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This book develops quantum field theory starting from its foundation in quantum mechanics. Quantum field theory is the basic theory of elementary particle physics. In recent years, many techniques have been developed which extend and clarify this theory. This book incorporates these modern methods, giving a thoroughly modern pedagogic account which starts from first principles. The path integral formulation is introduced right at the beginning. The method of dimensional continuation is employed to regulate and renormalize the theory. This facilitates the introduction of the concepts of the renormalization group at an early stage. The notion of spontaneous symmetry breakdown is also introduced early on by the example of superfluid helium. Topics in quantum electrodynamics are described which have an analog in quantum chromodynamics. Some novel techniques are employed, such as the use of dimensional continuation to compute the Lamb shift. Many problems are included.
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Rent Quantum Field Theory 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Lowell S. Brown. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Cambridge University Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:b5073e43-bff7-4fc8-93fd-34f0d2c9979d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/quantum-field-theory-1st-edition-9780521469463-0521469465 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938731 | 244 | 2.75 | 3 |
Today’s electricity supply depends predominantly on large generating plants such as fossil fuel or nuclear facilities. Traditionally, the control strategy of transmission and distribution network operators builds on the controllable nature of these plants in matching the more inelastic and uncontrollable demand side. Increasing use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar is changing this strategy. The availability of these new technologies is less controllable and predictable. Grids must hence be able to rapidly, reliably and economically respond to large and unexpected supply-side fluctuations. HVDC technology – in particular HVDC Light® – allows rapid and precise control of voltages and power fl ows. It is reliable and economical, and can be used to flexibly enhance existing AC grids. HVDC Light is also the fi rst choice for transmitting power from large offshore wind farms to AC grids.
DOWNLOAD: Sustainable Links | <urn:uuid:a9af0de6-c513-44ff-b533-5533f2f4d43d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tdworld.com/sponsored-articles/sustainable-links | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92962 | 181 | 2.921875 | 3 |
This section describes the pedagogy and logistics of the course, and describes the background of the instructor.
This subject engages a dialogue with architecture and urbanism from the perspective of the visual artist. Initially, a historical overview of artistic and urbanistic work and themes is undertaken, from early modernist practices to the most recent examples of contemporary production. Art making as an adjunct and assistant to the design process is challenged by both synthetic and critical models of production. Visual art practice is examined as a conceptual prologue to architectural and urbanistic thinking, as an integrated part of the design process, and as a critical epilogue.
This semester, the course was required of all first year architecture students at MIT, and was taught in conjunction with their studio, which also dealt with issues of urbanism, mapping, and territory. The field trips were held in conjunction with the studio, to emphasize similar topics of discussion. Lectures, in-class critiques, visiting artists, and the study of film and other works lead to the development of realized projects, coordinated with the architectural studio. The final project took advantage of this in-depth study to produce innovative and clever design proposals related to the soon to be open space of the Rose Kennedy Greenway, the space beneath the former elevated highway in Boston. The use of this space has been a subject of much debate, and this class proposes solutions for it that are thought-provoking.
In order to fully study the range of urban conditions, this class makes two field trips during the semester, to two urban locales that are very different in nature. The first trip is to New York City, to attend lectures given at Yale on Urbanism and to visit two modern art museums (in conjunction with the architecture studio). More importantly, the urban condition of New York City is studied, to serve as a counterpoint to the second and longer field trip, which is to Brasilia, the capital city of Brazil. Sketches, photographs, and film are taken in both cities, and the results are discussed in class as they relate to art and urbanism in general and the final project of the Rose Kennedy Greenway.
The other classes throughout the semester will serve as discussion of the general topics. Visiting artists will be invited, to discuss their work and art in general. Other visitors will discuss the history of Boston and the history of the Central Artery project, and the possibilities for the Greenway. The last few classes will serve as discussion and critique of the final projects, with an emphasis on developing them and their final production (media, display, and content). The last class will include all of the previous guests, invited back to critique the final projects.
Antonio Muntadas, born in Barcelona, Spain in 1942, has lived and worked in New York since 1971. His work addresses social, political and communications issues, the relationship between public and private space within social frameworks, and investigations of channels of information and the ways they may be used to censor central information or promulgate ideas. He works in different media such as photography, video, publications, internet and multi-media installations.
He studied at the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales in Barcelona and the Pratt Graphic Center in New York. He has taught and directed seminars at the University of California in San Diego, the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Bordeaux and Grenoble, the CAVS at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the San Francisco Art Institute, the Ecole Nationale des Beaux Arts in Paris, the University of Sao Paulo in Brazil, Cooper Union in New York and many other institutions.
He has created works commissioned by the Centre Nationale des Arts Plastiques in Paris, the Fonds d'Arts Publiques in Marseille, the Public Art Fund in New York, and he has been resident artist and consulting advisor in several research and education centers including the Visual Studies Workshop in Rochester, the Banff Center in Canada, Arteleku in San Sebastian, Spain and the University of Western Sydney in Australia. | <urn:uuid:7c2e5fdd-1819-43bd-9971-01f2f126898c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/architecture/4-303-dialogue-in-art-architecture-and-urbanism-fall-2003/course-pedagogy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947805 | 830 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Summa Theologica, by St. Thomas Aquinas, , at sacred-texts.com
We have now to consider the increase of habits; under which head there are three points of inquiry:
(1) Whether habits increase?
(2) Whether they increase by addition?
(3) Whether each act increases the habit?
Objection 1: It would seem that habits cannot increase. For increase concerns quantity (Phys. v, text. 18). But habits are not in the genus quantity, but in that of quality. Therefore there can be no increase of habits.
Objection 2: Further, habit is a perfection (Phys. vii, text. 17,18). But since perfection conveys a notion of end and term, it seems that it cannot be more or less. Therefore a habit cannot increase.
Objection 3: Further, those things which can be more or less are subject to alteration: for that which from being less hot becomes more hot, is said to be altered. But in habits there is no alteration, as is proved in Phys. vii, text. 15,17. Therefore habits cannot increase.
On the contrary, Faith is a habit, and yet it increases: wherefore the disciples said to our Lord (Lk. 17:5): "Lord, increase our faith." Therefore habits increase.
I answer that, Increase, like other things pertaining to quantity, is transferred from bodily quantities to intelligible spiritual things, on account of the natural connection of the intellect with corporeal things, which come under the imagination. Now in corporeal quantities, a thing is said to be great, according as it reaches the perfection of quantity due to it; wherefore a certain quantity is reputed great in man, which is not reputed great in an elephant. And so also in forms, we say a thing is great because it is perfect. And since good has the nature of perfection, therefore "in things which are great, but not in quantity, to be greater is the same as to be better," as Augustine says (De Trin. vi, 8).
Now the perfection of a form may be considered in two ways: first, in respect of the form itself: secondly, in respect of the participation of the form by its subject. In so far as we consider the perfections of a form in respect of the form itself, thus the form is said to be "little" or "great": for instance great or little health or science. But in so far as we consider the perfection of a form in respect of the participation thereof by the subject, it is said to be "more" or "less": for instance more or less white or healthy. Now this distinction is not to be understood as implying that the form has a being outside its matter or subject, but that it is one thing to consider the form according to its specific nature, and another to consider it in respect of its participation by a subject.
In this way, then, there were four opinions among philosophers concerning intensity and remission of habits and forms, as Simplicius relates in his Commentary on the Predicaments. For Plotinus and the other Platonists held that qualities and habits themselves were susceptible of more or less, for the reason that they were material and so had a certain want of definiteness, on account of the infinity of matter. Others, on the contrary, held that qualities and habits of themselves were not susceptible of more or less; but that the things affected by them [qualia] are said to be more or less, in respect of the participation of the subject: that, for instance, justice is not more or less, but the just thing. Aristotle alludes to this opinion in the Predicaments (Categor. vi). The third opinion was that of the Stoics, and lies between the two preceding opinions. For they held that some habits are of themselves susceptible of more and less, for instance, the arts; and that some are not, as the virtues. The fourth opinion was held by some who said that qualities and immaterial forms are not susceptible of more or less, but that material forms are.
In order that the truth in this matter be made clear, we must observe that, in respect of which a thing receives its species, must be something fixed and stationary, and as it were indivisible: for whatever attains to that thing, is contained under the species, and whatever recedes from it more or less, belongs to another species, more or less perfect. Wherefore, the Philosopher says (Metaph. viii, text. 10) that species of things are like numbers, in which addition or subtraction changes the species. If, therefore, a form, or anything at all, receives its specific nature in respect of itself, or in respect of something belonging to it, it is necessary that, considered in itself, it be something of a definite nature, which can be neither more nor less. Such are heat, whiteness or other like qualities which are not denominated from a relation to something else: and much more so, substance, which is "per se" being. But those things which receive their species from something to which they are related, can be diversified, in respect of themselves, according to more or less: and nonetheless they remain in the same species, on account of the oneness of that to which they are related, and from which they receive their species. For example, movement is in itself more intense or more remiss: and yet it remains in the same species, on account of the oneness of the term by which it is specified. We may observe the same thing in health; for a body attains to the nature of health, according as it has a disposition suitable to an animal's nature, to which various dispositions may be suitable; which disposition is therefore variable as regards more or less, and withal the nature of health remains. Whence the Philosopher says (Ethic. x, 2,3): "Health itself may be more or less: for the measure is not the same in all, nor is it always the same in one individual; but down to a certain point it may decrease and still remain health."
Now these various dispositions and measures of health are by way of excess and defect: wherefore if the name of health were given to the most perfect measure, then we should not speak of health as greater or less. Thus therefore it is clear how a quality or form may increase or decrease of itself, and how it cannot.
But if we consider a quality or form in respect of its participation by the subject, thus again we find that some qualities and forms are susceptible of more or less, and some not. Now Simplicius assigns the cause of this diversity to the fact that substance in itself cannot be susceptible of more or less, because it is "per se" being. And therefore every form which is participated substantially by its subject, cannot vary in intensity and remission: wherefore in the genus of substance nothing is said to be more or less. And because quantity is nigh to substance, and because shape follows on quantity, therefore is it that neither in these can there be such a thing as more or less. Whence the Philosopher says (Phys. vii, text. 15) that when a thing receives form and shape, it is not said to be altered, but to be made. But other qualities which are further removed from quantity, and are connected with passions and actions, are susceptible of more or less, in respect of their participation by the subject.
Now it is possible to explain yet further the reason of this diversity. For, as we have said, that from which a thing receives its species must remain indivisibly fixed and constant in something indivisible. Wherefore in two ways it may happen that a form cannot be participated more or less. First because the participator has its species in respect of that form. And for this reason no substantial form is participated more or less. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Metaph. viii, text. 10) that, "as a number cannot be more or less, so neither can that which is in the species of substance," that is, in respect of its participation of the specific form: "but in so far as substance may be with matter," i.e. in respect of material dispositions, "more or less are found in substance."
Secondly this may happen from the fact that the form is essentially indivisible: wherefore if anything participate that form, it must needs participate it in respect of its indivisibility. For this reason we do not speak of the species of number as varying in respect of more or less; because each species thereof is constituted by an indivisible unity. The same is to be said of the species of continuous quantity, which are denominated from numbers, as two-cubits-long, three-cubits-long, and of relations of quantity, as double and treble, and of figures of quantity, as triangle and tetragon.
This same explanation is given by Aristotle in the Predicaments (Categor. vi), where in explaining why figures are not susceptible of more or less, he says: "Things which are given the nature of a triangle or a circle, are accordingly triangles and circles": to wit, because indivisibility is essential to the motion of such, wherefore whatever participates their nature must participate it in its indivisibility.
It is clear, therefore, since we speak of habits and dispositions in respect of a relation to something (Phys. vii, text. 17), that in two ways intensity and remission may be observed in habits and dispositions. First, in respect of the habit itself: thus, for instance, we speak of greater or less health; greater or less science, which extends to more or fewer things. Secondly, in respect of participation by the subject: in so far as equal science or health is participated more in one than in another, according to a diverse aptitude arising either from nature, or from custom. For habit and disposition do not give species to the subject: nor again do they essentially imply indivisibility.
We shall say further on (Q, A) how it is with the virtues.
Reply to Objection 1: As the word "great" is taken from corporeal quantities and applied to the intelligible perfections of forms; so also is the word "growth," the term of which is something great.
Reply to Objection 2: Habit is indeed a perfection, but not a perfection which is the term of its subject; for instance, a term giving the subject its specific being. Nor again does the nature of a habit include the notion of term, as do the species of numbers. Wherefore there is nothing to hinder it from being susceptible of more or less.
Reply to Objection 3: Alteration is primarily indeed in the qualities of the third species; but secondarily it may be in the qualities of the first species: for, supposing an alteration as to hot and cold, there follows in an animal an alteration as to health and sickness. In like manner, if an alteration take place in the passions of the sensitive appetite, or the sensitive powers of apprehension, an alteration follows as to science and virtue (Phys. viii, text. 20).
Objection 1: It would seem that the increase of habits is by way of addition. For the word "increase," as we have said, is transferred to forms, from corporeal quantities. But in corporeal quantities there is no increase without addition: wherefore (De Gener. i, text. 31) it is said that "increase is an addition to a magnitude already existing." Therefore in habits also there is no increase without addition.
Objection 2: Further, habit is not increased except by means of some agent. But every agent does something in the passive subject: for instance, that which heats, causes heat in that which is heated. Therefore there is no increase without addition.
Objection 3: Further, as that which is not white, is in potentiality to be white: so that which is less white, is in potentiality to be more white. But that which is not white, is not made white except by the addition of whiteness. Therefore that which is less white, is not made more white, except by an added whiteness.
On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Phys. iv, text. 84): "That which is hot is made hotter, without making, in the matter, something hot, that was not hot, when the thing was less hot." Therefore, in like manner, neither is any addition made in other forms when they increase.
I answer that, The solution of this question depends on what we have said above (A). For we said that increase and decrease in forms which are capable of intensity and remissness, happen in one way not on the part of the very form considered in itself, through the diverse participation thereof by the subject. Wherefore such increase of habits and other forms, is not caused by an addition of form to form; but by the subject participating more or less perfectly, one and the same form. And just as, by an agent which is in act, something is made actually hot, beginning, as it were, to participate a form, not as though the form itself were made, as is proved in Metaph. vii, text. 32, so, by an intense action of the agent, something is made more hot, as it were participating the form more perfectly, not as though something were added to the form.
For if this increase in forms were understood to be by way of addition, this could only be either in the form itself or in the subject. If it be understood of the form itself, it has already been stated (A) that such an addition or subtraction would change the species; even as the species of color is changed when a thing from being pale becomes white. If, on the other hand, this addition be understood as applying to the subject, this could only be either because one part of the subject receives a form which it had not previously (thus we may say cold increases in a man who, after being cold in one part of his body, is cold in several parts), or because some other subject is added sharing in the same form (as when a hot thing is added to another, or one white thing to another). But in either of these two ways we have not a more white or a more hot thing, but a greater white or hot thing.
Since, however, as stated above (A), certain accidents are of themselves susceptible of more or less, in some of these we may find increase by addition. For movement increases by an addition either to the time it lasts, or to the course it follows: and yet the species remains the same on account of the oneness of the term. Yet movement increases the intensity as to participation in its subject: i.e. in so far as the same movement can be executed more or less speedily or readily. In like manner, science can increase in itself by addition; thus when anyone learns several conclusions of geometry, the same specific habit of science increases in that man. Yet a man's science increases, as to the subject's participation thereof, in intensity, in so far as one man is quicker and readier than another in considering the same conclusions.
As to bodily habits, it does not seem very probable that they receive increase by way of addition. For an animal is not said to be simply healthy or beautiful, unless it be such in all its parts. And if it be brought to a more perfect measure, this is the result of a change in the simple qualities, which are not susceptible of increase save in intensity on the part of the subject partaking of them.
How this question affects virtues we shall state further on (Q, A ).
Reply to Objection 1: Even in bodily bulk increase is twofold. First, by addition of one subject to another; such is the increase of living things. Secondly, by mere intensity, without any addition at all; such is the case with things subject to rarefaction, as is stated in Phys. iv, text. 63.
Reply to Objection 2: The cause that increases a habit, always effects something in the subject, but not a new form. But it causes the subject to partake more perfectly of a pre-existing form, or it makes the form to extend further.
Reply to Objection 3: What is not already white, is potentially white, as not yet possessing the form of whiteness: hence the agent causes a new form in the subject. But that which is less hot or white, is not in potentiality to those forms, since it has them already actually: but it is in potentiality to a perfect mode of participation; and this it receives through the agent's action.
Objection 1: It would seem that every act increases its habit. For when the cause is increased the effect is increased. Now acts are causes of habits, as stated above (Q, A). Therefore a habit increases when its acts are multiplied.
Objection 2: Further, of like things a like judgment should be formed. But all the acts proceeding from one and the same habit are alike (Ethic. ii, 1,2). Therefore if some acts increase a habit, every act should increase it.
Objection 3: Further, like is increased by like. But any act is like the habit whence it proceeds. Therefore every act increases the habit.
On the contrary, Opposite effects do not result from the same cause. But according to Ethic. ii, 2, some acts lessen the habit whence they proceed, for instance if they be done carelessly. Therefore it is not every act that increases a habit.
I answer that, "Like acts cause like habits" (Ethic. ii, 1,2). Now things are like or unlike not only in respect of their qualities being the same or various, but also in respect of the same or a different mode of participation. For it is not only black that is unlike white, but also less white is unlike more white, since there is movement from less white to more white, even as from one opposite to another, as stated in Phys. v, text. 52.
But since use of habits depends on the will, as was shown above (Q, A); just as one who has a habit may fail to use it or may act contrary to it; so may he happen to use the habit by performing an act that is not in proportion to the intensity of the habit. Accordingly, if the intensity of the act correspond in proportion to the intensity of the habit, or even surpass it, every such act either increases the habit or disposes to an increase thereof, if we may speak of the increase of habits as we do of the increase of an animal. For not every morsel of food actually increases the animal's size as neither does every drop of water hollow out the stone: but the multiplication of food results at last in an increase of the body. So, too, repeated acts cause a habit to grow. If, however, the act falls short of the intensity of the habit, such an act does not dispose to an increase of that habit, but rather to a lessening thereof.
From this it is clear how to solve the objections. | <urn:uuid:532121ad-d9e8-49aa-8118-bdaa98797eff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/aquinas/summa/sum188.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972075 | 4,014 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Discovery of 1819-20 Engineer Cantonment Site to be History Conference Theme
Mark your calendars for October 8-9, 2004, the dates of the annual NSHS history conference and members' meeting. The conference will center on the recent discovery and archeological excavation of Engineer Cantonment, the 1819-20 winter camp of Maj. Stephen Long's party of scientists and army engineers. From the cantonment, located on the Missouri River north of present-day Omaha, the explorers traveled along the Platte River in the spring of 1820 to explore the Great Plains. Until NSHS archeologists confirmed its location in the spring of 2003, Engineer Cantonment remained one of Nebraska's most significant undiscovered historic sites.
As part of the conference, nationally recognized scholars will discuss early American exploration of the lands of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. Gary Moulton will present "Lewis and Clark's Top Ten," and Roger Nichols will address "Scientific Exploration and Nebraska, 1819-1820." The conference will also include a bus tour to the Engineer Cantonment site, and a visit to Fort Atkinson, established in 1820 five miles north of the cantonment. NSHS members and volunteers will receive registration materials in the mail at a future date.
Teachers from Across the Nation to Attend Fort Robinson Workshop
Two sessions of "Shifting Power on the Great Plains: Fort Robinson and the American West," a teacher training workshop funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities, will include teachers from Massachusetts to Texas to Washington. The sessions will be held July 6-12 and August 2-8 at the Fort Robinson National Historic Landmark, just outside of Crawford. More than forty educators in each session will hear presentations by the NSHS staff and guest faculty from the universities of Nebraska, South Dakota, and Michigan and work with master teachers from Lincoln, Omaha, Scottsbluff, and Nebraska Wesleyan University. The workshop is one of only seventeen funded nationally as part of the NEH's Landmarks of American History workshop series.
Fall Tour to Retrace Lewis and Clark's Journey Along the Middle Missouri
Mark your calendar for September 16-17 and plan to join us for an exciting tour of Nebraska and Iowa sites and museums connected with Lewis and Clark's epic ascent of the Missouri River in the summer of 1804. Two hundred years later, we will be traveling in a luxury motor coach, not a keelboat and pirogues, and no rowing will be required. Nor will we hunt for food, which will be amply supplied as part of the tour package. The tour is open to NSHS volunteers, NSHS members, and non-members alike, and departs from Lincoln.
Day one will begin with a visit to the new Missouri River Basin Lewis and Clark Interpretive Trail and Visitor's Center at Nebraska City. Next, we will stop at the site of Engineer Cantonment north of Omaha, the 1819-20 winter camp of the Maj. Stephen Long exploring party, where the Society is conducting an archeological excavation. Society Archeologist Rob Bozell will show us the site and review the significance of what is the oldest Euroamerican site yet discovered in Nebraska.
Just up the road we will tour Fort Atkinson State Historical Park, located at the approximate site where Lewis and Clark counseled with the Oto and Missouri Indians on August 3, 1804. At Lewis and Clark State Park near Onawa, Iowa, we will experience how the Corps of Discovery traveled upriver by taking a ride in a full-sized replica of their keelboat. The day will conclude in Sioux City, with visits to the new Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center, the Sgt. Floyd Welcome Center and Riverboat Museum, and the Sgt. Floyd monument and gravesite. We will spend the night at the Marina Inn in South Sioux City, Nebraska, which overlooks the Missouri River.
Ponca State Park and its new Missouri National Scenic River Interpretive Center is our first destination on Friday. The park also provides a dramatic overlook at the unchannelized portion of the Missouri, which resembles the river as Lewis and Clark saw it. Then it's off to the Corps of Engineers Visitor Center at Gavin's Point, perched above the dam and Lewis and Clark Lake. We'll have lunch just down the road at the historic Argo Hotel in Crofton. We plan to be back in Lincoln by late afternoon.
You may request the tour registration material by calling 402-471-3272. The tour is limited to forty-four persons, first come, first served.
The Nebraska State Historical Society would like to recognize new members at the Contributing and Supporting levels over the past six months:
Kathleen Fowles, Grand Island;
Alfred Kortum, Gering;
Frances Connealy, Pender;
Rusty Eisenhart, Culbertson;
Terry Jensen, Neligh;
Susan Johnson, Lincoln;
Michael McDonald, Kearney;
Donald Pederson, Lincoln;
Rick Windle, Lincoln
NSHS-Commissioned Violin Featured at Recital
Violin maker David Wiebe (left) holds the violin he made for
LisaMarie Vana in 1997; she holds the violin commissioned
by the NSHS and completed in 2000.
The violin commissioned by the NSHS from Nebraska violin maker David Wiebe was the highlight of a fundraising concert at the Thorpe Opera House in David City on May 22. Violinist LisaMarie Vana, originally from Omaha, a former member of the Philadelphia Orchestra, performed at the benefit concert to support renovation of the National Register-listed property. The Wiebe violin was completed in 2000 and has been made available on loan for performances and exhibitions.
Fifth Fort Robinson Conference a "Booming" Success
The artillery demonstration featured original 1.65-in.
Hotchkiss guns. Courtesy of Jim Hatzell.
Despite a blustery April 22, complete with rain and snow showers to kick off the proceedings, April 23, the first full day of the Fort Robinson History Conference, dawned clear. It was a good thing too, because that was the day scheduled for the firing demonstration by Loomis's Battery, Michigan Light Artillery. The rest of the conference, which concluded with a Saturday evening banquet, also enjoyed fine weather.
Some 140 participants came to Fort Robinson to hear eight scholarly papers and a banquet talk on the theme, "A New Army for a New Century: Military Culture in Transition, 1890-1917." Dr. Edward M. Coffman gave the keynote address based on his new book, The Regulars: The American Army, 1898-1941, just out from Harvard University Press. Tours of Fort Robinson, the Warbonnet skirmish site, and the Museum of the Fur Trade, along with a 1910 army meal, the artillery demonstration, and an authors' book-signing reception were other highlights.
Thanks to the staff members of the Research and Publications, Museum and Historic Sites, Administration, and Historic Preservation divisions of the NSHS who contributed in many ways to the successful conference. Thanks, too, to our cosponsors, the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission and its Fort Robinson staff. Finally, we are grateful for financial support from Ron and Judy Parks of Papillion, the Dawes County Travel Board, and the Nebraska State Historical Society Foundation.
Excavations at the Fort Mitchell Site
Historic Preservation Division staff monitoring plow zone
soil removal at the Fort Mitchell site.
In response to a proposed Nebraska Department of Roads viaduct location study west of Scottsbluff, Archeology Division and Historic Preservation Division staff conducted investigations at the Fort Mitchell site (1864-67) this spring. Although the site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, its exact location has not been verified by archeological testing below the surface. A Pony Express station also reportedly stood near the fort location, but has not been identified by archeological remains.
A surface concentration of artifacts was flagged and mapped in a cultivated field within the National Register site boundaries. Using the location of the artifact concentration as a starting point, a motor grader scraped away the plow zone soil in a series of trenches across the site. Artifacts on the surface and within the disturbed soil included bottle glass and ceramics from the mid-nineteenth century. Archeologists observed charcoal flecks about sixteen to eighteen inches below the surface. At about two feet below the surface fifteen square posts were uncovered. The post diameters vary from six to eight inches. In some cases, the square outlines of the postholes were visible. Burned earth and charcoal were also found with several posts. Artifacts recovered from the post level include bottle glass, ceramics, animal bone, and two hinges. Archeologists also observed small fragments of eroded adobe near one post.
This preliminary work has confirmed the presence of a mid-nineteenth century structure within the site boundaries with intact features. Archeology Division staff will conduct additional archival research and present these findings and recommendations in a report to the Federal Highway Administration and the Nebraska Department of Roads.
LIBRARY / ARCHIVES
NEW ACQUISITIONS OF INTEREST TO GENEALOGISTS
By Cindy S. Drake, Library Curator
American Lutheran Church, Filley, Nebraska: 1931-1993 [List of Births, and Baptisms, etc. since 1931], typed by Judy Vrtiska.
Arnold Harold Galvin: A Biography and Family History, by his son, Wayne W. Galvin. (Family in Lancaster County.)
Bertie and Me and Miles Too: Growing Up on a Nebraska Sandhill Ranch in the Early 1900s, by Billie Lee Snyder Thornburg. (Snyder family in McPherson County.)
Black Genesis: A Resource Book for African-American Genealogy, 2nd ed., by James M. Rose and Alice Eichholz, 2003.
Descendants of John (Blaw) Blue d. 1757, Somerset Co., NJ, compiled by William H. Blue. (Family in Otoe, Saunders, Lancaster, and Richardson counties.)
A Genealogist's Guide to Discovering Your African-American Ancestors: How to Find and Record Your Unique Heritage, by Franklin Carter Smith, 2003.
Kuska Family Reunion 2002: Breckenridge, Colorado, [prepared by Carmelee Tuma]. (Czech American families from Fillmore and Greeley counties.)
Our Family Tree: [Hitchman], [compiled] by Mary Jo Miller. (Family in Cass County.)
Reiff to Riffe Family in America. Ancestors and Descendants of Mennonite Reiff Brothers: Hans, John Jacob, & Abraham: Reiff, Reif, Rieff, Rief, Rife, Riffe Volume II, by Fred J. Riffe. (Family in Saline, Nuckolls, Gage and Phelps counties.)
Sylvia (Woten) Strufing's Scrapbook: A Collection of News Clippings from 1920 to 1960 Announcing Engagementsof Northern Gage and Southern Lancaster Counties, photocopied and donated by her granddaughter, Sandra L. Carter-Diff.
Tietsort (Tiesworth): Descendants of Peter Tietsort and his Wife Catherine Hoff ..., contributed by J. Keith Cook. (Family in Washington and Douglas counties.)
MNH / HISTORIC SITES
New Docent-Led Programs at the Nebraska State Historical Society's Museum of Nebraska History
The docents are developing four fun new activities and stories to expand the museum's offerings to thirteen docent-led programs, up from four offered in 2002 and nine offered in 2003. A handful of docents have taken the lead in making these new programs a reality for school groups visiting the museum.
Roars of laughter are the normal sounds you hear as the Lewis and Clark hands-on trunk program begins in the museum classroom. The program opens with the kids voting classmates in or out of the Corps of Discovery based on assigned responses to questions such as "What skills do you have?" "Do you drink alcohol?" "Do you tell the truth?" Those who make the cut are assigned a job and get to hold and pass around objects to use in that job. This group of soldiers then travels upstream to a council with the Oto-Missouri Indians (played by the parents), where Lewis and Clark give gifts, show off their technology, and communicate with sign language. Objects, stories, and role-play bring the details of Lewis and Clark's journey to lifeincluding the laughter.
"How many of you think maps are really boring?" All of the kids raise their hands as the docents open with this question before touring the new exhibit, Putting Nebraska on the Map: Highlights from the Don Forke Map Collection. This docent program takes the boredom out of maps as kids use magnifying glasses and touchable map copies to discover the stories these maps tell about Nebraska's past, from the 1540 map of the world that barely shows North America to the 1880 map showing Nebraska organized into counties. "How has the story changed?" is the map-reading question that repeats as the students study six maps traveling through time. Hopefully, by the end of the tour, the boring maps have become exciting storytellers.
Field Study Guides - If you see a group of really focused, note-taking kids with their hands in the air, you are probably following a docent-led Field Study, the docents' first venture into inquiry-based learning. Before their visit, the students see digital images of museum objects, which represent topics they will cover in their tour of one exhibit at the Museum of Nebraska History. In the classroom, students talk about what they already know about this topic and then write down what they want to know in their Field Study booklets. During their tour at the museum, the docent helps the students answer these questions using objects on display and docent stories. The Field Study has been a big hit with docents and teachers and the students who truly "own" these tours.
Patchwork Lives - Why were quilts made? What were they made of? How were they made? On this docent-led program groups learn about how quilts are made and the history of quilting traditions in the United States and Great Plains. The quilts illustrating these stories date from the 1850s to the 1920s to one made in 1992 with patterns ranging from signature quilts to postage quilts to crazy and target quilts. These tours also feature an experienced quilter from the International Quilt Study Center to demonstrate hand quilting. For groups who want to extend the learning, a Making History Workshop is available where students make a paper quilt top to take back to their classroom or meeting place.
Hats off to the docents who make these programs possible. To schedule one of these great docent-led programs, please contact Jessica Stoner, 402-471-4757 or email@example.com
Tune in on Cox Cable
Watch lectures from the NSHS History Forum/Brown Bag lecture series in the Omaha area on Cox Channel 23 at 5 p.m. every other Wednesday, beginning with the first Wednesday of each month.
July 11: 150th Anniversary Celebration, Prospect Hill Cemetery, Omaha. Guided tours, beginning at 2 p.m.; costumed reenactors at sites throughout the cemetery. For information contact Prospect Hill Cemetery, Thirty-second and Parker streets, Omaha, NE 68155; 402-556-6057.
July 12-16: Civil War class by Bright Lights for grades 4-6 at Rousseau Elementary School, Lincoln, with teacher Dave Thurber. Students will keep a journal and design a battlefield diorama, and wooden model of the USS Monitor. Parent drivers will take students to Omaha's Freedom Park, site of World War II ships and submarines. The cost is $90 for the fifteen hours. For more information: www.brightlights.org or 420-1115. Partial need-based scholarships are available; free buses that week from McPhee, Everett, and Saratoga schools for any student.
