at the west door of the Cathedral Church of St Paul's. The prizes were in plate, and the profits to go to the repairing of the havens or ports of the kingdom. Another state lottery was held in 1612, in favour of the plantation of English colonists in Virginia; the chief prize, "4000 crowns in fair plate," was won by Thomas Sharplys, a London tailor. In 1680 a lottery was granted to supply the metropolis with water, and a few years later the Government resorted to a huge lottery scheme to find the war funds which resulted in the capture of Namur. From 1709 until 1824 lottery bills were in the programme of every session, the prizes being generally paid in terminable annuities. This state gambling led to an appalling amount of vice and misery as well as direct fraud. The last public lottery in Great Britain was drawn in October 1826.
LADIES' PASTIMES--NEEDLE-WORK.--It now remains to say a few words in a general way respecting the diversions of the English ladies. In the early ages, our fair countrywomen employed a large portion of their time in needlework and embroidery; and their acquirements in these elegant accomplishments most probably afforded them little leisure for the pursuits of trifling and useless amusements; but, though we are not acquainted with the nature of their recreations, there is no reason to suppose that they were unbecoming in themselves, or indulged beyond the bounds of reason or decorum. I have already, on a former occasion, particularly noticed the skilfulness of the Saxon and Norman ladies in handling the needle, embroidering, and working in tapestry; and that their performances
were not only held in very high estimation at home, but were equally prised upon the continent, where none were produced that could be placed in competition with them. 1
DANCING AND CHESS PLAY.--Dancing was certainly an ancient and favourite pastime with the women of this country: the maidens even in a state of servitude claimed, as it were by established privilege, the license to indulge themselves in this exercise on holidays and public festivals; when it was usually performed in the presence of their masters and mistresses.
In the middle ages, dice, chess, and afterwards tables, and cards, with other sedentary games of chance and skill, were reckoned among the female amusements; and the ladies also frequently joined with the men in such pastimes, as we find it expressly declared in the metrical romance of Ipomydom. The passage alluded to runs thus:
In another poem, by Gower, 3 a lover asks his mistress, when she is tired of "dancing and caroling," if she was willing to "play at chesse, or on the dyes to cast a chaunce." Forrest, speaking in praise of Catharine of Arragon, first wife of Henry VIII., says, that when she was young,
LADIES' RECREATIONS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.--The English ladies did not always confine themselves to domestic pastimes, they sometimes participated with the other sex in diversions of a more masculine nature; and engaged with them in the sports of the field. These violent exercises seem to have been rather unfashionable among them in the seventeenth century; for Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, speaks of their pastimes as much better suited to the modesty and softness of the sex. "The women," says he, "instead of laborious studies, have curious needle-works, cutworks, spinning, bone-lace making, with other pretty devices to adorn houses, cushions, carpets, stool-seats," etc. 5 Not but some of these masculine females have occasionally made their appearance: and at the commencement of the last century, it should seem that they were more commonly seen than in Burton's time, which gave occasion for the following satirical paper in one of the Spectators, 6 written
by Addison: "I have," says he, "very frequently the opportunity of seeing a rural Andromache, who came up to town last winter, and is one of the greatest foxhunters in the country; she talks of hounds and horses, and makes nothing of leaping over a six-bar gate. If a man tells her a waggish story, she gives him a push with her hand in jest, and calls him an impudent dog; and, if her servant neglects his business, threatens to kick him out of the house. I have heard her in her wrath call a substantial tradesman a lousie cur; and I remember one day when she could not think of the name of a person, she described him, in a large company of men and ladies, by the fellow with the broad shoulders."
THE AUTHOR'S [JOSEPH STRUTT] LABOURS--CHARACTER OF THE ENGRAVINGS.--Having laid before my readers a general view of the sports and pastimes of our ancestors, I shall proceed to arrange them under their proper heads, and allot to each of them a separate elucidation. The task in truth is extremely difficult; and many omissions, as well as many errors, must of necessity occur in the prosecution of it; but none, I hope, of any great magnitude, nor more than candour will overlook, especially when it is recollected, that in a variety of instances, I have been constrained to proceed without any guide, and explore, as it were, the recesses of a trackless wilderness. I must also entreat the reader to excuse the frequent quotations which he will meet with, which in general I have given verbatim; and this I have done for his satisfaction, as well as my own, judging it much fairer to stand upon the authority of others than to arrogate to myself the least degree of penetration to which I have no claim.
It is necessary to add, that the engravings, which constitute an essential part of this work, are not the produce of modern invention, neither do they contain a single figure that has not its proper authority. Most of the originals are exceedingly ancient, and all the copies are faithfully made without the least unnecessary deviation. As specimens of the art of design they have nothing to recommend them to the modern eye, but as portraitures of the manners and usages of our ancestors, in times remote, they are exceedingly valuable, because they not only elucidate many obsolete customs, but lead to the explanation of several obscurities in the history of former ages.
xvi:1 "These remarks require some qualification, as the knowledge of the long period of the Roman occupation, as well as of the times immediately preceding their first invasion, have become more accurately known in the last half of the nineteenth century, through careful archæological investigation. The later Celts used gold coinage, cultivated four sorts of grain, practised the crafts of spinning and weaving, melted iron and wrought cunning ornamented work in both iron and bronze; used the flesh of the red deer and the roe for food, and their horns for many a useful purpose; and domesticated the horse, ox, goat and dog. Such a people, as shown by the investigations at Hunsbury Camp, Northampton, and elsewhere, would certainly have some acquaintance with genuine sports and pastimes, little as we may know of their nature. The excavations at Silchester, and more particularly those conducted by the late General Pitt Rivers among the Romanised British villages of Dorset and Wilts, also afford evidence of a superior race, with higher acquirements than was supposed to be the case at the time when these pages were first written, and of their acquaintance with various breeds of dogs.
xvi:2 Pontoppidan's History of Norway, p. 248.
xvii:1 Oläi. Worm. Lit. Run. p. 129; Bartholin. p. 420.
xvii:2 Asser. in Vit. Ælfredi. b
xviii:1 De Moribus Germ.
xviii:2 Hist. Ramsien. aped Gale, vol. i. an. 85.
xviii:3 No. 2293, fol. rob.
xix:1 The cross-bow.
xx:1 Morte Arthur, translated from the French by Sir Thomas Malory, knight, and first printed by Caxton, A.D. 1481. "The English," says a writer of our own country, "are so naturally inclined to pleasure, that there is no countrie wherein gentlemen and lords have so many and so large parkes, only reserved for the purpose of hunting." And again, "Our progenitors were so delighted with hunting, that the parkes are nowe growne infinite in number, and are thought to containe more fallow deere than all the Christian world besides." Itinerary of Fynes Moryson, published in 1617, part iii. book iii. cap. 3.
xxi:1 Written also paume; that is, hand-tennis.
xxi:2 Romance of Three Kings' Sons and the King of Sicily, Harl. MS. 326.
xxi:3 Mom. Anc. Cheval. tom. i. p. 16.
xxi:4 Harl. MS. 2252, p. 54b. It is a long poem, extending from p. 54 to p. 84, entitled The Lyfe of Ipomydone, Son to Ermones, King of Toyle (Apulia).
xxii:1 Printed by Copeland; black letter, without date; Garrick's Collection, K. vol. ix.
xxiv:1 For vierge eseu, a virgin shield, or a white shield, without any devices, such as was borne by the tyros in chivalry who had not performed any memorable action.
xxiv:2 A sword without edge or point.
xxiv:3 That is, with hearts without points, or blunted so that they could do no hurt.
xxiv:4 Foyne, or loin, signifies to push or thrust with the sword, instead of striking.
xxiv:5 Harl. MS. 69, f. 56.
xxiv:6 Ibid. ff. 4b, 16b, 18.
xxiv:7 Hall, Life of Henry VIII.
xxv:1 Arte of Rhetorike by Tho. Wilson, fol. 67.
xxv:2 Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, published A.D. 1617.
xxvi:1 Biograph. Brit. p. 1236.
xxvi:2 No. 17 D. iii.
xxvii:1 Crowd is an ancient name for the violin.
xxviii:1 The words of Fitz Stephen are, Puellarum cithara ducit chores, et pede libero pulsatur tellus, usque imminente lunâ. The word cithara, Stow renders, but I think not justly, timbrels.
xxix:1 vol. i. p. 259.
xxix:2 Aiken. Oxon. ii. col. 812; and see Grainger's Biographical History, vol. ii. p. 398. 8vo. "There is a good illustrated account of these Cotswold Games in Chambers' Book of Days, i. 712.754.
xxix:3 In his Proverbs, part i. chap. 11.
xxx:1 Bede, Eccl. Hist. lib. ii. cap. 16.
xxx:2 Henry's Hist. vol. ii. lib. v. cap. 7.
xxx:3 See the Northumberland Family-Book.
xxx:4 Johan. Sarisburiensis, lib. i. c. viii. p. 34.
xxxi:1 Pypes made of greene come are also mentioned in the Romance of the Rose.
xxxii:1 [Before 1801.]
xxxv:1 Wylie's History of England under Henry IV., vol. iii. ch. 75.
xxxv:2 Garrick's Collection of Old Plays, H. vol. iii.
xxxv:3 No. 2220, fol. 7.
xxxv:4 Or waits, the band of city minstrels.
xxxvi:1 Holinshed, vol. iii. pp. 1091, 1120, etc.
xxxvii:1 No. 1968, f. 576.
xxxvii:2 Harl. MS. 2125.
xxxviii:1 Garrick's Collection of Old Plays.
xxxviii:2 Cotton MS. Titus, B. i.
xxxix:1 The reader may find accounts of most of these excursions in a work entitled The Progresses of Queen Elizabeth, in two volumes 4to, published by Mr Nichols.
xxxix:2 This account is chiefly taken from a small pamphlet called Princely Pleasures at Kenelworth Castle. Progresses, vol. i.
xl:1 Harl. MSS. 6395, entitled Merry Passages and Jests, art. 221.
xlii:1 A Collection of Ancient Documents respecting the Office of Master of the Revels (Halliwell), 1870, passim.
xlii:2 These are given with much detail in Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII., vol. ii. pp. 1490-1518.
xlii:3 Dom. State Papers, Elizabeth, vol. i. 47.
xliii:1 Dom. State Papers, Elizabeth, vol. ccxlviii. 120.
xliii:2 Ibid. vol. cclxii. 18.
xliii:3 Ibid. James I., vol. ii. 12; vol. lxxxi. 12.
xliii:4 Ibid. James I., vol. clxxi. 64.
xliii:5 Ibid. Charles I., ccv. 32.
xliii:6 Ibid. Charles I., ccxxxviii. 32.
xliv:1 Dom. State Papers, Charles II., vol. xvii.
xliv:2 9 Ibid. xxxix. 110.
xliv:3 Ibid. lxvii. 2.
xliv:4 Ibid. xxvi. 61.
xlv:1 There actually was such a monkey exhibited at that time near Charing Cross, but in the bills which were given to the public he is called a Wild Hairy Man, and they tell us he performed all that the Spectator relates concerning him; but this subject is treated more fully in the body of the work.
xlv:2 Spectator, vol. i. No. 14.
xlv:3 Ibid. vol. i. No. 31, dated Thursday, April 5, 1711.
xlv:4 A man famous at that time for imitating a variety of musical instruments with his voice, and, among others, the bells.
xlvi:1 "To pass over griefe," says an author of our own, "the Italians sleepe, the English go to playes, the Spaniards lament, and the Irish bowl," etc. Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, in 1617, part book i. cap. 3.
xlvii:1 Hentzner's Itinerary, pp. 88, 89.
xlvii:2 Hist. Angl. lib. xiii.
xlvii:3 De Rerum Invent. lib. v. cap, 2.
xlvii:4 Tatler, No. 134, dated Thursday, Feb. 16, 1709.
xlvii:5 See a pamphlet written by John Northbrooke, published in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, without date.
xlvii:6 School of Abuse, published 1579.
xlviii:1 Admonition to Parliament, by Tho. Cartwright, published A.D. 1572.
xlviii:2 The Pope's Kingdom, book iv. translated from the Latin of Tho. Neogeorgus, by Barnabe Googe, and dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, A.D. 1570.
xlviii:3 John Field, is his Declaration of God's Judgment at Paris Garden, published A. D. 1603, fol. 9.
l:1 See p. xx.
l:2 Benedict. Abbas, Vit. Ric. I. edit. à Hearne, tom. ii. p. 610.
li:1 An. 11, Hen. VII. cap. 2.
li:2 No householder might permit the games prohibited by the statute to be practised in their houses, excepting on the holidays, as before specified, under the penalty of six shillings and eight-pence for every offence.
li:3 Survey of London, p. 79.
li:4 Pilam manualem, pedinam, el bacculoream, et ad cambucam, etc.
li:5 Rot. Claus. 39 Ed. III. m. 23.
li:6 The magistrates are commanded to seize upon the said tables, dice, cards, boules, closhes, tennice-balls, etc., and to burn them.
li:7 An. 17 Edw. II. cap. 3.
lii:1 Survey of London, p. 85.
lii:2 Stephen Gosson, in The School of Abuse, 1579.
lii:3 An old anonymous poem "of Covetice," cited by Warton, History of Poetry, vol. ii. p. 316.
liii:1 Harl. Misc.
liii:2 Steinmetz Gaming Table (1870) i. ch. vi.
liv:1 In the Manners and Customs of the English; the Chronicle of England; and more particularly in the View of the Dresses of the English, vol. i. p. 73, vol. ii. p. 140, etc.
liv:2 Harl. MS. 2252.
liv:3 Confessio Amantis.
liv:4 Warton's History of English Poetry, vol. iii. p. 311.
liv:5 Part ii. sect. 2, cap. 4.
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Materials at such small scales often exhibit different electrical, magnetic, optical, mechanical, and other physical properties from their bulk material counterparts, leading to the development of potentially revolutionary technologies in a variety of industries,including agriculture and food. By increasing productivity, reducing postharvest loss, improving product quality, increasing the competitiveness of agricultural producers, and improving market access, advances in nanotechnology may present new opportunities to improve the livelihoods of the poor. But nanotechnology may also create new risks.
Investments in agriculture and food nanotechnologies carry increasing weight because their potential benefits range from improved food quality and safety to reduced agricultural inputs and improved processing and nutrition. While most investment is made primarily in developed countries, research advancements provide glimpses of potential applications in agricultural, food, and water safety that could have significant impacts on rural populations in developing countries.
Despite their promise, agricultural and food nanotechnologies, especially those that could reduce poverty or increase food and nutrition security, will likely face many challenges in each step of development—from investment in research and development (R&D) to adoption and use—before being commercialized and used by the rural poor. Many of these obstacles appear in the development of any new technology, but there are also issues specific to nanotechnology: intellectual property rights (IPR), the management of safety and environmental risks in the presence of wide uncertainties, and possible market displacement effects induced by these technologies, among other concerns. This brief presents a review of the potential opportunities and challenges of using nanotech applications for agriculture, food, and water in developing countries. | <urn:uuid:f2eeb1fc-72b6-43b1-941e-a48a4fa1f51d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agriculture-food-and-water-nanotechnologies-poor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93986 | 367 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Definitions for absentee ballot
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word absentee ballot
(election) a ballot that is cast while absent (usually mailed in prior to election day)
A vote made remotely, especially a postal ballot, cast by a voter unable to be present in person.
An absentee ballot is a vote cast by someone who is unable or unwilling to attend the official polling station. Numerous methods have been devised to facilitate this. Increasing the ease of access to absentee ballots is seen by many as one way to improve voter turnout, though some countries require that a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate in an absentee ballot.
The numerical value of absentee ballot in Chaldean Numerology is: 5
The numerical value of absentee ballot in Pythagorean Numerology is: 7
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"absentee ballot." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 27 Jun 2016. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/absentee ballot>. | <urn:uuid:f0e9b820-b233-4f53-9e75-931e284b0a74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/absentee%20ballot | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871555 | 291 | 3.296875 | 3 |
exarkun at divmod.com
Wed Dec 6 08:49:50 EST 2006
On Wed, 6 Dec 2006 04:23:32 -0800, Gabriel <gabrielverta at gmail.com> wrote:
>I'm new in Twisted, and I'm having problems with Thread.
>I was looking for it at documentation, and saw that it's not safe
>(!?), but it's possible to run using twisted.python.threadable, I
>haven't understood the thread examples using simple TCP and
>ServerFactoryl, there is anything like reactor.run() using it or can I
>only use threads as client? Can anyone give me a basic example?
You don't need threads to do most things in Twisted. More than that,
threads aren't /helpful/ for doing most things in Twisted. More than
that, most of Twisted was written so that threads could be avoided.
More information about the Twisted-Python | <urn:uuid:e42ae138-95a1-4a7d-b7ce-b118f8f9f469> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://twistedmatrix.com/pipermail/twisted-python/2006-December/014473.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.890302 | 207 | 2.53125 | 3 |
American Civil War
It is poor business measuring the mouldered ramparts and counting the silent guns, marking the deserted battlefields and decorating the grassy graves, unless we can learn from it some nobler lesson than to destroy. Men write of this, as of other wars, as if the only thing necessary to be impressed upon the rising generation were the virtue of physical courage and contempt of death. It seems to me that is the last thing we need to teach; for since the days of John Smith in Virginia and the men of the Mayflower in Massachusetts, no generation of Americans has shown any lack of it. From Louisburg to Petersburg-a hundred and twenty years, the full span of four generations-they have stood to their guns and been shot down in greater comparative numbers than any other race on earth. In the war of secession there was not a State, not a county, probably not a town, between the great lakes and the gulf, that was not represented on fields where all that men could do with powder and steel was done and valor exhibited at its highest pitch…There is not the slightest necessity for lauding American bravery or impressing it upon American youth. But there is the gravest necessity for teaching them respect for law, and reverence for human life, and regard for the rights of their fellow country-men, and all that is significant in the history of our country…These are simple lessons, yet they are not taught in a day, and some who we call educated go through life without mastering them at all.
Rossiter Johnson, Campfire and Battlefield, 1884
I have always thought it appropriate that the national nightmare we call the Civil War ended during Holy Week 1865. Two remarkably decent men, Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant, began the process of healing so desperately needed for America on Palm Sunday, April 9, 1865 at Appomattox. We take their decency for granted, but it is the exception and not the rule for the aftermath of civil wars in history. The usual course would have been unremitting vengeance by the victors, and sullen rage by the defeated, perhaps eventually breaking out in guerilla war. The end of the Civil War could so very easily have been the beginning of a cycle of unending war between north and south. Instead, both Grant and Lee acted to make certain as far as they could that the fratricidal war that had just concluded would not be repeated. All Americans owe those two men a large debt for their actions at Appomattox.
Grant in his memoirs wrote, “When Lee and I separated he went back to his lines and I returned to the house of Mr. McLean. Here the officers of both armies came in great numbers, and seemed to enjoy the meeting as much as though they had been friends separated for a long time while fighting battles under the same flag.”
Lee so appreciated the generosity of the terms of surrender given by Grant, that for the remainder of his life he would never allow a word of denigration about Grant to be spoken in his presence.
It has always been intriguing to me that, as microscopically studied as the Civil War has been over the years, more attention has not been paid to the Confederate Constitution. It is a fascinating document. Crafted by men who had lived their entire lives under the United States Constitution and who had served in the Federal government, its similarities and differences illuminate what these men thought was good with the old Constitution and what needed improvement. This Constitution took the place of the Provisional Constitution of the Confederacy, go here to read it, a document that by its own terms was meant to be temporary and had a hurried, improvised feel to it. The permanent Confederate Constitution was the product of more mature reflection and the additional time that the drafters had to think about this new government and nation they were helping to midwife. Here are some observations on this document:
- The Preamble of the Constitution invokes God, 1861 being a more religious time than 1787.
- The preamble states that this is to be a permanent federal government, the Founding Fathers of the Confederacy obviously being eager that secession not be repeated against the Confederacy. This is underlined by the fact that the representatives from South Carolina proposed that a right to secession be explicit in the Constitution. Only the South Carolinians voted in favor of this proposal.
- Article I dealing with Congress is quite similar to that Article in the US Constitution with some significant changes: State legislatures were given the power to impeach their members of Congress on a two/thirds vote. Each House of the Confederate Congress could allocate seats to the heads of Executive Departments, in order to allow them to discuss the activities of their Departments, which seems to be an attempt to adopt the practice of the British Parliament. The President of the Confederacy was granted a line item veto, but any bill on which he exercised such a veto would be resubmitted to Congress with such a veto being overridden by a two-thirds vote. Congress was forbidden to allocate funds for internal improvements not set forth explicitly in the Constitution, such improvements being limited to waterways and coastal navigation improvements. The Bill of Rights of the US Constitution was set forth in Article I, except for the ninth and tenth amendments which were set forth in Article VI. All appropriations had to pass by a two-thirds vote, except as otherwise enumerated in the Confederate Constitution. All bills appropriating money had to list the exact amount being appropriated and the purpose for which the funds were to be appropriate. All bills had to have a single subject which was to be set out in the title to the bill.
- Under Article II Presidents were to be limited to a single six year term. The only two term President during the adult lives of the men involved in drafting the Confederate Constitution would have been Andrew Jackson, and even his most ardent partisans would have admitted that his second term had been rocky. The frustrated desires of many Presidents following Jackson for a second term might have been regarded as a source of friction best avoided altogether under the new government. Confederate Presidents had to have resided within the bounds of the Confederacy for 14 years. If strictly construed this provision would have rendered every man in the Confederacy ineligible for the office.
- Article III dictated that no State could be sued in the Confederate court system by a citizen or a subject of any foreign State.
- Article IV made a two-thirds vote necessary for a State to be admitted to the Confederacy.
- Article V required only a two-thirds vote of the States to amend the Confederate Constitution.
- The most significant differences with the Federal Constitution were on the various issues arising on the question of slavery. The Confederate document used the terms slaves and slavery. The international slave trade is banned, except with the United States. Congress is given the power to ban the importation of slaves from any State not a member of the Confederacy. Congress is denied any power to pass a law impairing the right to own slaves. No State could pass a law impairing the right of a citizen of the Confederacy to own slaves. Slavery in Confederate territories was mandated.
Here is the text of the Confederate Constitution: Continue reading
Hattip for the above video to commenter Greg Mockeridge.
I have never liked Presidents’ Day. Why celebrate loser presidents like Jimmy Carter and James Buchanan, non-entities like Millard Fillmore, bad presidents, like Grant, with great presidents like Washington and Lincoln? However, most presidents, for good and ill, have shaped the story of America.
To say that presidents have had a large impact on our history is to merely recite a truism. Presidential assassins, regrettably, have also had a large impact on our history.
On this President’s day we will look at the murderer of Abraham Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth. The rest of the week we will look at other successful assasins of presidents.
On July 4, 1835 Junius Brutus Booth, founder of the Booth theatrical family, sat down and penned a letter to President Andrew Jackson. Booth and Jackson knew each other and were friends, which makes the letter quite odd indeed. The text of the letter:
To His Excellency, General Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, Washington City,
You damn’d old Scoundrel if you don’t sign the pardon of your fellow men now under sentence of Death, De Ruiz and De Soto, I will cut your throat whilst you are sleeping. I wrote to you repeated Cautions so look out or damn you. I’ll have you burnt at the Stake in the City of Washington.
Your Master, Junius Brutus Booth.
You know me! Look out!
Booth was one of the greatest Shakespearean actors of his day, and he often gave unforgettable performances. However, he was often noted for his off stage escapades, usually fueled by copious amounts of alcohol. I have little doubt that when he penned this missive Booth was quite drunk. De Ruiz and De Soto had been convicted of piracy. Many Americans had asked for clemency for the men. De Soto did receive a Presidential pardon on July 6, 1835 after an interview with De Soto’s wife and defense attorney with Jackson. In 1832 De Soto had saved the lives of 70 Americans aboard the burning ship Minerva in 1831 and that made him a sympathetic figure to the American public and Jackson. De Ruiz and the other men convicted of piracy were hung. Go here for the details of the piracy trial.
And what happened to Booth? Nothing apparently. I assume that Jackson probably laughed off the letter, assuming that his friend was drunk when he wrote it, and in any case threatening to assassinate the president was not a crime in 1835. One fervently wishes that Booth’s son, John Wilkes Booth had merely written a letter threatening to assassinate Lincoln. Continue reading
The film The Free State of Jones, is being released in May. Surprisingly, it is the second Hollywood film to depict alleged events in Jones County Mississippi during the Civil War, the first being the forgotten film Tap Roots (1948) which was based on the novel Tap Roots (1942) by James Street.
James Street noted that his novel was a heavily fictionalized account of local legends in Jones County of events that occurred in the Civil War. That of course is the usual problem when Hollywood attempts to depict history: legends and myths come to the forefront with history being a rear guard.