July 15: Brown Bag Lecture, "Paper Towns, Wildcat Banks, and Carpetbag Governors: Territorial Nebraska in the 1850s," by Jim Potter, NSHS associate editor/senior research historian. As part of the Nebraska State Historical Society's programming marking the 150th anniversary of the creation of the Nebraska Territory on May 30, 1854, Potter will look back at the political turmoil and economic instability of Nebraska's early years. 12 noon, Museum of Nebraska History, Fifteenth and P streets, Lincoln. Free and open to the public.
July 20: Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, Mouth of the Platte chapter. "From my Great Great Great Grandaddy to Me," by Bat Shunatona, Oto/Missouria . Meet at 6 p.m. at Caniglia's Restaurant, Seventh and Pacific streets, Omaha. For information and reservations (required): firstname.lastname@example.org or 402-571-2502.
August 1: Annual Neihardt Day celebration, John G. Neihardt State Historic Site, Bancroft. Annual board and members' meeting; poetry and music program, "I've Seen Rivers," by composer/folklorist Lemuel Sheppard; and readings from Neihardt's The River and I. Free and open to the public. For information call 888-777-4667 or email@example.com
August 14-15: Genoa U.S. Indian School reunion/celebration, Genoa. Dr. Raymond Bucko SJ from Creighton University will speak at the banquet; Ben Marra's Native American photographs commemorating Lewis and Clark will be on display; and Santee Sioux dances will be performed on Sunday. Native American tacos, jewelry, displays, and tours. For more information call 402-993-6636 or 402-993-6055 or e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org
August 19: Brown Bag Lecture, "A Slice of Life: Home Movies," by Paul Eisloeffel, NSHS curator of visual and audio collections. Nebraska's cinematic history goes back to the turn of the twentieth century. But since the 1920s, the state has been captured on film by amateurs, thanks to the advent of home movie photography. Take a look at the technology that made it all possible and marvel at examples of Nebraska home movies from the Society's collections. 12 noon, Museum of Nebraska History, Fifteenth and P streets, Lincoln. Free and open to the public.
FROM THE MUSEUM STORE
Visit the Museum Store to learn more about Lewis and Clark's journey. The store is located at the Museum of Nebraska History, Fifteenth and P streets, Lincoln, or call 402-471-3447 for additional Lewis and Clark items.
Prologue to Lewis and Clark: The Mackay and Evans Expedition, by W. Raymond Wood.
The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery, edited by Gary E. Moulton.
Lewis and Clark on the Middle Missouri, by Gary E. Moulton.
Lewis and Clark on the Great Plains: A Natural History, by Paul A. Johnsgard.
Commemorative reproduction of Thomas Jefferson Peace Medal, often referred to as the "Lewis and Clark Indian Peace Medal." Limited edition and individually numbered, available in silver or copper.
Lewis and Clark note cards with botanical seals and envelopes. Each card shows one species of plant discovered on the expedition from 1804 to 1806. The set contains eight different species/card designs.
Lewis and Clark coloring and activity books, collector cards, expedition spy glass, and scaled replica of expedition compass.
MUSEUM of NEBRASKA HISTORY, 15th & "P" Streets, 402-471-3447
10:00 - 4:30, Monday - Friday
1:00 - 4:00, Saturday and Sunday
Museum Store Catalog online
May / June Issue | <urn:uuid:41a887af-3889-4374-b669-73216af96305> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/newsletr/july04.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927391 | 4,200 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Afro-Colombian communities in Chocó have been waiting 11 years to receive collective titles for their ancestral lands, despite the Colombian Constitution formally recognising their land rights.
Christian Aid is working with partner Diócesis de Quibdó to push the legal process forward and lobby on the communities' behalf.
The communities' history...
Imagine your ancestors settling in a place where they build their homes and raise their children. 500 years later, your generation claim ownership of the land - a claim which, despite its legality, is denied. You are still waiting to be recognised as the owner. This is exactly what a community in Colombia is facing.
'It has been 15 years since our right to these ancestral territories was recognised in the Colombian Constitution but we are still struggling to get the land titled.'
Jozefa, legal representative
Since 1999, 46 Afro-descendant communities living in Chocó, one of the poorest and most deprived regions of Colombia, have been fighting to obtain collective titles for their ancestral territory. Around 3,200 families - 12,000 people - of African descent live in 172,000 hectares of land. They have occupied this area for 500 years, making a living mostly through rudimentary gold mining.
The Colombian constitution formally recognises the ancestral land rights of Afro-Colombians and indigenous people but little is being done to support and uphold these rights. After 11 years of campaigning, the local communities are still waiting for their land rights to be upheld.
Economic interests block progress
The communities have tried to obtain legal rights, but all their efforts have been in vain - economic interests by multinationals, especially mining companies, have got in the way. Some of these companies have been given concessions to work in these territories. While the communities wait for their situation to be resolved, companies are carrying out illegal logging, causing environmental devastation and putting the communities' livelihoods at risk.
'We are fighting hard for our right to live peacefully and productively on our lands. It has been 15 years since our right to these ancestral territories was recognised in the Colombian Constitution but we are still struggling to get the land titled.'
Jozefa, legal representative for the community.
Christian Aid's work
Christian Aid has been supporting our partner Diócesis de Quibdó, which has been helping to push forward the legal processes needed for land titling. Christian Aid has also been advocating and lobbying on their behalf in the hope that the communities can one day be owners of the land they have inhabited for generations.
Let's wait and see.
More about our work:
Country profile: Colombia
Christian Aid's work on rights and justice
Eyewitness accounts from the Americas | <urn:uuid:8a75dd29-19b9-43a8-a918-828874bd6453> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.christianaid.org.uk/whatwedo/eyewitness/americas/colombia-land-rights.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95557 | 557 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Course profile: Environmental Geology
University of North Carolina Wilmington
Entry level environmental geology course, 31-70 students
Overview and Context
An examination of the complex interrelationships between human society and geoscience processes including natural hazards, resources, environmental concerns, and global change. This is an introductory course in geology with no prerequisites and an optional one credit-hour laboratory. The course fulfills the basic studies requirements for all UNCW students as either a three-hour (without the lab section) or a four-hour natural science class. The course also serves as an acceptable prerequisite for historical geology, one of two required introductory courses for all geology majors. In addition, the course is co-listed as an environmental studies class where it is part of the choices for the required core curriculum in this major. One section of environmental geology is offered at least once per year for honors students only. Upwards of 20% of all students taking this course eventually choose to major in geology.
The lecture part of the course begins with a brief overview of the earth's systems and processes. The succeeding discussion of natural hazards includes earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, and coastal zones allows for more focused discussions on processes, observations, and interpretations, which, as a whole, demonstrate the procedure of collecting, reducing, and interpreting data and applying models to better understand the interrelationships. The remaining areas of content (environmental concerns, resources, and global change) permit students to evaluate the value of science to human endeavors and needs through analysis and planning. The final components of the course generate opinions concerning the validity of that which is understood from science and that which is portrayed as "fact" in the media.
The optional lab not only presents an overview of minerals, rocks, structures, and maps, but also provides in-depth exercises emphasizing hands-on collection of data (both in-field and in-lab), data reduction, and interpretation in solving problems. For example, some labs include preparation of hazard maps from real data related to earthquake shaking, epicenters, streamflow records, precipitation data, and soil maps.
Connecting to the Future of Science
The lecture part of this course provides students with a strong background in the basic concepts related to applied geology and effects on society. Essentially, students are prepared for more advanced study in multi-disciplinary areas by already having been introduced to the eclectic nature of applied geology related to environmental concepts.
Goals and Assessment
- Students should be able to predict potential hazards for any given area by knowing basic inherent geologic materials and characteristics of a given area.
- Students should be able to both predict and analyze the impacts of the occurrence of a natural hazard in a given area.
- Students should be able to evaluate the compatibility of a given area to proposed uses of the land given the necessary geologic data.
- Students should be able to synthesize multiple data sets into a viable analysis of environmental impacts of both human-induced and naturally-occurring events.
- Students should be able to evaluate the validity of various reports and models concerning global changes, including global climate.
- Students should find improvement in the following skills as a result of taking this course: writing, critical thinking, critical analysis, and critical reading.
- Students should become more confident in their ability to understand science and data as important tools for today and in the future.
- Students should become more aware of the concept and value of being good stewards of earth's resources.
- Students should become more skeptical of concepts related to environmental and geoscience as presented in non-refereed popular media including films, television, and internet sources.
- Students should become more excited about geosciences and the earth.
- Students should better understand the importance of ethics in dealing with the immediate reactions to geohazards as well as planning for their predicted occurrences and resulting accommodations.
- Scheduled formal lecture exams including both objective and subjective questions and format
- (Lecture only) Take-home projects that focus of questions requiring analysis, synthesis, and interpretation of data
- (Lab) Weekly projects incorporating observations, recordings, analysis, reduction, and synthesis of data to solve a particular problem
References and Resources
- Standard lecture texts on environmental geology including those by Keller, Pipkin and others, Montgomery, Koch, and others
- Lab exercises are in-house | <urn:uuid:4243b77c-3ee1-4d39-99a3-b20bea7005f9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/departments/courses/enviro-UNCWilmington.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927568 | 901 | 2.859375 | 3 |
SAINT-OURS, PIERRE DE, seigneur of L’Échaillon in Dauphiné in France, of Saint-Ours, Assomption, and Saint-Jean Deschaillons in New France, chevalier, captain in the Carignan-Salières regiment and in the colonial regular troops; b. October 1640 and baptized at Grenoble; d. October 1724 on his manor of Saint-Ours and buried in the parish church of the Immaculate Conception at Saint-Ours, New France.
Pierre de Saint-Ours was the son of Henri de Saint-Ours and Jeanne de Calignon. The line descended from Pierre de Saint-Ours (Petrus de Sancto Orso), first of the name, who flourished about 1330.
From 1658 he was a cadet in the Carignan-Salières regiment and the next year was appointed ensign. In January 1664 he took possession of his father’s lands. He received his commission as captain in the Carignan-Salières regiment on 7 Feb. 1665 and embarked for Canada at the end of May, arriving at Quebec with his company on 12 September. Intendant Talon* travelled with them. Saint-Ours spent the winter in the newly built fort at Sorel. He appears to have gone with Prouville* de Tracy’s expedition against the Iroquois in 1666.
On 8 Jan. 1668 Saint-Ours married Marie Mullois, daughter of Thomas Mullois, at Champlain; eleven children were born of this union. About the time of his marriage he was invested with the seigneury of Saint-Ours, extending from the St Lawrence River south to the Yamaska River and lying between the lands of his brother officers M. de Saurel* and M. Pécaudy* de Contrecœur; title was granted Saint-Ours on 29 Oct. 1672. Shortly afterwards he received another seigneury on the Assomption River. In 1687 he inherited the seigneury of Saint-Jean Deschaillons, near the River Duchesne. Saint-Ours built a manor-house of timber on the St Lawrence and some of his soldiers settled around him. Saint-Ours-sur-Richelieu and its neighbours were devastated by the Iroquois in 1691. The development of the seigneury was very slow; a bannal mill was not erected until 1703.
Saint-Ours commanded a detachment in Louis Buade* de Frontenac’s expedition to Lake Ontario in 1673, when Fort Cataracoui (Frontenac) was built. He sometimes engaged in trade: there is a record dated 1678 of his having a booth at the annual fair in Montreal which welcomed the fur flotilla of the Ottawas. That year he figured among the notables of the colony, being summoned to Montreal or Quebec to serve on advisory committees to the governor or intendant. In 1679 he was sent by Frontenac to command at Chambly in an attempt to inhibit trade in alcoholic liquors with New England. While there he was himself admonished for trading.
At the end of 1686 the governor general, Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, reported that many families, even noble ones, were living in extreme poverty. He stated that the Saint-Ours, with ten children, had lacked wheat for eight months of the year. Saint-Ours planned to go to France to take up military service; after receiving a grant of 100 écus, however, he stayed in the colony. In 1687 he was given the rank of captain and command of a company of colonial regular troops. Since most of these were quartered in Montreal, he decided to move there. Nuns of the Hôtel-Dieu granted him a lot on Rue Notre- Dame, where a one-storey timber house was erected for 1,000 livres. A stone residence appears to have been built later.
During Phips*’ siege of Quebec in 1690 Frontenac entrusted Saint-Ours with the command of a battalion, and from 1693 he was senior captain of the colonial regular troops. The next year he obtained leave and went to France to rebuild his health by taking the waters. On his return in 1695 he was sent by Callière to the head of Lac des Deux-Montagnes to ambush an Iroquois party; however, it evaded him. Saint-Ours, at the head of his company, led the funeral procession of Kondiaronk, great leader of the Michilimackinac Hurons, in August 1701. The king, on 14 June 1704, named Saint-Ours knight of the order of Saint-Louis. When he retired from military service on 9 June 1708 with a pension of 600 livres, his son Jean-Baptiste* took over his company.
Saint-Ours’ first wife died in 1705. Having been thwarted in a wish to marry a 17-year-old girl, he married Marguerite Legardeur, daughter of Charles Legardeur* de Tilly and widow of an army captain, on 29 July 1708 at Batiscan. In 1710 he rented his house in Montreal and retired to the seigneury. At this time the War of the Spanish Succession was raging and his pension often fell into arrears. He sold his Montreal house in 1716 for 4,500 livres. The following year he was included in the list of recipients of trading permits, obtaining one jointly with Madame de Saurel. As was the custom, this was sold; each received 1,000 livres.
In May 1723, he sent Chaussegros* de Léry, the husband of one of his grand-daughters, to the Château Saint-Louis to swear fealty and homage on his behalf for the seigneury of l’Assomption, stating that he himself could not come because of illness and age. He died in October 1724 on his manor of Saint-Ours.
Pierre de Saint-Ours abandoned a military career and hereditary estates in France to seek his fortune in the New World. His reward was meagre. On at least three occasions, in 1679, 1706, and 1708, he sought preferment or public office in vain; and his colonization efforts did not prosper. Nonetheless, he established his family name in New France and created one manor in that chain of about a hundred that the Carignan-Salières officers built in the new land. There is a bust of Saint-Ours, by Elzéar Soucy, in the village of Saint-Ours, Quebec. The bust was unveiled in 1922; the likeness is probably imaginary.
Two sons of his union with Marie Mullois made a name for themselves: Jean-Baptiste*, known as Saint-Ours Deschaillons, and his brother Pierre both entered military service. Three of the daughters made good marriages: Jeanne with François-Antoine Pécaudy* de Contrecoeur; Marie-Anne with Jean de Mine; and Élisabeth with Claude-Charles Le Roy de La Potherie.
AN, Col., C11A, 8, f.144; 13, f.379; D2C, 222, f.128. PAC, FM 8, F 80, 1. “Correspondance de Frontenac,” APQ Rapport, 1926–27, 108f., 126f., 136; 1927–28, 192. “Correspondance de Vaudreuil,” APQ Rapport, 1938–39, 15, 18, 27, 32, 96, 99; 1939–40, 420, 434; 1942–43, 436. Jug. et délib., I, 777–79, 943, 1002; III, 1020f.; V, 114f., 138, 308. P.-G. Roy, “Ce que Callières pensait de nos officiers,” 331; Inv. concessions, I, 171–73, 175; II, 171; III, 14f., 122, 175f. Royal Fort Frontenac (Preston et Lamontagne), 482. Azarie Couillard-Després, Histoire de la seigneurie de St-Ours (2v., Montréal, 1915), I. Claude de Bonnault, “Généalogie de la famille de Saint-Ours, Dauphiné et Canada,” BRH, LV (1949), 27–43, 97–110, 168–72. Germain Lesage, “L’arrivée du régiment de Carignan,” Revue de l’Université d’Ottawa, XXXV (1965), 11–34. É.-Z. Massicotte, “La foire des pelleteries à Montréal au XVIIe siècle,” BRH, XXVIII (1922), 376. J.-E. Roy, “Le patronage dans l’armée,” BRH, II (1896), 116. | <urn:uuid:8ac6499b-7563-420e-ad6a-be063cb8da9c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biographi.ca/en/bio/saint_ours_pierre_de_2E.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948748 | 1,993 | 2.75 | 3 |
Pyramids in General
Other Pyramid Topics
About Egyptian Pyramids
by Jimmy Dunn writing as Alan Winston
Pepi II's pyramid in South Saqqara was the last to be built in the best traditions of the Old Kingdom. It was named "Pepi's life is enduring", which indeed it was. He reign we believe lasted 94 years, longer than any other Ancient Egyptian pharaoh. The pyramid is located on the the southern edge of the necropolis, about three miles south Djoser's Step Pyramid, which probably made it a source of inspiration for Middle Kingdom pyramid builders.
Once again, Perring first investigated the pyramid, followed by Maspero who entered it in 1881. However, not until 1926 was a systematic investigation initiated by Jequier, who continued his work until 1932.
Scene from Pepi II's valley temple
The valley temple of Pepi II is very different than those of some earlier kings. It was a wide structure, with an angular terrace open on its east side and oriented northwest-southeast along a now non-existent canal. There were ramps and entrances at either end of the wide temple, and an entrance in the middle inline with the causeway. Within the valley temple, the front portion was a hall supported by eight pillars. Fragments of the decorative theme have survived, and show the king being received by gods, a victory against Egypt's enemies, and a hunt in a papyrus thicket. A vestibule behind this pillared hall had a stairway leading to the valley temple's roof terrace. In this room were also the entrances into the side storage annexes of the valley temple, along with the entrance to the ascending causeway. The vestibule has a few fragmentary decorations, including a scenes of hippopotamus being hunted, and the transportation of a hippopotamus on a wooden sled.
The causeway connecting the valley temple to the mortuary temple took two turns and angled to the northeast. At the upper turn was a small room that functioned as a guard house. Scenes within the causeway depict the king as a sphinx and a griffin massacring prisoners and enemies of Egypt, as well as scenes showing processions of servants bringing offerings from the mortuary estates and various divinities approaching the ruler on his throne.
Pepi II's mortuary temple is not unlike those of earlier 5th and 6th dynasty rulers, though it incorporates a few new features. For example, after the causeway but before the entrance corridor are a large, and to either side of it, two small north-south oriented rooms. According to Ricke, these symbolized important religious centers with the center room as Heliopolis, But the north room and Sais the southern room. From here, a stairway lead to the temples roof terrace. Also, the enlargement of the mortuary temple's eastern walls continues the development of the pylon-like features begun at the mortuary temple of Niuserre at Abusir.
Layout of Pepi II's valley temple, pyramid and his queens' pyramids
The entrance corridor lead, as usual, to an open, pillared, courtyard that was paved in limestone. The walls of the courtyard appear to be undecorated. There were eighteen pillars of reddish quartzite. One of these, on the northwest corner, survives. It is adorned with a scene of Pepi II and Re-Harakhty exchanging embraces. The other pillars also featured the king with a god. To either side of this outer section of the mortuary complex are storage annexes.
The transverse corridor between the inner and outer sections of the mortuary temple is noteworthy because it retains some of its decorative theme. Here, we find actually a stylized model of a niche on the west wall, and on the east wall a scene of Pepi II's sed festival, the festival of the god Min, and the execution of a Libyan chieftain. The chieftain is accompanied by his consort and son. However, this last scene is ritualistic, and was also found in the mortuary temple of Sahure.
In the middle of the back wall of the transverse corridor directly behind the open courtyard, an entrance lead into the inner sanctum of the temple. The entrance area is decorated with a scene depicting Pepi II being suckled by goddesses. The floor of the inner sanctum is raised about a meter higher than the outer part of the temple. Here, the first room encountered is the cult chapel, with its five niches, framed in red granite, for statues that originally were provided with narrow, double doors. Significantly, the center niche, which is slightly larger than the others, contains the base of a life size royal statue. It remains the only direct evidence we have that these ever present chambers were in fact statue niches. The niches are lined with pink granite. Behind the chapel is the antechamber carree that once had a single reddish quartzite pillar. Here the ceiling had an astronomical theme, decorated with stars. On the walls we find scenes of courtiers bringing tribute, and above them separated by a row of stars, is Pepi II who is in the company of gods. The north door of the chapel led to five storage annexes, while the south door lead to the offering hall.
However, before arriving in the offering hall there was a small vestibule and square, single pillared antechamber. In this vestibule we find more scenes of the king suppressing disorder, slaying enemies and hunting wild animals. Above the entrance to the offering hall in the antechamber is a scene of the king embracing the goddess Nekhbet and Anubis as a jackal. There is also depicted as many as 100 deities and 45 officials receiving the king.
The offering hall had a vaulted ceiling and is decorated. Here, the king sits at an offering table with a list of sacrifices, sacrifice bearers, and men slaughtering sacrificial animals. There are as many as 100 dignitaries and residents pictured bringing ducks, geese, quail, pigeons, gazelle, goats, antelopes, cattle, fruit wine, bear and bread. Behind the king is depicted a figure with the symbol of raised arms on his head, the symbol of the king's ka. There was, of course, an alter and at the back of this room adjacent to the pyramid was a false door.
A doorway at the south end of the dividing transverse corridor opened into the pyramid courtyard, where the cult pyramid was located. It was about 15.75 meters (52 feet) square. It has a t-shaped passage and a small chamber, all of which was left rough. A door on the other end of the corridor lead to the main pyramid courtyard, where three depressions (basins) probably were meant to collect libation water.
Pepi II's pyramid is built much like those of his predecessors, using small pieces of limestone secured with a clay mortar for the core and fine white limestone for the casing. The core consisted of five steps. What we do not understand is why the pyramid itself was enlarged. It turns out that after the casing was laid and the north chapel built, a band of brick about seven meters wide was added around the pyramid at the level of the third layer of core blocks. In order to complete this work, the north chapel and enclosure wall were both torn down, though the wall was built back a little farther from the pyramid. This mudbrick work did not rise above the height of the perimeter wall. Edwards suggested that this addition might have been to strengthen the pyramid after it was damaged by an earthquake, but the mudbrick was really not strong enough to be used for this purpose. It may have been added in order to strengthen the lower levels of casing. Others have suggested that the builders wished the pyramid to resemble the Hieroglyph for "pyramid", with a band across the base, or even that it may have symbolized one of his Sed festivals.
Subteranian chambers of Pepi II's pyramid
There is nothing particularly unusual about the subterranean section of the pyramid. The initial corridor descends into a vestibule, at which point everything becomes level. In this area of the pyramid were found alabaster and diorite vessel fragments along with the golden blade of a small, rounded knife which may have been used in the ritual pyramid closing. The vestibule opens up into a second corridor where soon the barrier would have been encountered. The barrier was made up of three huge, portcullis slabs of granite. After the barrier, the corridor continues until it leads into the antechamber. From here, the plan takes a 90 degree right turn into the burial chamber.
From the level corridor on, the walls are adorned with pyramid text. The one exception is the back wall of the burial chamber behind the sarcophagus, which is decorated with motifs of a stylized palace facade. In this room, at the head and foot ends of the sarcophagus, were false doors, painted green and topped with the name plate of the king. Both the ceilings of the antechamber and burial chamber are gabled, and decorated with an astronomical theme of stars on a dark background.
About halfway down the side of the black granite sarcophagus there were hieroglyphic inscriptions with Pepi II's name and titles. At the foot of the sarcophagus was a niche for the canopic chest, though only the granite lid was found. Pepi II's mummy has never been found, but at the foot of the sarcophagus' southwest corner was a whole for his canopic chest, the lid of which has been recovered.
It should also be noted that within the ruins of the complex were found many statues of prisoners reminiscent of the complexes of Teti, Djedkare and Pepi I, though here many more were found.
To the north, northwest and south of Pepi II's complex were fouind the pyramids of at least three of his queens. The pyramids belonged to Neith, the daughter of Pepi I, Ipwet (Iput II), the daughter of his brother Merenre, and another wife named Udjebten (Wedjebten).
Last Updated: June 20th, 2011
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Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online. | <urn:uuid:0711de8d-b95e-4427-9a62-fed135369174> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pepi2p.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970384 | 2,210 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Are we ready to listen to Earth’s Blue Heart?
Slow degradation of our planet’s oceans is in large part due to this vast expanse functioning as a common space for all living things. The human impact on this space is of a magnitude larger than that of any other organism. Collectively we know certain human behaviors must change and the human condition shall guide us to this challenge.
“The challenges for the future of the ocean are vast, but unlike previous generations we know what now needs to happen,” reports marine chair of the World Commission on Protected Areas, Dan Laffoley, in a 2011 international oceanic study. “The time to protect the blue heart of our planet is now, today and urgent.”
The long lasting changes in human behavior can occur when we connect emotionally to the damage humans have brought to the ocean. And sustained clean up efforts are motivated by a passion to do good for the environment.
It’s time for us all to listen to Earth’s blue heart.
To read the report and learn more about the science of ocean degradation, click here. | <urn:uuid:7ded746a-413e-4e35-931d-c286e68493e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theinertia.com/environment/our-blue-heart/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904577 | 233 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The situation today has stunned evolutionists and inflicted severe panic on them. There is at least one specimen of every one of the living things in existence today, be it a wolf or a fish, a woodpecker or a flycatcher, a deer or a tortoise, in the millions of years of natural history. We can see from the fossil record that every one of these life forms were in existence millions of years ago. Some were living 350 million years ago, some 150 million years ago and others 60 million years ago. But not a single one has changed. Every one of the fossils discovered has exactly the same features as its present-day counterparts, and is no primitive. They are exactly the same as today’s life forms. They have never changed, and never underwent evolution. They had exactly the same appearance then as they do now, and thus refute the theory of evolution.
An approximately 25-million-year-old horse fossil, for example, which according to Darwinists ought to be no larger than a dog, is identical to modern horses. A wolf skull dating back 120 million years, long before the time determined for the appearance of mammals by evolutionists, has been discovered. This life form has remained unchanged for 120 million years. There are hundreds of such examples.
(For detailed information, see the Atlas of Creation, Vol.s 1,2,3, Harun Yahya http://www.harunyahya.com/books/darwinism/atlas_creation/atlas_creation_01.php )
In summary, the fossil record has shown and continues to show that life forms have never altered. In contrast, there is not one single fossil to indicate that living things have changed, in other words that they have evolved.
Like other life forms, human beings have also remained unchanged over millions of years, and have always existed as human beings
In the same way that there is not one fossil of an intermediate form to prove the fictitious evolution of life forms, so there is not one intermediate fossil to prove that human beings evolved. All the fossils put forward by Darwinists are entirely speculative, and the invalidity of each and every one has been demonstrated.
That being the case, it is astonishing that Darwinists can still claim that human beings have altered and evolved. They act as if there were some form of evidence to support their claims, and ignore the specimens, identical to the today"s specimens" counterparts, that the fossil record is constantly giving up. Indeed, they keep coming up with new tales regarding the illusory evolution of man. Despite the absence of a single intermediate form fossil to show that human beings evolved, they constantly come up with baseless “evidence” or else invent new tales on the basis of matters that have nothing whatsoever to do with the subject. This terrible logical collapse is at the same time a terrible deception. Since no life form on Earth has ever changed, and since the fossil record makes this crystal clear with millions of different examples, the idea of human evolution is equally invalid.
This raises a number of questions. Why do Darwinists insist that human beings have changed when all the life forms on Earth appear suddenly in the fossil record and in the same form as they have today, and have never altered one iota? What is the origin of the countless scenarios produced despite there being not one single piece of evidence to confirm human evolution? These are questions that Darwinists can never answer.
In fact, the only possible answer to these questions is quite obvious: in the same way that no other life form ever changed, neither have human beings. In the same way that evolution never happened in natural history, so it never occurred in the history of mankind. In the same way that there is no fossil evidence to indicate that any other life forms have ever changed, so there is none showing that human beings ever evolved. What is more, fossils exhibit a continuity, or stasis, that totally demolishes the theory of evolution. It is obvious in the face of all this evidence that, as with all the speculation about the supposed evolution of living things, all the claims made about the supposed evolution human beings are mere sophistry and a terrible lie.
Since they are aware that all these facts have all now emerged, they are in a state of utter panic, the reason for which is the defeat of Darwinism itself, revealed by the panic being suffered by its proponents. The way that the fossil specimens have silenced all the conjecture about the changes undergone by living things, and that people have seen the true face of Darwinists with regard to the supposed evolution of man and have realised that all their claims are lies, have led to enormous Darwinist despair and panic. This represents the obituary of Darwinism. Evolutionists have been left with no more claims to make or hide behind. All Darwinist claims are untrue, and the fact of creation, in all its majesty, is plain to see. It is Allah (God) who created human beings and all other living things. He created them all from nothing and determined a particular way of living for each one. Our Lord Allah (God) is the Lord of all things. This is the truth that the whole world is finally beginning to realise; that hollow Darwinist speculation is nothing but a lie. | <urn:uuid:6c1847a1-78ae-44b0-ab53-a11f64ed6f0f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.darwinism-watch.com/index.php?git=makale&makale_id=148051 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963977 | 1,080 | 3.234375 | 3 |
This image shows wind speeds and directions over a segment of the ocean. The red color denotes faster wind speeds while the blue color denotes slower wind speeds. Scientists once wondered if changes in the Sun affected wind patterns on Earth.
Click on image for full size
Courtesy of U.S. Navy/NRL/NOAA
Sun's Effect on Earth's Weather (Wind)
from the Sun
affects many things on Earth
. One of the main things the Sun does is warm our planet, including the atmosphere
. This energy drives much of our weather
The solar cycle, the rise and fall of the number of sunspots on the Sun, has been known since the mid-19th century. Soon after this discovery scientists started to ask how the solar cycle might affect the Earth's weather.
The solar cycle goes from when the Sun has a minimum number of sunspots (a solar minimum) to when the Sun has a maximum number of sunspots (a solar maximum) back to a minimum. The time between two minimums is about 10.5 to 11 years. Really all aspects of the Sun and solar activity are influenced by the solar cycle. Solar activity (like coronal mass ejections) is more frequent at solar maximums and less frequent at solar minimums.
Scientists tried, but were not able to find correlations between this solar cycle and the Earth's weather. These attempts to find correlations ran into many difficulties. One problem was that weather data quality was variable. Finally, most scientists concluded that there is most likely no significant physical relationship between the solar cycle and Earth’s weather.
One example was a study to see if the solar cycle affected wind patterns on Earth. In 1949, H.C. Willett looked to see if the solar cycle affected long-term changes of wind patterns. He saw the solar cycle as a definite factor in influencing wind variations. He did admit that, "the physical basis of any such relationship must be utterly complex, and is as yet not at all understood." However, attempts to confirm his conclusions were not successful.
In fact, over time and with more and more studies and better instruments (especially satellites outside the Earth's atmosphere), connections between the solar cycle and Earth's weather have been found more and more unlikely. One exception to this seems to be that solar cosmic rays do affect Earth's cloudiness.
Through decades of study by scientists around the world, Sun-weather connections have largely been rejected by the scientific community.
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IMF stands for Interplanetary Magnetic Field. It is another name for the Sun's magnetic field. The Sun's magnetic field is huge! It goes beyond any of the planets. The Sun's magnetic field got its name...more | <urn:uuid:e0aba7ae-6310-4794-9ce1-87cad8830312> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.windows2universe.org/sun/sunspots_and_wind.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949255 | 942 | 4.09375 | 4 |
BIOCHEMISTRY - DR. JAKUBOWSKI
Learning Goals/Objectives for Chapter 9A:
We have previously discussed how chemical potential energy in the form of reduced organic molecules can be transduced into the chemical potential energy of ATP. This ATP can be used to drive reductive biosynthesis and movement (from individual cells to whole organisms). ATP has two other significant uses in the cell.