In regard to the events in Jones County in Mississippi during the Civil War, history is handicapped by the fact that the events were regarded as fairly minor at the time, and thus contemporary documentation is light. No adequate scholarly examination of the history of Jones County during the War has yet been undertaken, although in the past few decades some pioneering studies have been undertaken. Continue reading
As we approach Lent in this Year of Mercy it is striking to me how most who call themselves Christians have lost any sense of sin. Christ seems to be perceived as a divine Pal, with a dog like eagerness to embrace us just the way we are. Such a deity would seem to resemble Barney the Dinosaur more than the God of the Bible. Forgotten is the need for sorrow for sins, repentance for sins and amendment of life. Our ancestors tended to think much differently. Consider Proclamation 97 of Abraham Lincoln calling for a national day of prayer and humiliation to pray for forgiveness of national sins. Here is the text of the proclamation:
By the President of the United States of America.
Whereas, the Senate of the United States, devoutly recognizing the Supreme Authority and just Government of Almighty God, in all the affairs of men and of nations, has, by a resolution, requested the President to designate and set apart a day for National prayer and humiliation.
And whereas it is the duty of nations as well as of men, to own their dependence upon the overruling power of God, to confess their sins and transgressions, in humble sorrow, yet with assured hope that genuine repentance will lead to mercy and pardon; and to recognize the sublime truth, announced in the Holy Scriptures and proven by all history, that those nations only are blessed whose God is the Lord.
And, insomuch as we know that, by His divine law, nations like individuals are subjected to punishments and chastisements in this world, may we not justly fear that the awful calamity of civil war, which now desolates the land, may be but a punishment, inflicted upon us, for our presumptuous sins, to the needful end of our national reformation as a whole People? We have been the recipients of the choicest bounties of Heaven. We have been preserved, these many years, in peace and prosperity. We have grown in numbers, wealth and power, as no other nation has ever grown. But we have forgotten God. We have forgotten the gracious hand which preserved us in peace, and multiplied and enriched and strengthened us; and we have vainly imagined, in the deceitfulness of our hearts, that all these blessings were produced by some superior wisdom and virtue of our own. Intoxicated with unbroken success, we have become too self-sufficient to feel the necessity of redeeming and preserving grace, too proud to pray to the God that made us!
It behooves us then, to humble ourselves before the offended Power, to confess our national sins, and to pray for clemency and forgiveness.
Now, therefore, in compliance with the request, and fully concurring in the views of the Senate, I do, by this my proclamation, designate and set apart Thursday, the 30th. day of April, 1863, as a day of national humiliation, fasting and prayer. And I do hereby request all the People to abstain, on that day, from their ordinary secular pursuits, and to unite, at their several places of public worship and their respective homes, in keeping the day holy to the Lord, and devoted to the humble discharge of the religious duties proper to that solemn occasion.
All this being done, in sincerity and truth, let us then rest humbly in the hope authorized by the Divine teachings, that the united cry of the Nation will be heard on high, and answered with blessings, no less than the pardon of our national sins, and the restoration of our now divided and suffering Country, to its former happy condition of unity and peace.
In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington, this thirtieth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty seventh.
By the President: Abraham Lincoln
William H. Seward, Secretary of State.
The point I would make is that the novelist and the historian are seeking the same thing: the truth — not a different truth: the same truth — only they reach it, or try to reach it, by different routes. Whether the event took place in a world now gone to dust, preserved by documents and evaluated by scholarship, or in the imagination, preserved by memory and distilled by the creative process, they both want to tell us how it was: to re-create it, by their separate methods, and make it live again in the world around them.
In 1954 Bennett Cerf, the President of Random House, decided that with the coming Civil War Centennial his company needed to publish a short history of the War, not longer than 200,000 words. Wanting the history to be entertaining he hit upon the idea of having Shelby Foote, author of a novel on the battle of Shiloh in 1952, undertake the task. Foote, 37, accepted a $400.00 advance and assumed that he could pound out the history quickly and get back to writing fiction. Nineteen years, and a million and half words later, Foote completed the final volume of his immortal three volume history of the War.
Foote wrote his books during the years of the fight over segregation in the South. Although far from being a political liberal, in his bibliographical note to the second volume published in 1963 Foote made clear where he stood: In a quite different sense , I am obligated also to the governors of my native state and the adjoining states of Arkansas and Alabama for helping to lessen my sectional bias by reproducing, in their actions during several of the years that went into the writing of this volume, much that was least admirable in the postition my forebears occupied when they stood up to Lincoln. I suppose, or in any case hope, it is true that history never repeats itself, but I know from watching these three gentlemen that it can be terrifying in its approximations, even when the reproduction–deriving, as it does, its scale from the performers–is in miniature.
Foote in his 19 years of studying, thinking and writing about the Civil War, became convinced that it was impossible to understand America without understanding the Civil War: Continue reading
We bide our chance,
Unhappy, and make terms with Fate
A little more to let us wait;
He leads for aye the advance,
Hope’s forlorn-hopes that plant the desperate good
For nobler Earths and days of manlier mood;
James Russell Lowell, Memoriae Positum
Selections from the score of the movie Glory (1989), the story of the 54th Massachusetts, one of the first Union black regiments, up to their valiant assault on Fort Wagner in 1863. A prime example of historical movies should be made, Glory performs the epic feat of bringing to life again the days of the Civil War when the fate of the nation was decided.
A good object lesson to those under the mistaken belief that government red tape was an invention of the last century. Hamilton K. Redway was born in 1829 and died in 1888. During the Civil War he served in the 24th New York Volunteers and as a Captain in the 1rst New York Veteran Cavalry. After the war he served as a Second Lieutenant with the 1rst Colored Cavalry until April 15, 1866. It is interesting that his widow was fighting with the Federal government over his pay during the Civil War with this claim not being settled until May 7, 1891, three decades after the start of the Civil War. Wars come and go, but the red tape of governments is eternal.
Something for the weekend. One of my favorite Christmas carols has always been I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day. It is based on the poem Christmas Bells written by poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow on Christmas Day 1863. Still devastated by the death of his wife in a fire in 1861, he had been rocked by news that his son Charles, serving as a lieutenant in the Union army, had been severely wounded at the battle of New Hope Church in November of 1863. In a nation rent by civil war, along with his personal woes, one could perhaps understand if Longfellow had been deaf to the joy of Christmas that year. Instead, he wrote this magnificent poem of faith in the power of Christmas: Continue reading
Something for the weekend. A rousing rendition of Southern Soldier by the 2nd South Carolina String Band, a group dedicated to bringing to modern audiences Civil War music played on period instruments. Southern Soldier was immensely popular among Confederate troops during the latter part of the War and was one of their favorite marching tunes. Continue reading
Out of the focal and foremost fire,
Out of the hospital walls as dire,
Smitten of grape-shot and grangrene,
(Eighteenth battle, and he sixteen!)
Spectre! Such as you seldom see,
Little Giffen, of Tennessee.
“Take him- and welcome!” the surgeons said;
“Little the doctor can help the dead!”
So we took him and brought him where
The balm was sweet in the summer air;
And we laid him down on a wholesome bed-
Utter Lazarus, heel to head!
And we watched the war with abated breath-
Skeleton boy against skeleton death.
Months of torture, how many such!
Weary weeks of the stick and crutch;
And still a glint of the steel-blue eye
Told of a spirit that wouldn’t die.
And didn’t. Nay, more! In death’s despite
The crippled skeleton learned to write.
“Dear Mother,” at first, of course; and then
“Dear Captain,” inquiring about the men.
Captain’s answer: “Of eighty-and-five,
Giffen and I are left alive.”
Word of gloom from the war, one day;
“Johnston pressed at the front, they say.”
Little Giffen was up and away;
A tear-his first-as he bade good-by,
Dimmed the glint of his steel-blue eye.
“I’ll write, if spared!” There was news of the fight;
But none of Giffen. He did not write.
I sometimes fancy that, were I king
Of the princely knights of the Golden Ring,
With the song of the minstrel in mine ear,
And the tender legend that trembles here,
I’d give the best on his bended knee,
The whitest soul of my chivalry,
For Little Giffen, of Tennessee. Continue reading
I think we can whip them in Alabama and it may be Georgia, but the Devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired. No amount of poverty or adversity seems to shake their faith. Slaves gone, wealth & luxury gone, money worthless, starvation in view within a period of two or three years, are Causes enough to make the bravest tremble, yet I see no signs of let up. Some few deserters are plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out.
Sherman pays a tribute to the Confederates in a letter dated to his wife March 12, 1864
“Some of you laugh to scorn the idea of bloodshed as the result of secession, but let me tell you what is coming….Your fathers and husbands, your sons and brothers, will be herded at the point of the bayonet….You may after the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, as a bare possibility, win Southern independence…but I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of state rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction…they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South. “
Sam Houston, 1861
One hundred and seventy-nine years ago Sam Houston was inaugurated as the first President of the Republic of Texas. This was only one of many roles Houston assumed during his tempestuous life: husband, father, soldier, lawyer, Congressman from Tennessee, Governor of Tennessee, drunk, adopted Cherokee, Major General of the Texas Army, President of the Republic of Texas, Texas Representative, Senator from Texas, but perhaps his greatest role was at the end as Governor of Texas in 1859-1861. As secession fever built in Texas at the end of 1860 he stumped the state vigorously, although he knew it was hopeless, arguing against secession which he viewed as an unmitigated disaster for Texas and the nation.
“To secede from the Union and set up another government would cause war. If you go to war with the United States, you will never conquer her, as she has the money and the men. If she does not whip you by guns, powder, and steel, she will starve you to death. It will take the flower of the country-the young men.” Continue reading
Time to brighten my chief geek of the blog credentials. Long time readers of this blog know that I am a fan of Star Trek and that I have a passionate interest in the Civil War. Imagine my joy when the fifth episode of Star Trek Continues, fan movies producing new episodes of the original Trek, is set at the battle of Antietam, at least what Kirk and McCoy think is the battle of Antietam. Enjoy!
I once sent the government a check for some $35,000.00 to pay estate tax on behalf of a client. The check was lost for several months by the Feds. At the time I recalled this historical event:
Robert E. Lee was an advocate of reconciliation after the Civil War. This was demonstrated by his application for a Presidential Pardon on June 13, 1865, high confederate officers having been excluded from President Johnson’s general pardon and amnesty of May 29, 1865 and being required to appeal directly to the President. Lee wrote:
Being excluded from the provisions of amnesty & pardon contained in the proclamation of the 29th Ulto; I hereby apply for the benefits, & full restoration of all rights & privileges extended to those included in its terms. I graduated at the Mil. Academy at West Point in June 1829. Resigned from the U.S. Army April ’61. Was a General in the Confederate Army, & included in the surrender of the Army of N. Va. 9 April ’65.
Lee was not aware that an oath of loyalty was required and he took such an oath on October 2, 1865:
“I, Robert E. Lee, of Lexington, Virginia, do solemnly swear, in the presence of Almighty God, that I will henceforth faithfully support, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the Union of the States thereunder, and that I will, in like manner, abide by and faithfully support all laws and proclamations which have been made during the existing rebellion with reference to the emancipation of slaves, so help me God.”
The oath went to Secretary of State Seward, and then it vanished from history for over a century until it was found by Elmer O. Parker, an archivist at the National Archives, in 1970 among State Department papers in a cardboard box clearly indexed V for Virginia and L for Lee. Lee had inquired frequently about his application over the five years he had to live from 1865-1870. Whether his application was lost deliberately or lost through ineptitude is unclear.
On August 5, 1975 President Ford restored the citizenship rights of Lee, making these remarks: Continue reading
We’re not fighting for slaves.
Most of us never owned slaves and never expect to,
It takes money to buy a slave and we’re most of us poor,
But we won’t lie down and let the North walk over us
About slaves or anything else.
We don’t know how it started
But they’ve invaded us now and we’re bound to fight
Till every last damn Yankee goes home and quits.
Stephen Vincent Benet, John Brown’s Body
I certainly agree with video above from Prager University that the Civil War was started over slavery. As Jefferson Davis stated in his initial address to the Confederate Congress:
In the meantime, under the mild and genial climate of the Southern States and the increasing care and attention for the wellbeing and comfort of the laboring class, dictated alike by interest and humanity, the African slaves had augmented in number from about 600,000, at the date of the adoption of the constitutional compact, to upward of 4,000,000. In moral and social condition they had been elevated from brutal savages into docile, intelligent, and civilized agricultural laborers, and supplied not only with bodily comforts but with careful religious instruction. Under the supervision of a superior race their labor had been so directed as not only to allow a gradual and marked amelioration of their own condition, but to convert hundreds of thousands of square miles of the wilderness into cultivated lands covered with a prosperous people; towns and cities had sprung into existence, and had rapidly increased in wealth and population under the social system of the South; the white population of the Southern slaveholding States had augmented from about 1,250,000 at the date of the adoption of the Constitution to more than 8,500,000 in 1860; and the productions of the South in cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco, for the full development and continuance of which the labor of African slaves was and is indispensable, had swollen to an amount which formed nearly three-fourths of the exports of the whole United States and had become absolutely necessary to the wants of civilized man. With interests of such overwhelming magnitude imperiled, the people of the Southern States were driven by the conduct of the North to the adoption of some course of action to avert the danger with which they were openly menaced. With this view the legislatures of the several States invited the people to select delegates to conventions to be held for the purpose of determining for themselves what measures were best adapted to meet so alarming a crisis in their history. Here it may be proper to observe that from a period as early as 1798 there had existed in all of the States of the Union a party almost uninterruptedly in the majority based upon the creed that each State was, in the last resort, the sole judge as well of its wrongs as of the mode and measure of redress. Indeed, it is obvious that under the law of nations this principle is an axiom as applied to the relations of independent sovereign States, such as those which had united themselves under the constitutional compact. The Democratic party of the United States repeated, in its successful canvass in 1856, the declaration made in numerous previous political contests, that it would “faithfully abide by and uphold the principles laid down in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, and in the report of Mr. Madison to the Virginia Legislature in 1799; and that it adopts those principles as constituting one of the main foundations of its political creed.” The principles thus emphatically announced embrace that to which I have already adverted – the right of each State to judge of and redress the wrongs of which it complains. These principles were maintained by overwhelming majorities of the people of all the States of the Union at different elections, especially in the elections of Mr. Jefferson in 1805, Mr. Madison in 1809, and Mr. Pierce in 1852. In the exercise of a right so ancient, so well established, and so necessary for self-preservation, the people of the Confederate States, in their conventions, determined that the wrongs which they had suffered and the evils with which they were menaced required that they should revoke the delegation of powers to the Federal Government which they had ratified in their several conventions. They consequently passed ordinances resuming all their rights as sovereign and Independent States and dissolved their connection with the other States of the Union. Continue reading
Well, the National Park Service has joined the witch hunt against the Confederate flag, with this truly Orwellian statement:
So much for attempting “to tell the complete story of America”, especially at Civil War battlefields. (Who was the Union fighting, the “Censored” States of America?) This is what happens of course in a country where a cadre of left wing activists live to launch Leftist crusades on the Internet, and their allies in business and government quickly fall into lock step. An additional problem of course is that so many Americans today received a heavily politicized junk education and are bone ignorant of the history of their country. To help cure the ignorance, I repeat this from a comment thread back in 2011. Go here to read the original post.
Jesme: What’s with the creepy Civil War video featuring some guy celebrating the heroism of Confederate soldiers? Practically ruins the article for me. Granted, I’m prejudiced on this point, but I can’t help it. Those nasty, murderous traitors were fighting for the right to buy and sell my ancestors like cattle. Thank God they lost. And kindly don’t hold them up to me as noble heroes. I’d as soon sing the praises of the SS. And yes, I know they weren’t quite as bad as the SS. But the difference is smaller than you might think.
Me: The scene Jesme is from the movie Gettysburg. The actor is Richard Jordan who portrays Brigadier General Lewis Addison Armistead who died gallantly leading his men during Pickett’s charge.
The scene is given additional poignancy in that the actor Richard Jordan was dying of brain cancer at the time he appeared in the film.
The men who fought for the Confederacy did not invent negro slavery. It was an institution that was over 250 years old in what would become the United States by the time of the Civil War.
What to do about slavery seems simple to us now. It did not appear so to most people at the time as demonstrated by this statement from Abraham Lincoln in 1854:
This declared indifference, but, as I must think, covert real zeal for the spread of slavery, I cannot but hate. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world; enables the enemies of free institutions with plausibility to taunt us as hypocrites; causes the real friends of freedom to doubt our sincerity; and especially because it forces so many good men among ourselves into an open war with the very fundamental principles of civil liberty, criticizing the Declaration of Independence, and insisting that there is no right principle of action but self-interest.
Before proceeding, let me say that I think I have no prejudice against the Southern people. They are just what we would be in their situation. If slavery did not now exist among them, they would not introduce it. If it did now exist among us, we should not instantly give it up. This I believe of the masses, North and South. Doubtless there are individuals on both sides who would not hold slaves under any circumstances, and others who would gladly introduce slavery anew if it were out of existence. We know that some Southern men do free their slaves, go North and become tip-top Abolitionists, while some Northern ones go South and become most cruel slave masters.
When Southern people tell us they are no more responsible for the origin of slavery than we are, I acknowledge the fact. When it is said that the institution exists and that it is very difficult to get rid of it in any satisfactory way, I can understand and appreciate the saying. I surely will not blame them for not doing what I should not know how to do myself. If all earthly power were given me, I should not know what to do as to the existing institution. My first impulse would be to free all the slaves and send them to Liberia, to their own native land. But a moment’s reflection would convince me that whatever of high hope (as I think there is) there may be in this in the long run, its sudden execution is impossible. If they were all landed there in a day, they would all perish in the next ten days, and there are not surplus shipping and surplus money enough to carry them there in many times ten days. What then? Free them all and keep them among us as underlings? Is it quite certain that this betters their condition? I think I would not hold one in slavery, at any rate; yet the point is not clear enough for me to denounce people upon.
What next? Free them and make them politically and socially our equals? My own feelings will not admit of this, and if mine would, we well know that those of the great mass of white peoples will not. Whether this feeling accords with justice and sound judgment is not the sole question, if, indeed, it is any part of it. A universal feeling, whether well- or ill-founded, cannot be safely disregarded. We cannot, then, make them equals. It does seem to me that systems of gradual emancipation might be adopted; but for their tardiness in this, I will not undertake to judge our brethren of the South.
When they remind us of their constitutional rights, I acknowledge them not grudgingly but fully and fairly; and I would give them any legislation for the reclaiming of their fugitives which should not, in its stringency, be more likely to carry a free man into slavery than our ordinary criminal laws are to hang an innocent one.”
It was the inability of both the North and the South to remove the stain of slavery peacefully from the land that led to the Civil War. Lincoln viewed the war as the punishment of God for this and I agree with him:
“Woe unto the world because of offences! for it must needs be that offences come; but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh!” If we shall suppose that American Slavery is one of those offences which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South, this terrible war, as the woe due to those by whom the offence came, shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a Living God always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope–fervently do we pray–that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man’s two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said “the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether.”
The men who fought in the ranks of the Confederacy were not Nazis. They were men fighting for the freedom of their people to rule themselves. Tragically this included the right to continue the centuries old institution of black slavery. It took the worst war in our history to end that institution and to preserve the Union and it is a very good thing in my mind that the Confederacy lost. However, that fact does not negate that most Confederates fought gallantly for a cause they thought right, just as did their Union opponents, which of course includes their black Union opponents. Continue reading | <urn:uuid:a815162c-c9b5-465b-bc60-2886cf987a46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://the-american-catholic.com/tag/american-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974797 | 8,027 | 2.75 | 3 |
Piracy: The Intellectual Property Wars from Gutenberg to Gates
Since the rise of Napster and other file-sharing services in its wake, most of us have assumed that intellectual piracy is a product of the digital age and that it threatens creative expression as never before. The Motion Picture Association of America, for instance, claimed that in 2005 the film industry lost $2.3 billion in revenue to piracy online. But here Adrian Johns shows that piracy has a much longer and more vital history than we have realized—one that has been largely forgotten and is little understood.
Piracy explores the intellectual property wars from the advent of print culture in the fifteenth century to the reign of the Internet in the twenty-first. Brimming with broader implications for today’s debates over open access, fair use, free culture, and the like, Johns’s book ultimately argues that piracy has always stood at the center of our attempts to reconcile creativity and commerce—and that piracy has been an engine of social, technological, and intellectual innovations as often as it has been their adversary. From Cervantes to Sonny Bono, from Maria Callas to Microsoft, from Grub Street to Google, no chapter in the story of piracy evades Johns’s graceful analysis in what will be the definitive history of the subject for years to come. | <urn:uuid:9168da20-a3d2-4603-b580-743e86db8f05> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tobem.com/cyberwar/piracy-the-intellectual-property-wars-from-gutenberg-to-gates/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937825 | 270 | 2.53125 | 3 |
|CDIAC: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center|
This site is the homepage of the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) which includes the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases. CDIAC is the primary global-change data and information analysis center of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). CDIAC responds to data and information requests from users from all over the world who are concerned with the greenhouse effect and global climate change. CDIAC's data holdings include records of the concentrations of carbon dioxide and other radiatively active gases in the atmosphere; the role of the terrestrial biosphere and the oceans in the biogeochemical cycles of greenhouse gases; emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere; long-term climate trends; the effects of elevated carbon dioxide on vegetation; and the vulnerability of coastal areas to rising sea level. In operation since 1982, CDIAC: obtains, evaluates, and archives data, compiles and distributes digital numeric data packages and computer model packages, provides data management support to global-change related scientific projects, distributes related reports, produces the newsletter, CDIAC Communications, and in general acts as the information focus for the U.S. DOE Global Change Research Program. CDIAC is supported by DOE's Environmental Sciences Division of the Office of Biological and Environmental Research. CDIAC represents DOE in the multi-agency Global Change Data and Information System.
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Documents provided from the web server were sponsored by a contractor of the U.S. Government. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce these documents, or to allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes. These documents may be freely distributed and used for non-commerical, scientific and educational purposes.
DLESE Catalog ID: DLESE-000-000-000-292
This resource contains 'Mauna Loa, Hawaii: Carbon Dioxide Concentration (title provided or enhanced by cataloger)'
Resource contact / Creator / Publisher: | <urn:uuid:56860fe3-5f7e-4df3-af26-051a58802345> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dlese.org/library/catalog_DLESE-000-000-000-292.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.834941 | 448 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Sugar ants cannot sting, but the larger species can deliver a painful bite with their powerful jaws. The Household Sugar Ant, Camponotus humilior, commonly nests inside wall cavities and ceiling spaces in south-eastern Queensland. The Golden-tailed Sugar Ant is active during the day. It resembles a number of species of spiny ants but lacks spines on the mesosoma. The Banded Sugar Ant is orange with a black head. The gaster is also black but usually has an orange band at the front.
Most species of sugar ants are generalist scavengers and predators but also collect sugary nectar, plant secretions and honeydew from sap-sucking insects, hence their common name, sugar ants. Sugar ants cannot sting but spray formic acid from a small circular hole (the acidopore) at the tip of the gaster. Large workers of some species can deliver a painful bite with their powerful jaws.
Some species of sugar ants forage only at night, others during the day and some are active at all times.
There are more than one hundred Australian species of sugar ants and they can be among some of the commonest ants.
Most species of sugar ants nest in the soil but some nest in rotten logs on the ground. A few are specialised nesters in hollow twigs and branches on trees. Many of these tree-nesting species are dimorphic and have major workers with large cylindrical heads that are used to plug the small, circular entrances to the nest.
Different species of sugar ant vary dramatically in size and shape. Workers range from 2.5 to 18 mm long. Most species are polymorphic with the workers in a nest varying in size.
The biggest workers have much larger heads compared to the smallest workers. Some species are dimorphic with just two sizes of workers; small minors and large majors.The waist has a single segment and he upper surfaces of the mesosoma and petiole never have spines or teeth. Almost all species of Camponotus lack a metapleural gland and are missing an opening just above the base of the hind leg. This first segment of the gaster is short and covers less than half its length.
The Household Sugar Ant, Camponotus humilior (length 5-8 mm) commonly nests inside houses in wall cavities or ceiling spaces in south-east Queensland. The workers are nocturnal and are often found wandering inside houses at night. Outdoors this species nests in rotten wood on the ground or in cavities or dead branches in trees.
The Golden-tailed Sugar Ant, Camponotus aeneopilosus (length 5-9 mm), is common in open forests and woodlands in eastern mainland Australia. It nests in the soil, usually under rocks and logs.
The workers are active during the day and are black with a thick covering of golden hairs on the top of the gaster.
The Banded Sugar Ant, Camponotus consobrinus (length 7-12 mm), is widely distributed in open forest, woodlands and grasslands in south-eastern Australia. It is common in urban areas in south-east Queensland. It nests in the soil, often under rocks and logs but sometimes with nest entrances in the open ground.
Queensland Museum's Find out about... is proudly supported by the Thyne Reid Foundation and the Tim Fairfax Family Foundation. | <urn:uuid:0029bb38-fafc-40b3-bd2b-6dac799b4ab5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.southbank.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Insects/Ants/Common+species/Sugar+Ants | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948145 | 708 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Open to the Public
This land will be open for foot access and activities such as hiking, snowshoeing, bird watching, carry-in boating, and catch and release fishing. View All
Located in Marquette County in the Upper Peninsula View All
The biologically rich and varied habitats of the 480-acre Echo Lake Nature Preserve include intact, diverse and old forests, dramatic granite bald mountains or bedrock outcroppings, wetlands, creeks, three high rock ponds and Echo Lake. A landscape of dramatic contours of exposed bedrock with high bluffs frames the western shore of the approximately 20-acre headwater lake. The woods surrounding Echo Lake is a mixed deciduous and conifer forest that includes some large trees on rock out¬croppings. Harlow Creek flows from its headwaters at Echo Lake, takes in water from Harlow Lake and empties into Lake Superior. Vistas from the highest areas of exposed bedrock on the south side include Hogsback Mountain, Little Presque Isle, and Lake Superior.