Active Transport: Molecules must often move across membranes against a concentration gradient - from low to high chemical potential - in a process characterized by a positive ΔG. As protons could be "pumped" across the inner mitochondrial membrane against a concentration gradient, powered by the ΔG associated with electron transport (passing electrons from NADH to dioxygen), other species can cross membranes against a concentration gradient - a process called active transport - if coupled to ATP hydrolysis or the collapse of another gradient. This active transport is differentiated from facilitated diffusion we studied earlier, which occurred down a concentration gradient across the membrane. Many such species must be transported into the cell or into intracellular organelles against a concentration gradient!
Signal Transduction: All cells must know how to respond to their environment. They must be able to divide, grow, secrete, synthesize, degrade, differentiate, cease growth, and even die when the appropriate signal is given. This signal invariably is a molecule which binds to a receptor, typically on the cell surface. (Exceptions include light transduction in retinal cells when the signal is a photon, and lipophilic hormones which pass through the membrane.) Binding is followed by shape changes in transmembrane protein receptors which effectively transmits the signal into the cytoplasm. We will discuss two main types of signal transduction pathways:
We will discuss signal transduction in the final two chapters.
For active transport to occur, a membrane receptor is required which recognizes the ligand to be transported. Of major interest to us, however, is the energy source used to drive the transport against a concentration gradient. The biological world has adapted to use almost any source of energy available.
Energy released by oxidation: We have already encountered the active transport of protons driven by oxidative processes. In electron transport in respiring mitochondria, NADH is oxidized as it passes electrons to a series of mobile electron carriers (ubiquione, cytochrome C, and eventually dioxygen) using Complex 1, 3 and 4 in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Somehow the energy lost in this thermodynamically favored process was coupled to conformational changes in the complex which caused protons to be ejected from the matrix into the inner membrane space. One can imagine a series of conformation-sensitive pKa changes in various side chains in the complexes which lead in concert to the vectorially discharge of protons.
ATP hydrolysis: One would expect that this ubiquitous carrier of free energy would by used to drive active transport. In fact, this is one of the predominant roles of ATP in the biological world. 70% of all ATP turnover in the brain is used for the creation and maintenance of a Na and K ion gradient across nerve cell membranes using the membrane protein Na+/K+ ATPase.
Light: Photosynthetic bacteria have a membrane protein called bacteriorhodopsin which contains retinal, a conjugated polyene derived from beta-carotene. It is analogous to the visual pigment protein rhodopsin in retinal cells. Absorption of light by the retinal induces a conformation changes in the retinal and protein, which leads to vectorial discharge of protons ;
Collapse of an ion gradient: The favorable collapse of an ion gradient can be used to drive the transport of a different species against a concentration gradient. We have already observed that collapse of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondria membrane (through FoF1ATPase) can drive the thermodynamically unfavored synthesis of ATP. Collapse of a proton gradient provides a proton-motive force which can drive the active transport of sugars. Likewise a sodium-motive force can drive active transport of metal ions. Since the energy to make the initial ion gradients usually comes from ATP hydrolysis, ATP indirectly powers the transport of the other species against a gradient.
Often times, transport of one species is coupled to transport of another. If the species are charged, a net change in charge across the membrane may occur. Several terms are used to describe various types of transport:
Na/K - These ions are both transported by the Na/K ATPase.
This protein keeps the K+in and Na+out high compared to their respective
concentrations on the other side of the membrane. The protein exists in two
essential conformations, E1 and E2, depending on the phosphorylation state
of the protein. ATP and 3 Na+ bind to the cytoplasmic domain of the enzyme
in the E1 conformation. In the presence of Na ions, the bound ATP is cleaved
in a nucleophilic atack by an Asp side chain of the protein. (Hence, the
protein is a Na+-activated ATPase. The phosphorylated enzyme changes
conformation to the E2 form in which Na+ ions are now on the outside of the
cell membrane, from which they dissociate. The phosphorylated protein in
conformation E2 now binds 2 K+ ions on the outside, which activates
hydrolysis of the Asp-PO3 mixed anhydride link. The dephosphorylated protein
is more stable in the E1 conformation to which it changes as it bring K+
ions into the cell. This is an example of an electrogenic antiporter.
Transport proteins that use this mechanism of transport are designated as P
types, since ATP cleavage is required and PO43- is covalenty transferred to
an Asp residue from the ATP. P-Type transporters are inhibited
by vanadate (VO43-), a transition state analog of phosphate. Note:
Transport mediated by P type membrane proteins can, in the lab, be used to
drive ATP synthesis.
Detailed kinetic analysis of ATP and vanadate interactions show there are a low affinity and high affinity site for each on Na/K ATPase. The high affinity vandate site appears to be the same as the low affinity ATP site, which suggest that vandate binds tightly to the E2 form of the enzyme. The low affinity vandate site appears to be the same site (based on competition assays) as the ATP site, which is probably the E1 form. Hence vandate binds preferentially to the E2 form would inhibit the transition to the E1 form. Vanadate also inhibits phosphatases, enymes that cleaves phosphorylated Ser, Thr, and Tyr - phosphoesters in proteins. This supports the notion that vanadate binds preferentially to the E2 form, which has a phosphoanhydride link (Asp-O-phosphate) that is hydrolyzed, promoting the conversion of E2 back to E1. Vanadate is probably at transition state analog inhibitor in that it can readily adopt a trigonal bipyramidal structure, mimicking the transition state for cleavage of the tetrahedral anhydride bonds of ATP and Asp-O-PO4.
animation: Na/K ATPase
K - In addition to the above mechanism, K ions can be transported with protons in an electroneutral antiport mechanism by a K+/H+-ATPase found in stomach cells, which gives rise to a low pH in the lumen of the stomach.
Figure: K/H ATPase
Ca - Calcium levels are very low in cells. Transient increases are more
likely to be detected in a signal transduction pathways than a transient
decrease in high basal or constituitive cytoplasmic levels. Ca2+-ATPase,
homologous to the Na/K-ATPase, removes Ca2+ from the cytoplasm to either the
outside of the cells or into internal organelles. In addition a Na+-Ca2+
exchange protein (an antiporter) transports calcium ions out of the cell
using a sodium-motive potential.
Transport of calcium ions
Figure: Transport of calcium ions
All of above ATPases are examples of P-type ion transporters.
Lactose - Lactose can be transported into E. Coli against a concentration gradient using galactoside permease, one of the proteins encoded by the lac operon. This protein uses a proton-motive force to pump lactose into the cell. The proton gradient is created by an electron transport complex in the membrane which is inhibited by cyanide, reminiscent of the cytochrome C oxidase complex in oxphos.
Figure: Lactose Transport
Glucose - Glucose can be transported into brush border cells lining the small intestine powered by a sodium-motive symport transporter.
Figure: Glucose Transport
Driven by oxidation - The proton gradient formed during aerobic oxidation and photosynthesis in mitochondria and chloroplast, respectively, is paid for by free energy decreases associated with oxidation of organic molecules.
Driven by ATP cleavage - As mentioned above, protons are transported into the the lumen of the stomach by a K+-H+ ATPase.
Driven by light - Photosynthetic bacteria have a membrane protein called bacteriorhodopsin which contains retinal, a conjugated polyene derived from beta-carotene. The retinal is covalently attached to the protein through a Schiff base linkage to an epsilon amino group of Lys (much as pyridoxal phosphate is in PLP-dependent enzymes). Bacteriorhodopsin is analogous to the visual pigment protein rhodopsin in retinal cells. Absorption of light by the retinal induces a conformational changes in the all trans-retinal, which causes an associated conformational change in bacteriorhodopsin. The initial state (BR) changes through a series of intermediates (K, L, M, N, and O). Various side chains and the protonated N of the Schiff base of retinal change their relative positions with respect to each other, which leads to changes in protonation states of the side chains and ultimately vectorial discharge of protons through the membrane. As the M state forms, H+ is moved to the extracellular side of the membrane (as shown below). Later a H+ is taken up on the cytoplasmic side (at the Schiff base of the retinal link) leading to reformation of the BR state. Experiments have been done to trap the protein in some of these intermediate states. In one (Leuke et al, 1999), a mutant (Asp 96 to Asparagine or D96N) trappped the protein in a state, MN, that occurs after a H+ has been moved to the extracellular side but before a compensatory H+ has been taken up on the cytoplasmic face. The mutation hinders the reuptake of the proton.
Figure: A NEW VERSION SHOWING PROTON TRANSFER IN BACTERIORHODOPSIN
Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) - This is a member of a family of an ATP-Binding Cassette or ABC transporter proteins. The membrane protein has 12 transmembrane helices. In contrast to other ion transporters which transport a discrete number of ions (3 sodium and 2 potassium ions, for example), this changes conformation to form an open pore through which chloride ions flow. This protein is defective in Cystic Fibrosis.
Multidrug Resistance Transporter - MDR - This is another example of an ATP-Binding Cassette or ABC transporter. It acts in a somewhat promiscuous fashion in pumping nonpolar toxic molecules out of the cell. This would seem quite beneficial to the organism, unless the toxic molecule is a chemotherapeutic drug used to kill a tumor cell.
Phospholipid Flippase or Transbilayer amphipath transporter (TAT) - This is a member of the P-Type ATPase family which instead of moving ions across the membrane flips amino lipids (like PE) across leaflets in the bilayer. In an early chapter we noted that flip-flop diffusion in liposomes was slow compared to that in cells, suggesting that the flip-flop diffusion was catalyzed in the cell. Catalysis requires ATP cleavage and produces two conformations of the protein. During the conformational change of the protein, a phospholipid appears to bind to the protein and is flipped to the other side of the membrane.
The disposition of phosphatidylserine, a
negatively charged phospholipid, between membrane leaflets is
especially interesting and important. Almost all the PS is localized
in the inner leaflet. Cells in which PS is found in the outer leaflet
are target for program cell death (apoptosis). PS in the outer leaflet
can also promote blood clotting as clotting factors are recruited to the
surface. It appears that a P-type ATPase is required. Using gene
silencing by RNA interference in C. Elegans, Darland-Ranson found that
onespecific P-type ATPase, TAT-1 out of 6 found in the organisms had PS
flippase activity, which would retain PS in the inner leaflet. Cells
with PS in the outer leaflet were often targets of phagocytosis, suggesting
the phagocytes have receptors that recognize PS. Cells with PS
receptors may also bind and internalize virus, which have membrane leaflets
acquired from infected cells as the virus buds off from the cells.
Such cells might have PS in their outer leaflets since the infected cells
may be in the process of dying through apoptosis, which would increase PS in
the outer leaflet.
Experimental Study of Flipping: Labeling new PL ; Assay for Flip-flop Diffusion
There are also other types. F-type are similar to the F0F1ATPases and can transport protons against a concentration gradient powered by ATP breakdown. Notice that this is the opposite role for this enzyme that we discussed in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. V-type (vacuolar) are found in the membranes of acidic organelles (like lysosomes) and acidic vesicles within neurons, where neurotransmitters are stored.
As mentioned earlier, one of the biggest problems in medical drug development is the productions of drugs that can diffuse across the cell membrane. This requires that the drug be sufficiently nonpolar while at the same time being sufficiently polar to have reasonable aqueous solubility, allowing blood transport. Another approach to getting drugs across the membrane is to modify them to bind to transporters whose normal function is to move solutes against a concentration gradient across a lipid bilyaer. The extent of modification of the drug depends on how close the structure of the drug is in comparison to the normal ligand for the transporter. This approach has been used by the biotech company XenoPort, to develop drugs that can be more readily absorbed by the small intestine, which has many active transporters designed to move nutrients into cells. | <urn:uuid:91352589-d772-42ac-912b-fd8d6f8f7e34> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch331/signaltrans/olsignalenergy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915276 | 3,260 | 3.25 | 3 |
Issue Date: May 14, 2007
Yeast Sniffs Out Explosives
ANYONE WHO HAS BAKED bread or brewed beer knows the smell of yeast in action. Now, yeast has been engineered to do its own smelling—specifically, sniffing out the odor of explosives.
The new sensor is a yeast cell that detects 2,4-dinitrotoluene, or DNT, using rat olfactory proteins that have been inserted into its outer cell membrane. When the yeast smells the TNT-associated compound, the cell turns a fluorescent green (Nat. Chem. Biol., DOI: 10.1038/nchembio882).
Making sensors "from the receptors that animals use to detect odors is one of the most exciting avenues of sensory science," comments Randall R. Reed, a director at Johns Hopkins University's Center for Sensory Biology.
In a five-year effort, molecular biologist Danny N. Dhanasekaran and his colleagues at Temple University engineered into yeast seven rat proteins required for sensing and transducing a biochemical signal after exposure to an odorant. The next challenge was to figure out a way to make the yeast cells signal detection of the odorant, says Dhanasekaran.
Activating the rat olfactory system leads to increased cellular levels of a molecule called cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). So the researchers genetically engineered the yeast to make green fluorescent protein whenever the cAMP switch was turned on by odor sensing.
Once they knew the yeast's transplanted olfaction system was working, the researchers screened 1,000 rat olfactory receptor proteins to find one that could specifically detect DNT. Then they spliced the DNT-detecting protein segment into the existing olfactory circuit in yeast to complete the sensor.
"Any event related to the presence or production of a specific odorant can potentially be followed" with this system, comments Edith Pajot-Augy, a neurobiologist at the University of Orsay, in France. Potential applications range from diagnosing pathologies associated with odors in body fluids to monitoring environmental or industrial processes. But she cautions that the researchers would have to improve the system's sensitivity and specificity for odors in order for it to achieve its full potential.
- Chemical & Engineering News
- ISSN 0009-2347
- Copyright © American Chemical Society | <urn:uuid:dea19977-fe78-427b-adca-c276099a459b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cen.acs.org/articles/85/i20/Yeast-Sniffs-Explosives.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928874 | 496 | 2.875 | 3 |
TUESDAY, Feb. 8 (HealthDay News) --The U.S. Food and Drug Administration on Tuesday approved the first heart pacemaker designed to be safe during some MRI scans.
Pacemakers are medical devices implanted in the body to treat irregular or stalled heart beats. Until now, patients with pacemakers who needed an MRI were out of luck, since the magnetic and radiofrequency fields used by the MRI could disturb the pacemakers' settings or cause wires to overheat, accidentally shocking the heart, burning tissue, causing electrical failure and other problems.
The new pacemaker -- known as the Revo MRI SureScan Pacing System -- includes a function that is activated before a scan to prepare patients for the MRI, according to an FDA news release. Its use in MRI scans, however, is limited to certain patients, particular parts of the body and certain scanning parameters. The FDA will require training for cardiologists and radiologists who use the system.
"FDA's approval of the Revo pacemaker represents an important step forward toward greater device innovation," Dr. Jeffrey Shuren, director of the FDA's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, said in the news release. "Those patients who meet the parameters for the device will be able to maintain their critical cardiac therapy while benefiting from the precise diagnostic capability of an MRI."
"Patients with devices are restricted from having magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] exams," noted Dr. Larry A Chinitz, director of cardiac electrophysiology and the Heart Rhythm Center at NYU Langone Medical Center in New York City. "Sometimes it is a nuisance, sometimes it can be life-threatening. This new pacemaker will begin to attack the problem that these patients face. NYU Langone Medical Center will be the first in New York to implant this new device."
Almost half of those who have a pacemaker may need an MRI at some point, according to the FDA.
Before approving the new pacemaker, the FDA reviewed results from a clinical trial of 484 patients. Of those, 464 had the device implanted and then were chosen at random to receive or not receive an MRI. Of the 211 who underwent an MRI, none experienced an MRI-related complication.
The results confirmed earlier data from animal studies, computer simulation programs and other nonclinical research.
Revo is manufactured by Medtronic Inc., of Mounds View, Minn.
For more on pacemakers, go to the National Library of Medicine.
SOURCE: Larry A Chinitz, M.D., director, cardiac electrophysiology and the Heart Rhythm Center, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York City; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, news release, Feb. 8, 2011
All rights reserved | <urn:uuid:a786c2a1-aa0b-4a00-b27e-0ba5c568e300> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/FDA-Approves-First-Pacemaker-Deemed-Safe-During-MRIs-79083-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909198 | 565 | 2.625 | 3 |
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation today distributed more than $58,000 in federal Safe Routes to School program money.
The PennDOT-administered program provides guidance and funding to help schools develop safe walking and biking solutions in their communities. Established through federal legislation in 2005, the program was created, in part, to help reverse a nationwide increase in childhood obesity.
Mooreland Elementary School in the Carlisle Area School District was awarded
$4,238 to hold a family bicycle rodeo and to purchase promotional items as well as bicycle helmets and crossing guard equipment.
For more information, go to www.SafeRoutesPA.org. | <urn:uuid:4051de92-89bb-463d-a65a-95f9f4033b88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pennlive.com/midstate/index.ssf/2013/02/elementary_school_in_carlisle.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958378 | 133 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Until very recently, blue roses did not exist in nature, and they've only now become available through the use of genetic engineering. The first blue rose was created artificially in 2004 by engineers in Japan, according to University of Illinois Extension horticulture educator Jennifer Schultz Nelson. Buying these blue roses, however, can be quite expensive. One alternative is to dye roses blue at home using food coloring. It's an easy project and will result in strikingly blue flowers in about 24 hours. If you have some extra white roses from your flower garden this year, you can dye them blue and add interest to your cut flower displays.
Fill a flower vase about half full with water. Make sure to use a vase that's large enough to hold all of your roses. Because it takes so much time to dye the flowers, it's easier to create a large batch of blue roses than several smaller batches.
Add about five drops of blue food coloring to the water for each rose you'll be dyeing. Add more if necessary, until the water is a deep blue color. If you want lighter, pastel blue roses, add a little less coloring. Experiment until you've created the hue you desire.
Cut 1 to 2 inches from the bottom of each white rose stem with a sharp knife or scissors. This will make it easier for the water and food coloring to penetrate the stems and dye the roses blue.
Place the cut white roses into the vase and allow them to sit for 24 to 72 hours. The longer they're left in place, the darker blue they'll become. Check them every few hours after the first day to make sure they don't become too dark.
Remove the blue roses from the vase once they've turned the color you desire. Wipe the stems to remove any excess food coloring. Pace them in a vase filled with fresh water, use them in flower displays, or wrap in plastic and give as a gift. | <urn:uuid:d0c82744-a37d-45b0-8431-f8ab391bacbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/86995-dye-roses-blue.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943105 | 396 | 2.75 | 3 |
We adults seem to distrust reading games--or indeed, any learning games--as not being a very serious learning tool. I suppose that's
true; games that teach reading are probably way too much fun to be
serious. But they still manage to do a great job helping kids
learn how to read.
But let's not get ahead of ourselves. Reading is complex, so there isn't likely to be a one-size-fits-all way of teaching or practicing it, even where games are involved. Let's take a look at how games can help kids learn, and see what type would be the best fit for your child.
Think of the last time you played a good game. Did you feel happy? Energized? Were you laughing? Connecting with people? Games, play, and laughter are great motivators for anyone, but especially kids. When these are combined with learning, the effect can be pretty powerful.
However, just because a game is fun and involves reading, it doesn't mean that it will actually help your child learn. You need to start with choosing the right kind of reading game.
A good reading game can help kids either learn or practice reading skills. Either way, games should never be too difficult for the child's level. At most, they should be only slightly more challenging than what your child feels comfortable with. This will give kids something to work toward without frustrating them.
Here are a few types of reading games that can make a big difference for kids who are learning to read:
Language Games: Language games can be played with kids at all reading levels, but are especially helpful for very new readers. Children rely heavily on language and general knowledge as they figure out written words, and the stronger their language skills are, the more easily they will master reading areas like phonics and word families.
Phonemic Awareness Games: Similar to language games, phonemic awareness games show kids how to play with the sounds of language and change them around. They will need to know how to do this before they can work with printed letters and words, or attempt to work with phonics.
Word Family Games: Not only do the words in word families rhyme, they share the same written patterns (light, sight, night--but not bite). Word family games will give kids practice learning and recognizing these word patterns.
Phonics Games: Phonics games let kids play with written letters and letter groups to change words and sounds. Phonics is very important in learning to sound out words, and phonics play is a good way to give kids extra practice in this area.
Sight Words Games: Some words just don't follow typical rules. Sight word games help kids memorize these words, and have fun doing it.
Reading Comprehension Games: Even strong readers can have trouble making sense of what they read. Reading comprehension games give kids a fun reason to think about the meaning of what they are reading.
Reading Fluency Games: When kids read out loud smoothly, it is easier for them to understand the words. Reading fluency games give kids practice in reading more naturally.
Games for Varied Reading Skills: Some reading games give more general practice reading and learning new words. Readers of all levels can try these games to teach reading; just adjust the words in the games for your child's reading level.
For more information about any of these reading areas, you may also want to take a look at the articles in First Grade Reading. | <urn:uuid:24037423-8120-423c-a9ad-b8c334b2a2af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smartfirstgraders.com/reading-games.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963861 | 713 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Curiosity is drawing people to YouTube.
We’re talking about Curiosity, the Mars exploration rover. It’s due to reach the Red Planet just after 12 a.m. Aug. 6.
For now, it’s creating some pre-landing buzz in a slick NASA YouTube video that describes what a feat it will be to land on the Martian surface. More than 500,000 people have watched “Seven Minutes of Terror” so far.
Curiosity will be the largest thing NASA’s ever landed on Mars. At about 1 ton, it dwarfs Opportunity (384 pounds) and Sojourner (25 pounds).
Its capsule has been traveling 154 million miles and will have to slow down from 13,000 mph when it enters the atmosphere. At seven miles up, its parachute will open. A mile up, the parachute will separate and thrusters will slow the vehicle down further. Just before it lands at the Gale crater, cables will lower Curiosity to the ground.
Curiosity carries scientific equipment to sample rock and help scientists study how the planet has changed, whether it has held water and whether it could have supported life.
Learn more about the Curiosity mission and follow it on Twitter and Facebook. | <urn:uuid:575eadcc-10c8-44b0-92c5-f02b2557ba06> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2012/07/seven_minutes_of_terror_nasa_v.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899452 | 255 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Action learning (an approach first evolved by Dr Reg Revans in the UK over 60 years ago) has today become a well-respected approach to not only organizational problem solving but to help adults to more quickly learn and make good decisions in their respective workplaces. But how does action learning differ from other approaches?
The term “Action learning” may intuitively sound as if the main focus is on learning by doing or drawing conclusions having taken a decision or action of some kind. Although reflection following action is an important component of the process, Action learning is actually a much more integrated and sophisticated approach that differs significantly from traditional learning methods.
The chart below summarizes the key differences.
|Traditional learning||Action Learning|
|Fixed/Set curriculum||Open/Flexible curriculum|
|Individual orientation||Group/Team orientation|
|Inputs are key||Outputs are key|
|Knowledge matters||Action/results matter|
|Focused on solving puzzles||Focused on solving problems|
|Teach people the right answers||Teach people the right questions|
|Learning occurs individually||Learning occurs individually and collectively|
|Past orientation||Present and future orientation|
|Downward expression of certainty||Upward expression of doubt|
|Converges to a single best option||Diverges towards greater options|
As this chart indicates, perhaps the most significant difference in relation to Action learning is the fact that it assumes that learning is most effective when it relates to real and practical issues and what is then “studied” is flexibly assembled on a “just-in-time” basis. In other words, an Action learning approach is more interested in what works in practice than what may have worked in the past (in theory or in practice). This is not to say that past knowledge is not important but that it should only be drawn upon when relevant and applicable, and when related to present issues. The other key factor in relation to an Action learning approach is that it is a predominantly collaborative learning-based or collectively orientated system. As a consequence, learning is best achieved in what Reg Revans called a “learning set” or a group of people, all interested in the same broad subject area, topic, issue, challenge or general goal. This allows each person to learn both individually and collectively as part of the set and to share ideas at every stage.
In terms of how the Action Learning process works in practice, Reg Revans called all existing or past knowledge “Programmed” information (and assigned the letter “P” to represent it). By existing or past knowledge Revans included information that is already contained in books or that may have been documented formally in concepts and theories which have then been drawn upon to “program” students or learners under a traditional learning or educational approach.
Revans accepted that Programmed knowledge or “P” is an essential ingredient of learning, but felt that by itself it is insufficient. He believed that there is an equally important component in terms of overall learning, one which has tended to be squeezed out by traditional educational methods. This he calls “Q” for Questioning Insight. By Questioning Insight Revans meant the capacity to uncover the more hidden or future underlying data or potential answers that may lead to greater understanding (and therefore better future solutions). If learning is represented by the letter “L”, this creates the equation:
L = P + Q
Hence, concepts and theory are important, but in Action Learning the emphasis is on applying them. And so it is on “Q” that Revans ultimately focuses – on the questions which need to be asked and the experience which is waiting to be acquired. For Revans, the ability to ask the right questions at the right time and take action is at the heart of Action Learning. | <urn:uuid:bacca567-30e7-4b86-804f-fe99a90880f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.readytomanage.com/action-learning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945135 | 797 | 3.4375 | 3 |
May 27, 2010
First Radio Tracking Of Tropical Orchid Bees
Blue-green orchid bees zip through increasingly scarce patches of tropical forest pollinating rare flowers. For the first time, researchers at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute track unique signals from tiny transmitters glued to individual orchid bees, yielding new insight into the role of bees in tropical forest ecosystems.
"When people disturb and destroy tropical forest they disrupt pollination systems," said David Roubik, senior staff scientist at STRI. "Now we can track orchid bees to get at the distances and spatial patterns involved in pollination"”vital details that have completely eluded us in the past."The team trapped 17 iridescent orchid bees, Exaerete frontalis, which are fairly common in the forest. "These bees easily carry a 300-milligram radio transmitter glued onto their backs," said Martin Wikelski, director of the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, professor at Princeton University and research associate at STRI. "By following the radio signals with a hand-held antenna, we discovered that male orchid bees spent most of their time in small core areas but could take off and visit areas farther away. One male even crossed over the shipping lanes in the Panama Canal, flew at least 5 kilometers, and returned a few days later."
People have struggled to determine the distances that bees travel by following individuals marked with paint between baits, or using radar, which does not work well when trees are in the way. "Carrying the transmitter may reduce the distance that the bees travel," said Roland Kays, curator of mammals at the New York State Museum and research associate at STRI. But even if the flight distances we record are the minimum distances that these orchid bees can fly, they are impressive, long-distance movements. "These data help to explain how orchids these bees pollinate can be so rare."
In addition to hand-tracking bees, Wikelski, Kays and colleagues have set up the Automated Radio Telemetry System on Barro Colorado Island. The system is available to interested researchers and is capable of tracking up to 200 different animals, 24 hours a day, at any given time. Current research subjects include ant birds, anteaters, sloths, agoutis, ocelots and tree frogs. http://agoutienterprise.wordpress.com/
Ref: Martin Wikelski, Jerry Moxley, Alexander Eaton-Mordas, Margarita M. L³pez-Uribe, Richard Holland, David Moskowitz, David W. Roubik, Roland Kays. 2009. Large-range Movements of Neotropical Orchid Bees Observed via Radio Telemetry.
Image Caption: Orchid bees, like Exaerete frontalis, may fly great distances to pollinate specific orchid species. Now scientists can track their flight paths using radio telemetry. Credit: STRI
On the Net: | <urn:uuid:50e76cec-275a-48bc-bca8-d8775df09a85> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1871307/first_radio_tracking_of_tropical_orchid_bees/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91308 | 617 | 3.9375 | 4 |
How to create swf fileLevel of difficulty: Easy
SWF are used to create animate films and they are built into Adobe Flash. Adobe Flash is a design program you can either buy them or download it from Adobe. For an ordinary movie to be converted into SWF files, you will require special software. Each software program is purchase individually. The SWF file format is made to format graphics, text, and sound and video over the Internet, it is not a format for the exchange of graphics between the editors. A SWF file consists of a header, which is followed on by tags. There are two types of tags, namely definition tags and control tags. Definition tags are objects and control tags manage the characters, and control the files. Follow these steps and create a SWF file.
- Specialized software
Download and install Adobe flash player on your computer, you will get access to this program from Adobe, download it from the website. It can be bought from a store too.
After download is complete, open the Flash program on the computer. Now use Flash program to create an animation. Knowing how to work on Flash program language is very important.
After you have created an animation, save it on Adobe program. This creates an SWF file, which you can publish on the web by using a FTP client. Display this SWF file by changing the animation to HTML code.
When you have created an SWF file, it can play when you use the Adobe Flash Player. If other players download this player on to their computer, they will be able to watch your animation. The SWF will be on your website, so they can see it. All they need to do is click on the link in order to view it.
If you want to make another animation and turn it into an SWF file, then you will have to run it with Flash and save it as a flash file, either that or use a program which will change it into an SWF file format. There are many steps to build a SWF file. They are made by adding digital photos to Photo Flash Slideshow, by selecting your favorite theme from the built-in theme templates and by publishing SWF file and uploading to Go2Album for sharing.
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Search for another file extension | <urn:uuid:9703b8f1-6521-476d-b60a-1b5c06d37caf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.liutilities.com/how-to/create-swf-file/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908647 | 658 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Belongs to the sodium channel auxiliary subunit SCN2B (TC 8.A.17) family. Contains 1 Ig-like C2-type (immunoglobulin-like) domain.C
The sodium channel consists of a pore-forming alpha subunit, beta-1 and beta-2 subunits. Beta-1 is non-covalently associated with alpha, while beta-2 is covalently linked by disulfide bonds. Interaction with SCN10A and TNR (By similarity).
SCN2B is crucial in the assembly, expression, and functional modulation of the heterotrimeric complex of the sodium channel. The subunit beta-2 causes an increase in the plasma membrane surface area and in its folding into microvilli.
SCN2B is sodium channel, voltage-gated, type II, is involved in the initiation and conduction of electrical impulses in nerves | <urn:uuid:d7d9a121-ac88-4f77-86d4-f9f9e0b67764> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sinobiological.com/SCN2B-a-5651.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862049 | 193 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Tannery Hill Studios, Dennis Griggs, Associated Press
February is known as Black History Month. It is a time when special notice is taken of the historical contributions of African-Americans. Although much attention is devoted to well-known historical figures such as Martin Luther King Jr., Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman or Sojourner Truth, here are some lesser-known examples of makers of African-American history whose lives and works should be noted by all Americans, black and white.
Olaudah Equiano came to the United States as a slave, later bought his freedom and then wrote a book recounting his experiences. He related being kept in the hold of the slave ship: “The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship, which was so crowded that each had scarcely room to turn himself, almost suffocated us.” He remembered one day “when we had a smooth sea and moderate wind, two of my wearied countrymen who were chained together preferring death to such a life of misery, somehow made through the nettings and jumped into the sea and I believe many more would very soon have done the same if they had not been prevented by the ship’s crew.” Thanks to the writings of Olaudah Equiano, 18th century Americans became aware of the horrors of slavery.
To most Americans, the conqueror of the Arctic was Robert E. Peary, long believed to be the first man to reach the North Pole. But little recognition was given at the time to his African-American colleague, Matthew Henson, who accompanied Peary during his expeditions, was present when Perry reached the North Pole, and ultimately spent seven years as Peary’s traveling companion in the Arctic. While Peary received awards and extensive publicity, his traveling companion was largely forgotten. It was not until many years later that Henson was recognized for his achievements. That oversight highlighted the racism of his day, but also Henson’s own fortitude in performing valuable service despite it.
When Shirley Chisholm arrived in the U.S. House of Representatives, she was sure to be noticed. She was the first African-American woman elected to Congress. There were only nine other black members in the House at the time, and only 10 other women in a body with 435 members. Racist congressional leaders assigned her to the Agriculture Committee, hoping it would make her ineffectual to her Harlem constituency. But Chisholm used this position to promote the food stamp program. She formed an alliance with a new Republican senator from Kansas, Bob Dole, and they introduced legislation creating the WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) program that now benefits millions of Americans.