Why the Conservancy Selected This Site
- Relatively undisturbed natural land within the headwaters of the Harlow Creek watershed, which has a Class A water quality ranking. Protection of the property in its undeveloped and open space condition helps to ensure the quality and quantity of water resources for the region.
- Echo Lake, the primary water source of Harlow Creek, is a 20-acre natural lake surrounded by a landscape of dramatic relief with high bluffs of exposed bedrock. The site also provides watershed protection for several high elevation glacial lakes.
- Large areas, comprising roughly 25 percent of the property, of relatively tree-less open granite balds or outcroppings dominated by a stunted white pine/red oak forest community type could contain several state-rare plant species including: pine-drops, purple cliff-brake, dwarf bilberry, narrow-leaved gentian, and big-leaf sandwort.
- Premiere upland habitat for a variety of nesting neotropical migrants (alder flycatcher, oven bird, black-throated blue and green warbler, and magnolia warbler).
- Significant stands of relatively mature northern hardwood/eastern hemlock forest types with little or no timber cutting for the past 50 years. A rare stand of very large and dense eastern hemlock offers crucial “thermal cover” for large mammals in harsh Upper Peninsula winters.
What the Conservancy Has Done/Is Doing
The Michigan Nature Association concurrently holds a Conservation Easement over the property which was donated to the Association by the J.A. Woollam Foundation prior to the land gift to the Conservancy. Conservation Easements can play an important role in providing an extra level of conservation protection to existing Nature Preserves.
The Conservancy has worked closely with its conservation partners in the area, including Upper Peninsula Land Conservancy and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) to protect both key parcels and large working landscapes. The preserve is adjacent to the Northern Great Lakes Forest working conservation easement (#5) and MDNR land. The goal is to create a compatible use core around existing high quality protected areas such as the Little Garlic Wilderness owned and managed by the MDNR.
Echo Lake Nature Preserve has a full time outreach intern every summer so we can offer several unique hikes and outings on the preserve. Please see our Events and Field Trips page to find out more.
Echo Lake offers activities year round, from snow-shoeing in the winter to hiking and canoeing in the summer. Early May and late July through October are the best times to visit this preserve to take advantage of Upper Michigan’s beauty while avoiding biting insects. Come prepared with head netting and insect repellant to guard against mosquitoes, black flies, and other insects during the midsummer months. Hiking boots are recommended for walking the rocks and shoreline of this preserve.
Hunting of white-tailed deer (or any other species) is currently not allowed at Echo Lake Nature Preserve as deer do not appear to be posing a threat to our conservation targets.
- Foot access for hiking, snowshoeing, skiing, etc.
- Educational studies
- Catch and release fishing is authorized but only with the use of artificial lures or flies; live bait may not be used
- Kayaks and canoes are permitted on waters of the preserve including Echo Lake. Vessels must be carried from the parking lot.
- No rock climbing and rappelling
- No motorized and non-motorized vehicles, including but not limited to automobiles, off-road vehicles (ORVs), all terrain vehicles (ATVs), motorcycles, snowmobiles, amphibious vehicles, and bicycles. All visitors must park at the gate and walk in.
- No Pets
- No hunting or trapping
- No motorized watercraft including diesel, gasoline or electric powered watercraft or sailboats and sailing.
- No removal of trees, plants or animals (alive or dead)
- No removal of rocks, water or other non-organic materials
- No geocaching
- No transportation, handling, dumping, or disposal of liquid, solid, natural or man-made waste, refuse, or debris
- No camping, bonfires, fireworks or other fires
- No sound or sounds artificially generated, regardless of decibel level
In accordance with the Department of Justice’s amended regulation implementing Title III of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) regarding "Other Power‐Driven Mobility Devices,” The Nature Conservancy has completed an assessment of our Echo Lake Nature Preserve. While some types of OPDMDs can be accommodated, there are necessary restrictions on their use. Please contact the UP Office at (906) 225-0399 or email@example.com with any questions regarding these policies.
- Groups or individuals must contact the UP office to arrange entry and escort. Access will be limited to daylight hours and at the availability of Conservancy staff.
- Access into the preserve will be based on the size of the power driven mobility device.
- OPDMD’s no larger than a standard passenger car, truck or SUV (and no wider than 80 inches from outer wheel to outer wheel) are allowed access on the gravel two-track road for 0.4 miles to the Conservancy branding sign at the base of hill that leads to Echo Lake and viewpoint.
- Small OPDMD’s may access the gravel road an additional 200 feet up the small hill to the viewpoint at the discretion of Conservancy staff if the OPDMD is deemed small enough to safely ascend and descend this narrow, rocky steep road section and turn around, avoiding damage to sensitive environments and if the rider requests to do so.
From Marquette, Michigan:
- Take County Road 550 north toward Big Bay.
- Approximately 7.5 miles from Marquette, head west on a two track road. The east property boundary is approximately 1.5 miles from County Road 550.
- Visitors must park at the gate and continue on foot to the lake | <urn:uuid:61d19ca1-a539-4c57-a12c-ce687e9d46a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/michigan/placesweprotect/echo-lake-nature-preserve.xml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9132 | 1,477 | 2.734375 | 3 |
NASA scientists have created a two-minute animated tour under the
Pacific Ocean, based on real data about the sea floor's peaks and valleys. Submerge near Hawaii, run like a submarine to Japan, and finally dive to the ocean's deepest point, between Japan and New Guinea.
courtesy of Gene Feldman and Dave Pape, NASA
Map showing above water (red) and undersea (blue) flightpath
Click on the images above or the list below to see mpeg animations of some of the segments of the actual flyby.
Ocean Planet Exhibition Floorplan
gene carl feldman (email@example.com) (301) 286-9428 | <urn:uuid:b00d0290-62ac-47c6-ae9f-140e184e399e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/oceanography_flyby.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871379 | 150 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Family study sheds more light on mysterious condition
WEDNESDAY, May 20 (HealthDay News) -- A new gene variant that may increase the risk of autism, particularly in boys, has been identified by U.S. researchers.
Analysis of the DNA of 1,046 members of families with at least two sons affected by autism revealed that a variant of the gene CACNA1G, located on chromosome 17, was consistently associated with autism, the researchers reported.
This variant of the gene, which helps move calcium between cells, is present in about 40 percent of the population.
"This is a strong finding," Stanley Nelson, a professor of human genetics at the David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles, said in a school news release. "No one has scrutinized the role that CACNA1G plays in autism."
"We found that a common form of the gene occurs more frequently in the DNA of families that have two or more sons affected by autism, but no affected daughters," Nelson said. "Our study may explain why boys are more susceptible to the disorder than girls."
Autism affects boys four times more often than girls.
The researchers did not determine how the CACNA1G variant contributes to autism risk, but Nelson said that it cannot be considered a risk factor on its own.
"This variant is a single piece of the puzzle," he said. "We need a larger sample size to identify all of the genes involved in autism and to solve the whole puzzle of this disease."
The study appears online in the journal Molecular Psychiatry.
The U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke has more about autism.
-- Robert Preidt
SOURCE: University of California, Los Angeles, news release, May 19, 2009
All rights reserved | <urn:uuid:422dabd5-1381-437b-b64a-1d2f2d62f622> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/Gene-Gives-Clues-to-Why-Autism-More-Common-in-Boys-46548-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959328 | 376 | 2.8125 | 3 |
June 1967 | Volume 18, Issue 4
Edward Moran’s series of Victorian seascapes recall a vanished national mood—when the eagle screamed, when painters were sentimental and poets misty about the eyes.
At the height of his career—in 1885—the artist Edward Moran, then living in New York, launched a project that he considered the crowning glory of his artistic life. He would paint a series of thirteen pictures that would represent what he called the “Marine History of the United States,” from the first explorers up until his own time.
It was a natural theme for Moran: at the time, he was undoubtedly one of the most famous seascapists in the United States. The path to that eminence had had its beginnings in 1829 in a lowly weaver’s cottage in Lancashire, England, where the nearby Irish Sea provided the future artist with his first glimpse of a subject he would never tire of portraying. Edward Moran was the oldest son of a large family that included two other artists. His brother Thomas would become famous for his romantic canvases of the American West; another brother, Peter, would win renown as a painter of animals. At an early age Edward was put to work at the loom, but he found time now and then to sketch with charcoal.
In 1844 the Morans hopefully joined the thousands of poor English artisans then emigrating to the United States. They settled in Maryland, but the shore of the Chesapeake proved to be no more of an Eldorado than the shore of the Irish Sea, and the family was soon forced to fall back upon the weaver’s trade. This was not the promise that Edward Moran had hoped to find in America, and, still in his teens and without a cent in his pocket, he walked to Philadelphia in search of opportunity. He had—by chance—come to the right place. For most of the nineteenth century, Philadelphia was the artistic capital of the United States, nurturing such talented artists as the Peales, Thomas Hovenden, Thomas Eakins, Mary Cassatt, Robert Henri, and John Sloan.
After trying his hand at cabinetmaking and house painting, Moran again took up the shuttle, at the munificent salary of six dollars a week. And here might have ended another tale of disappointed expectations had it not been for a lucky break. One day Moran was surprised by the proprietor while drawing; instead of punishing the young man for neglecting his work, his employer recognized the artistic promise in the sketch and had the good sense to introduce him to Paul Weber, one of the city’s most prominent landscape painters. Weber took him on as a pupil, and later Moran studied with another Philadelphia artist, James Hamilton, who guided him to marine painting. Philadelphia had a strong tradition in that genre; the city had been the home of Thomas Birch, America’s first marine artist. Birch had died in 1851, but his canvases—many of which hung in the Pennsylvania Academy—undoubtedly were well known to Moran. One of them, Stephen Decatur’s Escape After Setting Fire to the Philadelphia in the Harbor of Tripoli, depicted an event Moran would include in his series.
The young artist was not long in attaining some recognition, and by 1862 he had sufficient funds to go to London and study at the Royal Academy. While there he was much influenced by the dramatic sea pieces of J.M.W. Turner (1775–1851) and also by the historical painter William Clarkson Stanfield.
Moran soon returned to the United States and before long began to receive so many commissions that he could scarcely handle them. Almost all were related to the sea; indeed, a list of Moran’s pictures reads like a guidebook to America’s eastern littoral: Virginia Sands, A Squally Day off Newport, Massachusetts Bay, Off Block Island, Aloonrise at Nahant.
When Moran came to paint his great marine series, he organized it around the number thirteen, which he felt had a symbolic, almost religious, meaning for the country. A friend later explained his reasoning:
The original colonies were thirteen, and also the first States; the first order for the creation of a navy was for thirteen warships; there were and still are thirteen stripes, and there were originally thirteen stars, on our flag; on our coat of arms a mailed hand grasps thirteen arrows, as do also the left talons of the eagle, while in its right is an olive branch with thirteen leaves; there were also thirteen rattles on the snake on the first American flag, with the motto “Don’t tread on me.” It was on February 13, 1778, in the harbor of Quiberon, that the American flag received its first recognition by a foreign government … thirteen years elapsed between the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the inauguration of the first President, General Washington, in 1789; and the Louisiana Purchase from France includes the area prospectively covered by thirteen States…
Moran set the numerological theme in the very first painting of his series, The Ocean: thirteen gulls hover over the water, symbolizing the important events in American history linked with that number.
In his determination to present history in a chronological series of paintings, Moran was very much a child of his era. This was an artistic device much favored by sculptors, easel painters, and muralists in the nineteenth century. At the time Moran was working on his series, John Singer Sargent was doing a mural for the Boston Public Library depicting the development of religious thought from the pagan into the Christian era. And of course Moran would have been aware of the eight monumental historical paintings in the rotunda of the Capitol in Washington. Two of them, Robert Weir’s Embarkation of the Pilgrims and John Vanderlyn’s Landing of Columbus, deal with subjects that he included in his own series; a third, by William H. Powell, depicts the discovery of the Mississippi by de Soto, whose burial Moran was to paint.
Moran worked on his project almost until his death in the spring of 1901, less than two years after the event portrayed in the final canvas, the triumphal return of the United States fleet from the Spanish-American War. He had presented the paintings to his wife, but her claim to them was disputed after his death by the executor of the artist’s estate, and only after repeated legal battles was Mrs. Moran’s title secured. When she died in 1904, Theodore Sutro, who had been her counsel, came into possession of the paintings. In the late twenties, Paul Sutro, a nephew, presented them to Philadelphia’s Fairmount Park Commission with the stipulation that the collection be “hung at all times in a public gallery.” When he discovered that they were not being shown, he retrieved them and, in 1940, presented the set to the United States Naval Academy. There, cleaned and properly displayed, all thirteen may now be seen.
Sixty-three years ago—in 1904—the series was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum in New York. At that time the art critic of the New York Herald wrote: “The exhibition of these pictures of scenes connected with the history of the United States is not only an artistic but an educational event … It is hoped that the school children of the city will be taken to see and study them.” Nine years after these words were written, however, the Armory Show burst upon New York and America; within a generation the sudden popularity of the new styles it had introduced—Cubism, Fauvism—submerged the reputation of traditional painters like Edward Moran. Among most artists, critics, and gallery owners the idea of painting a picture that attempted to educate soon seemed quaint indeed, and Moran’s great series fell into disfavor.
The series is reproduced in this issue in its entirety, for the first time in more than half a century. Accompanying each painting is a quotation from a nineteenth-century American writer who was inspired by the same events that stirred the artist. Together the words and pictures constitute a document of a time when painters and poets gloried in recalling our past, and when historians, orators, and even reporters were not ashamed to use rhetoric to celebrate our nation’s history.
Moran's Landing of Lief Ericson in the New World in 1001
* * *
— Richard Burton “Columbus, the Discoverer”
Moran's The Debarkation of Columbus (Morning of October 12, 1492)
It was on Friday morning, the 12th of October, that Columbus first beheld the new world. As the day dawned he saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continual orchard.… Columbus made signal for the ships to cast anchor, and the boats to be manned and armed. He entered his own boat, richly attired in scarlet, and holding the royal standard; whilst Martin Alonzo Pinzon, and Vincent Jañez, his brother, put off in company in their boats, each with a banner of the enterprise emblazoned with a green cross. …
As he approached the shore, Columbus, who was disposed for all kinds of agreeable impressions, was delighted with the purity and suavity of the atmosphere, the crystal transparency of the sea, and the extraordinary beauty of the vegetation. He beheld, also, fruits of an unknown kind upon the trees which overhung the shores. On landing he threw himself on his knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God with tears of joy. His example was followed by the rest, whose hearts indeed overflowed with the same feelings of gratitude. Columbus then rising drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and assembling round him the two captains, with Rodrigo de Escobedo, notary of the armament, Rodrigo Sanchez, and the rest who had landed, he took solemn possession in the name of the Castilian sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador.
— Washington Irving The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus
— Burton Egbert Stevenson “Henry Hudson’s Quest”
… The awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging. The laboring masts seem straining from their base;—the dismal sound of the pumps is heard;—the ship leaps, as it were madly, from billow to billow;—the ocean breaks, and settles with engulphing floods over the floating deck, and beats with deadening shivering weight, against the staggered vessel.—I see them, escaped from these perils, pursuing their all but desperate undertaking, and landed at last, after a five months passage, on the ice clad rocks of Plymouth,—weak and weary from the voyage,—poorly armed, scantily provisioned, depending on the charity of their ship-master for a draught of beer on board, drinking nothing but water on shore,—without shelter,—without means,—surrounded by hostile tribes. Shut now the volume of history, and tell me on any principle of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers.… Is it possible, that from a beginning so feeble, so frail, so worthy, not so much of admiration as of pity, there has gone forth a progress so steady, a growth so wonderful, an expansion so ample, a reality so important, a promise, yet to be fulfilled, so glorious?
—Edward Everett, from an oration at Plymouth, Massachusetts, December 22, 1824
* * *
* * *
— Barrett Eastman “The Baptism of the Flag”
In 1803 the command of our fleet in the Mediterranean was taken by Commodore Preble, who had just succeeded in forcing satisfaction from Morocco for an attack made upon our merchantmen by a vessel from Tangier. He also proclaimed a blockade of Tripoli… when the news reached him that the frigate Philadelphia, forty-four guns … had been surrounded and captured. … The Tripolitans… towed her into the harbor, and anchored her close under the guns of their forts. They also replaced her batteries, and prepared to make her ready for sea, where she would have been a most formidable danger to our shipping.
Under these circumstances Stephen Decatur, a young lieutenant in command of the Enterprise, offered to Commodore Preble to go into the harbor and destroy the Philadelphia. … A small vessel… named the Intrepid [was] assigned to him. …
The Philadelphia, with forty guns mounted, doubleshotted, and ready for firing, and manned by a full complement of men, was moored within half a gunshot of the Bashaw’s … batteries. … Some Tripolitan cruisers, two galleys, and nineteen gunboats also lay between the Philadelphia and the shore. Into the midst of this powerful armament Decatur had to go with his little vessel… and … a crew of seventy-five men. …
He… drifted to within nearly twenty yards of the Philadelphia. … and when [the Tripolitans] hailed the Intrepid, the pilot answered that they had lost their anchors in a gale, and asked that they might run a warp to the frigate and ride by her. While the talk went on the Intrepid’s boat shoved off with the rope, and pulling to the fore-chains of the Philadelphia, made the line fast. …
The suspicions of the Tripolitans were now at last awakened. They raised the cry of “Americanos!” … Decatur sprang up the main chains of the Philadelphia , calling out the order to board.… There was a very short struggle, and the Tripolitans, crowded together, terrified and surprised, were cut down or driven overboard. In five minutes the ship was cleared of the enemy.
Decatur … gave orders to burn the ship, and … in a few minutes, so well and quickly was the work done, the flames broke out in all parts of the Philadelphia. As soon as this was effected the order was given to return to the Intrepid. Without confusion the men obeyed. ... The cables were cut, the sweeps got out, and the Intrepid drew rapidly away from the burning frigate.… then the Philadelphia, a mass of flames, drifted across the harbor and blew up. Meantime the … Intrepid … escaped successfully …
In the years that have elapsed, and among the great events that have occurred since that time, Decatur’s burning of the Philadelphia has been well-nigh forgotten; but it is one of those feats of arms which illustrate the high courage of American seamen, and which ought always to be remembered.
— Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Hero Tales from American History
— Wallace Rice “A Yankee Privateer”
* * *
Captain John Ericsson’s Body on Its Way to Sweden The Inventor of the Monitor Honored Yesterday by an Impressive Display on Land and Water
This city was the scene yesterday of one of the most remarkable tributes ever paid by a people to the memory of a great man. It was the day appointed for the removal of the remains of Captain John Ericsson from this country, which he loved so well and for which he did so much, to the land of his birth, where he was held in as high esteem as here. … The scene across the water to Bedlow’s Island and far down toward Staten Island was a lively and a picturesque one, dotted with every conceivable form of craft.…
Shortly after 12 o’clock the Despatch, flying Secretary [of the Navy Benjamin F.] Tracy’s flag, steamed around from the navy yard and dropped her anchor. … Next her lay the Baltimore, scrubbed and polished, and with the faintest evidences of steam up, preparatory to her long ocean voyage to Sweden. Then came the Dolphin.… The Petrel… and the Pensacola … were next in line, while beyond them lay the Enterprise, the Chicago, the Atlanta, and the Yorktown, each with colors half-masted, each doing honor to that genius to which the modern navy owes its evolution. …
An instance of the universal reverence in which the memory of the great inventor is held was seen in the generous display of half-masted flags. Every little schooner and sloop, each one of the innumerable tugs, and all the ferries and steamers contributed to the patriotic sentiment of the scene by displaying the American colors. …
—New York Times, August 24, 1890
Moran's Return of the Conquerors. Typifying Our Victory in the Late Spanish-American War (September 29, 1899)
* * *
— Guy Wetmore Carryl “When the Great Gray Ships Come In” | <urn:uuid:2258de0a-90a6-4dab-8955-71693ff296dc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.americanheritage.com/print/52161 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975588 | 3,511 | 2.6875 | 3 |
A Challenging Comic – Solution
└ posted on Tuesday, 3 January 2012, by Novil
The following codes were used for the text in the word bubbles:
- 1st word bubble: See the crossword puzzle.
- 2nd word bubble: The text was translated to Bahasa Indonesia, a Malay language.
- 3rd word bubble: The gray values of the little squares corresponded with the ASCII number of the letter. Example: RGB value [95, 95, 95] –> ASCII value 95 –> ‘I’
- 4th word bubble: The text was written backwards, with arbitrary spaces and an additional ‘A’ before each letter.
- 5th word bubble: The following line was in the source code of the linked HTML page: <meta name=”richard” content=”Who are you calling?” />. If you use Mozilla Firefox, you can see the source code of a page by pressing [CTRL] + [U] on your keyboard.
- 6th word bubble: The following calculation was carried out for each letter: Alphabet index of the letter + Alphabet index of the next letter = Alphabet index of the code letter. If the alphabet index of the code letter was > 26, the index value was reduced by 26 to start at ‘A’ again. The last letter ‘M’ of the original text remained unchanged. | <urn:uuid:84c912fc-a964-4f28-b29b-1e6232e7087c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sandraandwoo.com/2012/01/03/0338-a-challenging-comic-solution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905003 | 298 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Parents might one day give their children a weekly treatment with a nasal spray of virus enzymes to prevent them from getting a severe middle ear infection, based on results of a study done in mice by investigators from St. Jude Children's Research Hospital and The Rockefeller University in New York. Such a treatment would kill the disease-causing bacteria without the use of antibiotics, thereby avoiding the problem of antibiotic resistance. A report on this study appears in the March issue of the online journal "PLoS Pathogens."
Middle ear infection, also called acute otitis media, is an inflammation of the middle ear space that can cause pain, fever, irritability, lack of appetite and vomiting. The middle ear is the space just before the eardrum. About half of all children carry the bacteria that cause acute otitis media, which migrate from the nose and throat to the middle ear after an initial influenza virus infection paves the way.
The investigators based their treatment on the ability of viruses called phages to break out of bacteria they infect by using a special enzyme to destroy the cell walls. Phages infect bacteria in a way that is similar to how viruses infect animal cells. Once inside, the virus hijacks the cell's biochemical machinery and forces it to make many copies of the virus. After the new crop of viruses is made, a viral enzyme breaks apart the infected bacterial cell wall and allows the new viruses to escape and infect additional cells.
The success of the new treatment, which uses a phage enzyme to kill the bacteria that cause acute otitis media, suggests that the strategy could significantly reduce the incidence of the disease in the United States, where more than 24 million cases are diagnosed yearly. Even though the current pneumonia vaccine protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae--the bacteria that cause acute otitis media--this ear infection remains the leading cause of doctor visits and antibiotic prescriptions among preschool-aged children. In the current study, the researchers treated mice with the enzyme lysine, the same enzyme used by phages to break out of S. pneumoniae.
In addition to its promise for preventing acute otitis media, the virus enzyme treatment also appears to hold promise for preventing the secondary pneumonia caused when a person infected with S. pneumoniae is subsequently infected with the influenza virus.
"Secondary bacterial infections cause much of the sickness and about 25 percent of all deaths during the flu season, and 50 to 95 percent of deaths during pandemics of influenza," said Jonathan McCullers, M.D., associate member in the Infectious Diseases department at St. Jude. "Eliminating these secondary infections could dramatically reduce the sickness and death rates among susceptible populations such as infants and the elderly." This new approach might also offer some protection if the avian influenza virus, H5N1, sparks a pandemic among humans, he added. McCullers is first author of the "PLoS" paper.
The investigators demonstrated in mice infected with S. pneumoniae that lysin can eliminate these bacteria from the ear. The team conducted their study in mice developed at St. Jude that represented the first mouse model in which acute otitis media develops in a similar way that it develops the disease in children. The mice were treated by purified lysin that was prepared in the laboratory of Vincent A. Fischetti, Ph.D., a professor and co-head of the Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology at The Rockefeller University. He was assisted by Jutta M. Loeffler, postdoctoral associate. Fischetti is senior author of the "PLoS" paper.
The researchers developed a mouse model of acute otitis media by first establishing colonization of S. pneumoniae in the noses of mice. Scientists then infected some of the mice with influenza virus and mock-infected others with a virus-free solution. Although all the mice carried the bacteria in their noses, none of the mock-infected mice developed acute otitis media, while 63 percent of mice receiving influenza virus developed this middle ear infection.
In the second part of the study, the team treated bacteria-colonized mice twice, four hours apart, with either lysin or a mock treatment of fluid. The lysin treatment was 100 percent effective in preventing acute otitis media in the 10 treated mice while 80 percent of mice receiving the fake treatment developed the ear infection.
"The nasal spray may eventually be used weekly during the flu season to keep the person free of Streptococcus pneumoniae or after someone is infected with the flu virus, Fischetti said. "This might truly be a case in which an ounce of prevention would be worth a pound of cure."
Other authors of this paper include Åsa Karlström and Amy R. Iverson (St. Jude).
This work was supported in part by the United States Public Health Service and ALSAC.
St. Jude Children's Research Hospital
St. Jude Children's Research Hospital is internationally recognized for its pioneering work in finding cures and saving children with cancer and other catastrophic diseases. Founded by late entertainer Danny Thomas and based in Memphis, Tenn., St. Jude freely shares its discoveries with scientific and medical communities around the world. No family ever pays for treatments not covered by insurance, and families without insurance are never asked to pay. St. Jude is financially supported by ALSAC, its fundraising organization. For more information, please visit www.stjude.org. | <urn:uuid:fce0c194-f486-4fee-afab-32d0d3b7dcba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-03/sjcr-ver032207.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947591 | 1,110 | 3.796875 | 4 |
When Charles Dawson, a lawyer and amateur geologist, announced that he had found what appeared to be the partly apelike skull of an ancient human in a gravel bed on Piltdown Common, near Lewes, England, in 1912, it was touted as a long-sought evolutionary missing link between apes and humans. But in 1953, chemical analyses of the remains showed that the scientific establishment had been duped for four decades. The cranium belonged to a modern human and the jaw to an orangutan, both skillfully stained and altered to look old (a model is shown at right). Since then, nearly everyone even remotely connected with Piltdown has been implicated in the hoax. But last May, paleontologist Brian Gardiner of King’s College, London, and his colleague Andrew Currant revealed the true identity of the perpetrator. Based on the first solid evidence, Gardiner and Currant conclude it was Martin A. C. Hinton (right), keeper of zoology at the British Museum from 1936 to 1945.
In 1975 workmen found a steamer trunk bearing the initials M.A.C.H. in a loft at the museum. But its contents were not thoroughly examined until Currant mentioned to Gardiner, ten years later, that the trunk contained a box of bones. Gardiner’s analysis showed that the bones had been treated in the same manner as the Piltdown remains--dipped in acid, then stained with manganese and iron oxide. He was looking at Hinton’s practice set.
For the last ten years, Gardiner and Currant have been building their case, examining the correspondence of every man involved in Piltdown. Hinton’s motivation, they say, was to embarrass Arthur Smith Woodward, keeper of paleontology at the British Museum. Hinton was a museum volunteer at the time of the fraud and had apparently annoyed Woodward by requesting a salary. Woodward told him to get lost, says Gardiner. And away went Hinton and concocted the hoax. I don’t think he meant it to go as far as it did.
But it did go far; Woodward and others failed to detect a note of whimsy in the Piltdown fossils, which included an elephant femur carved to resemble a cricket bat. At that time in England, says Gardiner, we were hoping to find the earliest man. We didn’t want the goddamn French or Germans to have it, we wanted it. People wanted to believe it. And once Hinton became a respected scholar, he could not confess, although his entry in Britain’s Who’s Who lists hoaxes as one of his interests. | <urn:uuid:ac801860-aa3e-4491-8e95-90aff2505375> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://discovermagazine.com/1997/jan/thepiltdownperp1028 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979897 | 555 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Electric utility rates for industrial and commercial facilities are usually composed of at least two components.
One is the “energy rate” or the kilowatt-hour charge, which is related to the fuel that is expended in producing and delivering that energy.
A second is the “demand rate”, the kilowatt, or kVA demand charge. This usually related to the capital investment that must be made to build the generation, transmission, and distribution facilities necessary to provide the electrical energy to the consumer.
Since the capability of your utility’s power generating and distribution system is limited by the current it might carry, the utility’s ability to supply power is affected by the power factor of the load.
Since the reactive component of current is not registered on the kilowatt-hour meter, some utilities charge for low power factor by applying penalties or surcharges or by applying demand charges on kVA, or apparent power instead of kW, or active power demand.
These charges differ from utility to utility and are often expensive.
Save Energy & Money: Improve Your Power Factor by installing a capacitor
Energy capacitors are now not only available for big business and industry but are now widely available for small businesses and residential homes.
Some are only designed to increase the power factor of your electricity but others are available that multi-task by not only increasing your power factor but they will protect your appliances and expensive electronics from spikes and surges in the lines while eliminating any noise as well.
If your utility company charges a premium or a penalty if your power factor falls below a certain level you will save money.
If your voltage levels are consistently higher because your power factor has increased, all of the motors that run your appliances and heating and cooling devices will perform better and last longer.
Utility bills must be analyzed carefully to understand the potential savings of improving power factor.
Are You Being Charged a Power Factor Penalty?
This penalty applies more to business than to home owners but is still worth checking past bills just to be sure. You can have your bills analysed free. Know where your extra costs are coming from.
Preferably all bills for the previous year should be collected in order to observe seasonal variations and/or long term trends in consumption. Specifically look for the energy charge and the demand charge, if any. The energy charge is determined by multiplying the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy consumed in a month times the energy rate in $/kWh.
Reduce Distribution Losses: Add Capacitors
Distribution losses in a facility can be reduced by the addition of capacitors and the resulting increase in power factor. These losses are estimated by summing estimates of the transformer losses and cable losses. This reduction is due to the decrease in current flowing through the distribution system and is sometimes referred to as “I²R” losses.
Release of system capacity
The expression, “release of capacity” means that as power factor of the system is improved, the total current flow will be reduced. This permits additional loads to be added and served by the existing system. In the event that equipment, such as transformers, cables, and generators, may be thermally overloaded, improving power factor may be the most economical way to reduce current and eliminate the overload condition.
A-1 Energy Doctor will analyze your situation and suggest energy saving power solutions that will save you money. Contact us to learn how we can reduce your small business and residential energy costs. Linda began promoting the Energy products after doing seminars and informational programs for a local home improvement company. She has put together a line of high quality, satisfaction guaranteed products that are affordable and energy efficient. Join the “Go Green” Team and add an energy efficient product to your existing line or start your own Go Green business. Call 877-896-2780 or check out products and click “Opportunity” to see how easy it is to begin. Contractors, Architects, realtors and anyone who is ready to expand their horizons and succeed in business while maintaining complete control of your time. | <urn:uuid:3390a64c-71ae-47d0-843f-9e637badbb1b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://truereviewinfo.blogspot.com/2009/05/energy-capacitors-work-to-save-money.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939668 | 845 | 2.875 | 3 |
The Big Freeze: Charting Climate Change with Global Ocean Circulation Models
UMass Amherst geoscientist Alan Condron and colleague Peter Winsor (University of Alaska), using new, high-resolution global ocean circulation models, have found the first conclusive evidence of how flood waters from melting of the enormous Laurentide Ice Sheet (in the last major cold episode on Earth about 12,900 years ago) flowed northwest into the Arctic with a frigid effect on global climate. The image above reveals a detail of the ocean model, with warm represented in red/orange and cold in blue. Understanding past climate change is important for predicting how our modern-day climate might change in the future. Condron is a member of the Climate System Research Center based in the Department of Geosciences. Learn more.
Photo credit: Alan Condron | <urn:uuid:01858f96-6d43-4825-a1d3-60212962eb31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.umass.edu/researchnext/inpictures/big-freeze-charting-climate-change-global-ocean-circulation-models | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.890316 | 171 | 3.375 | 3 |
WASHINGTON -- The National Academies today announced the completion of the first phase of a partnership with Google to digitize the library's collection of reports from 1863 to 1997, making them available - free, searchable, and in full text - through Google Book Search. The Academies plan to have their entire collection of nearly 11,000 reports digitized by 2011.
"Much has changed since the National Academy of Sciences began advising the government in the late 1800s," said Victoria Harriston, manager of library and information services at the National Academies' George E. Brown Jr. Library. "Our early reports are essential to understanding the scientific advances made in this country as well as the science and technology issues the government struggled with in the 19th and 20th centuries."
Notable reports from the library's archives that are now available include:
- PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Vol. 1 (1863-1894). This was the first NAS publication series, and it includes information about the Academy's early work for the government on topics such as how to prevent compass deviation which sent iron warships off course, whether the metric system of weights and measures should be adopted, and how the new U.S. Geological Service should be organized.
- INVESTIGATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF THE SORGHUM SUGAR INDUSTRY (1882). This report was the Academy's first self-initiated study, produced by the first committee to include non-Academy members.
- PROPOSED U.S. PROGRAM FOR THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR, 1957-1958. American participation in the International Geophysical Year - a historic, worldwide scientific effort that investigated the workings of the Earth and saw the launch of the first satellites - was guided and coordinated by a committee of the Academy.
- THE POLAR REGIONS AND CLIMATIC CHANGE (1984) Changes in Earth's polar regions are widely covered in the news today, but the Academies have been studying this phenomenon for more than 20 years.
Prior to this project, the Academies digitized more than 4,000 books and made them available online through the National Academies Press; most of those can also be found in Google Book Search. However, researchers who needed to gain access to hard copies of older reports, part of a legacy collection in the library, could not always find what they wanted. Many of these reports exist as single copies, and the library feared potential damage or loss of this important collection. These older reports have been digitized and are now accessible through Google. In addition, the "digitizing of these materials will add another dimension to the preservation of our reports," said Harriston. The Academies hope that wider availability of its reports will be of use to scientists in developing countries, who often rely on the Internet to gather information.
The National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, and National Research Council make up the National Academies. They are private, nonprofit institutions that provide science, technology, and health policy advice under a congressional charter. The Research Council is the principal operating agency of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. | <urn:uuid:ee8fab51-bd73-4ba3-b368-fb131f582644> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-04/naos-mt9041009.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94636 | 672 | 2.96875 | 3 |
23 Million-Year-Old Lizard Found Preserved in Amber
Mexican scientists are currently examining a complete fossil of a lizard that has remained entombed in a chunk of amber for some 23 million years, according to a recent report in La Jornada en Linea.
The amber encasing the vertebrate is approximately 1.8 inches by .5 inches, Fox reports, and while the discovery does not mark the first time an Anolis lizard was found preserved in ancient reisn, scientists believe it may be the first of its kind in other ways: found in the Simojovel amber deposits of the northern part of the southeastern state of Chiapas, the creature was preliminarily identified as representing a new species of the genus Anolis.
Furthermore, the find represents only the second anole in amber discovered anywhere in the world other than the Dominican Republic; however, the first, Anolis electrum, was so incomplete that little could be said about its taxonomy of lifestyle.
In contrast, Fransisco Riquelme of the National Autonomous University of Mexico's Physics Institute told Efe that the specimen was "a complete and articulated animal that also preserves remains of soft tissue and skin."
The estaimte regarding the age of the specimen is based on the fact that the region's amber dates back 23 million years, Gerardo Carbot, the director of Chiapa's Paleontology Museum, futher explained.
Jonathan Losos is both a professor and curator at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Havard University. Regarding the genus, Loso wrote on his site Anole Annals that the lizards are "an upcoming model system for studies of evolutionary diversification" due to their "rapidly multiplying lineage, in which the members display great diversity in their ecology, behavior and observed characteristics."
Based on the complete nature of the newest lizard, Losos says he looks forward to the results of the studies currently underway.
"It will be interesting to learn more about this one," he said.
According to Science News, the oldest creatures ever found preserved in amber were 230-million-year-old mites discovered in northeastern Italy.
The specimen, meanwhile, is currently on display at the Amber Museum in San Cristobal del las Casas. | <urn:uuid:a8c6b92a-af35-4eaf-96cb-f76ad58c664d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/2847/20130708/23-million-year-old-lizard-found-preserved-amber.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95204 | 469 | 3 | 3 |
This app was removed from the App Store.
New Oxford American Dictionary
iOS Universal Reference
As Oxford's flagship American dictionary, the New Oxford American Dictionary sets the standard of excellence for lexicography in this country. With more than 350,000 words, phrases, and senses, and hundreds of explanatory notes, this dictionary provides the most comprehensive and accurate coverage of American English available.
The dictionary draws on the two-billion-word Oxford English Corpus and the unrivaled citation files of the world-renowned Oxford English Dictionary to provide the most accurate and richly descriptive picture of American English ever offered in any dictionary. The Third Edition offers a thoroughly updated text, with revisions throughout and approximately 2,000 new words, phrases, and meanings. Many new words relate to fast-moving areas such as computing, technology, current affairs, and ecology, while others have recently entered the popular lexicon. Usage notes have been updated in light of the most recent Corpus evidence, and a completely new in-text feature on Word Trends charts usage for rapidly changing words and phrases such as carbon, mobile, or tweet. In addition, the application has an attractive, modern new design that makes entries easier to read and find.
One of the hallmarks of the New Oxford American Dictionary is the way it reflects the living language. Unlike in more traditional dictionaries, where meanings are ordered chronologically according to the history of the language, each entry plainly shows the principal meaning or meanings of the word, organized by importance in today's English. Thus readers can be confident that the first definition they see is the one most likely to be used by people today, and is not a sense that has been obsolete for two centuries.
Offering clear, authoritative, and precise information, with the in-depth and up-to-date coverage that users need and expect, the New Oxford American Dictionary is the benchmark by which all other American dictionaries are measured.
+ Optimized for the iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch
+ Select a word within a definition to view the selected word's definition
+ Over 60,000 audio pronunciations for dictionary entries (audio pronunciations require wireless connection)
+ No wireless connection required (audio pronunciations require wireless connection)
+ Offers the most comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of current English
+ New "Word Trends" feature charts usage for rapidly changing words and phrases
+ Powered by Oxford's extensive language research program, including the 2-billion-word Oxford English Corpus
+ $29.99 represents a 50% discount from the $60 MSRP of the hardcover version
Bug fixes and performance improvements | <urn:uuid:d83e2094-f13c-4e36-94b4-7f76f6b65f2c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://appshopper.com/reference/new-oxford-american-dictionary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914709 | 537 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Pericarditis is inflammation or infection of the pericardium, the thin sac (membrane) that surrounds the heart. There is a small amount of fluid between the inner and outer layers of the pericardium. When the pericardium becomes inflamed, the amount of fluid between its two layers increases, causing a pericardial effusion. If the amount of fluid increases quickly, the effusion caused can impair the ability of the heart to function properly. This condition is called pericardial tamponade.
In children, pericarditis is most likely to occur following surgery to repair congenital (present at birth) heart defects or acquired heart disease. However, other causes may include the following:
The following are the most common symptoms of pericarditis. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:
Children may not be able to describe that they have "chest pain" or be able to explain how they feel. Sometimes, non-specific symptoms such as irritability, loss of appetite, or fatigue will be all that the child is able to express. The symptoms of pericarditis may resemble other medical conditions or heart problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis.
Your child's physician may have heard an abnormal heart sound called a rub, which occurs when there is irritation of the pericardial membranes. In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic for pericarditis may include:
Specific treatment for pericarditis will be determined by your child's physician based on:
The goal of treatment for pericarditis is to determine and eliminate the cause of the disease. Treatment may include:
Consult your child's physician for more information.
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Partial knee replacement
A partial knee replacement is surgery to replace only one part of a damaged knee. It can replace either the inside (medial) part, the outside (lateral) part, or the kneecap part of the knee.
Surgery to replace the whole knee joint is called total knee replacement.
Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty; Knee replacement - partial; Unicondylar knee replacement; Arthroplasty - unicompartmental knee; UKA; Minimally invasive partial knee replacement
Partial knee replacement surgery removes damaged tissue and bone in the knee joint. The areas are replaced with a man-made implant, called a prosthetic.
Before surgery, you will be given medicine that blocks pain (anesthesia). You will have one of two anesthesia types:
- General anesthesia. You will be asleep and pain-free during the procedure.
- Regional (spinal or epidural) anesthesia. You will be numb below your waist. You will also get medicines to make you relax or feel sleepy.
The surgeon will make a cut over your knee. This cut is about 3 to 5 inches long.
- Next, the surgeon looks at the entire knee joint. If there is damage to more than one part of your knee, you may need a total knee replacement. Most of the time this is not needed, because tests done before the procedure would have shown this damage.
- The damaged bone and tissue are removed.
- A part made from plastic and metal is placed into the knee.
- Once the part is in the proper place, it is attached with bone cement.
- The wound is closed with stitches.
Why the Procedure Is Performed
The most common reason to have a knee joint replaced is to ease severe arthritis pain.
Your health care provider may suggest knee joint replacement if:
- You can't sleep through the night because of knee pain.
- Your knee pain prevents you from doing daily activities.
- Your knee pain has not gotten better with other treatments.
You will need to understand what surgery and recovery will be like.
Partial knee arthroplasty may be a good choice if you have arthritis in only one side or part of the knee and:
- You are older, thin, and not very active.
- You do not have very bad arthritis on the other side of the knee or under the kneecap.
- You have only minor deformity in the knee.
- You have good range of motion in your knee.
- The ligaments in your knee are stable.
However, most people with knee arthritis have a surgery called a total knee arthroplasty (TKA).
Knee replacement is most often done in people age 60 and older. Not all people can have a partial knee replacement. You may not be a good candidate if your condition is too severe. Also, your medical and physical condition may not allow you to have the procedure.
Risks for this surgery include:
Before the Procedure
Always tell your health care provider which drugs you are taking, including herbs, supplements, and medicines bought without a prescription.
During the 2 weeks before your surgery:
- Prepare your home.
- Ask your provider which medicines you can still take on the day of your surgery.
- You may be asked to stop taking medicine that makes it harder for your blood to clot. These include aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Naprosyn, Aleve), blood thinners such as warfarin (Coumadin), and other drugs.
- You may need to stop taking any medicines that weaken your immune system, including Enbrel and methotrexate.
- If you have diabetes, heart disease, or other medical conditions, your surgeon will ask you to see the provider who treats you for these conditions.
- Tell your provider if you have been drinking a lot of alcohol (more than one or two drinks a day).
- If you smoke, you need to stop. Ask your health care providers for help. Smoking slows healing and recovery.
- Let your provider know if you get a cold, flu, fever, herpes breakout, or other illness before your surgery.
- You may want to visit a physical therapist before surgery to learn exercises that can help you recover.
- Practice using a cane, walker, crutches, or a wheelchair.
On the day of your surgery:
- You may be told not to drink or eat anything for 6 to 12 hours before the procedure.
- Take the medicines your provider told you to take with a sip of water.
- Your provider will tell you when to arrive at the hospital.
After the Procedure
You may need to stay in the hospital for 1 to 2 days. Most people are able to go home the day after surgery.
You can put your full weight on your knee right away.
After you return home, you should try to do as much as you can. This includes going to the bathroom or taking walks in the hallways with help. You will also need physical therapy to improve range of motion and strengthen the muscles around the knee.
Most people recover quickly and have much less pain than they did before surgery. People who have a partial knee replacement recover faster than those who have a total knee replacement.
Many people are able to walk without a cane or walker within 3 to 4 weeks after surgery. You will need physical therapy for 4 to 6 months.
Most forms of exercise are OK after surgery, including walking, swimming, tennis, golf, and biking. However, you should avoid high-impact activities such as jogging.
Partial knee replacement can have good results for some people. Partial inside or outside replacement has good outcomes for up to 10 years after surgery. Partial patella or patellofemoral replacement does not have as good long term results as the partial inside or outside replacements. You should discuss with your health care provider whether you are a candidate for partial knee replacement and what the success rate is for your condition.
American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons (AAOS). Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee: Evidence-based guideline 2nd edition (summary). Rosemont, IL. Published May 18, 2013.
Mihalko WM. Arthroplasty of the knee. In: Canale ST, Beaty JH, eds. Campbell's Operative Orthopaedics. 12th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2013:chap 7.
Richmond J, Hunter D, Irrgang J, et al. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee (nonarthroplasty). J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2009;17:591-600. PMID: 19726743 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19726743.
Reviewed By: C. Benjamin Ma, MD, Professor, Chief, Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, UCSF Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, San Francisco, CA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. | <urn:uuid:532f46c2-1a83-46af-80f1-db57ffc9d915> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westernbaptist.adam.com/content.aspx?productId=117&pid=1&gid=007256 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924275 | 1,515 | 2.734375 | 3 |
|Paul the Apostle|
|Apostle to the Gentiles|
|Born||c. 3 AD, in Tarsus Acts 22:3|
|Died||c 67 AD, in Rome|
|Venerated in||All Christianity|
|Major shrine||Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls|
|Feast|| January 25 (The Conversion of Paul)|
February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta)
June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul)
November 18 (Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
|Patronage||Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians;|
|Part of the series on|
Saul, also known as Paul, Paulus, and Saint Paul the Apostle, (AD 3—67) is widely considered to be central to the early development and spread of Christianity, particularly westward from Judea. Many Christians view him as an important interpreter of the teachings of Jesus. Paul is described in the New Testament as a Hellenized Jew and Roman citizen from Tarsus (in present-day Turkey). He was a persistent persecutor of early Christians, almost all of whom were Jewish. Then came his "Road to Damascus" experience, which brought about his conversion to faith in Jesus as the Messiah. Through his Epistles to Gentile Christian communities, Paul attempted to show that the God of Abraham is for all people rather than for Jews only. He, however, did not originate this idea. Jewish tradition teaches that all people ought to recognize the God of Abraham, though Judaism has not historically encouraged conversion or proselytism. (For other examples, see Isaiah 56:6-8 or proselyte or Great Commission, or Simon Peter's vision of the sheet descending from Heaven in Acts 10:9-23a).
Paul is venerated as a Saint by all the churches that honor them, including those of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican traditions, and some Lutheran sects. He is the "patron saint" of the City of London and has also had several cities named in his honor, including Sao Paulo, Brazil and Saint Paul, Minnesota. He did much to advance Christianity among the Gentiles, and is considered to be one source (if not the primary source) of early Church doctrine, and the founder of Pauline Christianity. His epistles form a fundamental section of the New Testament.
Due to his body of work and his undoubted influence on the development of Christianity, many modern scholars consider Paul to be the founder of Christianity. They deem Paul's modifications of Jesus' teachings and addition of important new doctrines as instrumental in establishing Christianity as a distinct religion, rather than a sect of Judaism, as Christianity was first known. However, this view remains controversial.
Theologians, especially those aligned with hyperdispensation interpretation, view the "Pauline distinctive" as a key to Biblical interpretation. This line of interpretation believes that Jesus' earthly ministry was for the Jews, that is, that ministry recorded in the four biographic narratives of Jesus, particularly the Gospel of Matthew. According to this perspective, modern Christians necessarily have a different belief system since Christianity only arose as a result of the rejection by the Jews of Jesus as their Messiah and the opening of the gospel to the Gentiles.
A very few writers, generally supporters of the Mosaic Law as a Christian essential, find Paul's teachings so discordant from Jesus' that they identify him as the Anti-Christ.
Many Christian theologians say that no teachings were modified, and assert that Paul taught in complete harmony with Jesus. These scholars generally interpret the Bible in accordance with covenant theology. According to this interpretation, the Christian Church has superceded the Jewish people as God's Chosen People.
Life, according to the New Testament Edit
Early life Edit
|Events in the Life of Paul according to "Acts of the Apostles"|
Paul described himself as an Israelite of the tribe of Benjamin, circumcised on the eighth day, a Pharisee (Romans 11:1; Philippians 3:5), and of the "Jews' religion … more exceedingly zealous of the traditions" (Galatians 1:14 KJV). However, he was born as Saul in Tarsus of Cilicia and received a Jewish education. He apparently originated the use of Paul as a first name. In Latin, Paulus (mostly spelt "Paullus") was a family surname, never a first name. The Latin word paulus, related to the Koine Greek pauros, means small. The Greek word saulos, which was the common transliteration of the Hebrew Saul, means an immoral gait . Paul had at least one brother Rufus according to Romans 16:13. According to Acts 22:3, he studied in Jerusalem under Gamaliel; Thomas Robinson depicts Paul as coming to study in Jerusalem under Gamaliel, when Shammai became Nasi of the Sanhedrin, and during the rise to supremacy of the house of Shammai from AD 20. However, some scholars, such as Helmut Koester, have expressed their doubts that Paul either was in Jerusalem at this time or studied under this famous rabbi. Paul supported himself during his travels and while preaching — a fact he alludes to a number of times (e.g., 1 Corinthians 9:13 – 15); according to Acts 18:3, he worked as a tentmaker. According to Romans 16:2, he had a patroness (Koine Greek prostatis) named Phoebe . On marriage, 1 Corinthians 7:8:9 (NRSV), he wrote: "To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am. But if they are not practicing self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to be aflame with passion." On divorce, 1 Corinthians 7:10-16 (NRSV), he cited Jesus: "To the married I give this command — not I but the Lord — that the wife should not separate from her husband (but if she does separate, let her remain unmarried or else be reconciled to her husband), and that the husband should not divorce his wife" (from Mark 10:11 and parallels), but then gave his own teaching: "To the rest I say — I and not the Lord: but if the unbelieving partner separates, let it be so; in such a case the brother or sister is not bound."