Ultimately, Chisholm spent 14 years in Congress, and during that time became the first woman to run for the Democratic presidential nomination. Just before she died, Chisholm said: “I want history to remember me not just as the first black woman to be elected to Congress, not as the first black woman to have made a bid for the presidency of the United States, but as a black woman who lived in the 20th century and dared to be herself.”
In 1995, administrators at the University of Southern Mississippi received a $150,000 donation to fund scholarships for financially needy black students from Mississippi. That in itself was not unusual. Affluent people often donate to universities. But the donor in this case was Oseola McCarty, an 87-year-old African-American washer woman who had spent a life time washing other people’s clothes and saving her money. McCarty lived alone in a small house, used an air conditioner only when company came, and took a vacation once. The money she donated for scholarships was 60 percent of her life savings. President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Citizens Medal and Harvard University gave her an honorary doctorate. But Osceola McCarty gave much more than $150,000. She gave the rest of us an unforgettable example of selfless sacrifice.
During Black History Month, all of us, whether we are African-American or not, should take time to remember the influence of so many African-Americans in our nation’s history who have shaped our society despite the racism they encountered. We are better for their place in America’s history.
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- Letter: Panhandlers in Sandy 17 | <urn:uuid:f105796f-168b-43a8-a18c-ec22c8844270> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865595659/African-Americans-shape-nations-history-for-the-better.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971195 | 1,094 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Set the TiVo: NASA plans HDTV broadcast from space
Next week, NASA will make the first ever high definition TV broadcast from space, in a collaboration with the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency and Discovery HD theatre.
The two live broadcasts are scheduled for November 15, when ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter will serve as cameraman. The footage will be streamed live back to earth using the so-called Space Video Gateway.
The kit needed for the broadcasts, including a camcorder, viewfinder and lenses, was installed during the last visit Atlantis made to the ISS. That mission also transported cabling, an HDTV signal decoder, processor and hard drive to the crew of the space station.
Although high definition footage has been filmed aboard the station before, the recordings have had to be physically retrieved before being checked and broadcast. This will be the first time HD images have been streamed live from the station.
NASA says that high def footage of life aboard the space station will not just be interesting to the public, but useful for scientists, engineers and mission managers at NASA.
The footage will be aired in the US on Discovery HD Theater at 10:30 a.m. CST.
Readers with a particular interest in the history of images from space might like to have a read of this article, which tells the story of the first ever picture of Earth taken from beyond the atmosphere, back in 1946. ® | <urn:uuid:aaea0afd-79d3-43a6-ac80-725125b6c54c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theregister.co.uk/Print/2006/11/10/nasa_space_streaming/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939993 | 287 | 2.75 | 3 |
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NIST Authors in Bold
|Author(s):||Andrew K. Persily; Steven J. Emmerich;|
|Title:||Indoor Air Quality in Energy Efficient Buildings|
|Published:||August 29, 2011|
|Abstract:||Building energy efficiency has been an important goal for decades. Since the energy crisis of the 1970s, much has been learned about how to improve energy efficiency in buildings. More recently, given increases in energy costs and concerns about the environmental impacts of buildings, there has been renewed emphasis on reducing building energy consumption. Over the same time periods, there has also been increasing awareness of indoor air pollution as a significant human health issue. The building community is challenged to reduce the environmental impacts of buildings, including energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, while maintaining indoor environments that are conducive to occupant health. A number of programs, standards, codes and other efforts are promoting, and in some cases requiring, the design and construction of green or sustainable buildings (ASHRAE 2009; USGBC 2009; GBI 2010; ICC 2010). More recently, there has been a focus on net-zero energy buildings (NTSC 2008). Some of these discussions also speak to high-performance, which generally includes a range of non-energy issues such as indoor air quality (IAQ). Nevertheless, many discussions of sustainable, high-performance buildings tend to focus on energy, which while critically important is only one aspect of performance and should not be pursued to the neglect of the others. This article considers the role of IAQ in energy efficient buildings and discusses how good IAQ can and should be factored into energy efficiency and other sustainable building goals.|
|Pages:||pp. 76 - 83|
|Research Areas:||Building and Fire Research| | <urn:uuid:b171cee5-dfea-4bcb-8e6d-df0f7031c111> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nist.gov/manuscript-publication-search.cfm?pub_id=906627 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93442 | 400 | 2.6875 | 3 |
The civilizations that developed in Mesopotamia near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers between 3000 and 300 B.C.E. developed impressive skills for fashioning clothing. The evidence of these civilizations' clothing remains on sculptures, pottery, and in writings left on tablets and royal tombs. It indicates that a thriving textile or fabric industry existed in the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, which included the Sumerians (3000–2000 B.C.E. ), the Akkadians (2350–2218 B.C.E. ), the Babylonians (1894–1595 B.C.E. ), the Assyrians (1380–612 B.C.E. ), and the Persians (550–330 B.C.E. ). Textiles were used for trade purposes and were also given as gifts to kings and queens.
Although the earliest civilizations used animal skins to protect themselves from the environment, people soon learned how to pound wool and goat hair into felt or weave it into cloth. Wool was the most common fabric used to make clothing in Mesopotamia and was used for practically every type of garment from cloaks to shoes. Looms for weaving fabric were in use as early as 3000 B.C.E. The skill of early weavers is extraordinary. Some fragments of linen discovered in royal tombs are almost as finely woven as modern-day linen fabric. Linen was a more luxurious fabric and was woven for the clothing of the wealthy, priests, and to adorn statues of gods. Other finely woven fabrics also became available for the wealthiest in Mesopotamia. Soft cotton was introduced in Assyria around 700 B.C.E. , and silk became available later.
The surviving evidence does not show the colors of clothing made in Mesopotamia, but archeologists, scientists who study past civilizations, have discovered letters that describe how dyes, appliqués, embroidery, and beads were used to beautify garments. As early as 1200 B.C.E. a type of shell known as Maoris produced a highly-prized dye called Tyrian purple. Artifacts found in royal
The earliest evidence of civilization in Mesopotamia is identified as Sumerian. Early Sumerian men typically wore waist strings or small loincloths that provided barely any coverage. However, later the wraparound skirt was introduced, which hung to the knee or lower and was held up by a thick, rounded belt that tied in the back. These skirts were typically decorated with fringe or pieces of fabric cut in a petal shape. All classes of men seem to have worn these skirts. Early Sumerian women seem to have worn only a shawl wrapped around their bodies. These shawls were often decorated with simple border patterns or allover patterns. Later Sumerian women typically wore sewn outfits covered with tiers of fringe. These included skirts much like those worn by men and shawls or tops that were also fringed. By the end of Sumerian rule around 2000 B.C.E. both men and women wore skirts and shawls.
There is less evidence about what men and women wore during Babylonian rule from 1894 to 1595 B.C.E. The scant evidence available suggests that Babylonians wore skirts and shawls very similar to the Sumerians, although some men during Babylonian rule did wear loin skirts with a hemline that slanted from the upper knee in the front to the calf in the back. Evidence does suggest that the fringe on garments became more elaborate during this time. One painting discovered shows a king wearing a skirt with tiered fringe that is alternately colored red, gray, gold, and white. No evidence of female attire exists except for what was depicted in renditions of goddesses. Goddesses were shown wearing sleeved dresses with fitted bodices, V necks, and straight skirts.
The Assyrians, who ruled from 1380 to 612 B.C.E. , continued to wear fringed garments. Both men and women wrapped fringed shawls over their shoulders and around their waists to cover themselves from their shoulders to nearly their ankles. These were held in place by belts. Around 1000 B.C.E. Assyrian men began wearing belted knee-length tunics with short sleeves. Men of high status, such as kings and military officers, also wore woolen cloaks dyed blue, red, purple, or white. After the Assyrians were conquered in 612 B.C.E. , the Persian Empire began to prosper and people in Mesopotamia adopted Persian trousers into their wardrobes.
Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998.
Payne, Blanche. History of Costume: From the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. | <urn:uuid:a75fca84-fb51-49b7-a477-6119dd5702d5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/The-Ancient-World-Mesopotamia/Mesopotamian-Clothing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9776 | 1,015 | 4.40625 | 4 |
West Penn Elementary School fifth grade students competed in the school's annual egg drop challenge.
The students cheered each egg that made the perilous journey safely, as teacher Michele Bittner retrieved the eggs from their containers, while teacher Tim Gombar then tossed from the roof a variety of contraptions devised by the students to protect their passenger eggs from damage on the ground below.
After the egg drop, students will discuss the results of their investigation with their small groups and prepare a brief presentation to the class.
To incorporate this activity with the science topic of Variables, a FOSS Module, followed the scientific method in the creation of the egg holding apparatus. Students started with a question, made predictions about how their apparatus would protect their egg, and created a plan for creating their standard egg holding system. | <urn:uuid:66862236-e6a3-4406-978e-37dc0002bdd4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tnonline.com/2011/oct/20/west-penn-holds-egg-drop-challenge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9556 | 162 | 3.796875 | 4 |
March 24, 2005
Fewer fish discarded after individual transferable quotas offered
Contradicting previous assumptions, new fisheries research shows that allocating catch among vessels reduces the amount of fish discarded at sea.
The study in Canada’s British Columbia waters compared so-called individual transferable quotas with a previously used system of trip limits where vessels are only allowed to land a certain quantity of each species every two months.
The findings come at a time when individual transferable quotas are being considered for the west coast of the United States.
“Economic models have assumed all along that individual transferable quotas increase discards,” says Trevor Branch, who earned his doctorate in aquatic and fishery sciences at the University of Washington and is lead author of an article published online this week by the journal Marine Policy.
But discards did not increase — they declined for most species, report Trevor and co-authors Kate Rutherford, biologist with Fisheries and Oceans Canada in British Columbia, and Ray Hilborn, UW professor of aquatic and fishery sciences.
The study, “Replacing Trip Limits with Individual Transferable Quotas: Implications for Discarding,” is the first to look at 35 species instead of only a handful, or even just a single species, before and after quotas were implemented.
With individual transferable quotas, the total allowable catch is divided among a limited number of boats with each quota holder receiving a specific proportion of the total catch. Quota holders then decide how and when to fish, and whether to buy additional quotas or lease or sell their quotas.
Such a system was implemented in British Columbia waters in 1997, after a one-year transition from individual trip limits and overall caps on the fleet. After a period of adjustment, rates have remained generally similar or even less than the 15 percent of fish discarded in 1996.
Discarding occurs when, for example, unmarketable fish are caught or where trip limits are imposed and once the maximum of a certain fish is caught, all the rest of that type of fish that is caught must be discarded.
Trip limits are used in U.S. waters to protect overfished stocks and they have proved effective, Branch says. “It’s just that perhaps the mortality could have been reduced just as much under individual transferable quotas and without discarding large amounts of marketable fish, an economic loss for fishers that is hard to estimate,” he says.
Under British Columbia’s individual transferable quota system, for instance, skippers have had more flexibility to choose when, where and how to fish so fewer small, unmarketable fish were caught. Then too, skippers with more than their quota of a certain kind of fish could try to arrange to lease or buy another’s quota to cover the overage.
Other differences between the two systems include full mortality accounting in the British Columbia fishery — meaning any marketable fish that was discarded at sea was deducted from the amount the vessel was allowed to bring to shore — and the presence of observers on every boat. In the U.S. West Coast fishery, there is no deduction when marketable fish are discarded and in recent seasons monitors were on board 13 to 16 percent of the vessels.
In comparing the two fisheries, the researchers found British Columbia discard rates of 14 percent and 19 percent in two recent fishing seasons, compared with 43 percent and 31 percent for those same seasons in U.S. West Coast waters — the drop to 31 percent partly because new Groundfish Conservation Areas put some fishing grounds off limits, the scientists note. Which animals live once returned to the sea depends on the organism; for instance, species of rockfish all tend to die while lingcod and sablefish are among the fish with better survival rates.
“This research is interesting because it dramatically illustrates how discarding practices are influences by the regulation system,” Branch says. “In the British Columbia fishery, individual transferable quotas combined with 100 percent observer coverage reduce discard rates of marketable fish to negligible amounts, whereas trip limits imposed on U.S. West Coast fishers force them to discard fish over their limits resulting in high discard rates.”
Even if the United States started using a system similar to that in British Columbia, the challenge of dealing with overfished species may mean U.S. fisheries may never have discard rates as low as those of British Columbia, the authors say.
Such a change also would involve the cost of 100 percent observer coverage, although the authors write the costs may be outweighed by the benefits. “In many ITQ [individual transferable quotas] fisheries, increased profitability enables on-board observers to be funded from cost-recovery programs, increased retention of marketable fish would usually increase the profits of fishers and there may be considerable economic value attached to more accurate and reliable stock assessments.”
Branch, who earned his doctorate from the UW with funding from the South African National Research Foundation and the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, is currently conducting marine assessment and management research at the University of Cape Town, South Africa.
For more information:
Branch is in Cape Town, South Africa (10 hours ahead of PST) until May 4, 27-21-6502336, email@example.com
Hilborn, (206) 543-3587, firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:13a96147-a73b-4284-a807-b3daffbf46a0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.washington.edu/news/2005/03/24/fewer-fish-discarded-after-individual-transferable-quotas-offered/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956456 | 1,126 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Science and origins
Religion and origins
In Six Days
Why 50 Scientists Choose
to Believe in Creation
Werner Gitt, information science
Dr Gitt is director and professor at the German Federal Institute of Physics and Technology, Germany. He is the head of the Department of Information Technology. He holds a diploma in engineering from the Technical University of Hanover and a doctorate in engineering summa cum laude together with Borchers Medal from the Technical University of Aachen. Dr Gitt has published numerous research papers covering the fields of information science, numerical mathematics, and control engineering. He is the author of the recent creation book In the Beginning Was Information.1
A while back, there was a panel discussion in Bremen, Germany, on creation/evolution. The invited participants were a geologist, a palaeontologist, a Catholic priest, a protestant minister, and myself as an information scientist. Before long, the moderator asked, “How long did creation take?” The palaeontologist and the geologist were quickly unanimous—millions of years. When the clergy were asked, both were very definite that, nowadays, theology had no problem with millions of years. Even billions of years could be effortlessly interpreted into the creation days. Finally the moderator asked me for my opinion. I answered as follows:
For me, as an information scientist, the key question is the source of information. Regarding the length of the creation days, there is only one information source, and that is the Bible. In the Bible, God tells us that He created everything in six days.
Since no one else could nominate a source for their opinion, this part of the discussion stopped dead in its tracks.
The question of the length of the creation days has aroused much passion. Adherents to theistic evolution try to interpret the creation account to allow for long timespans. There have been many attempts to arrive at “long creation days.” Here are four examples.
- The “day-age” theory: The expression “day” is interpreted as actually meaning a long period of time. “Ages,” “periods,” or “epochs” of time are referred to. Psalm 90:4 is frequently used for justification: “For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday [i.e., one day] when it is past.”
- The “days-of-revelation” theory: The days of Genesis are not viewed as days of creation, but as days of revelation. This assumes that the various statements in this account were progressively revealed to the writer in six consecutive days. The motive is clearly to avoid the idea that creation actually took place within these 24-hour periods.
- The “movie” theory: Originating with Hans Rohrbach, this concept tries to explain the creation account as if it were time-lapse cinematography of a process which “in reality” took a long period of time. He writes that “It is as if the prophet is seeing a film, in which the mighty process of creation, compressed using time-lapse photography, is screened in front of him. He sees movement, a happening and becoming, hears God speaking; he observes the earth becoming clothed in the green of plant life, and sees everything graphically, like a modern 3-D widescreen film in sound and color.”2
- The “literary-days” theory: This maintains that the creation days are merely a literary device, in order to establish a thematic structure. According to this concept, the individual “creation days” are to be regarded like the chapters of a book.
The length of the days of creation
There is a widespread opinion that the creation account is only concerned with communicating “the fact that God actually created.” However, this it totally implausible in light of the numerous precise statements contained in Genesis. If God had only wanted to tell us that He was behind everything, then the first verse of Genesis would be enough. However, the many particulars in the account make it quite clear that God wants to give us much more information than that. In the account of creation we have not only conveyed to us matters relevant to faith and belief, but also a range of facts which have scientific significance. These facts are so foundational to a true understanding of this world that they immediately distinguish themselves from all other beliefs, from the cosmologies of ancient people and from the imaginings of today’s natural philosophy.
The creation account of the Bible stands alone in its declarations. Here we find none of the ancient mythical imaginings of the world and its origin, but here rather we find the living God communicating reality, the truth about origins. The course of correct or false biblical exposition is firmly set, according to the expositor’s convictions, on the first page of the Bible. Separating “faith” from “science” (widely practiced in the Western world), has frequently driven Christians into the ghetto of a contemplative inner piety, which fails to achieve any penetrating effect upon their surroundings, while science is driven into the wasteland of godless ideologies and philosophical systems.
As a result, it has been widely presupposed that biblical statements about the origin of the universe, life, and in particular mankind (as well as nations and languages) are not scientifically trustworthy. This has had grave consequences. Alexander Evertz bemoaned the rampant worldwide spiritual decline as follows:
Belief in the Creator is now largely only a display piece in the glass case of dogmatics. It resembles the stuffed birds one sees perching on rods in a museum.3
We should be thankful for the details God has seen fit to reveal to us in Genesis, this brief glimpse at the origin of this world and life. Thus, we note that God created everything in six days. That they were really 24-hour days, that is solar days or calendar days, should be settled by way of several arguments.
The day as a unit of time
In order to describe physical processes quantitatively, one needs a method of measuring and a corresponding unit. The Bible repeatedly uses technical parameters of measurement in describing the length, area, or volume of something. The units are generally taken from nature or daily life, e.g., the cubit represents the distance from elbow to fingertips. The span is the spread of the fingers of one hand. An acre is that area able to be plowed with a yoke of oxen in one day. One of the most important units is that of time. It is the first unit defined in the Bible. In Genesis 1:14 this takes place at the same time as the other purposes of the heavenly bodies are stated. Their function is as light bearers and to divide day from night. Also, to define the time-units “day,” “year,” and “seasons” and as signs pointing to particular happenings (e.g., Matt. 24:29 regarding the end times).
With the definition of day and year, mankind is given reproducible units. These enable us to quantify statements about the age of something, the distance by which two occurrences are separated in time, or the duration of a process. Thus the unit “day” is utilized to inform us of the duration of the work of creation: “For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea and all that in them is” (Exod. 20:11).
So we should trust God’s Word, because “God is not a man, that he should lie” (Num. 23:19). If God really took billions of years in order to create everything, why does He then tell us it was only a matter of days?
The meaning of the word “day” in the Bible
The word “day” occurs in the Bible 2,182 times4 and is used overwhelmingly in the literal sense. Just as in English, German, and many other languages, the word “day” (Hebrew yom) can have two meanings. The first is a time period of (roughly) 24 hours, which also includes the night. This is how calendar days are measured. The second meaning would be the daylight portion of a calendar day (e.g., Gen. 1:5, 8:22; Josh. 1:8). In the creation account, the words “day and night” (Gen. 1:5, 14–18) occur nine times in the sense of referring only to the light or dark portion of a normal 24-hour day.
In exceptional cases, which are always clearly identifiable by the context, “day” means not a physically or astronomically definable span of time, but specially designated occurrences such as “the day of the Lord,” “the day of Judgment,” and “the day of Salvation.” In John 9:4, “I must work the works of Him that sent me, while it is day; the night cometh, when no man can work,” the word “day” is immediately recognizable from the context as referring to a nonphysical timespan in which it is possible to work. In over 95 percent of cases, the word for day indicates 24 hours.
“Day” with a numeral
The word “day,” associated with a numeral, occurs in the Old Testament over 200 times. In all of these cases, a 24-hour day is indicated. At the end of the account concerning each of the six creation days, we read (Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31), “And there was evening, and there was morning the first [to sixth] day.” So here we always have the grammatical construction “numeral in connection with day.”
“Evening and Morning”
The fact that each of the intervals of creation is bounded by “evening and morning” is a further indication that the creation days were ordinary 24-hour days. The word “evening” occurs 49 times and the word “morning” 187 times, always in the literal sense. If “day” were supposed to mean a long epoch of time, it would not be bounded by such precisely-named descriptions of times of day. The Old Testament consistently observes the same sequence of these times of day, i.e., evening followed by morning (e.g., Ps. 55:17; Dan. 8:14, 8:26). A new day starts with evening (sundown) and ends with the beginning of the evening on the following day. With this definition of a day, the sequential flow of these times of day is “evening-morning.” Thus, we read literally (Elberf. translation): “And it became evening, and it became morning: first day.”
Creation days and God’s omnipotence
The works of creation demonstrate the omnipotence of God and His mighty power (Rom. 1:20), the outworking of which is not tied to long periods of time. Throughout the Bible there are countless instances of acts of creation, which take place without any passage of time. The creation miracles of Jesus in the New Testament (wine at the wedding in Cana, loaves and fishes at the feeding of the 5,000) took place instantly. Psalm 33:9 also testifies to the rapid nature of God’s creative acts: “For He spake, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood fast.” This is exactly the same impression conveyed by the creation account itself through the repeated use of the constructions: “And God said … and it was so.” “And God said … and God saw” (that which had just been created).
If we were to here arbitrarily insert the oft-cited millions of years, we would rob God of the honor which is His due. The total testimony of the Bible, in all manner of ways, is that of instant results in response to the commands of God. Whatever the situation, this principle is valid—a command of the Lord is sufficient, and spontaneously the created Word is fulfilled: the blind immediately see, the dumb instantly speak, the lame take up their bed and walk, lepers become clean, and the dead rise without delay.
Mankind: Created on a particular day
The Bible emphatically testifies that man was not created over a long period of time, but on a very particular day: “In the day, that God created Adam, He made him in the likeness of God; male and female He created them, and He blessed them and gave them the name ‘mankind,’ in the day, that they were created” (Gen. 5:1–2; Elberf. translation).
The question about the duration of the creation days arises frequently. I believe it can be shown from a biblical and scientific viewpoint that one can have full confidence in the biblical account of a creation in six ordinary days.
References and notes
- Werner Gitt, In the Beginning Was Information, Christliche Literatur-Vertreitung, Bielefeld, Germany, 1997.
- Hans Rohrbach, Ein neuer Zugang zum Schöpfungsbericht (A New Approach to the Creation Account), Schritte, pp. 5–10, 1982.
- Alexander Evertz, Martin Luther als Christ, als Mensch und als Deutscher (Martin Luther as a Christian, as a Person and as a German), Assendorf, 1982.
- Dake’s Annotated Reference Bible, Zondervan Pub. House, Grand Rapids, MI, 1961. | <urn:uuid:834ba8de-ca54-4bd7-bdbb-fc0b4cdf6a6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://creation.com/werner-gitt-information-science-in-six-days | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958203 | 2,922 | 3.015625 | 3 |
NEW YORK (February 14, 2008) - A new study by the Bronx Zoo-based Wildlife Conservation Society found that jack rabbits living in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem have apparently hopped into oblivion. The study, which appears in the latest issue of the journal Oryx, also speculates that the disappearance of jack rabbits may be having region-wide impacts on a variety of other prey species and their predators.
According to the study, historical records from more than 130 years ago indicate that white-tailed jack rabbits were once locally abundant in Greater Yellowstone, a 60,000 square kilometer (23,166 square mile) ecosystem that contains both Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks. However, the WCS study found that no jack rabbit sightings could be confirmed in Yellowstone since 1991 and only three in Grand Teton since 1978.
No one knows what caused the rabbits to disappear, according to the study's lead author, Dr. Joel Berger, a Wildlife Conservation Society conservationist, and professor at the University of Montana. "It could be disease, extreme weather, predation or other factors," Dr. Berger said. "Since the rabbits blipped off without knowledge, there has simply been no way to get at the underlying cause."
Dr. Berger believes that the absence of jack rabbits - historically important prey species in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem - may be causing elevated predation by coyotes on juvenile elk, pronghorn and other ungulates. Elsewhere, when rabbit densities drop predators often turn to preying more on livestock, according to the study. But without baseline data on rabbit numbers in Greater Yellowstone, assessing the impacts of predators such as grey wolves, which were reintroduced in 1995, becomes more difficult.
"Lacking a sense of historical conditions, it will always be difficult to decide whether current systems function ecologically like past ones," said Dr. Berger.
Berger goes on to suggest that wildlife managers should consider reintroduction of white-tailed jack rabbits into Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks. "Reintroduction may result in the establishment of dynamic ecological processes that were intact before rabbits vanished from the ecosystem," Dr. Berger said. "From the perspective of ecological health and wildlife conservation, reintroduction would also show that species loss has serious ecological costs."
The Wildlife Conservation Society works to save wildlife in and around the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, and uses science to identify key wildlife corridors and migration routes.
The Wildlife Conservation Society saves wildlife and wild places worldwide. We do so through science, global conservation, education and the management of the world's largest system of urban wildlife parks, led by the flagship Bronx Zoo. Together these activities change attitudes towards nature and help people imagine wildlife and humans living in harmony. WCS is committed to this mission because it is essential to the integrity of life on Earth. www.wcs.org | <urn:uuid:0291f1f1-da16-4f84-8c43-1dae77990baa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-02/wcs-hyr021408.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93148 | 575 | 3.25 | 3 |
Middle School Science/Biology/Bacteria
|Suggested Previous Concepts||Suggested Next Concepts|
Bacteria are most widely distributed organisms. These are unicellular micro-organisms. A scientist named Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria in 1677 for the first time. Later, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch worked on them. This was a milestone in the history of biology and medicine. They discovered that bacteria produce many harmful diseases in man and animals. Bacteria(Singular is bacterium) range from 1um to 10um in length and from 0.2um to to 1 um in width. Bacteria can be observed under light microscope. The habitat of bateria is not specific. They are found everywhere, in air, water, living as well as dead bodies of organisms and even in glaciers and hot springs
Kinds Of Bacteria
On the basis of various shapes and forms, bacteria are divided into four types. First is Cocci(Singular Coccus) and means rounded. The second is Bacilli(Singular Bacillus) which is rod-like. The third one is Spirilla(Singular Spirillium) and means spiral shaped and the last is Vibrios( Singular Vibrion) which means comma shaped. | <urn:uuid:2f72d454-e110-4791-86ad-e09efbaf534e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Middle_School_Science/Biology/Bacteria | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946187 | 260 | 3.359375 | 3 |
What if tiny ocean organisms could whisk away excess greenhouse gasses? It’s a big idea to deal with a big problem, which is why Discovery Channel included a University of Hawaiʻi research cruise in the inaugural lineup of its new series, Discovery Project Earth.
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa Professor of Oceanography David Karl and Oregon State University colleague Ricardo Letelier (PhD ’94 Mānoa) proposed the notion of using ocean pumps to bring nutrient-rich deep seawater to the surface to induce algal blooms. The microorganisms would suck up atmospheric carbon dioxide, and then sink back into the depths, the researchers hypothesize.
The idea grew out of 20 years of Hawaiʻi Ocean Time Series data that reveal cycles of natural upwelling at Station ALOHA north of Oʻahu. Testing it was just the kind of “science in the making” Discovery had in mind for its new show, so a film crew of 12 tagged along on UH’s R/V Kilo Moana as scientists deployed three experimental pumps, temperature sensors and a remotely controlled data collecting Seaglider.
The pumps were essentially 300-meter flexible tubes suspended from a buoy; the rise-and-fall action of passing waves operated a one-way valve at the bottom to pump water up the tube.
Did it work? Viewers got a taste for the oft times frustrating trial-and-refinement process that is science. Researchers were disappointed in the performance of the pumps, but encouraged by some promising scientific results.
Working with a film crew created its own challenges, says Chief Scientist Eric Grabowski—like condensing a year’s worth of planning into three months and staging re-enactments to meet filming requirements. But he and Karl agree it was worth the effort to demonstrate the importance of ocean science to billions of viewers worldwide and possibly help secure funding for future Ocean Productivity Perturbation Experiments.
The Hungry Oceans episode of Discovery Project Earth premiered on Sept. 5, 2008. Karl and Letelier’s scientific discussion is reported in Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 364. Funding for the research was provided by the National Science Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. | <urn:uuid:96d1ed7e-9af7-4dbe-b81c-d04c7ffe52cb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hawaii.edu/malamalama/2008/08/discovery-channel-follows-algae-researchers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92502 | 470 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Rocky Mountain Herbarium
Located in the Aven Nelson Building, the Rocky Mountain Herbarium and the associated U.S. Forest Service National Herbarium contain more than 1,250,000 plant specimens. The primary functions of the herbarium are to (1) serve as a source of information on the flora of the Rocky Mountain region in general and Wyoming in particular; (2) aid in the identification of plants submitted by ranchers, farmers, county agents, and state and federal agencies throughout the region; and (3) serve as a source of research and teaching material in systematic and ecological botany. Thousands of specimens are loaned each year to recognized institutions throughout the United States where research requires a knowledge of western plants. The web site (www.rmh.uwyo.edu) contains data on more than 700,000 specimens as well as thousands of specimen images and interactive distribution maps.
Open to university students and other qualified researchers, the herbarium invites queries regarding the identification of plants. Those persons wishing assistance in the identification of a plant should send two specimens to the herbarium. Inquiries should be addressed to The Curator, Rocky Mountain Herbarium, Department of Botany, Dept. 3165, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071. | <urn:uuid:aa76672b-d0e6-49b2-9e02-d62220c6bfed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uwyo.edu/registrar/university_catalog/spec_rocky.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899641 | 269 | 2.75 | 3 |
How much did aerosols contribute to mid-20th century cooling?
Posted on 16 September 2010 by dana1981
There was a very slight cooling in the average global surface temperature from about 1940 to 1975. Although the global temperature only decreased by approximately 0.1°C, this period represents a divergence from the warming periods of 1915 to 1940 and 1975 to Present.
Figure 1: Global temperature anomaly and distinct linear trends over the 21st century (Open Mind)
Climate scientists believe that the primary cause of this mid-century cooling was an increase in atmospheric aerosols due to anthropogenic emissions (primarily from the burning of fossil fuels). Aerosols have a complex effect on the climate, because they have both direct and indirect impacts.
The direct effect of aerosols on climate is the mechanism by which aerosols scatter and absorb shortwave and longwave radiation (a.k.a. "global dimming"), thereby altering the radiative balance of the Earth-atmosphere system. The key parameters for determining the direct aerosol radiative forcing are the aerosol optical properties and distribution in the atmosphere (IPCC 2007).
The indirect effect of aerosols on climate is the mechanism by which they modify the microphysical and, therefore, radiative properties, amount, and lifetime of clouds. A key parameter for determining the indirect effect of aerosols on the global surface temperature is the effectiveness of an aerosol particle to act as a cloud condensation nucleus - a function of the aerosol size, chemical composition, mixing state, and ambient environment (IPCC 2007).
Figure 2: Diagram of direct and indirect aerosols' radiative mechanisms (IPCC 2007)
We can attempt to quantify the impact of anthropogenic aerosol emissions on the average global temperature by first examining the associated radiative forcing. The radiative forcing is a measure of the influence that a factor has in altering the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth-atmosphere system.
According to the IPCC, the total (direct + indirect) radiative forcing due to anthropogenic aerosols could range anywhere from -0.4 to -2.7 Watts per square meter (W/m2), although the most likely value is -1.2 W/m2.