Acts 22:25 and 27 – 29 also state that Paul was a Roman citizen – a privilege he used a number of times to defend his dignity, including appealing his conviction in Iudaea Province to Rome. Because Paul never mentions this privilege in the epistles, some scholars have expressed skepticism as to whether Paul actually possessed citizenship--such an honor was uncommon during his lifetime. The Ebionites and some Restorationists argue that Paul was a Roman who tried to convert to Judaism so he could marry or court a Jewish woman and that his conversion was denied. They state that citizenship would have required participation in the Imperial Cult, which would have been in conflict with Hebrew religious ideals. Furthermore, this view contends that Paul embraced ideas from esoteric mystery religions of the time, later superimposing them on the teachings of Jesus.
Conversion and early teachings Edit
Paul himself admits that he at first persecuted Christians to the death (Philippians 3:6), but later embraced the belief that he had fought against. Acts 9:1 – 9 describe the vision Paul had of Jesus on the Road to Damascus, a vision that led him to dramatically reverse his opinion. Paul himself offers no clear description of the event in any of his surviving letters; and this, along with the fact that the author of Acts describes Paul's conversion with subtle differences in two later passages, has led some scholars to question whether Paul's vision actually occurred. However, Paul did write that Jesus appeared to him "last of all he was seen of me also, as of one born out of due time" (1 Corinthians 15:8 KJV), and frequently claimed that his authority as "Apostle to the Gentiles" came directly from God (Galatians|Galatians 1:13 – 16), and 'not from man'. In addition, an adequate explanation for Paul's conversion is lacking in the absence of his vision.
Following his stay in Damascus after conversion, Paul first went to live in the Nabataean kingdom (which he called "Arabia") for an unknown period, then came back to Damascus, which by this time was under Nabatean rule. After three more years (Galatians 1:17;20) he was forced to flee from that city, via the Bab Kisan (The Kisan Gate), under the cover of night (Acts 9:23;25; 2 Corinthians 11:32ff.) because of the explosive reaction to his preaching by some of the strict Jews. Many years after his conversion to Christianity, Paul traveled to Jerusalem, where he met Saint Peter and James the Just.
Following this visit to Jerusalem, Paul's own writings and Acts slightly differ on his next activities. Acts states he went to Antioch, whence he set out to travel through Cyprus and southern Asia Minor to preach of Christ — a labor that has come to be known as his "First Missionary Journey" (13:13, 14:28). Paul merely mentions that he preached in Syria and Cilicia (Galatians 1:18 – 20); and though Acts states that Paul later "went through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches" (Acts 15:41), it does not explicitly state that these were churches founded by Paul on a previous journey. It does not explain who else other than Paul might have founded the churches.
These missionary journeys are considered the defining actions of Paul. For these journeys, Paul usually chose one or more companions for his travels. Barnabas, Silas, Titus, Timothy, John, surnamed Mark, Aquila and Priscilla and his personal physician, Luke, all accompanied him for some or all of these travels. He endured hardships on these journeys: he was imprisoned in Philippi, was lashed and stoned several times, and almost murdered once (2 Corinthians 11:24 – 27). Some believe that he did actually die as a result of stoning, and was brought back from the dead by God. The account of his death, or near-death experience, can be found in 2 Corinthians 12:2 - 5. Paul is known to have written 14 of the 27 books that make up the New Testament. It is possible that many beliefs about Jesus later adopted by Christianity came from his writings: Jesus' being a descendant of king David, the Resurrection of Jesus, the Ascension of Jesus after his crucifixion, original sin, and Jesus' return from heaven all make their first appearance in the letters of Paul (assuming he wrote them before the Gospels were written). Because the letters of Paul are regarded as the earliest Christian documents and give a vague portrayal of Jesus, it is conjectured by some that the Gospel writers took the little biographical data that Paul gives to construct the Gospels, although others such as E. P. Sanders believe that the Gospels were written independently from Paul's letters.49, after fourteen years of preaching, Paul traveled to Jerusalem with Barnabas and Titus to meet with the leaders of the Jerusalem church — namely James the Just, Saint Peter, and John the Apostle; an event commonly known as the Council of Jerusalem. The accounts of Acts 15 and Galatians 2:1-10 view this event from different perspectives. Acts states that Paul was the head of a delegation from the Antiochene church that came to discuss whether new converts needed to be circumcised.
Some interpret this to mean whether Christians should continue to observe all of the Mosaic Laws, the most important being considered the practice of circumcision and dietary laws. This was said to be the result of men coming to Antioch from Judea and "teaching the brothers: 'Unless you are circumcised, according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved'" (Acts 15:1 KJV) (see Legalism). Paul states that he had attended "in response to a revelation", to "lay before them the gospel … [he] preached among the Gentiles" (Galatians 2:2 KJV), "because of false brethren secretly brought in, who slipped in to spy out our freedom which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into bondage" (Galatians 2:4 KJV). He stated (Galatians 2:2) that he wanted to make sure what he had been teaching to the Gentile believers in previous years was correct — one interpretation is that his teaching was that Christ's fulfillment of the Mosaic Law by death and resurrection had freed Christian believers from the need to obey Mosaic Law. (see Antinomianism, Supersessionism). A rumor that Paul aimed to subvert the Law of Moses is cited in Acts 21:21; however, according to Acts, Paul followed James' instructions to show that he "kept and walked in the ways of the Law".
Returning to Acts 15, after much debate and discussion, Peter says that "[God] made no distinction between us [Jews] and them [Gentiles], but cleansed their hearts by faith." (Acts 15:9 KJV), and James the Just (the brother of Jesus) states that "we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who are turning to God" (Acts 15:19 KJV). They sent a letter accompanied by some leaders from the Jerusalem church back with Paul and his party to confirm that the Gentile believers should not be overburdened by Mosaic Law beyond abstaining from food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals, and from sexual immorality. (Acts 15:29). The letter also refers to Barnabas and Paul as "beloved" (Acts 15:25 KJV); compare Paul's account "James, Cephas [Peter] and John, those reputed to be pillars, gave to me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship" (Galatians 2:9 KJV).
Peter also commends Paul's writings (2 Peter 3:15ff), however (as many subsequent readers have also noticed) comments that "His letters contain some things that are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable people distort, as they do the other Scriptures, to their own destruction" (NIV).
Despite the agreement they achieved at the Council as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter (accusing him of Judaizing) over his reluctance to share a meal with gentile Christians in the "Incident of Antioch" (Galatians 2:11 – 18). Acts recounts nothing of this, saying only that "some time later", Paul decided to leave Antioch — usually considered the beginning of his Second Missionary Journey — with the object of visiting the believers in the towns where he and Barnabas had preached earlier. However, Paul and Barnabas then had a severe falling-out over whether they should take John, surnamed Mark (Barnabas' cousin) with them or not, and they went on separate journeys (Acts 15:36 – 41) — Barnabas with John Mark, and Paul with Silas. Later on, there is some reconciliation — Paul mentions that John Mark is in prison with him, and tells the church in Colossae to welcome him if he comes to them (Colossians 4:10).
Founding of churches Edit
Paul spent the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor — this time entering Macedonia — and founded his first Christian church in Philippi, where he encountered harassment. Paul himself tersely describes his experience as "when we suffered and were shamefully treated" (1 Thessalonians 2:2 KJV); the author of Acts, perhaps drawing from a witness (this passage follows closely on one of the "we passages"), explains here that Paul exorcised a spirit from a female slave, ending her ability to tell fortunes, and reducing her value — an act the slave's owner claimed was "theft", wherefore he had Paul briefly sent to prison (Acts 16:22). Paul then traveled along the Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where he stayed for some time before departing for Greece. First he came to Athens, where he gave his legendary speech in Areios Pagos and said he was talking in the name of the "Unknown God" who was already worshipped there (17:16 – 34); then he traveled to Corinth, where he settled for three years, and wrote 1 Thessalonians, the earliest of his letters to survive.
Again he ran into legal trouble in Corinth: on the complaints of a group of Jews, he was brought before the proconsul Gallio, who decided that it was a minor matter not worth his attention, and dismissed the charges (Acts 18:12 – 16). From an inscription in Delphi that mentions Gallio, we are able to securely date this hearing as having occurred in the year 52, which aids in an accurate chronology of Paul's life.
Following this hearing, Paul continued his preaching (usually called his Third Missionary Journey), traveling again through Asia Minor and Macedonia, to Antioch and back. He caused a great uproar in the theatre in Ephesus, where local silversmiths feared loss of income due to Paul's activities. Their income relied on the sale of silver statues of the goddess Artemis, whom they worshipped; and the resulting mob almost killed him (Acts 19:21 – 41) and his companions. Later, as Paul was passing near Ephesus on his way to Jerusalem, Paul chose not to stop since he was in haste to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost. The church here, however, was so highly regarded by Paul that he called the elders to Miletus to meet with him (Acts 20:16 - 38).
Arrest, Rome, and later life Edit
Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem with the relief funds requested at the Council of Jerusalem (Galatians 2:10), Paul was recognized outside the Jewish Temple and was nearly beaten to death by a mob, who supposed that Paul had brought his traveling companion (a Greek) into the Temple, thus "defiling" it. After Paul's subsequent rescue by the Roman guard and Paul's imprisonment, Ananias the High Priest made accusations against Paul that resulted in his continued imprisonment awaiting various trials (Acts 24:1 – 5). Paul claimed his right, as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome; but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea Palaestina for two years until a new governor, Porcius Festus, took office, held a hearing, and sent Paul by sea to Rome, where he spent another two years in detention (Acts 28:30) in Rome.
Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and deathEdit
Acts describes Paul's journey from Caesarea to Rome in some detail. The centurion Julius had shipped Paul and his fellow prisoners aboard a merchant vessel, whereon Luke and Aristarchus were able to take passage. As the season was advanced, the voyage was slow and difficult. They skirted the coasts of Syria, Cilicia, and Pamphylia. At Myra in Lycia, the prisoners were transferred to an Alexandrian vessel transporting wheat bound for Italy. A place in Crete called Goodhavens was reached with great difficulty, and Paul advised that they should spend the winter there. His advice was not followed, and the vessel, driven by the tempest, drifted aimlessly for fourteen days, and finally wrecked on the coast of Malta. The three months when navigation was considered most dangerous were spent there, where Paul healed the father of the Roman Governor Publius from fever and other people who were sick. He also preached the gospel and placed Publius head of this church. With the first days of spring, all haste was made to resume the voyage.
Acts only recounts Paul's life until he arrived in Rome, around 61; and although the details are not specific it is clear that he traveled much of the eastern Mediterranean Sea coastal area for twenty years prior (around 40 to 60), in what are often referred to as the Four Missionary Journeys. Some argue Paul's own letters cease to furnish information about his activities long before then, although others (NIV Study Bibles, for example) date the last source of information being his second letter to Timothy, describing him languishing in a "cold dungeon" and passages indicating he knew that his life was about to come to an end. While Paul's letters to the Ephesians and to Philemon may have been written while he was imprisoned in Rome (the traditional interpretation), they may have been written during his earlier imprisonments at Caesarea, or at Ephesus.
We are forced to turn to tradition for the details of Paul's final years. One tradition holds (attested as early as in 1 Clement 5:7, and in the Muratorian fragment) that Paul visited Spain and Britain. While this was his intention (Romans 15:22 – 7), the evidence is inconclusive. Another tradition places his death in Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. One Gaius, who wrote during the time of Pope Zephyrinus, mentions Paul's tomb as standing on the Via Ostensis. While there is little evidence to support any of these traditions, there is no evidence contradicting them, and no alternative traditions of Paul's eventual fate. It is commonly accepted that Paul died as a martyr in Rome. According to Bede in Ecclesiastical History from Vatican library sources, his mortal remains were given to Oswy, King of Britain, by Pope Vitalian in AD 665.
Theological teachings Edit
Paul had several major impacts on the nature of Christian doctrine. The first was that of the centrality of faith within the life of Jesus, and the ability to attain righteousness through such. (Romans 3:22, Galatians 3:22, etc.). It was not until his later letter to the Corinthians that he alluded to the possibility of eternal life, and in turn was held to supersede the value of the Mosaic Law – a belief often expressed as "Jesus died for our sins" (as the spotless "Lamb of God" referred to by John the Baptist and John the Apostle). It is unclear how much of this idea is original to Paul; Jerome notes the existence in the 4th century of a Christian sect in Syria called the Ebionites who still observed the Mosaic Law, thus suggesting that at least some Christians may not have believed in the salvatory qualities of the Passion. The Didache does not have this concept. The Ethiopian Orthodox, who claim to be the only church free of Marcionism, still observe some Mosaic Laws. The Apostolic Constitutions, generally dated around the 3rd century, claiming to be from the Council of Jerusalem, are pro-Mosaic Law (see Acts 2.36; 6.19; 7.23). The Acts of the Apostles definitely depicts Paul as a Mosaic Law-observant Jew. For example, in Acts 15 he accepts a subset (see Noahide Laws) of the Law for new Gentile converts; in Acts 16 he personally circumcises Timothy, a Greek, even though his father is Greek, because his mother is of the Jewish faith; and in Acts 21, James challenges Paul about the rumor that he is teaching rebellion against the Law. Paul goes to Herod's Temple with four Nazarite pledges to show that he is not; however, when some people from Asia Minor (Paul's home area) see him, it starts a major riot. The assumption that Paul was anti-Law, (indeed that even Jesus was anti-Law), found its largest proponent in Marcion and Marcionism. However, there is some evidence suggesting that Paul's concept of salvation coming from the death of Jesus was not unique amongst early Christians; Philippians 2:5 – 11, expounds a Christology similar to Paul's, and has long been identified as a hymn of early Christians dated as existing before Paul's letter.
This belief of eternal life leads directly to the modern argument of justification by faith vs. justification by faith and works. Most Protestant denominations assert that Paul's teachings constitute a definitive statement that salvation comes only by faith and not by any external action of the believer. Roman Catholic and Orthodox theology disputes this, asserting that passages cited in Paul are being misinterpreted (as stated in 2 Peter 3:16), and that this interpretation is directly contradicted by James 2:24: "man is justified by works, and not by faith alone."(KJV)
Related to Paul's interpretation of the resurrection are his concepts of faith, which he explains through his explanation of Abraham (see Paul's letter to the Galatians), and of righteousness and the forgiveness of sins, Augustine of Hippo later elaborated upon this concept in his formulation of original sin.
In the New Testament, the doctrine of original sin is most clearly expressed by Paul's writings. His writings also express the doctrine that salvation is not achieved by conforming to Mosaic Law, but through faith in (or the faith of) Jesus. It is claimed this doctrine was confirmed at the Council of Jerusalem (see above). Paul was also one of the first Christians to expound the doctrine of Christ's divine nature.
One development clearly not original to Paul, (for example see Isaiah 56:6-8, Acts 10, proselyte), but for which he became a chief advocate, was the conversion of non-Jews (specifically those not circumcised) to Christianity. While a number of passages in the Gospels acknowledge that Gentiles might enjoy the benefits of Jesus, Paul claims to be "The Apostle to the Gentiles" – a title that can be traced to Galatians 2:8. His missionary work amongst Gentiles helped to raise Christianity beyond its initial reputation as a dissident (if not heretical) Jewish sect (see Jewish Christians), at least with the populace, if not the Roman Imperial party (see Constantine the Great).
Paul also manifests a strong doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Much of Romans, and particularly the ending to 2 Corinthians, portrays the Spirit in equality with God the Father and the Son. These references would later take shape as the doctrine of the Trinity. Paul's notion that the Holy Spirit dwells within all believers at the time of their conversion is integral to his soteriology, ecclesiology, missiology, and eschatology. Paul explains in his letter to the Galatians, that they received the Holy Spirit because of the promises of God to Abraham (Galatians 4:4-7). The apostle Paul testified to the Galatians, "If you be Christ's, then are you Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise." (Galatians 3:29 KJV)
Social views Edit
Paul's writings on social issues were just as influential on the life and beliefs of Christian culture as were his doctrinal statements.
In his letter to the Colossians, Paul expounds on how a follower of Christ should live a radically different life – using heavenly standards instead of earthly ones. These standards have highly influenced Western society for centuries. He condemns such things as impurity, lust, greed, anger, slander, filthy language, lying, and racial divisions. In the same passage, Paul extols the virtues of compassion, kindness, patience, forgiveness, love, peace, and gratitude (Colossians 3:1-17.)
Paul condemned "sexual immorality," saying "Flee from sexual immorality. All other sins a man commits are outside his body, but he who sins sexually sins against his own body" (1 Corinthians 6:18) – based on the moral laws of the Old Testament and the teachings of Jesus (Matthew 5:27|27-28; see also 1 Corinthians 6:9ff.; Ephesians 5:21 – 33, Colossians 3:1-17). Other Pauline teachings are on freedom in Christ (Galatians 5, 1 Corinthians 8, Colossians 2:6-23), proper worship and church discipline (1 Corinthians 11), the unity of believers (1 Corinthians 1:10-17, Ephesians 4:1-6), and marriage (1 Corinthians 7, Ephesians 5:21-33). Paul advocated celibacy or abstinence for the "believer" (unless married), and warned that either marriage or separation would bring trouble if not sanctioned by God beforehand. "And I would spare you," Paul explained.
Paul may have been ambivalent towards slavery, saying that pending the near return of Jesus, people should focus on their faith and not on their social status (1 Corinthians. 7:21ff.). He also instructed slaves to serve their masters faithfully (Ephesians 6:5ff), and that masters should be respectful of their slaves, as 'he who is both their Master and yours is in heaven, and there is no favoritism with him.' (Ephesians 6:9b (NIV)) Due to his authority, these views have had an influence in Western society into modern times; Paul's apparent failure to explicitly condemn slavery in his Epistle to Philemon has sometimes been interpreted as justifying the ownership of human beings, although chattel slavery is a relatively modern phenomenon.
Paul was not only establishing a new cultural awareness and a society of charity, but was also subverting Roman authority through language and action. Paul used titles to describe Jesus that were also claimed by the Roman Caesars, the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Seleucid Empire, and Alexander the Great. Augustus had claimed the titles "Lord of Lords", "King of Kings", and "Son of God" (as he was the adopted son of Julius Caesar, whom he declared to be a god). Alexander the Great claimed to be the son of Zeus and a virgin. When Paul refers to Jesus' life as the "Good News", evangelion in Koine Greek, he is using another title claimed by Augustus. Ancient Roman inscriptions had called Augustus the evangelon (good news) for Rome. Paul used these titles to expand upon the ethic of Jesus with words from and for his own place and time in history. If Jesus is lord, then Caesar is not, and so on. The ethic being that the Christian's life is not to be lived out of hope for what the Roman Empire could provide (legal, martial and economic advantage) or the pharisaical system could provide (legalistic, self-dependent salvation), (against this view see E. P. Sanders), but out of hope in the Resurrection and promises of Jesus. The Christianity which Paul envisioned was one in which adherents lived unburdened by the norms of Roman and Jewish society to freely follow the promise of an already established but not yet fully-present Kingdom of God, promised by Jesus and instituted in his own Resurrection. The true 'subversive' nature of Paul's ethic was not that the Church seek to subvert the Empire (vindication in full had already been promised), but that the Church not be subverted by the Empire in its wait for Christ's return.
- Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
Paul wrote a number of letters to Christian churches and individuals. However, not all have been preserved; 1 Corinthians 5:9 alludes to a previous letter sent by him to the Christians in Corinth that has clearly been lost. Those letters that have survived are part of the New Testament canon, where they appear in order of length, from longest to shortest. A subgroup of these letters, written from captivity, are called the "prison-letters", and tradition states they were written in Rome.
His possible authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews had been questioned as early as Origen. Since at least 1750, a number of other letters commonly attributed to Paul have also been suspected by some of having been written by his followers in the 1st century.
The Pauline Corpus:
Note: those considered to be the "prison-letters" are marked with an asterisk (*).
Undisputed Pauline Epistles (almost certainly authentic)
The "Deutero-Pauline Epistles" (a majority of scholars believe that these were not written by Paul, and hence give them this name)
The Pastoral epistles of Paul (sometimes considered a separate category; and suspected by over two thirds of scholars not to be of Pauline authorship)
Two further epistles attributed by some to Paul (since some of the prior epistles mention them) have been lost:
- Epistle to the Alexandrians (lost) Nothing is known of this letter apart from a brief mention in the Muratorian fragment that claims it was a Marcionite forgery.
- Epistle to the Macedonians (lost)
The following epistles are almost universally agreed to be pseudepigraphical (written by someone other than Paul who was nevertheless pretending to be him):
Legendary tradition Edit
From the mid-2nd century, orally transmitted legends that had grown up about the figure of Paul were embodied in written narratives, that applied contemporary literary conventions of realism and authenticity in order to give weight to this legendary oral core. Their tradition has been characterized (MacDonald 1983) as being in competition with the Pauline pastoral epistles. The pastoral epistles were accepted into the canon, as it developed in the 3rd century, while the legends continued their parallel, apocryphal career. The oral tradition was transmitted above all among women, MacDonald has asserted, and women appear more centrally in the legend than in the epistles, where they are relegated to the periphery.
- Main article: Acts of Paul and Thecla.
The main vehicle for the Pauline legend-cycle is the Acts of Paul and Thecla, which Origen mildly approved, but which attracted Tertullian's attention at the end of the 2nd century; he complained that the example of Thecla was being employed to legitimize women teaching and baptizing. According to the writing, she had been commissioned to do so by Paul himself. The simple folk who were endorsing such material were not reading it from a text, but transmitting oral traditions that seem to originate in the eastern Mediterranean (MacDonald). The literary version of these traditions was so despised by the Church, that only in the 20th century has a coherent text been pieced together from surviving fragments.
MacDonald suggests that the context of the Pastoral Epistles associated with the name of Paul – emphasizing order within conventional family formulas and the social legitimacy of the Church – should be seen as counter to the radical preaching and story-telling of roaming celibate women, represented in the legends. (MacDonald, 1983).
Christianity as mystery religion Edit
In his books The Mythmaker and Paul and Hellenism, Talmudic scholar Hyam Maccoby proposed a theory that Paul was actually a Gentile raised in an environment influenced by the popular Hellenistic mystery religions centered on dying and resurrected savior deities, and that he later converted to Judaism, hoping to become a Pharisee scholar. (There are no passages in the Talmud to validate this.) He found work in Jerusalem as a police officer of the Sadducee High Priest, who was a de facto Roman quisling in Jerusalem. Paul's work persecuting the enemies of the High Priest led to an internal conflict in his mind, which manifested itself while he was traveling to Damascus on a covert mission. Maccoby believes that Paul's revelation was thus actually a resolution of his divided self; Paul subsequently fused the mystery religions, Judaism and the Passion of Jesus into an entirely new belief, centered on the death of Jesus as a mystical atoning sacrifice. Maccoby considers Paul's claims to a Jewish background and Pharisaic education to be false, claiming that a number of passages in Paul's writings betray his ignorance of the Jewish Law. Maccoby also contends that Paul invented many of the key concepts of the Christian religion, and that the Gospels and other later Christian documents were written to reflect Paul's views rather than the authentic life and teaching of Jesus. Maccoby questions Paul's integrity as well:
- Scholars feel that, however objective their enquiry is supposed to be, they must always preserve an attitude of deep reverence towards Paul, and never say anything to suggest that he may have bent the truth at times, though the evidence is strong enough in various parts of his life-story that he was not above deception when he felt it warranted by circumstances. (Maccoby, 1986)
In this regard, 1 Corinthians 9:20-22:
- "To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews. To those under the law I became as one under the law (though I myself am not under the law) so that I might win those under the law. To those outside the law I became as one outside the law (though I am not free from God’s law but am under Christ’s law) so that I might win those outside the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the weak. I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save some." (NRSV)
Some small modern religious groups share Maccoby's views on Paul's doctrines. They see Paul as an apostate from Judaism. While the teachings of Jesus may be the basis of Christian ethics, they view Paul's teachings as the true basis of modern Christian beliefs such as the atoning death of Jesus and the concept of original sin.
Paul as usurper of the other Apostles Edit
A more critical view of Paul of Tarsus comes from the comprehensive work of A. Victor Garaffa. He maintains that Paul of Tarsus effectively usurped the authority of the remaining disciples, and the original Jerusalem Church operating under James the Just, the brother of Jesus. Using the New Testament works themselves as his primary source, Garaffa offers a reinterpretation of key passages, and suggests an aggressive power struggle is preserved in the canonical New Testament writings themselves. (An assessment of Paul of Tarsus from this viewpoint can be found online at The Pauline Conspiracy.)
Paul as a GnosticEdit
There are theories according to which Paul was a Gnostic and his letters include Gnostic themes. He does write at one point of having been taken up into the 'Third Heaven.' In this state he wrote he was not even sure whether he was in his body or not. There he wrote of having experienced things of which he could not speak. Orthodox Christianity in particular emphasizes the mystical dimensions of Paul's life and writings. See also Gnosticism and the New Testament
Paul as inclusivist Edit
Another alternative view was first set forth by Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697 – 1776). His view, based on the medieval Toledot Yeshu narratives, was that Saul of Tarsus was a devout and learned Pharisee, who (turning away from his early Shammaite views) came to believe in salvation for the Gentiles and under the guiding authority of the very learned and devout Simon Kepha (i.e., Saint Peter) set about refining a Noahide religion for the Gentiles based around the Jesus movement. Paul believed the advantage of the Jews was their being entrusted with the oracles of heaven, and that the law was upon them. But he opposed the Jewish Christians who insisted (under some kind of Shammaite influence) that Gentiles were beyond salvation unless they became Jews. Paul insisted that they need only their purified faith and was firmly against proselytizing. He did however insist that any man born of a Jewish woman be circumcised (for example Timothy upon whom he himself carried out the ceremony) and live under the Law. In recent years perhaps the most exemplary developers of Emden's view are the Orthodox Rabbi Harvey Falk and Pamela Eisenbaum. In this view, Paul is seen as a rabbi who understood the ruling that, although it would be forbidden to a Jew, shittuf (believing in the divine through the name of another) would be permissible for a Gentile despite the Noahide ban on idolatry. This is further backed up by Paul in his first letter to the Romans when he compliments them on their religion. Again when he spoke to the Greeks about a divinity in their pantheon called "The Unknown God", it can be understood that he was trying to de-paganise their native religions for the sake of their own salvation.
New perspective on Paul Edit
The "New Perspective on Paul" rose to prominence as a result of the work of E. P. Sanders in his 1977 book Paul and Palestinian Judaism, in which he argued that the Judaism of Paul's day had been wrongly caricatured by Protestant theology. Traditionally, it had been assumed that 1st century Judaism was a religion of "works" whereby Jews believed they had to earn their salvation by keeping the Law, and therefore when Paul spoke about "justification by faith" or the "justification of faith", he was referring to a new non-works-oriented way of salvation (being declared righteous by God) announced in Christ. Sanders reframed the context to make law-keeping and good works a sign of being in the Covenant (marking out the Jews as the people of God) rather than deeds performed in order to accomplish salvation. If Sanders' perspective was true, the traditional Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification may have needed rethinking, for the interpretive framework of Augustine of Hippo and Martin Luther, which had dominated Western Christian thinking for almost two millennia, was called into question.
Agent of RomeEdit
Joseph Atwill, in his book, Ceasar's Messiah, and David Icke, among others, believe that Paul was an agent of Imperial Rome in general and of the Roman Emperors in specific. Both state their belief that Paul was used, along with Josephus, to start a peaceful messianic movement to undermine the unrest and rebelliousness of Judea. (See also: Bible conspiracy theory)
The Mythicist PositionEdit
No discussion of Paul would be complete without the mention of the "mythicist" school of scriptural analysis, which is represented chiefly by G. A. Wells and Earl Doherty. This position holds that no historical Jesus of Nazareth ever existed, and that the Gospel accounts are a result of merging of the mythical cosmic savior Christ religion, preached by Paul and the Jerusalem apostles, a Midrashic construction of the passion story from Old Testament passages, and the anonymous collection of wisdom sayings known as the Q document that was in circulation in late first century Galilee. Though no book of Q in part or whole has ever been found.
According to this theory, therefore, the accounts about Paul in the Book of Acts are a fiction, which includes the famed Road to Damascus incident. Instead, Paul emerges either as a gnostic (see above), a preacher of Judaism with a Messianic bent, or a proponent of a docetic Christ. The position that the account of Paul in Acts is a fabrication is not, however, confined to the "mythicist" school of analysis, but shared with many scholars in the field of textual criticism, since, according to most interpretations of textual analysis, the account of Paul in Acts contradicts details that Paul himself specifies in his own epistles.
- Pamela Eisenbaum, "Is Paul the Father of Misogyny and Antisemitism?," Cross Currents 50, no. 4 (Winter 2000 – 2001).
- Badenas, Robert. Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective 1985 ISBN 0905774930 argues that telos is correctly translated as goal, not end, so that Christ is the goal of the Law, end of the law would be antinomianism
- Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0385247672.
- Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0802847781)
- Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law 1990 ISBN 0664250955
- Hart, Michael. The 100. Carol Publishing Group, July 1992. Paperback, 576 pages. ISBN 0806513500.
- Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0060155825.
- MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle : The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
- Epistles of Apostle Paul Bishop Alexander (Orthodox Christian perspective)
- St. Paul (Catholic Encyclopedia)
- The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber
- New Perspective on Paul
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul+of+Tarsus&action=history view authors)].| | <urn:uuid:1509e69e-38da-4c47-846a-cf672e45e2e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://christianity.wikia.com/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972456 | 9,461 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Point Pelee National Park of Canada
Birds of Point Pelee National Park
No Photo available
Petrel, Black-capped (Provincial Rarety)
-Pterodroma hasitata (Kuhl)
A rather heavy-bodied, stout billed petrel with a dark cap, accentuated usually by a white collar and with white tail coverts and white at base of tail. Upper parts sooty becoming brown or greyish brown on back, darker on wings. End of tail similar to wings. Base of tail and tail coverts white. Forehead, sides of head and neck white; with usually a white collar behind the dark cap. Under parts and wing linings white. Bill black, stout. There is a dark colour-phase, which, however, retains the white upper tail coverts. | <urn:uuid:b7f83970-237b-4f67-ac0c-8fefe30a1273> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/on/pelee/natcul/page4_E.asp?id=7&r=5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914174 | 171 | 2.78125 | 3 |
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ToxFAQsTM for Hexachlorocyclohexane
This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions about hexachlorocyclohexanes. For more information, you may call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-888-422-8737. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. This information is important because this substance may harm you. The effects of exposure to any hazardous substance depend on the dose, the duration, how you are exposed, personal traits and habits, and whether other chemicals are present.
Exposure to hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) happens mostly from eating contaminated food or by breathing contaminated air in the workplace. Exposure to high levels of HCH can cause blood disorders, dizziness, headaches, seizures, and changes in the levels of sex hormones. HCH has caused cancer in animals. α-, β-, γ-, and δ-HCH have been found in at least 146, 159, 189, and 126, respectively, of the 1,662 National Priority List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
What is hexachlorocyclohexane?
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) is a manufactured chemical that exists in eight chemical forms called isomers. One of these forms, gamma-HCH (or γ-HCH, commonly called lindane) is produced and used as an insecticide on fruit, vegetables, and forest crops. It is a white solid that may evaporate into the air as a colorless vapor with a slightly musty odor. It is also available as a prescription (lotion, cream, or shampoo) to treat head and body lice, and scabies. Lindane has not been produced in the United States since 1976, but is imported for insecticide use.
Technical-grade HCH was used as an insecticide in the United States and typically contained 10-15% γ-HCH as well as the alpha (α), beta (β), delta (δ), and epsilon (ε) forms of HCH. Virtually all the insecticidal properties resided in γ-HCH. Technical-grade HCH has not been produced or used in the United States in over 20 years.
What happens to hexachlorocyclohexane when it enters the environment?
- The components of technical-grade HCH have been found in soil and surface waters near hazardous waste sites.
- In the air, the different forms of HCH can exist as a vapor or attached to small particles such as soil and dust. The particles may be removed from the air by rain or degraded by other compounds in the atmosphere.
- HCH can remain in the air for long periods of time and travel great distances.
- In soil, sediments, and water, HCH is broken down to less toxic substances by algae, fungi, and bacteria, but this process can take a long time.
- HCH can accumulate in the fatty tissue of fish.
How might I be exposed to hexachlorocyclohexane?
- Eating food or drinking water contaminated with HCH.
- Breathing air contaminated with HCH in or near factories where products using γ-HCH are made.
- Through the skin when applied as a lotion or shampoo to treat lice or scabies.
- Workers involved in the formulation or application of products containing γ-HCH may be exposed to higher concentrations.
How can hexachlorocyclohexane affect my health?
Some people who breathed contaminated workplace air during manufacturing of pesticides, including γ-HCH, had blood disorders, dizziness, headaches, and changes in the levels of sex hormones. Some people who swallowed large amounts had seizures and sometimes died.
Animals fed γ- and α-HCH have had convulsions, and animals fed β-HCH have become comatose. All isomers can produce liver and kidney effects. Reduced ability to fight infection was reported in animals fed γ-HCH, and injury to the ovaries and testes was reported in animals given γ-HCH or β-HCH.
How likely is hexachlorocyclohexane to cause cancer?
Long-term oral administration of α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, or technical-grade HCH to laboratory rodents produced liver cancer. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that HCH (all isomers) may reasonably be anticipated to cause cancer in humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified HCH (all isomers) as possibly carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has determined that there is suggestive evidence that lindane (γ-HCH) is carcinogenic, but the evidence is not sufficient to assess its human carcinogenic potential. The EPA has additionally classified technical HCH and α-HCH as probable human carcinogens, β-HCH as a possible human carcinogen, and δ- and ε-HCH as not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.
How can hexachlorocyclohexane affect children?
Health effects observed in adults should also be of potential concern in children. Children can experience convulsions from exposure to γ-HCH. Accidentally eating high amounts of γ-HCH can kill a child. We do not know whether children are more susceptible than adults to health effects from exposure to γ-HCH. However, a study performed on rabbits showed that young animals had higher death rates and greater sensitivity than adults when γ-HCH was applied to the skin.
We do not know whether HCH causes birth defects in humans. Technical grade and γ-HCH do not cause serious birth defects in animals. HCH has been shown to cross the placenta in pregnant women. HCH has been detected in human breast milk, suggesting that it can be transferred to infants from women who nurse.
How can families reduce the risks of exposure to hexachlorocyclohexane?
- γ-HCH is a restricted use pesticide, it can be applied only by persons licensed and certified.
- If you work with HCH, take the necessary precautions to avoid bringing the dust home in your clothing or tools.
- If you use products containing γ-HCH, such as shampoos or lotions to treat lice, follow the directions for use carefully. There are alternatives that do not involve γ-HCH.
- Make sure you keep products containing γ-HCH in tightly covered containers stored in the original container, and out of the reach of children.
Is there a medical test to determine whether I've been exposed to hexachlorocyclohexane?
HCH isomers can be measured in blood, urine, body fat, breast milk, and semen of exposed persons. Samples of blood, urine, and semen can be collected at the doctor's office and sent to a laboratory that has the special equipment needed to measure the levels of HCH. These tests cannot tell the levels you were exposed to or whether you will experience adverse health effects. The urine of potentially exposed persons can be tested for breakdown products of HCH formed in the body to determine whether a person was exposed to HCH or to a group of chemicals similar to HCH.
Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?
The EPA recommends that drinking water that children consume for up to 10 days should not contain more than 1.2 mg of γ-HCH per liter of water (1 mg/L) and that drinking water for children consumed for lifetime should not contain more than 0.0002 mg/L.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a limit for γ-HCH in the workplace air of 0.5 mg per cubic meter of air (0.5 mg/m3) during an 8-hour workday, 40- hour workweek.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2005. Toxicological Profile for Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, and Delta-Hexachlorocyclohexane (Update). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Public Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
Where can I get more information?
If you have questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or environmental quality department or:
For more information, contact:
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop F-57
Atlanta, GA 30329-4027
Phone: 1-800-CDC-INFO · 888-232-6348 (TTY)
Email: Contact CDC-INFO
ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses resulting from exposure to hazardous substances.
Information line and technical assistance:
To order toxicological profiles, contact:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Phone: 800-553-6847 or 703-605-6000
Some PDF files may be electronic conversions from paper copy or other electronic ASCII text files. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors. Users are referred to the original paper copy of the toxicological profile for the official text, figures, and tables. Original paper copies can be obtained via the directions on the toxicological profile home page, which also contains other important information about the profiles.
The information contained here was correct at the time of publication. Please check with the appropriate agency for any changes to the regulations or guidelines cited.
- Page last reviewed: March 3, 2011
- Page last updated: May 6, 2014
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Deodorants only mask unpleasant odours."
New York, Aug 20 - Deodorants and antiperspirants are being more widely used and advertised than ever before, but did you know that they may actually make you smell worse in the long run?
According to a study, using antiperspirants causes actinobacteria - the microbes responsible for bad odour - to increase in our armpits.
To reach this conclusion, the study from University of Ghent in Belgium made eight participants stop using deodorant or antiperspirant for a month.
A control group that did not use deodorant regularly was asked to use it for a month.
The researchers analysed the diversity and abundance of subjects' armpit bacteria at various times before, during and for a few weeks after resuming the use of antiperspirant.
The researchers found a clear increase of actinobacteria, in the subjects using antiperspirants, said a report on realclearscience website.
The measures we utilise today do not take away the initial source: the odour causing bacteria, lead researcher Chris Callewaert was quoted as saying.
Deodorants only mask unpleasant odours.
We are now working on 'armpit bacterial transplantation' where we take away the bad bacteria from the armpit and replace it with the good bacteria of his/her relative who does not have a bad odour, Callewaert explained. | <urn:uuid:beac16ef-160a-448a-819a-47d88550a83c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nerve.in/news:2535002397496 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905348 | 302 | 2.6875 | 3 |
With the sesquicentennial commemoration of the Civil War upon us, a firm understanding what was at the root of the war between the states is key, and the National Park Service has provided that primer in an award-winning publication, Slavery: Cause and Catalyst of the Civil War.
Just 26 pages long, the booklet shouldn't be viewed as a thorough accounting of causes of the Civil War, the war itself, and its outcome, but rather as a foundational piece that addresses the underpinning of what launched the war between the states.
The booklet gets right to the point in the second paragraph, which is taken from a speech Alexander H. Stephens, the vice president of the Confederate States of America, gave in March 1861 in Savannah, Georgia.
The new constitution has put at rest, forever, all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institution African slavery as it exists among us, the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the 'rock upon which the old union would split.' HJe was right. What was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact.
But, the publication notes, other issues were at play, too. Some soldiers on both sides of the conflict feared for their way of life, and some on the North believed it was vital to preserve the Union, the booklet notes.
In addressing the issue of slavery and its role in the Civil War, the booklet provides a brief overview of slavery in the United States, noting that the first slaves arrived in 1619 in present-day Virginia aboard a Dutch ship. Other sections of the booklet delve into the economic role of slavery; how the drafters of the Constitution approached the issue of slavery; states rights; how the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which let each territory in the expanding nation decide whether to allow slavery, led to the birth of the Republican Party, and; the election of President Lincoln and his Emancipation Proclamation.
The booklet received top honors for "interpretive media--small book" from the National Association of Interpretation diring its national workshop late last year.
"This publication plays and important role in the National Park Service telling the story of slavery and its role in the beginning of the Civil War, especially as we commemorate the 150th anniversary of the conflict," said Park Service Director Jonathan Jarvis. "It is an honor to have the importance of the book and the hard work of our Southeast Region interpretive staff honored by the National Association for Interpretation."
The booklet grew from a site bulletin created by the Southeast Region's Divisions of Interpretation and Education and Cultural Resources.
The book is a great companion to another Park Service publication, the Guidebook to African American History in the National Parks. Released to coincide with the dedication of the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial in Washington, D.C., this 68-page book ($7.95) traces African American history in the parks from Adams National Historical Park to The National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom.
With content developed with the assistance of Park Service historians and interpreters, the softcover book does not attempt to be exhaustive in its approach to this integral aspect of U.S. of history. Indeed, each unit of the National Park System with African-American ties of some sort gets just one page of text with some accompanying photos.
But the text provides intriguing insights and, hopefully, will encourage readers to explore further on their own.
Both books can be purchased in Park Service museum stores throughout the National Park System or online at this site. | <urn:uuid:b2d109cc-c7f0-47c0-831f-297ed5ac4767> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2012/01/award-winning-national-park-service-publication-examines-slavery-and-civil-war9293 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952944 | 742 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Treaty of Saginaw
The Treaty of Saginaw (also known as the Treaty with the Chippewa) is a treaty made between Gen. Lewis Cass and the Native American tribes of the Great Lakes region on September 24, 1819.
Native Americans ceded a large tract of land (more than six million acres (24,000 km²), in the center lower peninsula of Michigan.
Text of the Treaty of Saginaw
ARTICLE 1. The Chippewa nation of Indians, in consideration of the stipulations herein made on the part of the United States, do hereby forever cede to the United States the land comprehended within the following lines and boundaries: Beginning at a point in the present Indian boundary line, which runs due north from the mouth of the great Anglaize river, six miles south of the place where the base line, so-called, intersects the same; thence, west, sixty miles; thence, in a direct line, to the head of Thunder Bay river; thence, down the same, following the course therefor, to the mouth; thence, northeast , to the boundary line between the United and the British Province of Upper Canada; thence, with the same, to the line established by the treaty of Detroit, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seven; thence with the said line to the place of beginning.
ARTICLE 2. From the cession aforesaid the following tracts of land shall be reserved, for the use of the Chippewa nation of Indians: One tract, of eight thousand acres, on the east side of the River Au Sable near where the Indians now live. One tract, of two thousand acres, on the river Mesagwisk. One tract, of six thousand aces, on the north side of the river Kawkawling, at the Indian village. One tract, of five thousand seven hundred and sixty acres, upon the Flint river, to include Reaum’s village, and a place called Kishkawbawee. One tract, of eight thousand acres, on the head of the River Huron, which empties into the Saginaw river, at the village of Otusson. One island in the Saginaw Bay. One tract, of two thousand acres, where Nabobask formerly lived. One, tract of one thousand acres, near the island in the Saginaw river. One tract, of two thousand acres, at the mouth of Point Au Gres river. One tract, of one thousand acres, on the river Huron, at Menoequet’s village. One tract, of ten thousand acres, on the Shiawassee river, at a place called the Big Rock. One tract, of three thousand acres, on the Shiawassee river, at Ketchewaundaugenick. One tract, of six thousand acres, at the Little Forks, on the Tetabawasink river. One tract, of six thousand acres, at the Black Bird’s town, on the Tetabawasink river. One tract, of forty thousand acres, on the Saginaw river, to be hereafter located.
ARTICLE 3. There shall be reserved for the use of each of the person hereinafter mentioned and their heirs, which persons are all Indians by descent, the following tracts of land: For the use of John Riley, the son of Menawcumegoqua, a Chippewa woman, six hundred and forty acres of land, beginning at the head of the first march above the mouth of the Saginaw river, on the east side thereof. For the use of Peter Riley, the son of Menawcumegoqua, a Chippewa woman, six hundred and forty acres of land, beginning above and adjoining the apple-trees on the west side of the Saginaw river, and running up the same for quantity. For the use of James Riley, the son of Menawcumegoqua, a Chippewa woman, six hundred and forty acres, beginning on the east side of the Saginaw river, nearly opposite to Campau’s trading house, and running up the river for quantity. For the use of Kawkawiskou, or the Crow, a Chippewa chief, six hundred and forty acres of land, on the east side of the Saginaw river, at a place called Menitegow, and to include, in the said six hundred and forty acres, the island opposite to the said place. For the use of Nowokeshik, Metawanene, Mokitchenoqua, Nondeshemau, Petabonaqua, Messawwakut, Checbalk, Kitchegeequa, Sagosoqua, Annoketoqua, and Tawcumegoqua, each, six hundred and forty acres of land to be located at and near the grand traverse of the Flint river, in such manner as the President of the United States may direct. For the use of the children of Bokowtonden, six hundred and forty acres, on the Kawkawling river.
ARTICLE 4. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States agree to pay to the Chippewa nation of Indians, annually, for ever, the sum of one thousand dollars in silver; and do hereby agree that all annuities due by any former treaty to the said tribe, shall be hereafter paid in silver.
ARTICLE 5. The stipulation contained in the treaty of Greenville, relative to the right of the Indians to hunt upon the land ceded, while it continues the property of the United States, shall apply to this treaty; and the Indians shall, for the same term, enjoy the privilege of making sugar upon the same land, committing no unnecessary waste upon the trees.
ARTICLE 6. The United States agrees to pay to the Indians the value of any improvements which they may be obliged to abandon in consequence of the lines established by this treaty, and which improvements add real value to the land.
ARTICLE 7. The United States reserve to the proper authority the right to make roads through any part of the land reserved by this treaty.
ARTICLE 8. The United States engage to provide and support a blacksmith for the Indians, at Saginaw, so long as the President of the United States may think proper, and to furnish the Chippewa Indians with such farming utensils, and cattle, and to employ such persons to aid them in their agriculture, as the President may deem expedient.
ARTICLE 9. This treaty shall take effect, and be obligatory on the contracting parties, so soon as the same shall be ratified by the President of United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof.
In testimony whereof, the said Lewis Cass, commissioner as aforehereunto set their hands, at Saginaw, in the Territory of Michigan, this twenty-fourth day of September, in the year of our Lord on thousand eight hundred and nineteen. | <urn:uuid:bb951eb5-fdcb-4cd7-919c-f4fcc96f2eb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/Treaty_of_Saginaw | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93073 | 1,466 | 3.703125 | 4 |
The one Civil War prison most people have heard about is Andersonville, which operated from February 1864 to April 1865. This book by William Marvel, originally published in 1994, is based on many firsthand accounts from diaries and journals of prisoners, guards, and locals.
Andersonville is actually the prisonís nickname. It was really called Camp Sumter, but the locals called it Camp Anderson because of its proximity to the local depot of Anderson Station, north of Americus, Georgia. The prison camp became so large - 41,000 prisoners - that it became one of the Confederacyís largest cities.
The chief reason for the overwhelming number of prisoners was that the Union had halted the exchange of prisoners, a move by General U.S. Grant to help stop the Confederate Army. This action eventually helped to dwindle the numbers in the Confederate Army, while the Union Army had a large number of reserves to call on.
The Confederacy had extreme difficulty feeding its army and people, and it certainly had a hard time feeding its prisoners. Confederate officials tried to ensure rations for the prisoners, but they could only provide what they could find. The food they did give to the prisoners did not help them to stay healthy; scurvy and other diseases were major problems without proper food necessary for the prisoners to stay healthy. Some dug up roots and other plants to supplement their rations, and there was a huge black market of foodstuff in the prison run by the prisoners themselves as well as guards and locals. Prisoners used what money they had or they bartered. As the war went on, the Confederate currency became almost worthless while the Unionís currency, the so-called greenbacks became valuable. It was illegal in the Confederacy to use greenbacks as legal tender, but many ignored this.
The prison had to be enlarged several times to house the 41,000 prisoners who were eventually imprisoned there. Marvel details how the prisoners lived and died, and presents the medical care that was available to the prisoners. The doctors tried mightily with what medicines they did have, but they had not yet learned about bacteria and other important discoveries that came later, such as sanitation methods.
How were the legions of dead taken care of? At first things were very well organized and honorable, and records were kept. But as time went along and more and more prisoners died, this careful attention fell by the wayside. Some days a hundred prisoners would die. The cemetery at Andersonville is huge. Around 13,000 ultimately died at the prison, and other Union dead were added to the cemetery.
Captain Henry Wirz, who was in charge of the prison, was not as cruel as he was falsely accused to be. A physically sick man, he really did not have total charge of the prison. Several other commanders were in charge of the guards and the supplying of the prison; another person was in overall charge of the prisons. This conflict in command structure complicated things for Wirz and his prisoners.
Wirz ended up being the scapegoat for all the misery of Andersonville, but many others really shared the responsibility - not least of all the Union government. Many of the prisoners themselves, acting in gangs or individually, took advantage of weaker prisoners, especially if they did not have others to help them. Captain Wirz was given a huge task but little power to do his job. At his trial, many false witnesses testified against him, saying that he was present at such-and-such a date for some event when in fact he was at home sick. The federal judge and others did not care; they just wanted to punish someone for the atrocities of Andersonville and to remove the public eye from the Unionís culpability. Captain Wirz was found guilty and hung, and his wife was not allowed to have his body to bury.
Marvel includes the story of the visit of Confederate photographer A. J. Riddle, who took several pictures of the prison, its prisoners, and the guards, providing a photographic record of the prison and its misery. Many of the pictures were staged, of course, in these early days of photography. Along with some of Riddleís photos, Marvel provides a map of the prisonís location in Georgia as well as a map of the prison. He provides extensive endnotes, and a bibliography includes unpublished and published works. An index is included at the end of the book.
The story of Andersonville is horrible, and too many suffered there. This book is highly recommended to those interested in the Civil War, its prisons, or in prisons in general.
William Marvel is the author of Leeís Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2006), Mr. Lincoln Goes to War (2006), A Placed Called Appomattox (1999), The Alabama and the Kearsarge (1996, to be reissued in February 2007), and of other books on the Civil War. | <urn:uuid:e356b48c-cb13-406c-bead-53058c2af734> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.curledup.com/andervil.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988676 | 1,002 | 3.796875 | 4 |
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virtual ISP(n.) An ISP that piggybacks its services off of a third-party provider in order to offer ISP services without the expenses and duties required in providing those services. The virtual ISP does not invest in any network, equipment or backroom/technical support needed to offer ISP services. The third-party provider handles all of the needs of the end user but is invisible to the end user who only sees the virtual ISP.
For example: Company A is an online retail bookseller that wants to extend its services to offer its customers ISP services to bring more value to its customers and to create a bigger brand name in the market. However, the company, being a retailer, does not have the resources to branch out into the ISP arena and therefore hires Company B, an existing ISP, to provide the ISP services. Company B creates a branded ISP for Company A so that Company A's customers think that they are getting their ISP services through the bookseller but in reality they are being provided the services by means of Company B, the real ISP, who remains invisible to the end user. In this way, Company A becomes a virtual ISP.