Figure 3: Radiative forcing from various sources in 2005 as compared to 1750 (IPCC 2007)
The aerosol radiative forcing, particularly the indirect cloud albedo effect, is the largest source of uncertainty among all anthropogenic radiative forcings. However, keeping the range of possible values in mind, we can still estimate the cooling effect caused by these forcings during the mid-20th century. The majority of the increase in atmospheric sulfates occurred during this period:
Figure 4: Atmospheric sulfate aerosol concentration in parts per billion (ppb) from the GISP2 ice core (black) vs. anthropogenic sulfate emissions (red) since 1800 (Open Mind)
The general natural baseline is around 30 ppb, with a rise to about 65 ppb in the early 20th century. Then from 1945 to 1970 (the mid-century period in question), atmospheric sulfate concentration increased from 65 to 120 ppb. This tells us that approximately 60% of the total sulfate increase since 1800 occurred during the mid-century cooling period.
Direct Aerosol Forcing
The change in reflected solar flux is proportional to the optical thickness of the aerosol layer (Charlson et al. 1991).
where FR is reflected solar flux, Qo is the solar constant (total solar irradiance), Ti is the atmospheric transmittance, Ac is the fractional coverage of clouds, β is the fraction of upward scattered flux, and δ is the optical thickness.
Using Qo = 1366 W/m2, Ac = 0.61 for globally averaged cloud cover, Ti = 0.76, and Rs = 0.15 (see Charlson 1991 for references to the sources of these values), FR is approximately 32 times the optical thickness δ. Charlson et al. estimate the optical thickness as the product of the aerosol burden and mass scattering coefficient, and find for cloudless skies, the optical thickness is approximately 2.8x10-2. Thus from the formula above, the reflected solar flux is approximately 0.9 W/m2, which is on the high end of the IPCC range of values for the direct aerosol forcing.
The indirect sulfate effect on cloud formation is more complex, but we'll proceed under the assumption that the total sulfate radiative forcing is approximately proportional to the atmospheric sulfate aerosol concentration, in order to come up with a ballpark estimate regarding its impact on mid-century cooling. In other words, we'll assume that a 60% increase in atmospheric sulfate concentration corresponds to a 60% increase in radiative forcing. Also note that sulfates are not the only anthropogenic aerosols, but do comprise the majority of the radiative forcing.
Approximation of sulfate aerosol cooling effect
With these assumptions in mind, approximately 60% of the -0.4 to -2.7 W/m2 net aerosol forcing occurred during mid-century, or -0.24 to -1.62 W/m2, with a most likely value of -0.72 W/m2. To convert this to a surface temperature change, we need to multiply by the climate sensitivity factor (λ), which is 0.54 to 1.2°C/(W/m2) (IPCC 2007). The relationship between surface temperature change (dT) and radiative forcing (dF) is:
dT = λ*dF = (0.54 to 1.2)*(-0.24 to -1.62) = -0.13 to -1.9°C with a most likely value of -0.58°C
We can also compare this to the temperature change caused by anthropogenic CO2 during the period in question:
dT = λ*dF = (0.54 to 1.2)*5.35*ln(331/308) = 0.21 to 0.46°C with a most likely value of 0.31°C
In addition to CO2, other anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and solar output during this period caused an additional ~0.15°C of warming. Therefore, using the most likely values calculated above, we would expect to see an approximately 0.1°C cooling of global average surface temperatures from 1940 to 1975. And indeed that is what we observe:
Figure 5: Average global land and ocean surface temperature (NASA GISS)
Days cooled, but nights warmed
Another signature of aerosol cooling offsetting greenhouse gas warming is the continued increase in daily minimum, nighttime temperatures while the maximum, daytime temperatures drop. This is because aerosols cause global dimming by scattering sunlight; an effect which is much more influential during the day when solar radiation is bombarding the Earth's surface. At night, greenhouse gases continue to absorb and re-radiate thermal radiation from the Earth's surface, which causes the nighttime surface temperatures to continue warming despite the cooling daytime temperatures due to the aerosol dimming.
Wild et al. (2007) investigated these effects and found that from 1958 to 1985, daytime land surface temperatures cooled at a rate of -0.04°C per decade, but nighttime temperatures warmed at a rate of 0.11°C per decade. From 1982 to 2002, they found that daytime land surface temperatures warmed at a rate of 0.37°C per decade, while nighttime temperatures warmed by 0.40°C per decade.
The fact that nighttime temperatures continued to warm while daytime temperatures cooled mid-century is a strong indicator of the combined effects of anthropogenic aerosol and greenhouse gas emissions, while the increased rate of warming over the past 3 decades reflects the increasing atmospheric concentration and radiative forcing from greenhouse gases.
What happened since 1975?
Clearly since about 1975, global surface temperatures have trended rapidly upwards (at a rate of nearly 0.2°C per decade). So what caused the mid-century cooling to end?
The main cause of the sudden shift in global temperature trends was the passage of Clean Air Acts by various countries in response to air pollution and acid rain. The USA, for example, first passed its Clean Air Act in 1970, with amendments in 1977 and 1990. Coincidentally, the US Supreme Court (in Massachusetts v. EPA) and EPA (in an endangerment finding) also recently decided that greenhouse gases qualify as 'air pollutants' in the Clean Air Act and must be regulated accordingly.
Under the Clean Air Acts, sulfate emissions were regulated, and as a consequence their rapid atmospheric increase was stabilized right around 1975:
Figure 6: Global anthropogenic sulfur emissions (Pacific Northwest National Labs)
Meanwhile anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have continued to increase. Since 1975, the atmospheric CO2 concentration alone has increased from 331 to 392 parts per million by volume, which corresponds to a temperature increase of about 0.7°C, though we've only seen about 0.55°C warming over that period due to the thermal inertia of the oceans and 'warming in the pipeline'.
Mid-century cooling was primarily anthropogenic
To sum up, anthropogenic sulfur emissions appear to be the main cause of the mid-century cooling. These emissions decreased the mean global surface temperature by approximately 0.5°C during this period, while anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions caused a warming of approximately 0.4°C. Therefore, even though greenhouse gas emissions continued to have a warming effect during this period, it was more than offset (hidden) by anthropogenic aerosol emissions, until those emissions were brought under control by government intervention while greenhouse gas emissions continued to increase unabated. In other words, the mid-century cooling is actually an expected result based on our current understanding of climate science, and is successfully hindcasted by climate models (Meehl 2004).
Figure 7: Anthropogenic plus natural vs. just natural radiative forcing temperature change vs. observed global surface temperature increase (Meehl 2004)
However, the overall impact of sulfate aerosols, particularly due to their indirect effects via cloud formation, remain a significant source of uncertainty. Despite this uncertainty, they remain the likely dominant cause of the slight mid-20th century cooling.
This post is the Advanced version (written by dana1981) of the skeptic argument "It cooled mid-century". If reading this caused your brain to overheat, you can always wind down with the Basic version by Anne-Marie Blackburn or the Intermediate Version by John Cook. | <urn:uuid:cff40581-9842-4271-afc0-8c9bcc0903ca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.skepticalscience.com/How-much-did-aerosols-contribute-to-mid-20th-century-cooling.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925301 | 2,194 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Wi-Fi - Quick Guide
What is Wi-Fi ?
WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity. WiFiIt is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards and is primarily a local area networking (LAN) technology designed to provide in-building broadband coverage.
Current WiFi systems support a peak physical-layer data rate of 54 Mbps and typically provide indoor coverage over a distance of 100 feet.
WiFi has become the de facto standard for last mile broadband connectivity in homes, offices, and public hotspot locations. Systems can typically provide a coverage range of only about 1,000 feet from the access point.
WiFi offers remarkably higher peak data rates than do 3G systems, primarily since it operates over a larger 20 MHz bandwidth, but WiFiWiFi systems are not designed to support high-speed mobility.
One significant advantage of WiFi over WiMAX and 3G is its wide availability of terminal devices. A vast majority of laptops shipped today have a built-in WiFi interface. WiFi interfaces are now also being built into a variety of devices, including personal data assistants (PDAs), cordless phones, cellular phones, cameras, and media players.
WiFi is Half Duplex
All WiFi networks are contention-based TDD systems, where the access point and the mobile stations all vie for use of the same channel. Because of the shared media operation, all WiFi networks are half duplex.
There are equipment vendors who market WiFi mesh configurations, but those implementations incorporate technologies that are not defined in the standards.
The WiFi standards define a fixed channel bandwidth of 25 MHz for 802.11b and 20 MHz for either 802.11a or g networks.
Wi-Fi - Working Concepts
Radio Signals are the keys, which make WiFi networking possible. These radio signals transmitted from WiFi antennas are picked up by WiFi receivers, such as computers and cell phones that are equipped with WiFi cards. Whenever, a computer receives any of the signals within the range of a WiFi network, which is usually 300 — 500 feet for antennas, the WiFi card reads the signals and thus creates an internet connection between the user and the network without the use of a cord.
Access points, consisting of antennas and routers, are the main source that transmit and receive radio waves. Antennas work stronger and have a longer radio transmission with a radius of 300-500 feet, which are used in public areas while the weaker yet effective router is more suitable for homes with a radio transmission of 100-150 feet.
You can think of WiFi cards as being invisible cords that connect your computer to the antenna for a direct connection to the internet.
WiFi cards can be external or internal. If a WiFi card is not installed in your computer, then you may purchase a USB antenna attachment and have it externally connect to your USB port, or have an antenna-equipped expansion card installed directly to the computer (as shown in the figure given above). For laptops, this card will be a PCMCIA card which you insert to the PCMCIA slot on the laptop.
A WiFi hotspot is created by installing an access point to an internet connection. The access point transmits a wireless signal over a short distance. It typically covers around 300 feet. When a WiFi enabled device such as a Pocket PC encounters a hotspot, the device can then connect to that network wirelessly.
Most hotspots are located in places that are readily accessible to the public such as airports, coffee shops, hotels, book stores, and campus environments. 802.11b is the most common specification for hotspots worldwide. The 802.11g standard is backwards compatible with .11b but .11a uses a different frequency range and requires separate hardware such as an a, a/g, or a/b/g adapter. The largest public WiFi networks are provided by private internet service providers (ISPs); they charge a fee to the users who want to access the internet.
Hotspots are increasingly developing around the world. In fact, T-Mobile USA controls more than 4,100 hotspots located in public locations such as Starbucks, Borders, Kinko's, and the airline clubs of Delta, United, and US Airways. Even select McDonald's restaurants now feature WiFi hotspot access.
Any notebook computer with integrated wireless, a wireless adapter attached to the motherboard by the manufacturer, or a wireless adapter such as a PCMCIA card can access a wireless network. Furthermore, all Pocket PCs or Palm units with Compact Flash, SD I/O support, or built-in WiFi, can access hotspots.
Some Hotspots require WEP key to connect, which is considered as private and secure. As for open connections, anyone with a WiFi card can have access to that hotspot. So in order to have internet access under WEP, the user must input the WEP key code.
Wi-Fi - IEEE Standards
The 802.11 standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family −
802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1 - or 2-Mbps transmission in the 2.4-GHz band using either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as fast as 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2, and 1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b specification uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the original 802.11 standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to hard-wired Ethernet connections.
802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.
Here is the technical comparison between the three major WiFi standards.
|Feature||WiFi (802.11b)||WiFi (802.11a/g)|
|PrimaryApplication||Wireless LAN||Wireless LAN|
|Frequency Band||2.4 GHz ISM||
2.4 GHz ISM (g)
5 GHz U-NII (a)
|Channel Bandwidth||25 MHz||20 MHz|
|Bandwidth||<=0.44 bps/Hz||≤=2.7 bps/Hz|
|Modulation||QPSK||BPSK, QPSK, 16-, 64-QAM|
|Encryption||Optional- RC4m (AES in 802.11i)||Optional- RC4(AES in 802.11i)|
|Mobility||In development||In development|
|Mesh||Vendor Proprietary||Vendor Proprietary|
Wi-Fi - Access Protocols
IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs use a media access control protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). While the name is similar to Ethernet's Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), the operating concept is totally different.
WiFi systems are the half duplex shared media configurations, where all stations transmit and receive on the same radio channel. The fundamental problem of a radio system is that a station cannot hear while it is sending, and hence it is impossible to detect a collision. Because of this, the developers of the 802.11 specifications came up with a collision avoidance mechanism called the Distributed Control Function (DCF).
According to DCF, a WiFi station will transmit only when the channel is clear. All transmissions are acknowledged, so if a station does not receive an acknowledgement, it assumes a collision occurred and retries after a random waiting interval.
The incidence of collisions will increase as the traffic increases or in situations where mobile stations cannot hear each other.
Wi-Fi - Quality of Service (QoS)
There are plans to incorporate quality of service (QoS) capabilities in WiFi technology with the adoption of the IEEE 802.11e standard. The 802.11e standard will include two operating modes, either of which can be used to improve service for voice −
- WiFi Multimedia Extensions (WME) − Mandatory
- WiFi Scheduled Multimedia (WSM) − Optional
WiFi Multimedia Extensions (WME)
WiFi Multimedia Extensions use a protocol called Enhanced Multimedia Distributed Control Access (EDCA), which is an extension of an enhanced version of the Distributed Control Function (DCF) defined in the original 802.11 MAC.
The enhanced part is that EDCA will define eight levels of access priority to the shared wireless channel. Like the original DCF, the EDCA access is a contention-based protocol that employs a set of waiting intervals and back-off timers designed to avoid collisions. However, with DCF all stations use the same values and hence have the same priority for transmitting on the channel.
With EDCA, each of the different access priorities is assigned a different range of waiting intervals and back-off counters. Transmissions with higher access priority are assigned shorter intervals. The standard also includes a packet-bursting mode that allows an access point or a mobile station to reserve the channel and send 3- to 5-packets in a sequence.
WiFi Scheduled Multimedia (WSM)
True consistent delay services can be provided with the optional WiFi Scheduled Multimedia (WSM). WSM operates like the little used Point Control Function (PCF) defined with the original 802.11 MAC.
In WSM, the access point periodically broadcasts a control message that forces all stations to treat the channel as busy and not attempt to transmit. During that period, the access point polls each station that is defined for time sensitive service.
To use the WSM option, devices need to send a traffic profile describing bandwidth, latency, and jitter requirements. If the access point does not have sufficient resources to meet the traffic profile, it will return a busy signal.
Wi-Fi - Security
Security has been one of the major deficiencies in WiFi, though better encryption systems are now becoming available. Encryption is optional in WiFi, and three different techniques have been defined. These techniques are given here −
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
An RC4-based 40-or 104-bit encryption with a static key.
WiFi Protected Access (WPA)
This is a new standard from the WiFi Alliance that uses the 40 or 104-bit WEP key, but it changes the key on each packet. That changing key functionality is called the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP).
The IEEE is finalized the 802.11i standard, which is based on a far more robust encryption technique called the Advanced Encryption Standard. The WiFi Alliance designate products that comply with the 802.11i standard as WPA2.
However, implementing 802.11i requires a hardware upgrade.
Wi-Fi - Network Services
The picture has become somewhat confused as service providers started using WiFi to deliver services for which it was not originally designed. The two major examples of this are wireless ISPs and city-wide WiFi mesh networks.
Wireless ISPs (WISPs)
One business that grew out of WiFi was the Wireless ISP (WISP). This is an idea of selling an Internet access service using wireless LAN technology and a shared Internet connection in a public location designated as a hot spot.
From a technical standpoint, access to the service is limited based on the transmission range of the WLAN technology. You have to be in the hot spot (i.e. within 100m of the access point) to use it. From a business standpoint, users either subscribe to a particular carrier's service for a monthly fee or access the service on a demand basis at a fee per hour. While the monthly fee basis is most cost effective, there are few intercarrier access arrangements, so you have to be in a hot spot operated by your carrier in order to access your service.
City-Wide Mesh Networks
To address the limited range, vendors like Mesh Networks and Tropos Networks have developed mesh network capabilities using WiFi's radio technology.
The idea of a radio mesh network is that messages can be relayed through a number of access points to a central network control station. These networks can typically support mobility as connections are handed off from access point to access point as the mobile station moves.
Some municipalities are using WiFi mesh networks to support public safety applications (i.e. terminals in police cruisers) and to provide Internet access to the community (i.e. the city-wide hot spot).
Wi-Fi - Radio Modulation
WiFi systems use two primary radio transmission techniques.
802.11b (<=11 Mbps) − The 802.11b radio link uses a direct sequence spread spectrum technique called complementary coded keying (CCK). The bit stream is processed with a special coding and then modulated using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK).
802.11a and g (<=54 Mbps) − The 802.11a and g systems use 64-channel orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). In an OFDM modulation system, the available radio band is divided into a number of sub-channels and some of the bits are sent on each. The transmitter encodes the bit streams on the 64 subcarriers using Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK), Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), or one of two levels of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16, or 64-QAM). Some of the transmitted information is redundant, so the receiver does not have to receive all of the sub-carriers to reconstruct the information.
The original 802.11 specifications also included an option for frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), but that has largely been abandoned.
WiFi uses adaptive modulation and varying levels of forward error correction to optimize transmission rate and error performance.
As a radio signal loses power or encounters interference, the error rate will increase. Adaptive modulation means that the transmitter will automatically shift to a more robust, though less efficient, modulation technique in those adverse conditions.
Wi-Fi - Major Issues
There are a few issues that are assumed to be the cause behind the sluggish adoption of WiFi technology −
Security Problems − Security concerns have held back WiFi adoption in the corporate world. Hackers and security consultants have demonstrated how easy it can be to crack the current security technology known as wired equivalent privacy (WEP) used in most WiFi connections. A hacker can break into a WiFi network using readily available materials and software.
Compatibility and Interoperability − One of the major problems with WiFi is its compatibility and interoperability. For example, 802.11a products are not compatible with 802.11b products. Due to different operating frequencies, 802.11a hotspots would not help an 802.11b client. Due to lack of standardization, harmonization, and certification, different vendors come out with products that do not work with each other.
Billing Issues − WiFi vendors are also looking for ways to solve the problem of back-end integration and billing, which have dogged the roll-out of commercial WiFi hotspots. Some of the ideas under consideration for WiFi billing such as per day, per hour, and unlimited monthly connection fees.
Wi-Fi - Summary
WiFi is a universal wireless networking technology that utilizes radio frequencies to transfer data. WiFi allows high-speed Internet connections without the use of cables.
The term WiFi is a contraction of "wireless fidelity" and commonly used to refer to wireless networking technology. The WiFi Alliance claims rights in its uses as a certification mark for equipment certified to 802.11x standards.
WiFi is a freedom – freedom from wires. It allows you to connect to the Internet from just about anywhere — a coffee shop, a hotel room, or a conference room at work. What’s more – it is almost 10 times faster than a regular dial-up connection. WiFi networks operate in the unlicensed 2.4 radio bands, with an 11 Mbps (802.11b) or 54 Mbps (802.11a) data rate, respectively.
To access WiFi, you need WiFi enabled devices (laptops or PDAs). These devices can send and receive data wirelessly in any location equipped with WiFi access.
What is Next?
Now, the focus in wireless is shifting to wide area, i.e., WiMax. WiMax, short for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is defined in IEEE 802.16 standards. It is designed to deliver a metro area broadband wireless access (BWA) service, and is being promoted by the WiMax Forum.
WiMAX is quite similar to WiFi, but on a much larger scale and at faster speeds. A nomadic version would keep WiMAX-enabled devices connected over a large area, much like today's cell phones.
For more detail on WiMAX, you can go through our WiMAX Tutorial. | <urn:uuid:d6305a4a-c598-4fba-8275-b206596827c1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tutorialspoint.com/wi-fi/wifi_quick_guide.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908114 | 3,633 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Twitter's map of Mid-East conflict
28 August 2014 Last updated at 02:22 BST
Data visualisation enables us to map connections across social media like Twitter and see how different groups of people relate to each other.
Israeli data scientist Gilad Lotan has been mapping interactions across Twitter during the Israeli-Gaza conflict. The aim of social media is to bring people together - so what is it doing for Palestinians and Israelis in the long running conflict in the Middle East?
Spencer Kelly reports. | <urn:uuid:d41b11b6-ccb0-46a7-b19a-88df005b078d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-28952831 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903611 | 103 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Vedic mathematics is a system of mathematics consisting of a list of 16 basic sūtras, or aphorisms. They were presented by a Hindu scholar and mathematician, Bharati Krishna Tirthaji Maharaja, (He was also the Shankaracharya of Govardhan Math, Puri, from 1925 until he passed away in 1960.)
Tirthaji claimed that he found the sutras after years of studying the Vedas.
In the first lesson of Vedic Maths, let's understand:
Multiplication by 5
Instead of multiplying a number by 5, it's better to multiply it by 10 first, and then divide the result by 2. For example, 235x5=2350/2=1175
Same way, you can, multiply by 50 also.
Multiplication by 4
The method says, replace it with a repeated operation by 2 eg. 124x4=248x2=4
Multiplication by 25
Multiply first by 100 and then you can divide by 4. eg. 37x25=3700/4=1850/2=925.
Multiplication by 8
You can replace with a repeated operation by 2. For example 124x8=248x4=496x2=992.
Multiplication by 45
Multiply first by 90 and then divide the result by 2. For example 37x45=37x90/2=3330/2=1665
Or put into use , this method 37 x45 = 37 (100/2 -10/2)= 3700/2-370/2=1850-185=1665
Multiplication by 55
Multiply first by 110and then divide by 2. For example37x55=37x110/2=4070/2=2035
Multiplication by 75
Multiply first by 300 and then divide by 4 .For example37x75=37x300/4=11100/4=2775
Multiplication by 125
Multiply first by 500 and then divide by 4 For example37x125=37x500/4=18500/4=4625
Multiplication by 150
Multiply first by 300 and then divide by 2 For example37x150=37x300/4=11100/2=5550
Multiplication by 175
Multiply first by 700 and then divide by 4 For example37x175=37x700/4=25900/4=6475
Multiplication by 225
Multiply first by 900 and then divide by 4 For example37x225=37x900/4=33300/4=8325
Multiplication by 275
Multiply first by 1100 and then divide by 4 | <urn:uuid:33f95c6b-213f-4b20-b239-08fd0c5ac08d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://humindian.com/education/education-tips-articles-vedic-maths-group-discussions-career/vedic-maths-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884099 | 588 | 3.6875 | 4 |
MonocotyledonsWilliam J. Hahn
This tree diagram shows the relationships between several groups of organisms.
The root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the Tree of Life. The basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree. This ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups, which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right.
You can click on the root to travel down the Tree of Life all the way to the root of all Life, and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the Tree of Life all the way to individual species.close box
The Monocotyledons are one of the most distinctive major lineages of angiosperms and traditionally have been paired with the Dicotyledons as the two main groups of flowering plants. Among the monocots are some of the largest families of angiosperms (such as the orchids with ca. 20,000 species and the grasses with ca. 15,000 species) as well as some of the most economically important species of plants. Numerous vegetation types are dominated by monocots including grasslands, palm savannas, sedge meadows, and cattail marshes.
The shared, derived character that unites all monocots is the single cotyledon, a feature first noted by John Ray in 1703. Other features that are common in monocots but not necessarily unique to or universal among them are: vascular bundles irregularly distributed in cross section of the stem, parallel veins in the leaves (mostly in the more derived groups), and flower parts in multiples of three. Despite the lack of true secondary growth in monocots, most growth habits are found in the group including floating and submerged aquatics, lianas, trees, epiphytes, and forbs of all sizes.
A singular origin for the monocots is generally accepted with numerous morphological synapomorphies proposed for the group (Donoghue and Doyle, 1989; Doyle and Donoghue, 1992; Tucker and Douglas, 1996). Additionally, most molecular analyses of monocots have provided strong support for their monophyly (Chase, et al., 1993, 1995; Duvall, et al., 1993; Hamby and Zimmer, 1992).
Relative to other angiosperms, the monocots are most frequently placed among a group of predominantly herbaceous magnoliid taxa (Lactoridaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Piperaceae, Sauraraceae, Nymphaeaceae) collectively referred to as the "paleoherbs" (Donoghue and Doyle, 1989). The specific relationships among these taxa are still unclear but a close relationship of the monocots with either the woody magnoliid taxa or the more derived, tricolpate, "eudicots" is not supported in any analysis.
The fossil record of the Monocotyledons is old with the first probable monocot remains dating to the Early Cretaceous. The presence of morphologically diverse fossils by the Campanian suggests a relatively rapid radiation into most of the extant major groups early in the course of monocot evolution (Herendeen and Crane, 1995).
The terminal taxa in this phylogeny are based on the major groups recognized and delimited by Dahlgren, et al. (1985) and Thorne (1992a, b) with several modifications. Although earlier work by Huber (1969, 1977) provided the context for a more explicit analysis of monocot relationships, Dahlgren and co-workers were the first to utilize cladistic approaches to the study of monocot phylogeny and their taxonomy is still the most complete. As such, it has served as the basis for most recent studies of the monocots (e.g., Rudall, et al, 1995). Alternate taxonomic systems of Cronquist (1981), Thorne (1992a, b) and Takhtajan (1980, 1987) are largely congruent with that of Dahlgren, et al. (1985) but differ in treatment of lilioid and basal monocots. The systems of Dahlgren and Thorne maintain numerous smaller families in the Lilianae as opposed to a few relatively large ones and place lilioid elements at the base of the monocots rather than the Alismatanae and Aranae.
The phylogenetic hypothesis represented here is based largely on the rbcL reconstructions of Duvall, et al. (1993a, b) and Chase, et al. (1995a) with consideration of the morphological studies of Dalhgren, et al. (1983, 1985) and Stevenson and Loconte (1995; see also Chase, et al., 1995b) as well as the nrDNA 18S SSU studies of Hamby and Zimmer (1992) and Bharathan and Zimmer (1995). Resolution within and among certain subgroups is predominantly based on various works presented in Rudall, et al. (1995).
The general relationships depicted in this tree are recovered in most analyses although taxon sampling is not completely comparable from study to study. Differences in topology concern the nature of the basal lineages (specifically the position of the alismatid/aroid and the dioscorealean/melanthioid lineages), placement of certain enigmatic taxa such as the Cyclanthaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Hanguanaceae, Pandanaceae, Velloziaceae, and Xyridaceae, and resolution within the Lilianae and Commelinanae.
While some earlier studies had suggested basal positions for groups such as the palms (Arecanae), most recent analyses place either the Alismatanae and Aranae (e.g., Duvall, et al., 1993a, 1993b; Chase, et al., 1993, 1995), or members of the lilioid orders Dioscoreales (e.g., Huber, 1969; Dahlgren et al. 1983, 1985; Stevenson and Loconte, 1995) and Melanthiales (e.g., Thorne, 1992; Takhtajan, 1969) as sister to the remainder of the monocots. Much of the difference seen in these two alternative hypotheses is due to uncertainties over the position of monocots within the angiosperms and attendant ambiguity in outgroup choice. Character state homologies are not obvious in many cases and alternate outgroups provide different character state polarizations. The current weight of evidence, however, seems to support the alismatid/aroid hypothesis. An example of this is the trans-spliced structure of the 4th intron in the mitochondrial gene nad1 shared by all monocots sampled except Araceae and Alismataceae (Qui & Palmer, 1996).
Bharathan, G & EA Zimmer. 1995. pp 81-107 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Crib, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries. (eds.) Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution,. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Chase, M. W. 2004. Monocot relationships: an overview. American Journal of Botany 91: 1645-1655.
Chase, MW, MR Duval, HG Hills, JG Conran, AV Cox, LE Eguiarte, J Hartwell, MF Fay, LR Caddick, KM Cameron, & S Hoot. 1995a. Molecular phylogenetics of Lilianae. pp 109-137 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Crib, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Chase, MW, DW Stevenson, P Wilkin, & PJ Rudall. 1995b. Monocot systematics: a combined analysis. pp 685-730 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Cronquist, A 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of the Flowering Plants. 1262 pp. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
Dahlgren, RMT & HT Clifford. 1982. The Monocotyledons - A Comparative Study. Academic Press, New York.
Dahlgren, RMT, HT Clifford, & PF Yeo. 1985. The Families of the Monocotyledons. 520 pp. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Dahlgren, RMT, & F Rassmussen. 1983. Monocotyledon evolution. Characters and phylolgenetic estimation. Evol. Biol. 16: 255-395.
Donoghue, MJ & JA Doyle. 1989. Phylogenetic analysis of angiosperms and the relationships of Hamemelidae. pp 17-45 in: PR Crane & S Blackmore (eds.). Evolution, Systematics, and the Fossil History of the Hamamelidae vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Doyle, JA & MJ Donoghue. 1992. Fossils and seed plant phylogeny realalyzed. Brittonia 44: 89-106.
Doyle, JA, MJ Donoghue, & EA Zimmer. 1994. Integration of morphological and rRNA data on the origin of angiosperms. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 81: 419-450.
Duvall, MR, GH Learn, LE Eguiarte, & ME Clegg. 1993a. Phylogenetic analysis of rbcL sequences identifies Acorus calamus as the primal extant monocotyledon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 4641-4644.
Duvall, MW, MT Clegg, MW Chase, WD Clark, WJ Kress, HG Hills, LE Eguiarte, JF Smith, BS Gaut, EA Zimmer, GH Learn, Jr. 1993b. Phylogenetic hypotheses for the monocotyledons constructed from rbcL sequence data. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 607-619.
Grayum, M 1990. Evolution and phylogeny of the Araceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 77: 628-697.
Hamby, RK & EA Zimmer. 1992. Ribosomal RNA as a phylogenetic tool in plant systematics. pp. 50-91 in: PS Soltis, DE Soltis, & JJ Doyle (eds) Molecular Systematics of Plants. Chapman and Hall, New York.
Herendeen, PS, & PR Crane. 1995. The fossil history of the monocotyledons. pp. 1-21 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Huber, H 1969. Die Samenmerkmale und Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der Liliiflorae. Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen 8: 219-538.
Huber, H 1977. The treatment of the monocotyledons in an evolutionary system of classification. Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl. 1: 285-298.
Les, DD & RR Haynes. 1995. Systematics of subclass Alismatidae: A synthesis of approaches. pp 353-377 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Linder, HP & EA Kellogg. 1995. Phylogenetic patterns in the commelinid clade. pp 473-496 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Loconte, H & DW Stevenson. 1991. Cladistics of the Magnoliidae. Cladistics 7: 267-296.
Qiu, Y-L & JD Palmer. 1996. Intron evolutionand angiosperm phylogeny. Amer. J. Bot. 83(6-supplement): 188.
Rudall, PJ, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries. (eds.) 1995. Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Stevenson, DW & H Loconte, 1995. Cladistic analysis of monocot families. pp 543-578 in: PJ Rudall, PJ Cribb, DF Cutler & CJ Humphries (eds.). Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Takhtahan, A. 1980. Outline of the classification of flowering plants (Magnoliophyta). Bot. Rev. 46: 225-359.
Takhtajan, A 1987. Systema Magnoliophytorum. Nauka, Leningrad. [In Russian].
Thorne, RF 1992a. Classification and geography of the flowering plants. Bot. Rev. 58: 225-348.
Thorne, RF 1992b. An updated classification of the flowering plants. Aliso 13: 365-389.
Tucker, SC & AW Douglas. 1996. Floral structure, development and relationships of Paleoherbs: Saruma, Cabomba, Lactoris, and selected Piperales. pp. 141-175 in: DW Taylor & LJ Hickey (eds.), Flowering Plant Origin, Evolution, & Phylogeny. Chapman & Hall. New York.
Correspondence regarding this page should be directed to William J. Hahn at
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Citing this page:
Hahn, William J. 1997. Monocotyledons. Version 01 January 1997 (under construction). http://tolweb.org/Monocotyledons/20668/1997.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/ | <urn:uuid:54bd1fbf-984f-4a7f-ad8e-11c477451acb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tolweb.org/Monocotyledons | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.791821 | 3,125 | 3.578125 | 4 |
The question as to what is and what is not part of your body seems to be a trivial one to answer, it is ‘obvious’. But this is not the case, since it is possible to induce very simply the illusion of quite dramatic body changes and distortions. The most famous is the ‘rubber hand illusion’ where you can temporarily feel that that a rubber hand is your own, when your corresponding real hand is hidden, and both are touched synchronously for a few seconds. For example, see the explanation by Dr Olaf Blanke in New Scientist
The technique has has also been extended to give people the feeling that they are outside of their own body, and you can see a discussion of this by Dr Henrik Ehrsson
In the EVENT Lab in Barcelona we are working on exploiting the power of fully immersive virtual reality to explore these illusions. We believe that virtual reality offers a very powerful methodology for research into this important area of how the brain represents the body. Moreover, the issue of body representation has the capability to profoundly change the technology of virtual reality itself. We have also been exploring the use of these techniques to give people experiences that would otherwise be impossible or very difficult – for example, what would it be like to have to stand in one of those infamous ‘stress positions’ during an interrogation, something that we have heard about a lot on the news? This has been explored in the idea of ‘immersive journalism’, which directly used virtual reality and ideas from body representation to give people the impression that they were in a stress position even when they were not. You can watch a short video about this on
Finally we have been exploring the connection between ‘brain computer interfaces’ (BCI) and body representation. Our first experiment reported in NeuroReport Inducing a virtual hand ownership illusion through a brain-computer interface showed that when people move a virtual arm by motor imagery that they have a feeling similar to that of the ‘rubber arm illusion’ – they report subjectively that the virtual arm appears to be theirs. However, the illusion is not as strong as the full ‘rubber arm illusion’.
You may also like his recent paper in Frontiers in Neuroscience – Inducing Illusory Ownership of a Virtual Body
About Mel Slater
Mel Slater was an ICREA Research Professor at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya , in the Llenguatges i Sistemes Informàtics Department since January 2006. He remains Profesor Asociado at UPC, although his ICREA position has been transferred to the University of Barcelona in the EVENT Lab. He founded the Virtual Environments and Computer Graphics group in the Department of Computer Science, University College London, where he still has several projects and PhD students.
And if you want to see more of Mel, check him out on YouTube “3 Questions Mel Slater” | <urn:uuid:c0e9045e-c398-48b7-9205-c99286bfb497> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bodyinmind.org/mel-slater-on-inducing-illusory-ownership-of-a-virtual-body/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961549 | 603 | 2.8125 | 3 |
You're Underpaid, and So Is the Rest of the World: A Breakdown of Minimum Wages Around the Globe
"No business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country."
That's what former Pres. Franklin Roosevelt said in 1933, in a speech announcing his plan to help America's recovery and forever shaping what would become one of his landmark ideals. Five years later, he signed into law the first federal minimum wage standard: It was 25 cents and set a maximum of a 44-hour workweek.
So, we've come a long way. But just this week Senate Republicans filibustered Pres. Barack Obama's push to raise the federal minimum from $7.25 to $10.10, and we are still far behind a number of other industrial nations. Australia and New Zealand invented the minimum wage law, and now Aussies get the highest such wage in the world at $16.88 (yes, that's in U.S. dollars, and that's more than double the U.S. standard).
Check out the infographic, and follow the colors clockwise—because minimum wage workers have to clock in and out, get it?—to see where countries land on the global scale of hourly pay. | <urn:uuid:0ffb4e25-3324-47f7-b056-21dad60c8720> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/05/01/youre-underpaid-and-so-everyone-else-minimum-wages-around-world-infographic?cmpid=tp-ptnr-taboola | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957359 | 265 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Last Mantua Maker: Women in Boston's Clothing Trades
Professor Marla Miller discusses the falling out of use of the term "mantuamaker" by female dressmakers in Boston and the transition to the term "dressmaker." Miller focuses on the history of dressmaking and of women as dressmakers, beginning in the colonial era and continuing to the 1800s. Her presentation includes slides.
Audio and video options are available. | <urn:uuid:85805acb-00f4-480e-ae45-0df474acaaeb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.teachinghistory.org/history-content/history-in-multimedia/2058 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922216 | 89 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Before the national crackdown on drinking and driving, it was widely believed that having "one for the road" was not a bad thing.
The American public erroneously thought that it was OK to have a few rounds with the guys (or gals) at the bar after work and hop in their cars to go home.
Thousands of deaths and paralyzing injuries later, lawmakers, the courts and law enforcement officials launched public awareness campaigns against this unhealthy practice.
These largely successful campaigns continue both locally and nationally.
Today, there is a new traffic safety threat - distracted driving.
And again, way too many U.S. motorists believe it's OK to send a quick text or check out a Snapchat photo while driving.
And again, they would be wrong - dead wrong.
Michigan State Police officials report that more than 3,000 people were killed nationwide in distracted-affected crashes in 2012.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration defines distracted driving is any activity that could divert a person's attention away from the primary task of driving, including texting, using a cellphone, eating or drinking, talking to passengers, grooming, reading, using a navigational system, watching a video or adjusting a radio, CD player or MP3 player.
"Distracted driving is a known serious problem; however, drivers are still partaking in this dangerous activity and putting their lives and others at risk," said Community Service Trooper Geno Basanese of the Iron Mountain Post. "Paying attention to the road and your surroundings can make the difference in preventing a crash and arriving home safely."
There are three types of distractions: visual, manual and cognitive. Visual involves taking your eyes off the road, manual consists of taking your hands off the wheel and cognitive involves taking your mind off what you're doing, Basanese said.
Texting while driving is especially dangerous because it requires the visual, manual and cognitive attention of the driver.
Sending or receiving a text takes a driver's eyes from the road for an average of 4.6 seconds, which at 55 mph is equivalent to driving the length of a football field, he said.
Although many activities are distractions while driving, significant public and legislative attention has been focused on talking and texting on cell phones.
In 2012, a Wisconsin state law went into effect that prohibits drivers with an instruction permit or probationary license, which includes many teenagers, from "using a cellular or other wireless telephone except to report an emergency" while driving. A previously enacted law made texting while driving illegal for all motorists.
In a national Pew Research study, 40 percent of American teens say they have been in a car when the driver used a cell phone in a way that put people in danger.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration reports that 11 percent of all drivers under the age of 20 involved in fatal crashes were distracted at the time of the crash.
This age group has the largest proportion of drivers who were distracted, said David Pabst, director of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Safety
Congress has designated April as National Distracted Driving Awareness Month, a good time to review our own driving habits.
"Despite laws to prevent distracted driving, people frequently talk and text on cell phones while behind the wheel. They eat a meal. They rummage for things on the seats, floor, dashboard or compartments. They even stare intently in the rearview mirror to comb their hair or apply make-up. Their attention is focused everywhere except where it should be, which is on the road," Pabst said. "Because they're not paying attention to traffic conditions and road hazards, distracted drivers risk causing a crash or failing to avoid one."
To prevent distractions from cell phone use and texting while driving, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation and the Wisconsin State Patrol advise all drivers to:
- Turn off your phone or switch to a silent mode.
- Use voice mail to tell callers that you're driving and will return the call as soon as possible.
- If you absolutely need to use your cell phone to call or text, pull over to a safe area.
- Ask a passenger to make a call or text for you.
- Download a mobile app that prevents texting while driving.
Trooper Basanese also offers some tips to help decrease distracted driving:
- Get familiar with vehicle features and equipment before driving.
- Preset radio stations, MP3 devices and climate control.
- Secure items that may move around when the car is in motion. - Do not reach down or behind the seat to pick up items.
- Do not text, access the internet, watch videos, play video games, search MP3 devices, or use any other distracting technology while driving.
- Avoid smoking, eating, drinking, and reading while driving.
- Pull safely off the road and out of traffic to deal with children.
- Do personal grooming at home - not in the vehicle.
- Review maps and driving directions before hitting the road.
- Ask a passenger to help with activities that may be distracting.
- If driving long distances, schedule regular stops to take a break, every 100 miles or two hours.
- Travel at times when you are normally awake and stay overnight rather than driving straight through the night.
- Avoid alcohol and medications that may make you drowsy. | <urn:uuid:314b063d-1b26-4914-8357-9d99223656d7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ironmountaindailynews.com/page/content.detail/id/545413/They-would-be-wrong.html?nav=5004 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955114 | 1,091 | 2.984375 | 3 |
In parts of South America and Mexico November 1st is celebrated as the Day of the Dead. This festival celebrates death by honoring the dead with flowers, food, and kites as well as celebrating life and vitality through children. The celebration originally took place at the beginning of the summer but with the arrival of Spanish Christian priests during the Spanish Conquest the holiday was moved to the fall and is now celebrated during the first two days of November.
In Santiago Sacatepequez, Guatemala they have a huge kite festival. This festival is part of the tradition of “Dia de los Muertos” and symbolizes the connection people still have with their past relatives and ancestors. Some say that it also helps the soul ascend to the after life. People fly their beautiful graceful kites from graveyards that have been decorated with flowers, food and other items. The kites used in the celebration are circular and are made from bamboo, colorful paper, string, and wire. These are not small kites; some of the biggest kites are up-wards of 30 feet across! Groups of men get together many weeks before the festival to start preparing their wonderful tethered creations.
The circular kites are constructed from bamboo poles radiating from the center of the kite and concentric circular or horizontal bamboo to help it keep it’s shape. The kites appear to be constructed in two parts; first the skin of the kite is made, then the frame is built and attached to the kite as one large structure. The tips of the spars are usually decorated with some kind of flag or streamer that is free to flap in the wind. The kites are decorated with religous or folkloric images, sometimes of the past relatives and some with multi-colored panels arranged in concentric circles. Giant poles erected in the earth act as braces and hold these huge kites upright. Once kites have flown and “fallen” repeatedly they will, of course, sustain quite a bit of damage. Hall Hammond reports in an issue of KiteLines that “When each [kite] has been damaged beyond repair, its makers rip off the paper skin and set it afire on the grave of the dead loved one“. What a spectacle it must be to see these enormous kites towering far above the graveyard.
A couple of news articles have been posted this week about the Day of the Dead. Specifically focusing on the efforts of the Brolly Arts organization in Salt Lake City, Utah and how they are spreading information about this celebration and kites. The Brolly Arts organization together with local schools plan on making kites with hundreds of children this week. You can read more in articles appearing on desertnews.com and in the Salt Lake Tribune.
- Salvador, R. J. (2003). What Do Mexicans Celebrate On The Day Of The Dead? Pp. 75-76, IN Death And Bereavement In The Americas. Death, Value And Meaning Series, Vol. II. Morgan, J. D. And P. Laungani (Eds.) Baywood Publishing Co., Amityville, New York. Available online here
- Hamond, Hall. Toto Santos:All Saints Day in Guatemala’s Hills, Pp. 22-24, KiteLines Issue, Fall 1977 Vol 1. No.3. Available online at Kitelife.com
- Top inset image: http://nathanannette.tripod.com/ | <urn:uuid:96f54be4-5eb0-45aa-abb9-533f7fce8440> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.steadywinds.com/archives/2005/10/21/kite-flying-day-of-the-dead/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933784 | 721 | 2.9375 | 3 |
One of the rulers of the kingdom of Israel during the interregnum between Zimri and Omri; son of Ginath. When Zimri, after a reign of seven days, had ended his life, the people of Israel were divided into two factions, one siding with Omri, and the other with Tibni. Omri's followers gained the upper hand; and, finally, Tibni having died, Omri was declared king (I Kings xvi. 21-22). From a comparison of verses 15 and 23 of the chapter just cited, it appears that Tibni was regent over half the kingdom of Israel for a period of four years. According to the Septuagint (ad loc.), Tibni had a brother named Joram, who seconded him in the dispute over the throne and who died at the same time as himself, probably at the hands of Omri's party. | <urn:uuid:6994bba3-a287-4e67-9a20-2bf6ae21cfcf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14389-tibni | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987637 | 187 | 3.390625 | 3 |
The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore has announced the birth of a black-and-white colobus monkey.
Mike McClure, the zoo's general curator, made a statement announcing the birth to parents Keri, age 14, and Bisi, age 19.
“We have been hoping that this pair would breed successfully, however they are secretive breeders and we were not certain she was pregnant,” said McClure. “We were very happy to see this new offspring arrive this morning.”
Found in the forests of equatorial Africa, colobus monkeys are distinguished by their black bodies and long white tails. The species is officially considered to be "in decline" due to the loss of their forest habitat, as well as the fact that they are hunted for meat and fur.
The new arrival brings the count of colobus monkeys at the Maryland Zoo to four, with the infant joining Keri, Bisi, and another adult female.
The Zoo has released a video of the infant on YouTube. The baby, covered in white fur, can be seen clinging to its mother's belly. | <urn:uuid:6efff147-995d-4444-a6d4-78651909e013> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/Md-Zoo-Welcomes-Baby-Colobus-Monkey-148385015.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980541 | 229 | 2.578125 | 3 |
From YouTube, produced by Sal Khan
This video uses our understanding of fluid pressure to figure out the height of a column of mercury. This video, which is suitable for high school students, starts with a black screen because the instructor, in his conversational tone, uses it as a 'chalkboard.' Instructor uses different colors for clarification. Run time 10:09. | <urn:uuid:8998769b-9171-42c9-952b-32f129e6ef7a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.watchknowlearn.org/Video.aspx?VideoID=8905&CategoryID=3923 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935175 | 75 | 2.859375 | 3 |
‘The Regulations for Ceremonial Paraphernalia of the Present Dynasty’. Beijing, 1772. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Aside from the titular precious stones, the upcoming Pearls exhibition will also feature a lavishly illustrated 18th century Chinese book. Known as ‘The Regulations for Ceremonial Paraphernalia of the Present Dynasty, the book is known to have been commissioned by the Chi’ien-lung Emperor (1736-1795) and was an illustrated conclusion to the Emperor’s decade-long efforts to regulate the numerous ritual codes and procedures of his court. It serves as a testament to the Emperor’s passion for a rigid ritualised life.
The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
A major imperial commission, the manufacture of The Regulations… was of huge scale. As many as twenty-seven court painters and calligraphers worked on the commission under five Editors. After editing and further expansion in the ensuing years, the manuscript was also printed in colour woodblock by the palace publications office of the Imperial Library in the Wuying Palace in the Forbidden City in 1766. It was an important part of the Chi’ien-lung Emperor’s Ssu-k’u ch’üan-shu or ‘Complete Library of the Four Treasuries‘, one of the most ambitious intellectual projects of the Ch’ing dynasty. In 1772, the Emperor decreed that a collection of the rarest manuscripts and books from across the Empire be assembled and a library built for their preservation. The library was completed in 1787. During its 15-year construction, seven complete sets of the entire collection (some 3,400 bound titles) were copied by more than 3,800 scholars.
The Regulations for Ceremonial Paraphernalia of the Present Dynasty consists of six chapters illustrating the use of ceremonial vessels, scientific equipment, dress, musical instruments, insignia, and weaponry. It contains more than 1300 pages of illustration and explanatory text. The museum’s copy of the manuscript is incomplete. The book was likely disbound and split into its individual pages when brought to Britain. Today parts of the original manuscript are held by the British Library, the National Museums of Scotland and the National Museum of Ireland. The National Palace in Beijing has a complete copy.
The book consists of exquisite hand-painted illuminations and calligraphy on silk wrapped over layers of Chinese xuan paper to form thick sheets. Careful examination of the versos of the pages and comparison with the copies held at the National Palace in Beijing revealed that the bound volumes were originally in concertina bindings, similar to the Thai book above. However, when the V&A aquired the sections of this manuscript in 1896, they were in loose folios. Originally part of the collection of the National Art Library, the 19th century bookbinders bound the loose pages into standard western-style albums, stabbed sewn with compensation guards, ultimately bound in a half-leather binding.
With time and handling, the inferior materials of the late 19th century rebinding meant that the binding had degraded to the point that it was almost completely detached. Fortunately the painted pages were in good condition, although had suffered some delamination, abrasion and accumulated dirt over the years.
The manuscript in its deteriorated 19th century Western binding. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Removing surface dirt from a page from the manuscript. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
An Approach to Conservation and Rebinding
Forming an appropriate approach to such a complex object requires significant discussion between Conservator and Curator. Hongxing Zhang, Senior Curator Far Eastern Department and I considered the past structure, the structures of other similar volumes and the future use and display of the volume. The options included a full repair of the current Western structure, storing the individual manuscript pages loose, or a complete rebinding using the original concertina binding method as the manuscript might have appeared in its original format.
Ultimately, we decided that the book should be rebound in a concertina binding historically similar to its original state. The current western binding was neither historically, culturally or aesthetically sympathetic to the original manuscript, and was of course very badly degraded. Rebinding the book to a state that reflects its original appearance and use provides a structure that is both stable and historically accurate. Furthermore, disbinding provided an excellent opportunity to digitise the individual pages and facilitate access to the volume.
Conservation and Rebinding
After carrying out research on variations of the concertina structure in Chinese books, and on the pigments, dyes and other materials used in the period, I consulted other institutions who had sections of this manuscript, and also colleagues from the Imperial Palace in China on their complete volume.
When I began work, I noticed that there were duplicates of several illustrations of the robes and winter hats. Upon close inspection it became very clear that these duplicates were by different hands. The copies differed radically in quality and it was quickly ascertained that in the early 1900s, several modern copies were made of the 1700 original. Although no record seems to exist, it is likely that some of these copies must have been purchased and integrated into the V&A’s volume at some point in the past. This raised interesting ethical considerations surrounding the most appropriate manner in which to rebind the book. The reproductions are not orginal, but clearly are still of historical importance to the manuscript and its acquisition by the V&A. Should the manuscript be reproduced in the format it entered the V&A’s collection? or separated from the later copied sheets and bound acording to its original production?
Original painted page from the manuscript showing ‘a winter hat’ (left), and 19th century copy (right). © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
In this case, and after lengthy consultation, we decided that to rebind the book according to its original historical context would be the most appropriate option. It provides the visitor with a closer awareness of the integrity and appearance of the original, while at the same time making it clear that it is not the original. In order to confirm which pages were original and which were later copies, we examined the duplicate pages carefully, documenting any differences in their materials and appeance. We were also able to identify the original pages by using scientific analysis. Conservation Scientist, Lucia Burgio analysed the pigments on several duplicate pages using Raman Spectroscopy confirming that the pigments used in the pages we suspected were original were in keeping with those used in 18th century China.
After sorting out the order of the pages and in order to compensate for the missing pages, I decided to insert blank facsimile pages so as to indicate when a page was missing. This was preferred as the more appropriate option for an incomplete book. Using traditional Chinese materials, I dyed and lined several sheets of modern Chinese xuan paper to create pages that were similar to the original paper. I decided not to use silk in this context. Finally I created a cover. We have no extant record of how the original cover might have looked, and the covers of similar manuscripts in the Imperial Palace exists in many colours. However, given the imperial nature of The Regulations, the cover was created in yellow – the imperial colour for a an imperial manuscript.
Facsimile insert page (right) added to compensate for missing pages. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
After conservation treatment and rebinding in original concertina format. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
The manuscript will be on display in the Pearls exhibition from the 21st January. | <urn:uuid:477fe1a1-0307-45b2-a1d4-5943bdc27d4a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/conservation-blog/rebinding-emperors-pearls | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961477 | 1,573 | 2.859375 | 3 |
It was a sweet outdoor field trip moment turned sour. While relaxing on the edge of a hay wagon, taking in the scene at the farm, science lab teacher Darleen Horton remarked to a fourth grader, "Isn't this nice?" His reply: "It's scary."
Surprised, she asked him why. "Well, I don't go outside. It's not safe."
Horton, who teaches at Jefferson County (Ky.) Public Schools' Chenoweth Elementary, says she immediately realized the impact of growing up in a high crime area with no green space. "It just came crashing down on me. A lot of children don't have any connection with living, growing things," she says.
The outdoor classroom Horton created last year at Chenoweth--a school located away from the district's urban center--helps to forge that connection. "Children had the dream right along with me," the teacher says of her vision for the school grounds.
An Environmental Protection Agency grant and donations totaling about $7,000, plus a lot of hard work, went into the space, which now features a bi-level pond with a waterfall, thriving gardens, a paved path and log seating. It's visited often, not only by students but by squirrels, rabbits and even a red-tailed hawk. "I don't have anybody afraid to go outside anymore," says Horton. "This is a safe place."
At nearby Watson Lane Elementary, students have enjoyed a similar outdoor learning space for about a decade. From soil experiments to rock identifications, scientific inquiry is a regular occurrence. "It opens up opportunities for children to engage in things that you would normally just read about," says Principal Rosemarie Young. While not every teacher has gotten involved in connecting the space to the curriculum, they all "support it in some way, even if through quiet and reading time."
That support also exists at the central office. The district currently has 57 outdoor classrooms, notes David Wicks, coordinator of the school system's Center for Environmental Education. Although Wicks' department provides no funds, the schools have found ways to raise them. About one-third of Jefferson County's classrooms are focused on activities such as planting and developing wetlands and mini forests, all indications of schoolyard habitats.
Stephanie Stowell, director of the National Wildlife Federation's Schoolyard Habitats program, says she's seen everything from a 35-acre space in a schoolyard with natural forest down to 3x5 foot window boxes in downtown Detroit. In fact, the most significant growth of schoolyard habitats has been in urban areas, she says. "I think we're overcoming the misconception that inner-city schools can't be beautified," explains Josetta Hawthorne, executive director of the Council for Environmental Education's Project WILD program.
A simple habitat typically includes a water source, a butterfly garden or other flowering beds, and rocks, shrubs or some other kind of cover for wildlife, Hawthorne says. From there, the possibilities are nearly endless. At Taipei American School in Taiwan, for instance, the recently completed outdoor space includes a geology area, a waterfall, a tea garden, an archeological dig pit, a treehouse village and more. Susan Goltsman, principal of Berkeley, Calif.-based MIG and designer of the Taipei project, says her firm considers 17 different elements of learning--from building and discovery to climbing and categorizing--when creating outdoor classrooms.
Schoolyard habitat design is on the minds of many educators. A 1996 environmental education conference had just a few sessions on the topic. The same event in 2002 drew enough interest for more than 20 sessions, says Marilyn Wyzga, coordinator of the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department's Project HOME program, which helps schools develop habitats. Karen Kelly, Maryland's schoolyard habitat coordinator, adds that she's noticed an overall focus on "having what's happening outside on the grounds blend with what's happening inside."
Habitats Across the Board
Educators are noticing the academic, social and practical benefits of incorporating schoolyard habitats into everyday learning, especially in elementary schools, but also in middle and high schools. "It's very important for children to be immersed in living systems" to apply concepts in a specific context, says Zenobia Barlow, executive director of the Center for Ecoliteracy. And when kids work together outside the classroom, educators report increased cooperation overall. Students experience enhanced self-esteem as they use real tools to solve real problems, she adds.
Schoolyard habitats and student achievement have also been linked, such as through the State Education and Environment Roundtable's 1999 report Closing the Achievement Gap. In Jefferson County's own analysis of 2003 science test scores, 14 of the top 15 performing elementary schools, plus three of the top five middle schools, have active outdoor classrooms.
Experts say administrators generally have to be sold on how these benefits can outweigh the costs and time involved in creating and sustaining schoolyard habitats. Still, that's not the case across the board. "If it's a well thought out, well supported initiative that connects to student achievement and has a good plan for maintenance so it looks neat, I haven't heard of any [Jefferson County] administrators who said no," Wicks notes.
The benefits of district-wide support for habitat projects are beginning to get noticed. Due to tight budgets, "kids aren't able to go off site like they used to for field trips," says Stowell, who has seen increased interest in creating habitats at all schools within a district. In Maryland, for instance, seven or eight of the 24 districts are aggressively pursuing these projects, Kelly says. A few district science departments even have goals of converting at least 50 percent of their schoolyards into natural space. One, Frederick County, is partnering with Kelly and a non-profit organization to get all of its 89 schools involved. District support makes these projects "more integrated and sustainable," Wyzga points out.
On the West Coast, the rural Orinda (Calif.) Union School District is the first to officially put out the wildlife welcome mat at every one of its schools. The five campuses are already tucked into areas with running creeks, explains District Naturalist Toris Jaeger. After adding the missing criterion--including gardens, food to attract birds and areas where students could observe nature--the district applied for and obtained NWF schoolyard habitat certification.
While Jefferson County's outdoor classrooms have generally been a success, Wicks has seen dark days. There have been teachers who worked with students to carefully select and plant 15 different native tree species. The young plantings, so full of potential yet only a few inches high, were no match for a maintenance crew's lawnmower.
And everyone involved in promoting schoolyard habitats has at least one story to tell about a single motivated teacher who fails to grab the interest of others. Once that teacher moves on, "the whole facility goes down the tubes," points out John Lee, director of facility planning for Jefferson County.
Wicks compares what's needed to avoid these situations to a healthy ecosystem. "The more diverse an environment is, the more stable it will be. The more diverse support for your outdoor classroom, the more stable it will be," he says. Jaeger adds that a habitat needs "a core of people that see the value and wisdom of it. And I'm sure every district has those people."
"It has to be seen as part of a broader policy and framework in which people feel supported doing these kinds of things," Goltsman advises. For Project HOME, that support comes in the form of a 10-plus person school team. Teachers, administrators, custodians and in some cases older students complete eight hours of training on schoolyard habitat enhancement, Wyzga says.
In Jefferson County, involvement from multiple departments means "you have so many eyes and minds looking at the same thing. It's a very enriching kind of process," Lee says. That process begins with a proposal, submitted to his department, on the type of improvement being considered. "We bring to the table the expertise not only in how to do something, but what works," he adds. To help everyone work together, district administrators have compiled an extensive handbook for creating and using outdoor classrooms.
-David Wicks, coordinator, Center for Environmental Education, Jefferson County (Ky.) Public Schools
Seeking help from outside experts and committed community members also makes ongoing use of a schoolyard habitat more likely. Besides national organizations, many of which have state contacts, experts suggest getting in touch with local native plant societies, gardening clubs, home and garden centers, nature centers and soil and water conservation district offices.
A number of schools also hire landscape architects, Wyzga says. Their ecology background provides "the ability to go in and replicate the natural system in a way that humans can appreciate," says Elise Huggins, owner of the firm Earthscape, which has created habitat gardens for schools in Anchorage, Ala., where the company is based. "If we just plop plants here and there, they end up looking like weed gardens. If it's not nice, it won't last in the long run," she explains. And be sure to get experts involved early on in the process, especially with new school construction. "It's really expensive to move parking lots!" she points out.
It can also be costly--in the motivation for learning sense--to leave students out of the planning process. At Van Buren Intermediate School District in Lawrence, Mich., a project to restore a nature trail and create a variety of habitats doesn't make that mistake.
Students are actively involved and have done water measurements, trail marking and planting, says Student Assistance Coordinator Wendy Pierce.
Of course, getting children involved sometimes means letting them make their own mistakes. Barlow knows of one school where the children were asked to calculate the amount of sand needed for a sandbox area. They under-calculated--and dramatically so. But it was still a learning experience.
Jaeger has learned this: "If you can inspire [students], if they have an understanding of what they're doing and feel like they're making a difference, they're unstoppable."
Get teachers to see their schoolyard habitat as more than an add-on, and experts say you're halfway to ensuring its success. "Kids have to learn how to measure [and] how to problem solve," says Kelly. "This is a way to do it. It's a means to an end." Correlating outdoor classroom use to local standards is a leap in the right direction. An Orinda science committee has created an enrichment binder for each grade level, and lesson modeling helps teachers get comfortable using the activities.
In Jefferson County, administrators took advantage of Kentucky's very specific reading and writing standards to promote its outdoor classrooms. "Even though [Superintendent Stephen Daeschner] is dedicated to environmental stewardship, he has come out and said that every child in the district must read on grade level by 2006. He hasn't come out and said every child must be an environmental steward by 2006," Wicks says. One link between the two areas is the Wild About Reading program, which brings children's books related to the understanding of local habitats to the shelves of several school libraries.
Horton's fifth graders experienced a wild moment while studying cell biology this year. "We went to get some pond scum to look at it under the microscopes. And tadpole eggs are hatching right on the slide!" she recalls. "You can imagine the excitement all that created."
To get students to understand decomposing--which Horton says commonly trips them up on standardized tests--they only need to take a few steps from the classroom and roll back a rotting log to observe the concept in action. After noting what they've seen in their journals, they'll be more likely to remember what they learn later.
Other popular science lessons for schoolyard habitats include water testing, soil studies, insect counts and identification, and learning how to use a dichotomous key to identify plants, Hawthorne says. And the fun doesn't have to be put on hold during the colder months. Watson Lane's Young says direct observations--of what animals are spotted then vs. in the fall, and of what happens to the trees, for example--are ideal winter activities. And, Wyzga points out, it's easier to notice animal tracks and certain plants during that season.
Connections to other subject areas don't require much more than some planning and an open mind. Horton organized Stone Soup Day this fall to celebrate Chenoweth's first harvest and to sample Kentucky's early history. The event featured a customized version of the Swedish folktale and a number of exhibitors that linked science and literacy to other subject areas.
On any day, a habitat site can be connected to creative writing or persuasive writing (to secure more community involvement), Hawthorne says. Students might also study the history of the school site, create site maps and measure the space for garden planning.
"It can't be taken for granted that just because it's there, people will come," Wicks says. Interest in the site, adds Goltsman, will depend on individual teachers' willingness to "get dirty and ... let [their students] get dirty.
It's not about the subject you teach but about individuals who see the value in kids manipulating the environment."
Experts recommend promoting that value through professional development. Horton, for example, is designing a workshop to teach colleagues how to use their outdoor classroom. In Maryland's Ann Arundel county, two staffers are dedicated to training teachers to use habitats, Kelly says. Hawthorne suggests asking science coordinators to regularly come up with fresh ideas for habitat site use and bringing in guest speakers to re-ignite interest.
The habit toward habitats can even spark a contribution to the greater public good. "When these kids are involved in restoring their schoolyards, it's not just a pretend science," Kelly says. In her region, a commitment has been made to Chesapeake Bay restoration, and addressing pollution within the school boundaries can result in less pollution in the bay. Knowing that they're part of the solution, children can't help but feel "an extreme amount of school pride," Kelly says--as well as pride in themselves.
Melissa Ezarik is features editor. | <urn:uuid:5cd12763-ef22-429f-b5f4-a4dfa2be503a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.districtadministration.com/article/second-nature | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964558 | 2,987 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Biblical illiteracy is at an all-time high. A nationwide poll found that 60 percent of Americans could not identify even five of the Ten Commandments, and another survey revealed that 39 percent of Millennials never read the Bible. To address America's increasing biblical illiteracy, Christians such as Steve Green, CEO of the Hobby Lobby arts and crafts store chain, are working to incorporate the Bible into public school classrooms. Yet a dedicated Bible curriculum, such as Mr. Green is offering to Oklahoma classrooms, isn't the only way to bring the Bible into local schools. In fact, students can and should be reading the Bible as part of a robust literature curriculum that emphasizes great literature and literary non-fiction.
Indeed, as part of new educational standards that have been adopted by most states, schools should be refocusing their literature curriculum on precisely this kind of reading, including Christian scripture. Extensive research indicates that students must continually increase the complexity of the texts they read to be better prepared for college and work. The Common Core literacy standards prepare students to engage in analytic discussions of complex text by requiring them to cite strong textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly and to determine the meaning of words and phrases in text, including figurative and connotative meaning. Additionally, many literary works that feature a Judeo-Christian ethos have had an undeniable and vast influence on Western culture, and for this reason Christian scriptures are a natural primary source to examine when interpreting themes of the literary greats, such as Shakespeare.