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Research led by Dr Frank Hirth at King's College London has shown that the protein 'alternative oxidase' can protect nerve cells in a fruit fly model of Parkinson's.
Frank (pictured above) answered these questions from Parkinson's UK in his final report.
"We wanted to understand why dopamine-producing nerve cells are specifically vulnerable in Parkinson's. If we can do this, we may be able to find ways to protect them.
"This could one day lead to treatments that slow or stop the progression of the condition.
Our findings in fruit flies can now be translated into studies in human cells.
"We set out to make a reliable animal model to study the connection between nerve cells'
energy-producing batteries, known as mitochondria, and Parkinson's.
"We have made fruit flies with faulty mitochondria. This new animal model shows some of the key features of Parkinson's, including movement problems and gradual loss of dopamine-producing nerve cells.
"We used these flies to test proteins for their ability to protect nerve cells.
"We found that 'alternative oxidase', which helps mitochondria to work in animals such as worms and sea squirts, stops the flies' nerve cells from dying.
"We hope to study how alternative oxidase protects nerve cells in our model, and work with other researchers to test this protein in mice and human cells.
Adult fruit fly shown on the tip of a pencil"We would like to use our flies to investigate why dopamine-producing nerve cells are particularly sensitive to the effects of faulty mitochondria.
We could also use them to screen new drugs.
Image right: An adult fruit fly
"Our findings in fruit flies can now be translated into studies in human cells.
"If alternative oxidase continues to show promise, it could be developed as a potential treatment."
The team have published a paper on their exciting findings:
Humphrey D et al (2012) 'Alternative oxidase rescues mitochondria-mediated dopaminergic cell loss in Drosophila' Human Molecular Genetics; in press
They have presented their work at scientific meetings in the UK, Germany and the US.
They have also visited our Ashford Branch, and they regularly describe their research to non-scientific audiences at university open days.
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Ecologists are concerned with ecosystems as a whole and, within them, the abundance and distribution of organisms and the relationships between organisms and their environment. Ecologists carry out a wide range of tasks depending on their specialist knowledge (e.g. freshwater, marine, terrestrial, fauna, flora).
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Thermal Management in Space Abe Hertzberg The vehicles and habitats associated 'with space industrialization and the exploitation of nonterrestrial resources will inevitably require energy systems far exceeding the current requirements of scientific and exploratory missions. Because of the extended duration of these missions, it is not possible to consider systems involving expendables such as nonregeneratable fuel cells. Therefore, these missions become hostages to the capability of continuous-power energy systems. These systems will need to provide hundreds of kilowatts to tens of megawatts of electrical power to a product fabrication system, whether it uses terrestrial or nonterrestrial raw materials.
Because the power system will be located in an essentially airless environment, rejecting waste heat becomes a limiting aspect of it. In the following paragraphs, I will review space-based or asteroidal and lunar based power generating systems, as well as the capability of existing technologies to dissipate this heat into the airless environment of space.
It should be pointed out that in a vacuum environment, convection is no longer available and the only mechanism of rejecting heat is radiation. Radiation follows the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
E = T4
E = the energy rejected , the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
= 5.67 W m-2 K-4
T = the temperature at which the heat is radiated
That is, the total amount of heat radiated is proportional to the surface area of the radiator. And the lower the radiation temperature, the larger the radiator area (and thus the radiator mass, for a given design) must be.
The radiator can only reject heat when the temperature is higher than that of the environment. In space, the optimum radiation efficiency is gained by aiming the radiator at free space. Radiating toward an illuminated surface is less effective, and the radiator must be shielded from direct sunlight.
The rejection of heat at low temperatures, such as would be the case in environmental control and in the thermal management of a materials processing unit, is particularly difficult. Therefore, the design and operation of the heat rejection system is crucial for an efficient space-based energy system.
Space-Based Power Generating Systems
In a previous paper, space-based power generating systems have been described in detail. Solar photovoltaic systems have a generating capability of up to several hundred kilowatts. The power output range of solar thermal systems is expected to be one hundred to perhaps several hundred kilowatts. While in principle these power systems can be expanded into the megawatt region, the prohibitive demands for collection area and lift capacity would appear to rule out such expansion. Megawatt and multimegawatt nuclear power reactors adapted for the space environment appear to offer a logical alternative. In this paper, I deal only with the burdens these three types of power system will place on the heat management system.
Solar photovoltaics themselves will not burden the power generating system with a direct heat rejection requirement, since the low energy density of the system requires such a great collection area that ii allows rejection of waste radiant energy. However, if these systems are to be employed in lo- Earth orbit or on a nonterrestrial surface, then a large amount of energy storage equipment will be required to ensure a continuous supply of power (as the devices, not collect energy at night). And the round-trip inefficiencies of even the best energy storage system today will require that a large fraction -perhaps 25 percent-o the electrical power generated must be dissipated as waste heat and at low temperatures. Solar thermal systems, which include a solar concentrator and a dynamic energy conversion system, are presumed to operate at relatively high temperatures (between 1000 and 2000 K). The efficiencies of the energy conversion system will lie in the range of 15 to perhaps 30 percent. Therefore we must consider rejecting between 70 and 85 percent of the energy collected. In general, the lower the thermal efficiency, the higher the rejection temperature and the smaller the radiating area required. As with solar photovoltaic systems, the inefficiencies of the energy storage system will have to be faced by the heat rejection system, unless high temperature thermal storage is elected.
The current concepts for nuclear power generating systems involve reactors working with relatively low efficiency energy conversion systems which reject virtually all of the usable heat of the reactor but at a relatively high temperature. Despite the burdens that this low efficiency places on nuclear fuel use, the energy density of nuclear systems is so high that the fuel use factor is not expected to be significant.
In all of these systems the output power used by the production system in environmental control and manufacturing (except for a small fraction which might be stored as endothermic heat in the manufactured product) will have to be rejected at temperatures approaching 300 K.
I think it fair to state that, in many of the sketches of space industrial plants I have seen, the power system is little more than a cartoon because it lacks sufficient detail to address the problem of thermal management. We must learn to maintain an acceptable thermal environment, because it is expected to become a dominant engineering consideration in a complex factory and habitat infrastructure.
As an example of the severity of this problem, let us examine the case of a simple nuclear power plant whose energy conversion efficiency from thermal to electric is approximately 10 percent. The plant is to generate 100 kW of useful electricity. The reactor operates at approximately 800 K, and a radiator with emissivity equal to 0.85 would weigh about 10 kg/m2. The thermal power to be dissipated from the reactor would be about 1 MW. From the Stefan Boltzmann Law, the area of the radiator would be about 50 m2 and the mass approximately 500 kg. This seems quite reasonable.
However, we must assume that the electricity generated by the power plant, which goes into life support systems and small-scale manufacturing, would eventually have to be dissipated also, but at a much lower temperature (around 300 K). Assuming an even better, aluminum radiator of about 5 kg/m2, with again an emissivity of 0.85, in this case we find that the area of the low temperature heat rejection component is 256 m2, with a mass approaching 1300 kg. (Using the Stefan-Boltzmann law [Stefan-Boltzmann Equation]) Therefore, we can see that the dominant heat rejection problem is not that of the primary power plant but that of the energy that is used in life support and manufacturing, which must be rejected at low temperatures. Using the waste heat from the nuclear power plant for processing may be effective. But, ironically, doing so will in turn require more radiator surface to radiate the lower temperature waste heat.
Heat Rejection Systems
In this section I will deal with systems designed to meet the heat rejection requirements of power generation and utilization. These heat rejection systems may be broadly classified as passive or active, armored or unarmored. Each is expected to play a role in future space systems, Heat pipes: The first of these, called the "heat pipe," is conventionally considered the base system against which all others are judged. It has the significant advantage of being completely passive, with no moving parts, which makes it exceptionally suitable for use in the space environment. For the convenience of the reader, I will briefly describe the operational mechanism of the basic heat pipe. (See figure 36 [Components and Principle of conventional Heat Pipe].) The heat pipe is a thin, hollow tube filled with a fluid specific to the temperature range at which it is to operate. At the hot end, the fluid is in the vapor phase and attempts to fill the tube, passing through the tube toward the cold end, where it gradually condenses into the liquid phase. The walls of the tube, or appropriate channels grooved into the tube, are filled with a wick-like material which returns the fluid by surface tension to the hot end, where it is revaporized and recirculated.
Essentially the system is a small vapor cycle which uses the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the tube as a pump to transport heat, taking full advantage of the heat of vaporization of the particular fluid.
The fluid must be carefully selected to match the temperature range of operation. For example, at very high temperatures a metallic substance with a relatively high vaporization temperature, such as sodium or potassium, may be used. However, this choice puts a constraint on the low temperature end since, if the fluid freezes into a solid at the low temperature end, operation would cease until the relatively inefficient conduction of heat along the walls could melt it. At low temperatures a fluid with a low vaporization temperature, such as ammonia, might well be used, with similar constraints. The temperature may not be so high as to dissociate the ammonia at the hot end or so low as to freeze the ammonia at the cold end.
With proper design, heat pipes are an appropriate and convenient tool for thermal management in space systems. For example, at modest temperatures, the heat pipe could be made of aluminum, because of its relatively low density and high strength. Fins could be added to the heat pipe to increase its heat dissipation area. The aluminum, in order to be useful, must be thin enough to reduce the mass carried into space yet thick enough to offer reasonable resistance to meteoroid strikes.
A very carefully designed solid surface radiator made out of aluminum has the following capabilities in principle: The mass is approximately 5 kg/m2 with an emissivity of 0.86; the usable temperature range is limited by the softening point of aluminum (about 700 K). At higher temperatures, where refractory metals are needed, it would be necessary to multiply the mass of the radiator per square meter by at least a factor of 3. Nevertheless, from 700 K up to perhaps 900 K, the heat pipe radiator is still a very efficient method of rejecting heat.
A further advantage is that each heat pipe unit is a self-contained machine. Thus, the puncture of one unit does not constitute a single-point failure that would affect the performance of the whole system. Failures tend to be slow and graceful, provided sufficient redundancy.
Pump loop system: The pump loop system has many of the same advantages and is bounded by many of the same limitations associated with the heat pipe radiator. Here heat is collected through a system of fluid loops and pumped into a radiator system similar to conventional radiators used on Earth. It should be pointed out that in the Earth environment the radiator actually radiates very little heat; it is designed to convect its heat. The best known examples of the pump loop system currently used in space are the heat rejection radiators used in the Shuttle. These are the inner structure of the clamshell doors which are deployed when the doors are opened (fig. 37 [Shuttle doors open]).
Pump loop systems have a unique advantage in that the thermal control system can easily be integrated into a spacecraft or space factory. The heat is picked up by conventional heat exchangers within the spacecraft, the carrier fluid is pumped through a complex system of pipes (extended by fins when deemed effective), and finally the carrier is returned in liquid phase through the spacecraft. In the case of the Shuttle, where the missions are short, additional thermal control is obtained by deliberately dumping fluid.
Since the system is designed to operate at low temperatures, a low density fluid, such as ammonia, may on occasion, depending on heat loading, undergo a phase change. Boiling heat transfer in a low gravity environment is a complex phenomenon, which is not well understood at the present time. Because the system is subjected to meteoroid impact, the basic primary pump loops must be strongly protected.
Despite these drawbacks, pump loop systems will probably be used in conjunction with heat pipe systems as thermal control engineers create a viable space environment. These armored (closed) systems are rather highly developed and amenable to engineering analysis. They have already found application on Earth and in space. A strong technology base has been built up, and there exists a rich literature for the scientist-engineer to draw on in deriving new concepts.
Advanced Radiator Concepts
The very nature of the problems just discussed has led to increased efforts on the part of the thermal management community to examine innovative approaches which offer the potential of increased performance and, in many cases, relative invulnerability to meteoroid strikes. Although I cannot discuss all of these new approaches, I will briefly describe some of the approaches under study as examples of the direction Of current thinking.
Improved conventional approaches: The continuing search for ways to improve the performance of heat Pipes has already shown that significant improvements in the heat Pumping capacity of the heat pipe can be made by clever modifications to the return wick loop. Looking further downtime at the problem of deployability, people are exploring flexible heat pipes and using innovative thinking. For example, a recent design has the heat pipes collapsing into a sheet as they are rolled up, the same way a toothpaste tube does. Thus, the whole ensemble may be rolled up into a relatively tight bundle for storing and deploying. However, because the thinwalled pipes are relatively fragile and easily punctured by meteoroids, more redundancy must be provided. The same principles, of course, can be applied to a pump loop system and may be of particular importance when storage limits must be considered. These are only examples of the various approaches taken, and we may confidently expect a steady improvement in the capability of conventional thermal management systems.
The liquid droplet radiator: The basic concept of the liquid droplet radiator is to replace a solid surface radiator by a controlled stream of droplets. The droplets are sprayed across a region in which they radiate their heat; then they are recycled to the hotter part of the system. (See figure 38 [Two concepts for a liquid Droplet Radiator].)
It was demonstrated some time ago that liquid droplets with very small diameters (about 100 micrometers) are easily manufactured and offer a power-to-mass advantage over solid surface radiators of between 10 and 100. In effect, large, very thin radiator sheets can be produced by the proper dispersion of the droplets. This system offers the potential of being developed into an ultralightweight radiator that, since the liquid can be stored in bulk, is also very compact.
The potential advantages of the liquid droplet radiator can be seen if we consider again the problem that was discussed at the end of the section on heat pipe radiators. We found that a very good aluminum radiator would require 256 m2 and have a mass of nearly 1300 kg to radiate the low temperature waste heat from lunar processing. Using the properties of a liquid droplet radiator and a low density, low vapor pressure fluid such as Dow-Corning 705, a common vacuum oil, we find that, for the same area (which implies the same emissivity), the mass of the radiating fluid is only 24 kg.
Even allowing a factor of 4 for the ancillary equipment required to operate this system, the mass of the radiator is still less than 100 kg.
To achieve efficiency, the designer is required to frame the radiator in a lightweight deployable structure and to provide a means of aiming the droplets precisely so that they can be captured and returned to the system. However, present indications are that the droplet accuracies required (milliradians) are easily met by available technology. Recently, successful droplet capture in simulated 0 g conditions has been adequately demonstrated. An advantage of a liquid droplet radiator is that even a relatively large sheet of such droplets is essentially invulnerable to micrometeoroids, since a striking micrometeoroid can remove at most only a few drops.
The reader may be concerned that the very large surface area of the liquid will lead to immediate evaporation. However, liquids have recently been found that in the range of 300 to 900 K have a vapor pressure so low that the evaporation loss during the normal lifetime of a space system (possibly as long as 30 years) will be only a small fraction of the total mass of the radiator.
Thus, the liquid droplet radiator appears promising, particularly as a low temperature system where a large radiator is required.
Liquid droplet radiators for applications other than 0 g have been suggested. For example, in the lunar environment fluids with low vapor pressures can be used effectively as large area heat dissipation systems for relatively large-scale power plants. We may well imagine that such a system will take on the appearance of a decorative fountain, in which the fluid is sprayed upward and outward to cover as large an area as possible. It would be collected by a simple pool beneath and returned to the system. Such a system would be of particular advantage in the lunar environment if low mass, low vapor pressure fluids could be obtained from indigenous materials. Droplet control and aiming would no longer be as critical as in the space environment; however, the system would need to be shaded from the Sun when it is in operation.
While this system is far less developed than the systems previously discussed, its promise is so high that it warrants serious consideration for future use, particularly in response to our growing needs for improved power management.
Belt radiator concepts: The belt radiator concept is a modification the liquid droplet concept in which an ultrathin solid surface is coated with a very low vapor pressure liquid (see fig. 39 [Belt Radiator]). While the surface-to-volume ratio is not limited in the same fashion as for cylindrical heat pipe, it does not quite match that of the liquid drop radiator. However, this system avoids the problem of droplet capture by carrying the liquid along a continuous belt by surface tension. The liquid plays a double role in this system by acting not only as the radiator but also as the thermal contact which picks up the heat directly from a heat transfer drum. Variations on this scheme, in which the belt is replaced by a thin rotating disk, are also feasible but have yet to be fully assessed.
the systems described are only indicative of the thinking which has been stimulated by the problem of thermal management. All of these systems, if developed, offer significant promise of improvement over the conventional armored systems.
Edmund J. Conway
Laser Power Transmission Edmund J. Conway Since their development, lasers have offered the potential of projecting large amounts of power onto a distant, small area. (Laser power was once measured in "gillettes," the thickness in number of razor blades it took to just stop the beam.) Initially, this characteristic seemed good for weapons (e.g., the laser rifle) and mining (thermal fracture or vaporization of rock). Actual applications later developed in the areas of cutting (anything from sheet metal to cloth), welding, scribing, and surgery.
One of the earliest proposals for the application of a highpowered laser in the civilian space program was made by Kantrowitz (1972). He proposed an Earth-to-orbit launch system in which a laser on the ground supplied thermal energy to a single species of rocket propellant (such as hydrogen). The removal of the oxidizer, no longer needed to release chemical energy for propulsion, reduced the lift-off weight of Earth-launched vehicles.
This and similar proposals on power and propulsion generated a great deal of speculation and study in the 1970s. These activities, although generally incomplete and sometimes contradictory, identified several themes:
From the studies, then, a general set of requirements are emerging for beaming power by laser to currently envisioned space ,missions. First, the laser must be capable of long-term continuous operation without significant maintenance or resupply. For this reason, solar- and nuclear-powered Iasers are favored. Second, the ,laser must supply high average power, on the order of 100 kW or greater for applications studied so far For this reason, continuous wave or rapidly pulsed lasers are required.
Since solar energy is the most available and reliable power source in space, recent research designed to explore the feasibility of laser power transmission between spacecraft in space has focused on solar-pumped lasers. Three general laser mechanisms have been identified:
Solar-Pumped Photodissociation Lasers
Several direct solar lasers based on photodissociation have been identified, including six organic iodide lasants that have been successfully solar pumped and emit at the iodine laser wavelength of 1.3 micrometers. (See figure 40 [Laser Power Station] for a possible application of such a laser.) Another lasant, 1Br, has been pumped with a flashlamp and lased at 2.7 m with a pulsed power of hundreds of wafts. One organic iodide, C3F7l, and lBr have been investigated intensively to characterize their operation. Several reports on experimental results and modeling have been published (Zapata and DeYoung 1983, Harries and Meador 1983, Weaver and Lee 1983, Wilson et. al 1984, DeYoung 1986). An important characteristic of the photodissociation lasers under consideration is that they spontaneously recombine to form the lasant molecule again. Both C3F7l and lBr do this to a high degree, permitting continuous operation without resupplying lasant, as is generally required for chemical lasers. In addition, C3F7l absorbs no visible light and thus remains so cool that it may require no thermal radiator except the pipe that recirculates the lasant. A variety of other lasants offering increased efficiency are under study.
Solar-Pumped Photoexcitation Lasers
Another group of direct solar-pumped lasers rely on the electronic-vibrational excitation produced by sunlight [Laser power to a Lunar Base] to power the laser action. Two systems are being actively studied. The first is a liquid neodymium (Nd) ion laser, which absorbs throughout the visible spectrum and emits in the near-infrared at 1.06 m . This lasant has lased with flashlamp pumping and is currently being tried with solar pumping, since calculations indicate feasibility. A second candidate of this sort is a dye laser, which absorbs in the blue-green range and emits in the red, near 0.6 m . These lasers offer good quantum efficiency and emission that is both of short wavelength and tunable. However, the lasers require extremely high excitation to overcome their high threshold for lasing, and the feasibility of achieving this with concentrated sunlight is still a question for further research.
Indirect Photoexcitation Lasers
Photoexcitation lasers driven by thermal radiation produced by the Sun are termed indirect solar-pumped lasers [Laser-Powered Lunar Prospecting Vehicle]. The lower pumping energy implies longer wavelength emission than with photodissociation lasers. Two lasers, the first blackbody-cavity-pumped laser (Insuik and Christiansen 1984) and a blackbody-pumped transfer laser (DeYoung and Higdon 1984), work on this principle. Molecules such as CO2 and N2O have lased with emission wavelengths between 9 m and 11 m . These lasers are inherently continuous wave and have generated powers approaching 1 watt in initial laboratory versions, with blackbody temperatures between 1000 K and 1500 K. While such lasers, powered by solar energy, may be used in space, they also offer great potential for converting to laser energy the thermal energy generated by chemical reactions, by nuclear power, by electrical power, or by other hightemperature sources.
Table of Contents | <urn:uuid:3e1a22f8-b9dd-4802-b518-8cb609b6174f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nss.org/settlement/nasa/spaceresvol2/thermalmanagement.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943645 | 4,809 | 3.421875 | 3 |
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Conflicts of Interest and the Founding Fathers
Monday, February 19th, 2007
Fred Anderson's review of Gordon S. Wood's book Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different in a recent issue of the New York Review of Books contains a passage on government ethics that gives an interesting context to our thoughts about it.
'Eighteenth-century British America ... was dominated socially and politically by 'gentlemen'' a comparatively tiny minority of men whose liberal education and public spirit, so it was thought, enabled them to perceive the common good, and whose fortunes gave them the leisure to pursue it without compromising their livelihoods. Such advantages of wisdom and wealth obliged gentlemen to take the lead in public life. Those who did so demonstrated their 'virtue,' or ability to rise above the self-interest that absorbed the energies and limited the views of lesser men. All of the Founders, Wood argues, aspired to this kind of leadership.'
One thing that makes them special is that they were not born to this. 'Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison were the first in their families to acquire the much-prized mark of gentility, the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Franklin and Washington, who lacked college educations, compensated by relentless self-improvement.'
But an education was not enough. 'Above all, to become a gentleman meant that one had to be acknowledged as such; which is to say, one needed to have the 'character' of a gentleman. Whereas modern Americans equate character with a person's inmost moral qualities, the eighteenth-century conception conflated personal integrity with the older idea of character as public reputation. Aspiring young men were literally 'given a character' when older, established gentlemen testified to their worth by supporting them as candidates for political office or appointing them to positions of public trust.'
Wood uses Aaron Burr as an exception to this. For Wood, Burr's treason was not his conspiracy against the U.S. government, but 'his willingness to use politics for private gain.'
So when we talk about the importance of government ethics, we are talking about an ideal that was being lived at the founding of our country, but which is now an ideal that people can follow or not. In fact, what was considered a virtue of gentlemen is now more commonly thought a virtue of women, but will probably become less so as more women rise into positions of power. As it is, most people accept that most municipal politicians are in it for private gain, no matter how often they say they act out of public service.
But it is worth reminding ourselves, and others, that this high ideal of seeking a true public reputation was, to a large extent, lost during the Jacksonian period, and only came back into our culture in early twentieth-century progressivism, which was led by people who thought of public service much as the founding fathers did. Although government ethics has taken root in our culture, it is the well-fertilized culture of Jacksonian democracy, where the goal was getting what you could get.
We are lucky to have the founding fathers as role models, even if few of us are like them. What is important is that we aspire to the best of their values, and that we are not ashamed to say so, and to mean it.
Director of Research, City Ethics | <urn:uuid:e3016e94-8394-40eb-b84c-1a6833bbeffc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cityethics.org/node/224 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979227 | 694 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Caravaggio and the Painters of the North
From 21 June to 18 September 2016
The Master of Frankfurt was a painter active in Antwerp in the late 15th and early 16th century. His name derives from two important commissions that he executed: The Holy Kinship and The Crucifixion. The first is now in the Historisches Museum and the second in the Städelsches Kunstinstitut, both in Frankfurt. Max Friedländer attributed the present painting to the Netherlandish school due to the evident influence of Flemish artists such as Rogier van der Weyden and Robert Campin. In the foreground the panel depicts the Virgin with the Infant Christ seated on her lap. Behind them on the left we see Saint Joseph offering the Christ Child an apple in an allusion to Original Sin and to Christ’s role as Redeemer. The Virgin and Child both hold carnations, while the Child also has a basket of roses in reference to his Passion. This anonymous painter located his composition in an open setting with a succession of relatively well-constructed spatial planes. Colin Eisler considered this painting to be inspired by Martin Schongauer’s engraving of The Virgin and Child on a grassy Bank.
The Master of Frankfurt derives his name from the city in which his most important works are to be found. They comprise two altarpieces, one of The Holy Kinship of around 1505 painted for the Dominican church and now in the Historisches Museum, and the other a triptych of The Crucifixion commissioned by Claus Humbracht, a member of one of the city’s most influential families (now in the Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt). Attempts have been made to identify this anonymous artist with the painter Hendrik van Wueluwe, who was from the Woluwe region and is documented in Antwerp between 1483 and his death in 1533. Van Wueluwe occupied the position of dean of the painters’ guild in Antwerp on various occasions. The Master of Frankfurt, who had a very active workshop, is considered to have painted two celebrated works now in the Musée royal des Beaux-Arts Antwerp: Festival of the Archers of around 1493 and Portrait of the Artist and his Wife of 1496. In addition to the year of its execution, the latter painting also includes the ages of the figures, which has allowed the artist’s date of birth to be placed around 1460. In addition, it is one of the first double portraits to be painted in the Low Countries. The Master of Frankfurt’s style looked to traditional models developed by earlier generations of Flemish painters such as Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes, while details from the Lower Rhine School are also evident to a lesser degree.