As a Christian by faith and an English professor by training, I know biblical literacy is essential for a meaningful life of faith, and has innumerable ancillary benefits, both academic and personal. Like most Christians, I testify that the Bible has been "a rock and a fortress" for me in times of difficulty, and a "lamp unto my feet" to guide me as a father, husband and teacher. In addition, because I was grounded in biblical study as a young man, the lens of Scripture clarified innumerable biblical allusions I have encountered in my academic career, helping me draw out deep truths from diverse materials. From the transcendent truths etched on stone tablets carried down from Mount Sinai to Martin Luther's translation of the Bible for the masses, which went "viral" via the printing press, Christians have always deeply valued literacy, including biblical literacy.
The Bible offers essential knowledge for Christian living, but it is also helpful to students in a broad range of disciplines, from classical literature to anthropology to sociology and many others. And since more than 90 percent of U.S. students attend public schools, incorporating the Bible into English Language Arts curriculum is a powerful way to help these students develop biblical literacy alongside their literacy skills.
As classrooms are aligning to Core Standards, and districts are making curriculum choices, I encourage parents to ensure that the Bible is incorporated into their schools' ELA and History curriculum. Christian scripture can and should be included in classrooms, and new educational standards provide strong support for the study of sacred texts within literature and history lessons. To be clear, we are not contending for the state to impose Christian values on all American students; faith is rightly nurtured in the home and through our many church traditions. Yet, as one of the most highly influential complex texts available for the classroom, it's time for students to once again discover the Bible's unique content, acknowledge its world-changing historical impact, and appreciate its culture-shaping history. | <urn:uuid:90f20d01-acd5-4e07-afd5-1c542009fdb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.christianpost.com/news/bringing-the-bible-back-to-the-classroom-new-ela-educational-standards-make-room-for-scripture-120643/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962707 | 704 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Useful information relating to the Indonesian Rupiah currency IDR
1 Rp = 100 sen
The rupiah (Rp) is the official currency of Indonesia and is subdivided into 100 sen. The name derives from the Indian monetary unit rupee which is called as rupiya in Indian languages. Informally, Indonesians also use the word "perak" in referring to rupiah. Inflation has now rendered all coins and banknotes denominated in sen obsolete.
Useful information relating to the Maldivian Rufiyaa currency MVR
1 Rf = 100 laari
The rufiyaa is the currency of the Maldives and is subdivided into 100 laari. Determining the rate for the US Dollar and the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Maldives Monetary Authority (MMA). The most commonly used symbols for the rufiyaa are MRF and Rf despite the international code for Maldivian rufiyaa being MVR. The name "rufiyaa" is derived from the Hindi word rupiyaa. | <urn:uuid:4ada47ef-1e8c-4288-b3d2-847a7a71eb6a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://themoneyconverter.com/IDR/MVR.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.847994 | 226 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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Who doesn't love a penguin?
I remember visiting Mystic Aquarium not long ago when an animal handler rushed by, pushing a little cart full of penguins, all boxed up, black shoulder to black shoulder. They looked like VIPs, all dressed up and in a hurry to get somewhere.
News pictures of Yellow Pink, an African penguin at Mystic Aquarium who got fitted with a wet suit after the waterproof feathers he shed did not grow back, scored a lot of reader eyeballs when they went online last week.
What could be cuter than a penguin being dressed up, like a well-loved doll?
The aquarium began caring for penguins in 1989, after obtaining some from a Maryland zoo.
Since then, African penguins, which are native to southern Africa, have become increasingly more in peril as a species. By some estimates, the population has declined some 95 percent since pre-industrial times.
Just over two years ago, with total population numbers estimated around 55,000, the African penguins were listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
If the decline isn't reversed, some estimates suggest they could be extinct in 15 years.
So cheers to the aquarium here for its work in caring for and breeding the species.
This winter, the aquarium sent three staff members to a wildlife rehabilitation center in South Africa where they helped care for young chicks abandoned by their parents during the molting season.
The volunteer recruits from Mystic helped with all the daily feeding and care for the chicks so they could be returned to the wild, an annual effort. Each of the Mystic staffers wrote about the experience in South Africa on blogs carried on the aquarium's website.
"Volunteers, trained professionals from around the world, helped rear these chicks," said Erin Merz, a spokesperson for the aquarium. "We did our part. It is becoming critical at this point. Even one animal you save makes a difference."
Meanwhile, here in Connecticut, the aquarium has begun to showcase its annual breeding efforts with the penguins.
And the best part is that anyone can watch.
The aquarium is broadcasting a scene from a "back of the house" room at its penguin facility that must be one of New England's most unusual webcams. You can watch here.
The camera shows many of the nests where the penguins are working to hatch some 16 eggs. Some of the eggs are dummies (the penguins don't know it) and others, about six, were chosen for their simple breeding purposes or potential genetic value.
The first chicks are expected to be born soon. And over the coming weeks, the webcam will give everyone with a computer a front-row seat to their development.
Evidently it is fun to watch because the chicks grow up quickly.
Some teachers in the region have planned some class time around watching the penguins develop, according to Merz. The aquarium will also facilitate question-and-answer sessions with trainers and students and encourage penguin dialogue on Facebook.
The interesting thing to watch now is the changing of the guard, as male and female penguins trade places hatching the eggs. African penguins are monogamous, and each partner in a mating pair takes a turn at the nest.
And when they are not sitting on the eggs, the males and females wander and waddle around the room, looking as cute as, well, penguins.
This is the opinion of David Collins. | <urn:uuid:bc7ef032-4cb5-4560-9251-0a87a32c9b5d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theday.com/article/20130130/NWS05/301309960/-1/NWS12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950167 | 756 | 2.8125 | 3 |
When Jesus and his Apostles met to eat the Passover meal, Jesus introduced the ordinance of the sacrament (Luke 22:19–20). Why is it important to take the sacrament each week? How can you prepare yourself spiritually before partaking of the sacrament?
What did Jesus tell the Apostles about why he had washed their feet? (See John 13:12–17.) How has service to others brought you happiness?
Jesus said, “By this shall men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to another” (John 13:35). Does the way you treat others show that you are a disciple, or follower, of Christ? What are some specific things you can do to follow Christ’s example of love?
Suggestion for Family Discussion
Ask a family member to read Doctrine and Covenants 20:77. Discuss the meaning of the sacramental bread. Ask another family member to read Doctrine and Covenants 20:79. Discuss the meaning of the sacramental water, noting that today we use water instead of wine. Explain that when we partake of the sacrament, we promise to always remember Jesus. Talk about things family members can do that will help them remember Jesus.
As part of this family discussion, you may want to sing together a sacrament hymn or the Primary song | <urn:uuid:7c475480-42b8-4340-ac5f-ba6dd4912e5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.lds.org/manual/new-testament-class-member-study-guide/lesson-23-love-one-another-as-i-have-loved-you?lang=eng | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944258 | 271 | 3.15625 | 3 |
» Viewing Lesson Plan:Student Viewing Guide
» Lesson Objectives:
In this lesson, students will watch the film and familiarize themselves with the main events and people in "Ghosts of Rwanda."
Note: Because this is such a powerful and emotionally affecting film, students will need time to debrief immediately after seeing it. If possible, try to see the film ahead of time so that you can be more prepared for student reactions.
» Materials Needed:
» Time Needed:
Two hours to watch the film; 90 minutes to debrief and to hear student reports
2) Assign each group to track one of the following groups or individuals while viewing:
3) Students will view the film together. Tell them that they will be viewing a documentary that examines the possible causes, events, and continuing effects of the 1994 Rwanda genocide. After viewing and discussing the documentary, tell students that they will be responsible for contributing to class discussion, with a focus on the constituency they have been tracking. Teachers should encourage good note-taking.
2) After the initial debriefing discussion, students should get into their six groups for further discussion. Encourage students to be prepared to talk about and refer to:
3) After the groups have had 10 to 15 minutes to talk, reconvene the class as a whole to give students an opportunity to share their ideas and thoughts from the small groups. Discuss the following questions:
Encourage students to look at their notes on Student Worksheet #4 during the debriefing discussion. The discussion should naturally move back and forth between the larger questions and the concerns of the specific groups. | <urn:uuid:d8037506-6cb6-41cf-aa09-cab13f1a4601> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/ghosts/viewing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946492 | 338 | 3.921875 | 4 |
DAYTON (AP) — The man who built the engine for Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first powered aircraft has finally gotten his due.
It was Charles Taylor — a mechanic in the brothers’ Dayton bicycle shop — who built the engine for the airplane that first took flight at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on Dec. 17, 1903.
On Monday, a bronze bust of Taylor was unveiled at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton.
The self-taught mechanic hand-built the airplane engine after a slew of automakers rejected the brothers’ request to build one.
The San Diego-based Aircraft Maintenance Technicians Association raised $6,000 to have the bronze bust displayed at the museum.
“Charlie was a very humble person, never sought the limelight, and ... history kind of forgot the men and women behind the scenes who maintained the aircraft,” said Ken MacTiernan, founder of the Aircraft Maintenance Technicians Association.
Taylor had other firsts in history. He was the first airport manager, beginning at Dayton’s Huffman Prairie where the Wright brothers perfected controlled flight. And he was the first mechanic of a cross-country flight during a 49-day trek from New York to Los Angeles in 1911, said his great-grandson Charles E. Taylor II, 49, of Chicago.
“Everybody knows that the Wright brothers did a lot with the invention of the first airplane,” Taylor said.
“But when it came to the propulsion, the engine, which was a significant part of that invention, their bicycle mechanic — the third cog in the wheel — was the one who provided that part of the invention.”
Taylor stood with the Wrights in the early years of the brothers’ airplane company in Dayton and their travels to the East Coast and Europe. | <urn:uuid:6916ff08-9ffe-41e8-b7e4-98568c2a34b4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/07/27/wrights-mechanic-gets-recognition-at-museum.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964127 | 390 | 2.671875 | 3 |
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Posted August 2001
Thomas Hart Benton in Defense of Dueling
Excerpted and introduced by G.E. Rule, from “The Brown-Reynolds Duel”, edited by Walter B. Stevens, 1911.
In examining the years-long preliminaries leading up to the crisis of 1860-61 in Missouri, there are two areas that cannot be ignored. One is the ugly fight over Kansas, and the other is the battle to retire Thomas Hart Benton from his commanding position in Missouri politics. In the former, the anti-slavery forces finally prevailed; in the latter, the pro-slavery forces. Both victories caused a deep bitterness in the losers, and helped set the stage for Civil War.
BENTON, Thomas Hart,a Senator and a Representative from Missouri; born at Harts Mill, near Hillsboro, N.C., March 14, 1782; attended Chapel Hill College (now the University of North Carolina) and the law department of William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va.; was admitted to the bar at Nashville, Tenn., in 1806 and commenced practice in Franklin, Williamson County, Tenn.; member of the State senate 1809-1811; served as aide-de-camp to General Jackson; colonel of a regiment of Tennessee volunteers from December 1812 to April 1813; lieutenant colonel of the Thirty-ninth United States Infantry 1813-1815; moved to St. Louis, Mo., where he edited the Missouri Inquirer and continued the practice of law; upon the admission of Missouri as a State into the Union was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate; reelected in 1827, 1833, 1839, and 1845 and served from August 10, 1821, to March 3, 1851, the first Senator to serve thirty consecutive years; author of the resolution to expunge from the Senate Journal the resolution of censure on Andrew Jackson; unsuccessful candidate for reelection to the Senate in 1850; elected as a Missouri Compromise Democrat to the Thirty-third Congress (March 4, 1853-March 3, 1855); unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1854 to the Thirty-fourth Congress and for Governor of Missouri in 1856; engaged in literary pursuits in Washington, D.C., until his death there on April 10, 1858; interment in Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis, Mo.
Biographical Directory of the American Congress, 1774-1949
Benton had been a titan in Missouri politics for over 30 years; gifted, arrogant, imperious in mien. But he was not “right” on slavery, or so the pro-slavery forces believed. Benton did everything he could to stop “agitation on the slavery question”, knowing that it held the seeds of potential dis-union. He was by no means an abolitionist, and would have been enraged to be called one. He was, however, against the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and against the expansion of slavery in the territories.
From 1850-56, the fight to retire Benton was a central feature of Missouri politics, with his enemies finally prevailing. Claiborne Fox Jackson, who would become the secessionist governor of Missouri in early 1861, played an important role in Benton’s downfall. Benton’s abolitionist son-in-law --John Charles Fremont; who was to become the first Republican presidential candidate in 1856—probably didn’t help him much in the eyes of the great middle section of Missouri politics that usually decide (as it does in most places and times) elections.
“In Defense of Dueling” is Benton’s ode to “affairs of honor.” Benton was an acknowledged master of the “code”, and was either principal or second in many “affairs.” While Benton may not have been “right” on slavery, he was still a Southern man, with a Southern man’s view of honor.
It is this view that is often overlooked in the popular understanding of the events leading to secession. Yes, the ruling class in the South had a large financial interest in slavery. But that isn’t the whole story, and doesn’t begin to explain the attitudes of the great mass of Southerners who had no such interest. The prevalent cultural attitude towards “honor” does help explain it, and the Southern attitude towards the “affair of honor,” i.e. a duel, is an important expression of it.
To put it simply, it was intolerable to a large section of Southern opinion that the North treated their “peculiar institution,” slavery, as a nasty, icky thing that desperately needed to be quarantined to the limited area where it already existed. If the awful disease could not be eradicated (that pesky Constitution regrettably settled that question in the wrong manner), then at least it must be contained. By 1860 it was very clear to the South that this was the Northern attitude; growing stronger all the time and finally resulting in the election of a President dedicated to halting forever the expansion of slavery --and to a culture steeped in “honor,” it was unacceptable to continue to share a house (the Union) with those who so despised them and their institutions. Southern culture considered itself superior; for the North to view it as not only not superior, but woefully morally corrupt was an insult not to be borne. In other words, the Civil War could be seen as the largest duel in history. . .
Lastly, note Benton’s description of what happens after the duel is over. The culture with this view would also deeply resent Reconstruction as an affront to its honor. Having fought for honor, the Southern man expects the whole thing to have been settled by the duel itself, with no repercussions to follow; no retribution; no aspersions upon the character or motivation of either victor or vanquished. Remember, it is not necessary to win the duel for honor to be vindicated under the code; it is only necessary to fight the duel to vindicate that honor. This also helps account for the magnificent (or damn foolish—take your pick) indifference to the odds against their success that so many Southerners evinced in 1861.
The second section is Benton’s
account of the Clay-Randolph duel of 1826. Henry Clay of Kentucky was Secretary of State to John
Quincy Adams, and John Randolph was a Senator from Virginia. Benton was present as
“amicus” (i.e. friend) under the code. Editor Stevens (a long-time St. Louis
newspaperman) said of this account that, “In the history of the code there is
perhaps no other narrative which will compare with the description Benton wrote
of that duel.”
Thomas Hart Benton writes:
Certainly it is deplorable to see a young man, the hope of his father and mother--a ripe man, the head of a family--an eminent man necessary to his country--struck down in a duel; and should be prevented if possible. Still this deplorable practice is not so bad as the bowie knife and the revolver, and their pretext of self-defense--thirsting for blood. In the duel, there is at least consent on both sides, with a preliminary opportunity for settlement, with a chance for the law to arrest them, and room for the interposition of friends as the affair goes on. There is usually equality of terms; and it would not be called an affair of honor if honor was not to prevail all round; and if the satisfying a point of honor, and not vengeance, was not the end to be attained. Finally, in the regular duel, the principals are in the hands of the seconds (for no man can be made a second without his consent); and as both these are required by the dueling code (for the sake of fairness and humanity), to be free from ill will or grudge towards the adversary principal, they are expected to terminate the affair as soon as the point of honor is satisfied, and the less the injury, so much the better.
The only exceptions to these rules are where the principals are in such relations to each other as to admit of no accommodation, and the injury [to their honor] such as to admit of no compromise. In the knife and revolver business all this is different. There is no preliminary interval for settlement--no chance for officers of justice to intervene--no room for friends to interpose. Instead of equality of terms, every advantage is sought. Instead of consent, the victim is set upon at the most unguarded moment. Instead of satisfying a point of honor, it is vengeance to be glutted. Nor does the difference stop with death. In the duel the unhurt principal scorns to continue the combat upon his disabled adversary; in the knife and revolver case, the hero of these weapons continues firing and stabbing while the prostrate body of the dying man gives a sign of life. In the duel the survivor never assails the character of the fallen; in the knife and revolver case, the first movement of the victor is to attack the character of his victim--to accuse him of an attempt to murder; and to make out a case of self-defense, by making out a case of premeditated attack against the other. And in such false accusation, the French proverb is usually verified--the dead and the absent are always in the wrong.
The Clay-Randolph Duel of 1826
John Randolph: A new edition of Adams' 1882 biography of John Randolph of Roanoke
It was Saturday, the first day of April, toward noon, the Senate not being that day in session, that Mr. Randolph came to my room at Brown's hotel, and without explaining the reason of the question, asked me if I was a blood relation of Mrs. Clay. I answered that I was, and he immediately replied that that put an end to a request which he had wished to make of me, and then went on to tell me that he had just received a challenge from Mr. Clay, had accepted it, was ready to go out, and would apply to Colonel Tatnall to be his second. Before leaving he told me he would make my bosom the depository of a secret which he should commit to no other person. It was that he did not intend to fire at Mr. Clay. He told it to me because he wanted a witness of his intention, and did not mean to tell it to his second or anybody else; and enjoined inviolable secrecy until the duel was over. This was the first notice I had of the affair.
I had heard nothing from him on the point of not returning the fire since the first communication to that effect eight days before. I had no reason to doubt the steadiness of his determination, but felt a desire to have fresh assurance of it after so many days' delay and so near approach of the trying moment. I knew it would not do to ask him the question--any question which would imply a doubt of his word. His sensitive feelings would be hurt and annoyed at it. So I fell upon a scheme to get at the inquiry without seeming to make it. I told him of my visit to Mr. Clay the night before, of the late sitting, the child asleep, the unconscious tranquility of Mrs. Clay, and added I could not help reflecting how different all that might be the next night. He understood me perfectly, and immediately said, with a quietude of look and expression which seemed to rebuke an unworthy doubt, "I shall do nothing to disturb the sleep of the child or the repose of the mother," and went on with his employment (his seconds being engaged in their preparations in a different room), which was making codicils to his will, all in the way of remembrances to friends; the bequests slight in value but invaluable in tenderness of feeling and beauty of expression, and always appropriate to the receiver.
I have already said that the count was to be quick after giving the word "fire," and for a reason which could not be told to the principals. To Mr. Randolph, who did not mean to fire, and who, though agreeing to be shot at, had no desire to be hit, this rapidity of counting out the time and quick arrival at the command "stop," presented no objection. With Mr. Clay it was different. With him it was all a real transaction, and gave rise to some proposal for more deliberation in counting off the time, which, being communicated to Colonel Tatnall, and by him to Mr. Randolph, had an ill effect upon his feelings, and, aided by an untoward accident on the ground, unsettled for a moment the noble determination which he had formed not to fire at Mr. Clay. I now give the words of Gen. Jesup:
"When I repeated to Mr. Clay the 'word' in the manner in which it would be given, he expressed some apprehension that, as he was not accustomed to the use of the pistol, he might not be able to fire within the time, and for that reason alone desired that it might be prolonged. I mentioned to Col. Tatnall the desire of Mr. Clay. He replied, 'If you insist upon it, the time must be prolonged, but I should very much regret it.' I informed him I did not insist upon prolonging the time, and I was sure Mr. Clay would acquiesce. The original agreement was carried out."
I knew nothing of this until it was too late to speak with the seconds or principals. I had crossed the Little Falls bridge just after them, and come to the place where the servants and carriages had stopped. I saw none of the gentlemen and supposed they had all gone to the spot where the ground was being marked off, but on speaking to Johnny, Mr. Randolph, who was still in the carriage and heard my voice, looked out from the window and said to me: "Colonel, since I saw you and since I have been in this carriage, I have heard something which may make me change my determination. Colonel Hamilton will give you a note which will explain it." Colonel Hamilton was then in the carriage and gave me the note in the course of the evening, of which Mr. Randolph spoke. I readily comprehended that this possible change of determination related to his firing, but the emphasis with which he pronounced the word "may" clearly showed that his mind was undecided, and left it doubtful whether he would fire or not. No further conversation took place between us; the preparations for the duel were finished; the parties went to their places, and I went forward to a piece of rising ground from which I could see what passed and hear what was said. The faithful Johnny followed me close, speaking not a word, but evincing the deepest anxiety for his beloved master. The place was a thick forest, and the immediate spot a little depression or basin, in which the parties stood. The principals saluted each other courteously as they took their stands. Colonel Tatnall had won the choice of positions, which gave to General Jesup the delivery of the word. They stood on a line east and west--a small stump just behind Mr. Clay; a low gravelly bank rose just behind Mr. Randolph. The latter asked Gen. Jesup to repeat the word as he would give it; and while in the act of doing so, and Mr. Randolph adjusting the butt of his pistol to his hand, the muzzle pointing downward, and almost to the ground, it fired. Instantly Mr. Randolph turned to Colonel Tatnall and said, "I protested against that hair trigger."
Colonel Tatnall took the blame to himself for having sprung the hair. Mr. Clay had not then received his pistol. Senator Johnson, of Louisiana, one of his seconds, was carrying it to him, and still several steps from him. This untimely fire, though clearly an accident, necessarily gave rise to some remarks, and a species of inquiry which was conducted with the utmost delicacy, but which, in itself, was of a nature to be inexpressibly painful to a gentleman's feelings. Mr. Clay stopped it with the generous remark that the fire was clearly an accident; and it was so unanimously declared. Another pistol was immediately furnished; an exchange of shots took place, and, happily, without effect upon persons. Mr. Randolph's bullet struck the stump behind Mr. Clay, and Mr. Clay's knocked up the earth and gravel behind Mr. Randolph, and in a line with the level of his hips, both bullets having gone so true and close that it was a marvel how they missed. The moment had come for me to interpose. I went in among the parties and offered my mediation, but nothing could be done. Mr. Clay said, with that wave of the hand with which he was accustomed to put away a trifle, "This is child's play!" and required another fire. Mr. Randolph also demanded another fire. The seconds were directed to reload. While this was doing I prevailed on Mr. Randolph to walk away from his post, and renewed to him more pressingly than ever my importunities to yield to some accommodation; but I found him more determined than I had ever seen him, and for the first time impatient and seemingly annoyed at what I was doing. He was indeed annoyed and dissatisfied. The accidental fire of his pistol preyed upon his feelings. He was doubly chagrined at it, both as a circumstance susceptible in itself of an unfair interpretation, and as having been the immediate and controlling cause of his firing at Mr. Clay. He regretted this fire the instant it was over. He felt that it had subjected him to imputations from which he knew himself to be free--a desire to kill Mr. Clay and a contempt for the laws of his beloved State; and the annoyances which he felt at these vexatious circumstances revived his original determination, and decided him irrevocably to carry it out.
BENTON, Thomas Hart,statesman, was born near Hillsborough, N. C., March 14, 1782; son of Jesse and Anne (Gooch) Benton. His father was a lawyer and private secretary of Governor Tryon. Thomas obtained a good education, and when he was sixteen years of age his mother, a widow, moved to Tennessee and took possession of forty thousand acres of land near Nashville, which was part of her husband's estate. With his three brothers he engaged in cotton planting, but their first crop was ruined by a heavy frost, and Thomas abandoned planting to take up the study of law and was admitted to the Tennessee bar. He sat for one term in the state legislature, where he secured the passage of a law for the reform of the judicial system of the state and another by which the right of trial by jury was given to slaves. During the war of 1812 he served as an aide-de-camp to Andrew Jackson, then major-general of the Tennessee militia, and marched with the Tennessee troops to the defence of the Lower Mississippi. While serving under General Jackson the friendly relations which had so long existed between them suffered a severe strain, which lasted for a number of years. William Carroll and Jesse Benton, a brother of Thomas, became involved in a dispute, and a duel was fought in which Jackson was Carroll's second. Jesse sent an offensive account of the affair to Thomas, and on Sept. 4, 1813, Jackson, with some friends, chanced to meet the Bentons in the streets of Nashville. Jackson struck Thomas Benton with a horsewhip; knives and pistols were then freely used, and Jackson received a ball in his left shoulder, while Jesse Benton was cut severely with a dirk and a sword cane.
Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans, 1904.
It was in this interval that he told me what he had heard since we parted, and to which he alluded when he spoke to me from the window of the carriage. It was to this effect: That he had been informed by Colonel Tatnall that it was proposed to give out the words with more deliberateness so as to prolong the time for taking aim. This information grated harshly upon his feelings. It unsettled his purpose, and brought his mind to the inquiry (as he now told me, and as I found it expressed in the note which he had immediately written in pencil to apprise me of his possible change), whether under these circumstances he might not "disable" his adversary. This note is so characteristic, and such an essential part of this affair, that I here give its very words, so far as relates to this point. It ran thus:
"Information received from Colonel Tatnall since I got into the carriage may induce me to change my mind of not returning Mr. Clay's fire. I seek not his death. I would not have his blood on my hands--it will not be upon my soul if shed in self-defense--for the world. He has determined, by the use of a long, preparatory caution by words, to get time to kill me. May I not, then, disable him? Yes, if I please."
It has been seen by the statement of Gen. Jesup that his "information" was a misapprehension; that Mr. Clay had not applied for a prolongation of time for the purpose of getting sure aim, but only to enable his unused hand, long unfamiliar with the pistol, to fire within the limited time; that there was no prolongation, in fact, either granted or insisted upon; but he was in doubt, and Gen. Jesup having won the word, he was having him repeat it in the way he was to give it out, when his finger touched the hair trigger. How unfortunate that I did not know of this in time to speak to Gen. Jesup, when one word from him would have set all right, and saved the imminent risks incurred! This inquiry, "May I not disable him?" was still on Mr. Randolph's mind, and dependent for its solution on the rising incidents of the moment, when the accidental fire of his pistol gave the turn to his feelings which solved the doubt. But he declared to me that he had not aimed at the life of Mr. Clay; that he did not level as high as the knees --not higher than the knee-band; "for it was no mercy to shoot a man in the knee;" that his only object was to disable him and spoil his aim. And then added, with a beauty of expression and depth of feeling which no studied oratory can ever attain and which I shall never forget, these impressive words: "I would not have seen him fall mortally, even doubtfully, wounded for all the land that is watered by the King of Floods and all his tributary streams." He left me to resume his post, utterly refusing to explain out of the Senate anything he had said in it, and with the positive declaration that he would not return the next fire. I withdrew a little way into the woods and kept my eyes fixed on Mr. Randolph, whom then I knew to be the only one in danger. I saw him receive the fire of Mr. Clay, saw the gravel knocked up in the same place, saw Mr. Randolph raise his pistol--discharge it in the air; heard him say, "I do not fire at you, Mr. Clay," and immediately advancing and offering his hand. He was met in the same spirit. They met half way, shook hands, Mr. Randolph saying jocosely, "You owe me a coat, Mr. Clay" --the bullet had passed through the skirt of the coat, very near the hip-- to which Mr. Clay promptly and happily replied, "I am glad the debt is no greater." I had come up and was prompt to proclaim what I had been obliged to keep secret for eight days.
The joy of all was extreme at this happy termination of a most critical affair, and we immediately left with lighter hearts than we brought. I stopped to sup with Mr. Randolph and his friends--none of us wanted dinner that day--and had a characteristic time of it.
He asked for the sealed paper he had given me, opened it, took out a check for $1,000, drawn in my favor, and with which I was requested to have him carried, if killed, to Virginia, and buried under his patrimonial oaks--not let him be buried at Washington, with a hundred hacks after him. He took the gold from his left breeches pocket and said to us (Hamilton, Tatnall and I), "Gentlemen, Clay's bad shooting sha'n't rob you of your seals. I am going to London and will have them made for you," which he did, and most characteristically, so far as mine were concerned. He went to the herald's office in London and inquired for the Benton family, of which I had often told him there was none, as we only dated on that side from my grandfather in North Carolina. But the name was found and with it a coat of arms-among the quarterings a lion rampant. "That is the family," said he; and had the arms engraved on the seal, the same which I have since habitually worn; and added the motto, "Factis non verbis;" of which he was afterwards accustomed to say the non should be changed to et. But enough. I run into these details, not merely to relate an event, but to show character; and if I have not done it, it is not for want of material but of ability to use.
©2001 G. E. Rule
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VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by connections in another network (with optional encryption).
Virtual Private Networks are widely used by organizations and individuals for different purposes:
- Protecting confidential information in organizations;
- Providing employees with secure remote access to the network;
- Securing Internet traffic in insecure networks (e.g. open wireless networks).
Some VPN services are focused on providing solutions to promote fraud. In this case, VPN service is used for anonymity.
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Jesus Christ administered the baptism of fire in 70 A.D., when He burned up the city of Jerusalem and miserably destroyed those wicked Jews who had crucified Him.
1. John the Baptist specifically prophesied the baptism with fire (Matt 3:11; Luke 3:16).
2. This baptism with fire was to burn up every Jewish tree not bearing good fruit (Matt 3:10; Luke 3:9). It was not the gentle tongues of fire symbolizing the gift of tongues on the heads of the 120 at Pentecost.
3. This baptism with fire was to be with unquenchable fire for the destruction of the Jewish chaff (Matt 3:12; Luke 3:17). It was not the gentle tongues of fire symbolizing the gift of tongues on the heads of the 120 at Pentecost.
4. The baptism with the Holy Ghost, which John also prophesied, was to occur first. And it did occur on Pentecost, when Jesus Christ poured out His Holy Spirit in such abundance that the 120 were immersed in His glorious Presence (Acts 1:5; 2:1-4; 11:15-17). So we must look for a fiery judgment coming upon the Jews after the giving of the Holy Ghost.
5. Jesus prophesied He would miserably destroy that generation of Jews and burn up their city with fire (Matt 21:33-46; 22:1-7; 23:34-39; 24:1-34; Luke 19:41-44; 23:28-31).
6. Peter, prophesying on the very day of Pentecost, uses many words to persuade his audience to avoid the coming judgment on that generation (Acts 2:19-21,40). Peter did not think the symbolic tongues of fire on their heads fulfilled the prophecy at all.
7. Paul prophesied Jesus would soon utterly destroy the Jews (I Thess 2:14-16; Heb 2:1-4; 6:4-8; 10:25-31; 12:25-29).
8. James prophesied Jesus would soon utterly destroy the Jews (James 5:1-9).
9. Malachi had prophesied of this fiery day of judgment coming shortly after John the Baptist (Mal 4:1-6; 3:1-6).
10. Moses had prophesied of this baptism of destruction (Deut 28:45-68).
11. David had prophesied of this baptism of destruction (Psalm 2:1-12).
12. Daniel had prophesied of this baptism of destruction (Daniel 9:24-27). | <urn:uuid:1dc64280-4e93-4d2e-b958-84d665e1449e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.letgodbetrue.com/bible/baptism/fire-baptism.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920765 | 547 | 2.6875 | 3 |
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHSTA) will soon propose rules for vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communications on U.S. roads, it announced yesterday. The agency is now finalizing a report on a 2012 trial with almost 3000 cars in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and will follow that report with draft rules that would "require V2V devices in new vehicles in a future year."
A car changing lanes, for example, might get a warning from its V2V system that another car is fast approaching in the driver's blind spot. NHTSA, which has been researching V2V since 2002, claims that such systems could prevent three quarters of road crashes. A public-private partnership in Europe has been testing V2V technologies since 2008, IEEE Spectrum reported at the time.