The Holy Family was in the Piérard collection in Valenciennes where it was catalogued as a work of the School of Van Eyck. In 1928 it was documented in the Hoogendijk collection, entering the Rohonz collection that same year, and in whose catalogues it appears from 1930.
The painting was first published by Friedländer who attributed it to the Master of Frankfurt, an attribution that has been retained to the present day. The composition depicts a tranquil episode from the childhood of Christ and incorporates various symbolic elements. Mary, with the Infant Christ on her knees, fills the centre of the composition with her frontal pose and majestic volume. Saint Joseph on one side, who is awkwardly inserted into the composition, offers Christ an apple in an overt reference to Original Sin and to Christ’s role as Redeemer. Despite the message that it conveys, the image is very much of its time with a new emphasis on the secular in the setting, the poses and the objects held by the figures. Mary holds some pinks in her hand, as does the Christ Child who also plays with a basket of roses whose red flowers refer to his future Passion. The artist does not fully dominate the recession of the planes into the pictorial depth, introducing the viewer into the composition through the thick carpet of leaves and flowers in the foreground that functions to emphasis the figures’ frontal presentation. Despite these inaccuracies, however, the Master of Frankfurt created a refined and elegant work. Among precedents for the composition Colin Eisler suggested the influence of Martin Schongauer’s print The Virgin and Child on a grassy Bench. Due to the presence of pentimenti in the underdrawing, Eisler considered that the present panel is an autograph work by the Master of Frankfurt. He rejected Goddard’s idea that it involves a high degree of workshop participation. | <urn:uuid:41ddfcad-5f31-43f2-903b-1c8fbf4a8809> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/ficha_obra/263 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960774 | 993 | 2.75 | 3 |
US President Barack Obama’s administration hopes to fight global warming with the geeky power of numbers, maps and even gaming-type simulations.
The White House announced yesterday an initiative to provide private companies and local governments better access to already public climate data. The idea is that with the data they can help the public understand the risks they face, especially in coastal areas where flooding is a big issue.
The US government is also working with high-tech companies, such as Google, Microsoft and Intel, to come up with tools to make communities more resilient in dealing with weather extremes. They include computer simulations for people to use and see what would happen with rising seas and other warming scenarios. Also, companies will hold brainstorming sessions with computer programmers aimed at designing new apps on disaster risk, the initiative said.
NASA and the US National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration will try to get people to create simulations to understand flooding risks in an upcoming coastal flooding challenge. One effort would include putting sensors on Philadelphia city buses to collect data to track the effect of climate change, the White House said.
White House advisers John Podesta and John Holdren said in a blog the idea is to create easy-to-use tools for the average person to prepare people to be more resilient to the prospects climate change are believed to present.
Climate scientist Chris Field of the Carnegie Institution for Science, chief author of a massive UN affiliated report to be released this month on the impacts of global warming, hailed the efforts.
“It is especially important for people, communities and firms to understand the features of their environment and their operations that create climate risk,” Field said in an e-mail. “We need a serious, sustained conversation about climate change and dealing with it in a responsible manner.”
The federal government plans a Web site for climate data at http://climate.data.gov. | <urn:uuid:cbe9bb5d-4da6-4fc4-9b09-25d7394ee974> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2014/03/20/2003586136 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943549 | 381 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Did you know arm span ( or reach ) is approximately equal to height?
We tested this out against a wall using chalk to mark reach and then standing next to the wall to see if it matched height. You should measure from finger tip to finger tip and not have a flat hand as in this photo.
We found my 6 year old’s arm span did equal his height and my 4 year old was a little taller than hers.
Ape index is the ratio of arm span relative to their height. So my little boy had an ape index of 1.
A arm span greater than height is thought to be advantageous in some sports such as swimming, as longer arms may give greater propulsion. A shorter arm span is useful for weight lifters as they don’t have to lift the weight as high.
Can you work out your Ape Index?
Can you work out how many feet tall you are too? | <urn:uuid:a0f1328b-fbf5-4e60-a85f-5280766bedb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.science-sparks.com/2013/05/21/is-your-arm-span-equal-to-your-height/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977495 | 190 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Humans aren't the only creatures to exploit the anti-fungal properties of some bacteria.
Learn about phobias to snakes and spiders on this edition of A Moment of Science.
Imagine that you're an insect, and that you've fallen ill because some bacteria or parasites have invaded your body. What do you do?
Potter's fascination with animals and plants began long before her literary career.
What do you think, is shelf fungus the tree's friend or foe?
A discovery by students at Yale University might one day mean we can throw plastic into the compost pile.
Scientists have found zombie ants in the Brazilian rainforests.
In 1928, Alexander Fleming was studying the bacterium, Staphylococcus, when some of the bacteria became contaminated with Penicillium...
People have used moldy and fermented substances to treat wounds for over three thousand years. Learn about the history of antibiotics.
Could pumpkins help prevent infections and disease? A new study says, "Yes!" | <urn:uuid:dac21efc-f5e2-4f76-8ae6-78e81f48c251> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/tag/fungi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939147 | 208 | 3 | 3 |
Climate change is occurring with extreme rapidity. Recent news headlines warn us: “Earth Could Warm 11 Degrees by 2100,” “Huge Antarctic Ice Sheet Is Collapsing,” and “Climate Change Risks Security and Wars.” — and this is just the beginning.
Had extreme measures been inaugurated worldwide 20 years ago to sharply curtail reliance on fossil fuels, much of what we are now experiencing — unwelcome temperature change, dangerous storms, droughts, floods, etc. — would have been minimized. But to this day Washington is among the tiny minority of countries that have refused to ratify the basic UN document on climate change, the Kyoto Protocol.
The current stage of the climate crisis will afflict our Earth for innumerable generations to come, creating increasing havoc. Stage one will eventually transform to a crueler stage two later this century and other stages eventually unless severe measures are introduced immediately. We know the dire consequences for future generations if we fail to act immediately.
David Suzuki got it right when he said on the Bill Moyers PBS program this month: “Our politicians should be thrown in the slammer for willful blindness…. I think that we are being willfully blind to the consequences for our children and grandchildren. It’s an inter-generational crime.” | <urn:uuid:69e5d914-6c09-489b-b258-f69619e789d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://laudyms.wordpress.com/category/crime/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93125 | 268 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The full PDF can be viewed by following the link below the excerpt.
Catholic Tradition: CATHOLIC ARGUMENTS FOR THE BIBLE PLUS TRADITION
One of the basic differences between Catholics and Protestants is over whether the Bible alone is the sufficient and final authority for faith and practice, or the Bible plus extrabiblical apostolic tradition. Catholics further insist that there is a need for a teaching magisterium (i.e., the Pope and their bishops) to rule on just what is and is not authentic apostolic tradition. Catholics are not all agreed on their understanding of the relation of tradition to Scripture. Some understand it as two sources of revelation. Others understand apostolic tradition as a lesser form of revelation. Still others view this tradition in an almost Protestant way, namely, as merely an interpretation of revelation (albeit, an infallible one) which is found only in the Bible. Traditional Catholics, such as Ludwig Ott and Henry Denzinger, tend to be in the first category and more modern Catholics, such as John Henry Newman and Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, in the latter. The language of the Council of Trent seems to favor the traditional understanding.3 Whether or not extrabiblical apostolic tradition is considered a second source of revelation, there is no question that the Roman Catholic church holds that apostolic tradition is both authoritative and infallible. It is to this point that we speak now.
Catholic Tradition: The Catholic Argument for Holding the Infallibility of Apostolic Tradition
The Council of Trent emphatically proclaimed that the Bible alone is not sufficient for faith and morals. God has ordained tradition in addition to the Bible to faithfully guide the church. Infallible guidance in interpreting the Bible comes from the church. One of the criteria used to determine this is the “unanimous consent of the Fathers.”4 In accordance with “The Profession of Faith of the Council of Trent” (Nov. 13, 1565), all faithful Catholics must agree: “I shall never accept nor interpret it [‘Holy Scripture’] otherwise than in accordance with the unanimous consent of the Fathers.”5 Catholic scholars advance several arguments in favor of the Bible and tradition, as opposed to the Bible only, as the final authority. One of their favorite arguments is that the Bible itself does not teach that the Bible only is our final authority for faith and morals. Thus they conclude that even on Protestant grounds there is no reason to accept sola Scriptura. Indeed, they believe it is inconsistent or self-refuting, since the Bible alone does not teach that the Bible alone is the basis of faith and morals. In point of fact, argue Catholic theologians, the Bible teaches that apostolic “traditions” as well as the written words of the apostles should be followed. St. Paul exhorted the Thessalonian Christians to “stand fast and hold the traditions which you were taught, whether by word or epistle” (2 Thess. 2:15; cf. 3:6). One Catholic apologist even went so far as to argue that the apostle John stated his preference for oral tradition. John wrote: “I have much to write to you, but I do not wish to write with pen and ink. Instead, I hope to see you soon when we can talk face to face” (3 John 13). This Catholic writer adds, “Why would the apostle emphasize his preference for oral Tradition over written Tradition…if, as proponents of sola Scriptura assert, Scripture is superior to oral Tradition?”6 Roman Catholic apologist Peter Kreeft lists several arguments against sola Scriptura which in turn are arguments for tradition: “First, it separates Church and Scripture. But they are one. They are not two rival horses in the authority race, but one rider (the Church) on one horse (Scripture).” He adds, “We are not taught by a teacher without a book or by a book without a teacher, but by one teacher, the Church, with one book, Scripture.”7 Kreeft further argues that “sola Scriptura violates the principle of causality; that an effect cannot be greater than its cause.” For “the successors of the apostles, the bishops of the Church, decided on the canon, the list of books to be declared scriptural and infallible.” And “if the Scripture is infallible, then its cause, the Church, must also be infallible.”8 According to Kreeft, “denominationalism is an intolerable scandal by scriptural standards — see John 17:20-23 and I Corinthians 1:10-17.” But “let five hundred people interpret the Bible without Church authority and there will soon be five hundred denominations.”9 So rejection of authoritative apostolic tradition leads to the unbiblical scandal of denominationalism. Finally, Kreeft argues that “the first generation of Christians did not have the New Testament, only the Church to teach them.”10 This being the case, using the Bible alone without apostolic tradition was not possible. | <urn:uuid:3d51effa-a523-4eda-bcb5-ed45dcbd0bcd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.equip.org/articles/catholic-tradition-an-argument-for-tradition-plus-the-bible/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952474 | 1,060 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Franz Liszt Quote
Picture Source: Wikimedia CommonsFranz Liszt
Born: October 22, 1811
Died: July 31, 1886 (aged 74)
Bio: Franz Liszt ; in Hungarian: Liszt Ferencz, in modern use Liszt Ferenc ; from 1859 to 1867 officially Franz Ritter von Liszt was a 19th-century Hungarian composer, pianist, conductor, and teacher. | <urn:uuid:7988c86b-8719-48d2-bb60-bfee657da318> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://izquotes.com/quote/113285 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882382 | 97 | 2.8125 | 3 |
I’m volunteering with a medical/dental mission to Cambodia. I’m concerned about the incidence of TB, and if I’m infected, how soon I could tell? I work closely with children and don’t want to expose them to TB after my return. Should I be tested?
Dr. Schreiber chose Family Medicine because she loved the idea of caring for patients at all stages of life. "To care for such a variety of people with such a variety of medical challenges is wonderfully rewarding. In particular, I enjoy women’s health, and feel that Family Medicine offers me the opportunity to manage non-surgical gynecology in the context of the whole body and its medical and psychosocial complexities", says Dr. Schrieber.
Most people infected with tuberculosis (TB) never get an active infection, which is when it is contagious from one person to the other. Those infected usually develop latent TB, which means that the bacteria lies dormant in the body. In this state, it does not cause illness, nor is it contagious.
Those who do not have a robust immune system, such as those with HIV, cancer, or autoimmune disease, are susceptible to developing active TB, which is contagious and can be deadly.
The conversion from exposure to active TB takes years. In those who never fight the disease successfully (i.e. those without a strong immune system at the time they are infected) have what is referred to as primary TB. It takes up to three years to develop primary TB, not days to weeks like most infections.
Latent TB can become active at any time throughout life if an infected individual becomes susceptible, such as if they develop cancer or get HIV. At that point it would be contagious.
Now, as far as your trip to Cambodia is concerned, if you may be exposed to those with active TB, you should wear a special mask which is fitted for your face and specially made to keep out TB. Contact the health department or the organizers of your trip to find out how to obtain one.
When you get home, annual TB testing required by schools should pick up a latent infection which could be treated (eradicated from your body) to prevent you from developing active, contagious disease later on.
I am not aware of any specific guidelines as to when to test, but three to six months after you return should be enough time to have converted to a positive test in those infected. As long as you do not have active disease, you will not be putting others at risk. | <urn:uuid:8a384b0f-d577-454c-9322-9d4e5a0573f6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.mylifestages.org/asktheexpert/QuestionAnswer.page?questionid=2620 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967015 | 523 | 2.796875 | 3 |
This question was attempted by majority of the candidates and the performance was good.
In (a)(i) and (ii), candidates correctly stated Pauli’s Exclusion principle and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity as follows:
(i) Two electrons in the same orbital of an atom cannot have same values for all four quantum numbers/no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers/ no two electrons in the same orbital of an atom can have the same spin.
(ii) Electrons occupy each orbital singly first before pairing takes place in a degenerate orbital/the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.
In (b)(i), only few candidates correctly wrote the electronic configuration of Cu+ and Cu2+
The expected response from candidates was as follows:
Cu+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
Cu2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 9
In (b)(ii), majority of the candidates did not know that Cu+ had no unpaired electron and Cu2+ had only one unpaired electrons.
In (b)(iii), most candidates wrote either “reduction” or “oxidation” instead of redox or disproportionation
In (b)(iv), candidates were able to write Cu2O/CuCl/Cu2Cl2 as the formula of one compound of Cu+.
In (c)(i), most candidates knew that gamma rays penetrate lead block and alpha particles will be stopped by thin paper. In (c)(ii), they were able to give the charge on each of the radiations as electrically neutral and positively charged respectively.
In (c)(iii), candidates correctly gave nuclear fusion, nuclear fission and half – life respectively, for each of the nuclear processes.
In (d), only few candidates correctly arranged the ions in order of increasing size with a reason as follows:
Li+, Na+, K+; Size increases down a group as more shell are being added.
F-, O2-, N3-; Size increases as nuclear charge decreases in the same period/isoelectronic.
In (e), candidates correctly determined the percentage composition of phosphorus and oxygen in phosphorus (V) oxide as follows:
Phosphorus (V) oxide = P4 O10 /P2O5
[Any other correct method was accepted]
= (31 x 4) + (16 x 10) OR (31 x 2) + (16 x 5)
= 124 + 160 OR 62 + 80
= 284 OR 142
% by mass of phosphorus = 4P x 100% OR 2P x 100%
P4 O10 P2 O5
= 124 x 100% OR 62 x 100%
or 100 – 43.7 = 56.3% Oxygen | <urn:uuid:f4e8b74e-2f97-45f0-a2af-af8883d5371f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://waeconline.org.ng/e-learning/Chemistry/chem217mq1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917863 | 611 | 3.515625 | 4 |
A doctor at Childrens Hospital in Boston suggests that daily use of inhaled steroids may not be enough to control asthma in some children.
Dr. Gregory Sawicki insists that a study of 914 children with mild to moderate asthma has shown that over a period of one-year, children who used inhaled steroid consistently were 20 per cent less likely to report having well-controlled asthma in comparison to non-users of steroids.
The findings remained same even when the severity of the childrens asthma was taken into account.
"There may be several reasons for our findings; It is possible that some children are genetically less responsive to steroids. In addition to issues of medication adherence and inability to completely control for differences in underlying asthma, severity can never be completely ruled out," says Dr. Sawicki.
He, however, conceded that further studies are required to understand what makes some children not to respond to steroids.
"But this issue hasnt been looked at closely in children. Further studies are needed to see what is different about children who dont respond to steroids, to see if there is a way to predict whether a child will respond to inhaled steroids," he said.
During the study, 435 children were recommended for inhaled steroids treatment, all of whom had persistent asthma. Whereas most of the participants in the control group reported well-controlled asthma.
In the experimental group, 44 per cent of the participants reported that they had been consistently using the medicine, while in the control group, 35 per cent said they intermittently used the medicine, and 21 per cent said they didnt use it at all.
"The majority of children with mild asthma are less likely to have symptoms as they get older and may not need to be on daily steroids," Dr. Sawicki said.
"The flip side is that if a child has poor asthma c
ontrol, the parents and doctor need to make sure the child is adhering to their inhaled steroid treatment. But variation in response to inhaled steroids, as other medications, is well described," he added.
The study was presented at the American Thoracic Society 2007 International Conference. Related medicine news :1
. Inhaled Steroids Safe & Effective for Children with Asthma2
. Inhaled Corticosteroids Found To Have No Significant Effect On COPD3
. The Effectiveness Of Inhaled Corticosteroids Studied 4
. The Effectiveness Of Inhaled Corticosteroids Studied 5
. Inhaled nitric oxide therapy does not reduce death risk of infants6
. New Drug Exubera (Oral Inhaled Insulin) To Be Monitored By Pfizer7
. HIIP- A Novel Inhaled Insulin Delivery System As An Alternative To Injectable Insulin Therapy8
. Inhaled Insulin To Be Made Available in India9
. Inhaled Insulin Could Rock The Drug Market Soon10
. High Cost Forces NHS To Reject Inhaled Insulin11
. Inhaled Cyclosporine Results In Rejection Free Survival among Lung Transplant Patients | <urn:uuid:54593231-b55f-4627-8f38-b8eb5be78675> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news/Use-of-Inhaled-Steroids-on-Daily-Basis-may-Not-Control-Childhood-Asthma-21440-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950775 | 640 | 2.84375 | 3 |
OCD & Contamination Fears: Feared Outcomes (Example: HIV/AIDS)Posted by Steven J. Seay, Ph.D. in Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- Germs and getting sick.
- Making others sick.
- Developing an incurable illness in the future.
- Experiencing extreme and uncontrollable disgust or distress.
- Other unwanted negative outcomes related to the spread of germs, contaminants, or other agents.
Given the idiosyncratic nature of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), I thought it would be useful to talk a bit more about feared outcomes.
Feared outcomes can be very different for different people, even when you’re dealing with the same surface obsession. Moreover, sometimes the immediate feared outcome (getting sick) differs from the ultimate feared outcome (dying from a disease).
Consider the OCD fear of being infected with HIV. Individuals who experience this health-related OCD obsession often experience distress related to very different feared outcomes.
OCD: Feared Outcomes Related to AIDS/HIV Obsessions
- Many are afraid of death and fear dying from AIDS.
- Others are afraid of pain and discomfort during the years preceding death. They may fear symptoms of the illness or even the side effects of treatment (e.g., nausea).
- Others fear that if they were to contract HIV that they would become severely depressed. It is the thought of a potentially chronic depression that is intolerable.
- Some worry that if they developed AIDS and experienced depression that they would have no option other than to commit suicide. The possibility of killing oneself then fuels moral, religious, or ethical distress. Thoughts of developing AIDS then begin to elicit automatic thoughts of a hopeless moral bind or even the possible threat of damnation (due to committing an “unpardonable sin”).
- Others worry that if they developed AIDS, they might die and leave behind loved ones (e.g., spouse, children) who might have a difficult time providing for themselves.
- Others worry that chronic illness will be a burden on their families. They fear potential guilt or the emotional or financial toll of chronic illness.
- Others fear the social stigma associated with AIDS and worry that when others learn of their illness, they might assume that they are promiscuous or homosexual.
- Others fear that if they die from AIDS, their lives would have been pointless or meaningless. It is the fear of a meaningless existence that makes the thought of contracting HIV so distressing.
- Some fear that if they do contract HIV, they might be responsible for unintentionally infecting others. In these cases, distress is not directly linked to one’s own suffering or death but rather to the potential for accidentally harming innocent people.
Surface knowledge about rituals and obsessions will be of only limited utility in designing an effective treatment for OCD. In order for treatment to be successful, it must be tailored to address the often subtle differences in feared outcomes. These feared outcomes can then be incorporated into exposure and response prevention (ERP) and cognitive restructuring exercises. Moreover, knowledge about feared outcomes can help you detect other, more subtle rituals that maintain the cycle of OCD.
Join me next time when I talk about why people really do rituals in health-related OCD.
Questions? Comments? What feared outcomes are related to your OCD symptoms? Share below… | <urn:uuid:f987b96e-114c-4148-9e8b-1d23edaa5291> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.psychologyandbehavior.com/ocd-contamination-fears-health-hiv-aids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937936 | 698 | 2.828125 | 3 |
ONCE on a time many Káh-ahn lived in the edge of some woods. A little out into the plain stood a very large tree, with much sand under it. One day a Coyote was passing, and heard the Crows singing and dancing under this tree, and came up to watch them. They were dancing in a circle, and each Crow had upon his back a large bag.
"Crow-friends, what are you doing?" asked the Coyote, who was much interested.
"Oh, we are dancing with our mothers," said the Crows.
"How pretty! And will you let me dance, too?" asked the Coyote of the too-whit-lah-wid-deh crow (captain of the dance).
"Oh, yes," replied the Crow, "Go and put your mother in a bag and come to the dance."
The Coyote went running home. There his old mother was sitting in the corner of the fireplace. The stupid Coyote picked up a stick and struck her on the head, and put her in a bag, and hurried back to the dance with her.
The Crows were dancing merrily, and singing: "Ai nana, que-ée-rah, yue-ée-rah." ("Alas, Mama!
you are shaking, you are shaking!") The Coyote joined the dance, with the bag on his back, and sang as the Crows did:
"Ai nana, que-ée-rah, que-ée-rah." 1
But at last the Crows burst out laughing, and said, "What do you bring in your bag?"
"My mother, as you told me," replied the Coyote, showing them.
Then the Crows emptied their bags, which were filled with nothing but sand, and flew up into the tree, laughing.
The Coyote then saw that they had played him a trick, and started home, crying "Ai nana!" When he got home he took his mother from the bag and tried to set her up in the chimney-corner, always crying, "Ai nana, why don't you sit up as before?" But she could not, for she was dead. When he found that she could not sit up any more, he vowed to follow the Crows and eat them all the rest of his life; and from that day to this he has been hunting them, and they are always at war.
As Desiderio concludes, the old men hitch their blankets around their shoulders. "No more stories to-night?" I ask; and Lorenso says:
"In-dáh (no). Now it is to go to bed. Tóo-kwai (come)," to the boys. "Goodnight, friends. Another time, perhaps."
And we file out through the low door into the starry night.
23:1 Ai nana is an exclamation always used by mourners. | <urn:uuid:6815de9c-489b-4c5d-90d9-7881405201c6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sacred-texts.com/nam/sw/pifs/pifs05.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9894 | 625 | 2.625 | 3 |
Date: June 13, 2006
Creator: Andrews, Anthony & Bearden, David M.
Description: How to safely dispose of wastes from producing nuclear weapons has been an ongoing issue. The most radioactive portion of these wastes is stored in underground tanks at Department of Energy (DOE) sites in Idaho, South Carolina, and Washington State. There have been concerns about soil and groundwater contamination from some of the tanks that have leaked. This report provides background information on the disposal of radioactive tank waste, analyzes waste disposal authority in P.L. 108-375, and examines potential implications for environmental cleanup.
Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department | <urn:uuid:03904c6a-6b11-41b8-9ea9-54c8815cc548> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://digital.library.unt.edu/explore/collections/CRSR/browse/?q=%22hazardous+substances%22&sort=creator&t=dc_subject | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888424 | 134 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Criminal Justice Subject Guide Contents
Scope & Introduction
This research guide is an introduction to the sources on Criminal Justice available at the Charles W. Chesnutt Library. The guide serves as a starting point to aid students and faculty researching topics in Criminal Justice at Fayetteville State University.
Introduction to Criminology & Criminal Justice:
Criminology & Criminal Justice is the study of crime, criminal behavior, and the justice system. It includes the study of individual, group, and mass behavior, as well as the institutions, professions, and laws that exist to detect, control, and ameliorate the effects of crime.
Criminology & Criminal Justice is an interdisciplinary field that touches on other social science disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and government. It encompasses public policy, law enforcement, criminal courts, prisons, and crime victims.
The American Criminal Justice System is composed of police, courts, corrections, and juvenile justice at the local, state, and federal levels. These components function separately and together, with the majority of activities occurring at the local level.
- POLICE SYSTEM - law enforcement at all levels of government.
- CORRECTIONS - includes correctional and probation officers.
- JUVENILE JUSTICE - police agencies, courts, correctional programs.
- SECURITY - private and industrial security.
- COURTS - understanding the court system and important cases in criminal justice.
- VICTIMS - understanding the effects of crime victimization and treatment of victims by criminal justice and other social service agencies.
Charles W. Chesnutt Library,
Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, N.C. 28301 | <urn:uuid:2acd37cf-d9f9-4058-a947-8818d1f6743b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://library.uncfsu.edu/documents/library/reference/subjectGuides/criminaljustice/CriminalJusticeSubjectGuide.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868609 | 344 | 2.796875 | 3 |
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