As envisioned by NHTSA, vehicles equipped with V2V would send position and speed data to one another ten times per second over an ad hoc wireless network. Onboard computers could then calculate whether nearby vehicles are a threat and alert drivers. Future protocols might incorporate information from the sort of onboard sensors that are growing more popular among carmakers, creating a road-spanning network of sensors and alerting cars to problems up or down the road. That kind of data ubiquity would help drivers avoid one another, and is a step toward more autonomy for self-driving cars.
As usual, there are tradeoffs. The agency wrote that V2V data would not identify vehicles, but added that, "vehicles would be identifiable through defined procedures only if there is a need to fix a safety problem" without defining those procedures. That implies that some sort of identifying information is in the system.
Drivers might as well accept that modern vehicles are no more capable of protecting their personal information, including location, than are mobile phones, as a Ford executive's comments made clear last month. The NHTSA also notes on its V2V website that, "Anonymous data from connected vehicles will be open to the public and can be used for a myriad of new safety, mobility and environmental applications." The paranoid will not take comfort in that: computer scientists have shown again and again that identifying individuals from anonymized data is easy.
David Friedman, the NHTSA's acting administrator, put a positive spin on his announcement, writing that future generations will remember this as the moment that, "the historical arc of transportation safety considerably changed for the better." Not the smoothest of people to people communications, but then again, this is about cars. | <urn:uuid:42b12103-b492-4e66-a8d0-30f75694972e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/transportation/infrastructure/vehicle-to-vehicle-tech-will-be-mandatory-say-feds | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958723 | 517 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Definitions for kineticskɪˈnɛt ɪks, kaɪ-
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word kinetics
the branch of mechanics concerned with the forces that cause motions of bodies
The branch of mechanics concerned purely with the motion of bodies. This is in contrast to dynamics, which also considers the reasons for motion, e.g. the forces acting on such bodies.
The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the rates of chemical reactions.
Origin: From κινητικός.
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
ki-net′iks, n. the science which treats of the action of force in producing or changing motion.—adjs. Kinet′ic, -al.—ns. Kinet′ograph, a device by which a series of photographs of a moving object can be thrown on a screen so as to imitate the motion of the original; Kinet′oscope, an instrument for illustrating the production of kinematic curves by the combination of circular movements of different radii. [Gr. kinētikos—kinein, to move.]
The Nuttall Encyclopedia
the science of the action of forces causing motion; both this law and the two preceding are derived from a Greek word signifying "to move."
U.S. National Library of Medicine
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
The numerical value of kinetics in Chaldean Numerology is: 6
The numerical value of kinetics in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9
Images & Illustrations of kinetics
Translations for kinetics
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
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If you’re using an unsecured FTP client, you are vulnerable for a possible data breach. Although most FTP servers have the ability to support secured connections, very few FTP transactions are actually secured. Unsecured FTP activity travels in eye-readable “clear text” exposing not only the data being transmitted but also the logon information (user ID and password). Compounding the problem is the fact that most users use the same password for many different applications. If a hacker gets a hold of your FTP password, they may be getting a password that is also used to access online checking accounts or other confidential data.
WinSCP is a SFTP client and FTP client for Windows. Its main function is the secure file transfer between a local and a remote computer. It uses Secure Shell (SSH) and supports, in addition to Secure FTP, also legacy SCP protocol.
In computing, the SSH File Transfer Protocol (sometimes called Secure File Transfer Protocol or SFTP) is a network protocol that provides file transfer and manipulation functionality over any reliable data stream. It is typically used with version two of the SSH protocol (TCP port 22) to provide secure file transfer, but is intended to be usable with other protocols as well.
We recommend WinSCP. It’s a free Secure FTP Client. | <urn:uuid:bf64b05a-f9e8-4844-81ca-509de6ab2693> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.techjaws.com/are-you-using-a-secure-ftp-client/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901411 | 267 | 2.515625 | 3 |
By Vicki Reutter
Three new writing guides, packed with ideas and inspirations, will harness the creativity and imagination of middle grade students while offering educators specific models for aligning Common Core State Standards (CCSS) to writing skills.
Tapped as the National Ambassador for Young People’s Literature, Walter Dean Myers is campaigning to keep kids reading and writing. His latest title, Just Write: Here’s How (HarperCollins, 2012; Gr 5 Up), is a kid-friendly, nuts-and-bolts approach to nonfiction writing and revision. Myers focuses primarily on narrative and its ability to channel the young imagination, personal experiences, and to motivate kids to use language creatively. He laces his experience co-writing Kick (HarperTeen, 2011; Gr 6-9) with 13-year-old Ross Workman throughout the book, highlighting their methodology, revision process, and the satisfaction derived from the collaboration. Most valuable to young readers (and to teachers) is Myers’ six-box model for organizing fiction ideas, including: “character & problem,” “obvious solutions,” “insight & inner conflict,” “growth & change,” “taking action,” and “resolution.” The author also details a four-box nonfiction model covering: “question,” “evidence,” “explanation,” and “answer,” which will be of interest to those forming lesson plans for writing informative and explanatory texts.
Specifically for a young male audience, Ralph Fletcher’s Guy-Write: What Every Guy Writer Needs to Know (Holt, 2012; Gr 4-12), encourages boys to write narratives in the style of their favorite reading material: blood and battles, fantasy, scary stories, sports, and humor. For boys inclined to recreate fiery explosions, invent frightening creatures, or revel in describing yucky stuff, Fletcher provides plenty of advice. In writing humor, for example, the author discusses word choice and use of dialogue in spoof, parody, and satire, offering a funny and mildly irreverent letter to Santa (written by son, Joe Fletcher), and a fifth grader’s piece in which he alternates between talking to a pumpkin and whispering side comments about the pumpkin to his audience.
For sports action, Fletcher cautions against writing play-by-play action, overloaded with scores or statistics, and offers passages that relay the quirks, fears, and inner struggle of the main character to help readers understand what the athlete is thinking. A short interview with author Robert Lipsyte underscores the notion of sports being a natural subject to develop conflicts, relationships, and ethics within an action-based plot.
Fletcher relates the revision process to finessing a skateboard trick and suggests questions to consider when revising. His final words of advice are, “Imagine riding a bike downhill, going fast, bumping up and down, just trying to hold on. Writing should feel like that. Write fast, write downhill, go with the flow.”
The cover of Vicki Hambleton and Cathleen Greenwood’s So You Want to Be a Writer? How to Write, Get Published, and Maybe Even Make It Big! (S & S, 2012; Gr 5-9), may hold more girl-appeal for this same middle-grade group, but its content is not gender specific. The book explores many more types of writing, such as journalism, poetry, and sci-fi than Myers’ and Fletcher’s titles, and readers can take a quiz to see what genre suits them best, or try writing exercises to develop secret conversations, acrostic poetry, and odes-to-the-ordinary. Fill-in-the-blank pages are presented for character and setting sketches, and checklists point to sources for inspiration, the functions of a writing group, and the uses of reader feedback. Quick interviews with young adult authors Chris Crutcher, Wendelin Van Draanen, Todd Strasser, and others, reinforce the importance of revision.
All three titles contain plenty of mentor-text samples, echo the value of free writing, and offer students opportunities to incorporate their own experiences in writing exercises, dovetailing nicely with CCSS challenges for young writers to practice lifelong skills of developing syntax, organizing ideas, and revising work.
Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts (CCSS; CCSS Initiative, 2010) tie-ins can be found in the Writing Strand under “Text Types and Purposes” and “Production and Distribution of Writing” for both K-5, and 6-12 levels.
This article was featured in our free Curriculum Connections enewsletter.
Subscribe today to have more articles like this delivered to you every month. | <urn:uuid:c92e1fc9-bb6f-4d1c-b60d-96b67f67b527> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slj.com/2012/08/standards/ccaugust2012_just-write/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926753 | 1,004 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nationalization or Why industries were nationalized in 1972 in Pakistan
In the period of Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto government nationalized basic industries in 1972. Life insurance company was also nationalized in the late 1972. Vegetable ghee units were nationalized in 1973. Commercial banks and shipping were take it over in 1974. While flour mills, rice bushing and cotton ginning factories were nationalized in 1976.
MAIN CAUSES or ADVANTAGES OF NATIONALIZATION :-
Following were the main causes of nationalization :
1. Equal Distribution of Wealth :-
The government nationalized the industries and banks to provide equal distribution of wealth. Because few families had full control over the major portion of national wealth. So government decided to provide equal chances of earning to the people by nationalizing the units.
2. End of Monopoly :-
There was complete hold of few capitalists over the supply of the market. They were charging higher prices from the consumers. To remove the monopolies government nationalized the industries, so that goods should be provided to the public at lower price.
3. Check on Smuggling and Hoarding :-
The government nationalized the various banks on this ground that capitalists were misusing the savings of the whole nation. They used the credit for hoarding and smuggling.
4. Fair Distribution of Credit :-
The banks were nationalized to provide the fair distribution of credit. All the classes of the public will enjoy the credit facilities. Small farmer and small businessman was ignored by the banks before nationalization.
5. Economic Stability :-
It was also argued that all the business institutions will adopt uniform policy after nationalization. It will provide economic stability.
6. Effective Planning :-
It was also argued that after nationalization government will prepare the plans more effectively and the rate of out put will rise.
7. Increase in Production :-
It was also argued that after nationalization the labour will work more honestly and efficiently to increase the production of these units.
8. Increase in Social Welfare :-
Before nationalization all the profit of industries and banks was in few hands. But after nationalization it will be used for the best interest of the whole nation.
9. Price Stability :-
It was also climes that state bank can minimize the fluctuation in the economic activity with the help of nationalized commercial bank.
DISADVANTAGES OF NATIONALIZATION
1. Increase in Corruption :-
The nationalized industrial units were handed over to the government officials and it increased the corruption in this sector. Efficiency of the units reduced after nationalization.
2. Fall in Production :-
After the nationalization production of various units decreased and rate of profit removed. The managers of those units did not pay proper attention.
3. Sick Industries :-
In the short period these industries suffered a loss and were declared sick industries.
4. Carelessness of Labour :-
After nationalization workers became careless about their duties and this attitude of labour affected the production adversely.
5. Public Sector Over Weighted :-
Public sector has become overweight and it is health risk for the economy. More over public sector is flourishing at the expenses of private sector.
6. Private Sector Discouraged :-
The nationalization policy discouraged the private sector, and due to this rate of investment decreased. Even the target of private investment in the 8th five year plan could not achieved due to the fear of nationalization.
Keeping in view above defects government of Pakistan denationalized the various industries. Now in the present budget of government has provided various incentive to promote the private industrial sector. Present government is trying is best to encourage the private industrial sector. | <urn:uuid:3be13613-cdc5-4679-97ca-6f3ab990c588> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://studypoints.blogspot.com/2011/07/discuss-advantages-and-disadvantages-of_2776.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961784 | 776 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Good writing is never merely about following a set of directions. Like all artists of any form, essay writers occasionally find themselves breaking from tradition or common practice in search of a fresh approach. Rules, as they say, are meant to be broken.
But even groundbreakers learn by observing what has worked before. If you’re not already in the habit of reading other writers with an analytical eye, start forming that habit now. When you run across a moment in someone else’s writing that seems somehow electric on the page, stop, go back, reread the section more slowly, and ask yourself, “What did she do here, put into this, or leave out, that makes it so successful?”
Similarly, and often just as important, if you’re reading a piece of writing and find yourself confused, bored or frustrated, stop again, back up, squint closely at the words and form a theory as to how, when or where the prose went bad.
Identifying specific successful moves made by others increases the number of arrows in your quiver, ready for use when you sit down to start your own writing. Likewise, identifying missteps in other writers’ work makes you better at identifying missteps in your own. Let’s take a look at some examples that can help you do exactly that.
BE CLEAR ABOUT THE DESTINATION
The title of Tennessee Williams’ wonderful play A Streetcar Named Desire comes from a real streetcar in New Orleans and an actual neighborhood named Desire. In Williams’ day, you could see the streetcar downtown with a lighted sign at the front telling folks where the vehicle was headed. The playwright saw this sign regularly—and also saw, of course, the metaphorical possibilities of the name.
Although this streetcar no longer runs, there’s still a bus called Desire in New Orleans, and you’ve certainly seen streetcars or buses or subways in other cities with similar, if less evocative, destination indicators: Uptown, Downtown, Shadyside, West End, Prospect Park.
People need to know what streetcar they’re getting onto, you see, because they want to know where they’ll be when it stops and lets them off.
Excuse the rather basic transportation lesson, but it explains my first suggestion. An essay needs a lighted sign right up front telling readers where they are going. Otherwise, the passengers will be distracted and nervous at each stop along the way, unsure of the destination, not at all able to enjoy the ride.
Now, there are dull ways of putting up your lighted sign, such as the obvious:
Or the extraneous:
And then there are more artful ways. Not surprisingly, these are the ones that readers tend to appreciate.
For an example of an artful opening approach, let us look at how Richard Rodriguez opens his startling essay “Mr. Secrets,” from his book Hunger of Memory:
Where is the lighted streetcar sign in that paragraph? Well, consider that Rodriguez has:
• Introduced the key characters who will inhabit his essay: himself and his mother.
• Informed us that writing is central to his life.
• Clued us in that this is also a story of immigration and assimilation (“gringos”).
• Provided us with the central question he will be considering throughout the piece: Why does he feel compelled to tell strangers the ins and outs of his conflicted feelings?
These four elements—generational conflict between author and parent, the isolation of a writer, cultural norms and differences, and the question of what is public and what is private—in essence describe the heart of Rodriguez’s essay.
Or to put it another way, at every stop along the way—each paragraph, each transition—we are on a streetcar passing through these four thematic neighborhoods, and Rodriguez has given us a map so we can follow along.
STAY ON TRACK (MORE OR LESS)
The lighted streetcar sign is just the start. The reader needs travel assistance all along the journey. I’m going to switch metaphors here, however, because a streetcar is confined to a set of rigid parallel tracks, whereas the essay has more room to roam.
So let’s look at this again: Imagine yourself in a foreign city, Budapest or San Miguel de Allende, with a tour guide leading you up and down cobblestone streets, through narrow alleys, around blind corners. If you feel confident that the guide knows his territory and has a clear itinerary—even if it is unspoken—then you will relax and fully enjoy the tour.
If, on the other hand, you start to distrust the guide (Is he lost? Did he forget where he is taking me? Can I trust him?), then you’ll become unsettled and distracted, and you’ll start focusing less on the landscape and more on your concerns.
In that metaphor, you, the writer, are the tour guide, and the potentially nervous tourist is your reader. The landscape is the writing you’ve spent so much time crafting and perfecting.
There are ways to roam without seeming lost. So give your reader no reason to be tense. Let her feel constantly as if she is in competent hands.
Then, and only then, will her undivided attention be on your words and images.
FIND A HEALTHY DISTANCE
Another important step in making your personal essay relatable to readers—of making it public and not private— is finding a measure of distance from your experience, learning to stand back, narrow your eyes and scrutinize your own life with a dose of hale and hearty skepticism.
Why is finding a distance important? Because the private essay hides the author. The personal essay reveals. And to reveal means to let us see what is truly there, warts and all.
The truth about human nature is that we are all imperfect, sometimes messy, usually uneven individuals, and the moment you try to present yourself as a cardboard character—always right, always upstanding (or always wrong, a total mess)—the reader begins to doubt everything you say. Even if the reader cannot articulate his discomfort, he knows on a gut level that your perfect (or perfectly awful) portrait of yourself has to be false.
And then you’ve lost him.
Rodriguez’s “Mr. Secrets” goes on from the opening paragraph to a wide-ranging examination of his life. He shares with us the embarrassment he felt at times over the poverty of his family. He illuminates for us the difference it made when he went away to school and embraced a life of books and education. At the same time, he acknowledges how this education, and the public life he has chosen, often distances him from those he loves.
Eventually he circles directly back to his mother’s opening question, and his central idea:
It is worth noting what straightforward language Rodriguez employs throughout his piece. He is a highly educated man with a considerable and, in fact, bilingual vocabulary, but he reveals these highly personal details with only the simplest of sentences and words. Novice writers often trip themselves up trying to sound weighty or cerebral, but the truth is that expressing yourself in simpler words requires more craftsmanship and skill than using multisyllabic, flowery language, and it almost always works better.
Eventually Rodriguez works his essay to a key scene, a moment when he is no longer just mulling over the conflicted feelings brought on by his mother’s written wishes, but visiting her in her home. While standing at her ironing board, she asks him a random question: “What is psychiatry?” And Rodriguez writes:
Rodriguez then shares with the reader his frustrating attempt to explain Freud and analysis to his mother, and how he, upon realizing that his mother cannot comprehend his words, resorts to using the comparison of a Catholic priest hearing confession, something he knows his mother will understand because of her deep faith.
This makes sense finally, so his mother then asks, “You mean that people tell a psychiatrist about their personal lives?” After which, Rodriguez writes:
This is an excellent example of what it means for a writer to stand back, narrow his eyes, and scrutinize his own life, with no agenda other than finding truth. Rodriguez is illustrating the uncomfortable distance between himself and the woman he loves so deeply, his mother. He is not claiming her to be a saint, or himself as the best son any mother ever had, nor is he painting a gruesome picture of an angry child or lousy parent. He is simply calling it the way it is, or the way, at least, that he sees it when he takes the time to reflect in detail, and when he is honest with himself.
He is Americanized. His mother to a large extent is not. She has had little schooling. He has had a good amount. She embraces the Catholicism of her ancestors. He does not in the same way. Inevitably, these people, despite their love, are going to feel some disconnection.
Those of us in Rodriguez’s shoes—and that would be so many readers, whether our parents were first-generation, second- or third-, Mexican, Italian, Irish or Greek—are going to recognize this. Rodriguez recognizes it, poignantly and with clarity, in the final image, when his mother “shakes her head sadly” and bends “over the ironing board to inspect a shirt with the tip of the iron she holds in her hand.”
It is all there.
Infuse your nonfiction with honesty, personality and energy by considering:
Crafting the Personal Essay
Also check out these items from the Writer’s Digest’s collection:
Writer’s Digest Writing Life Stories
You Don’t Have To Be Famous: How to Write Your Life Story
How To Write A Book Proposal
How To Write & Sell Your First Novel
Writer’s Digest University: Essentials Of Writing Personal Essays
Grammar Sucks: What to Do to Make Your Writing Much More Better
Formatting & Submitting Your Manuscript
Plot versus Character
Book In A Month | <urn:uuid:2e708a09-1511-4ae3-a4a6-e2488d816503> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.writersdigest.com/writing-articles/by-writing-goal/improve-my-writing/write-your-essay-the-reader-friendly-way | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96448 | 2,141 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Learning how to correctly write each letter is a key part of any early childhood education program. Tracing letters is an easy way for children to learn to write each letter and it is an important precursor to writing freehand.
Each worksheet in this set of letter tracing worksheets includes step-by-step directions on how to properly write the letter. Each worksheet also has a detailed visual depiction of how to properly form each letter with colorful arrows showing the correct sequence for writing the letter.
If you are introducing your child to letters for the first time, consider reviewing my 3 tips for introducing children to the 26 letters. These tips (such as starting with the letters B, M and F which are easy for children to visually identify and to produce the correct sound for) will help your child quickly learn each of the 26 letters. | <urn:uuid:543a7729-f5c6-4ead-a316-e7853f23cfea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.schoolsparks.com/blog/new-worksheets-tracing-letters | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916879 | 169 | 4.5 | 4 |
1881 - 1942
“It was not the over-sensitivity of the misunderstood that made me move to Paris....Over there, I paint only Canadian subjects, I dream only of Canada. The motif remains fixed in my mind, and I don't allow myself to be captivated by the charms of a new landscape. In Switzerland, Scandinavia-everywhere, I recall my French Canada.”
- Clarence Gagnon, 1931
Clarence Gagnon is best known for his rural Quebec landscape paintings and the illustrations for Louise Hémon’s novel Maria Chapdelaine. Gagnon was also an award winning printmaker, a passionate outdoorsman, and an active promoter of Quebec handicrafts.
Clarence Gagnon was born in a small village in rural Quebec. Although he trained and maintained a studio in Paris for much of his career, he never lost his love of the Laurentians and the Charlevoix region of eastern Quebec which inspired many of his paintings. Gagnon’s mother fostered his early interest for drawing and despite his father’s wishes that he enter business, he began studying drawing and painting in 1897 at the age of sixteen under William Brymner at the Art Association of Montreal.
Gagnon’s early paintings of rural themes attracted the interest and subsequent patronage of the Montreal businessman and collector James Morgan. With a monthly stipend from Morgan, Gagnon was able to travel to Europe to study at the Académie Julian, Paris, under Jean-Paul Laurens from 1904 to 1905. Gagnon distinguished himself early in his career by the quality of his engravings, and won an honourable mention for his work at the Salon de la Soci été des artistes français in 1905.
In Paris, Gagnon also met other Canadian painters such as James Wilson Morrrice with whom he sketched.Gagnon adopted Morrice’s method of painting quickly on the spot. In 1908, Gagnon returned to Canada, and settled in Baie-Saint-Paul region of Charlevoix which became his preferred sketching area. His affection for French-Canadian life is evident in his anecdotal series of depictions of habitant life, a theme to which he returned throughout his career.
From 1909 to 1914 Gagnon moved between Canada, France and Norway, always working up the sketches he had made in Quebec. His career reached a turning point when the Paris art dealer Adrien M. Reitlinger offered him an exhibition in his Montparnasse gallery. After the 1913 Paris show, Gagnon portrayed the Canadian landscape almost exclusively, and generally in wintertime. He invented a new type of landscape - a winter world composed of valleys and mountains, of sharp contrasts of light and shadow, of vivid colours, and of sinuous lines. He ground his own paints, and from 1916 his palette consisted of pure white, reds, blues and yellows.
From 1924 to 1936 Gagnon lived in Paris once again. He began devoting most of his energy to creating the illustrations for two works of fiction Le Grand Silence blanc by L. F. Rouquette (Paris, 1928) and Marie Chapdelaine by Louis Hémon (Paris, 1933), a story that celebrated Canadian frontier life.
In 1936 Gagnon returned to canada where he died on 5 January, 1942. He was sixty one years old. Clarence Gagnon was a a full member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts (1922). In 1923, he received the Trevor Prize of the Salmagundi Club of New York. He thumbprinted the back of his canvases to ensure against forgeries.
Photography: M.O. Hammond Collection, National Gallery of Canada Archives
Born in Montreal, Quebec, 08 November 1881
Died in Montreal, Quebec, 05 January 1942
Library and Archives | <urn:uuid:05bf84d8-49dd-4ec0-bcd0-caadec4fce69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.gallery.ca/en/see/collections/artist.php?iartistid=1932 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966879 | 809 | 2.640625 | 3 |
The House of Romanov is the ruling house of the Russian Empire and its guberniyas. It attained this position when one of its members, Mikhail Fyodorovich, seized the throne of the autocratic Tsardom of Russia, and holds it to this day. For a short time it was the ruling house of Alyeska and Mexique, and currently, the second in line to the throne of Russia, Anastasia, is married to Harald, the Crown Prince of Scandinavia.
The Romanovs share their origin with two dozen other Russian noble families. Their earliest common ancestor is one Andrei Kobyla, attested as a boyar in the service of Semyon I of Moscow. Later generations assigned to Kobyla the most illustrious pedigrees. An 18th century genealogy book claimed that he was the son of the Prussian prince Glanda Kambila, who came to Russia in the second half of the 13th century, fleeing the invading Germans. Indeed, one of the leaders of the Old Prussian rebellion of 1260-1274 against the Teutonic order was named Glande.
His actual origin may have been less spectacular. Not only is Kobyla Russian for "mare", some of his relatives also had as nicknames the terms for horses and other domestic animals, thus suggesting descent from one of the royal equerries. One of Kobyla's sons, Fyodor, a boyar in the boyar Duma of Dmitri Donskoi, was nicknamed Koshka (cat). His descendants took the surname Koshkin, then changed it to Zakharin, which family later split into two branches: Zakharin-Yakovlev and Zakharin-Yuriev. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the former family became known as Yakovlev (Alexander Herzen being the most illustrious of them), whereas grandchildren of Roman Zakharin-Yuriev changed their name to Romanov.
Rise to powerEdit
The family fortunes soared when Roman's daughter, Anastasia Zakharyina, married Ivan IV in February 1547. When her husband assumed the title of tsar, she was crowned the very first Tsarina. Their marriage was an exceedingly happy one, but her untimely and mysterious death in 1560 changed Ivan's character for the worse. Suspecting the boyars of having poisoned his beloved, the tsar started a reign of terror against them. Among his children by Anastasia, the elder (Ivan) was murdered by the tsar in a quarrel; the younger Feodor, a pious and lethargic prince, inherited the throne upon his father's death.
Throughout Feodor's reign, the Russian government was contested between his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov, and his Romanov cousins. Upon the death of childless Feodor, the 700-year-old line of Moscow Ruriks came to an end. After a long struggle, the party of Boris Godunov prevailed over the Romanovs, and the former was elected new Tsar in 1599. Godunov's revenge on the Romanovs was supposed to be terrible; all the family and its relatives were to be deported to remote corners of the Russian North and Ural. The family's leader, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, was to be exiled to the Antoniev Siysky Monastery and forced to take monastic vow. However before he could enact any of this he was poisoned by forces who had been loyal to Fyodor I. His son Fyodor was to take the throne but Fyodor Romanov's son Mikhail killed him before he could do so. After this he was offered the throne himself, and offer he readily accepted, crowning himself as Mikhail I of Russia.
Still there were remnants of Rurikists and Gudonovists. Feeling how insecure his throne was, Mikhail attempted to emphasize his ties with the last Rurik tsars and sought advice from the Assembly of the Land on every important issue. This strategy proved successful. The early Romanovs were generally loved by the population as in-laws of Ivan the Terrible and innocent martyrs of Godunov's wrath.
Succession crisis periodEdit
Mikhail was succeeded by his only son Alexei, who steered the country quietly through numerous troubles. Upon his death, there was a period of dynastic struggles between his children by his first wife Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya (Fyodor III and Ivan V) and his son by his second wife Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina, the future Peter the Great. Fyodor briefly succeeded his father until he died suddenly in 1682. Initially Peter was to take the throne, due to Ivan's reluctance to do so, but Ivan's sisters urged him to do so lest Peter take the throne and banish the elder children of Alexei from Russia, and so he negotiated with Peter, who was his favorite sibling in the family. The two agreed that they would become co-rulers. Most members of both families were pacified, but Ivan's eldest sister Sophia disliked the notion. She plotted to kill both her brothers, however Peter found out and Ivan had her jailed. Ivan would die in a few years, leaving Peter the sole Tsar of Russia. Historians say that this was for the best, as Peter would vastly reform Russia into somewhat of a constitutional monarchhy, which would be reformed by his son and grandson, in a period that would be known as the "Russian Revolution."
The period of rule that began with Peter the Great is now called the modern reign of the Romanovs.
The first of these rulers was obviously Peter the Great. Upon his death in 1745, his son Alexei became Alexei II of Russia. His reign would be shorter than his father's lasting from 1745 to 1760. His son Peter became the Tsar, and led Russia successfully through the First World War, with France and Austria.
His grandson and successor Paul was very different from his grandfather. He had a distinct aversion to the Bourbons and Hapsburgs, more so the Bourbons, and was glad to hear that France was in the throes of revolution on his deathbed in 1786. He also led the Expansionist Wars against the Austrians, Prussians, and Ottomans, winning each. His son Alexander I shared his views and actively supported the initial rebellion, although the formation of the constitutional monarchy in France displeased him, so he then supported the second rebellion, led by Maximilien de Robespierre, who would establish the Directory. Again he was dissatisfied until 1795 when a prominent young general named Napoleon Bonaparte aimed to overthrow the Directory and establish the Consulate. The Consulate was by far the most successful government in France in the eyes of Alexander, and he was further pleased with the establishment of the French Empire, and was a supporter of it until his death in 1831.
Alexander died childless and unmarried. His successor was, therefore, his younger brother Constantine, who part of the group known as "Paul's Three," the three sons of Paul I who would be Tsar. At the time of Alexander's death Constantine found himself in Kroclaw busy cracking down on the October Revolt's rebels. By the time the time he returned to Petrograd it was April of 1831. Upon gaining this knowledge, Constantine declared that he was no longer Tsar, making his brother Nicholas the Tsar.
Nicholas I was by far the most different of these three sons of Paul was. Occasionally titled "Nicholas the Conqueror" by the people, he started massive campaigns against other nations, although never by his lonesome. With the aid of Denmark, the dying Sweden was destroyed by combined forces, with larges swathes of territory going to Russia and the remainder to Denmark. Next he waged a massive war with China, acquiring massive parts of Manchuria and Mongolia, with the aid of the Mughal Empire to combat China in the south. Next he attacked Japan, although this war was fairly easy, since the Japanese Republic was falling. Russia managed to overthrow the Republic, and restored the Emperor to the throne (the Komei Restoration). On the eve of Nicholas' death, the Russian Empire reached its zenith, occupying over 20 million sq mi. He died with his son Alexander too young to rule, however, and his younger brother, Mikhail, became the Tsar Regent, although he was later established a Tsar proper and recognized as such when Michael, son of
, took the regnal name Mikhail III.
He would be succeeded by Nicholas' son Alexander, often regarded as Alexander the Great for his even newer reforms to Russia and for supporting the utter destruction of the Finnish fascist rebels in 1880. However these same rebels would assassinate him the following year.
His son Nicholas briefly succeeded him as Nicholas II. In his short reign, he managed to establish the Romanov control in Mexique, thanks to the Civil War and subsequent Russian Intervention. However that was all he accomplished, dying ten months after the start of his reign.
Alexander, Nicholas' eldest younger brother, succeeded him to the throne. Alexander saw his other brother, Vladimir, being deposed from the throne of Mexique. He died in 1893, leaving his son Nicholas at the head of Russia with a war brewing in Europe and relations souring with Scandinavia and France, and at the brink of war with the Ottomans, who later refrained from the war.
Nicholas III's reign was struck by tragedy almost immediately. World War III started in 1894. Russia would emerge victorious, however, in 1897, with its allies. But in 1900 another disaster occurred when Alyeska declared independence from Russia. To raise funds to combat the Alyeskans, Greenland was sold to the Americans. However Alyeska retained its independence until America's takeover of the nation in 1904.
Nicholas died in 1923 and was succeeded by his son Alexei III. He attempted to prevent World War V, but it was inevitable, and by 1932, the world was already at war, and his efforts failed, although he became known as Alexei the Peacemaker.
His son Constantine succeeded him as Konstantin II. A relentless leader, he refused to leave when German forces were storming Petrograd in 1943. He only left when the Russian defense was reduced to an extremely low number of men. He fled as far as he could to Sibirgrad. There he remained, openly denouncing the "pathetic excuses for Russians" serving the armies, and would rage frequently during visits to troops and forts. The people called him "the Bold" and other names such as the Ruthless, the Pain, and the Prick. However, he returned to Moscow and later Petrograd as the Germans were pushed back by this same army.
He died in 1983, leaving his son Mikhail III
to the throne, and the problem of the Cold War. He was an avid supporter of space exploration and went as far as collaborating with the Americans to go to Mars. But a more pressing problem was the African Missile Crisis. He (and the United States) both struggled with the French to ensure that African nations remained away from the French. Eventually the French were forced to back away from West Africa when the Russians threatened to invade.
Mikhail III has died recently, in 2000, and his 47 year old son Constantine , nicknamed "Kon" by the media, became the present Tsar. | <urn:uuid:93a101ea-7ba4-4df7-b2c3-182dc427a829> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://althistory.wikia.com/wiki/House_of_Romanov_(A_World_of_Difference) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987365 | 2,393 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Gazing into your lover’s eyes isn’t only romantic; it also releases a brain chemical called oxytocin that strengthens social bonds in a variety of species. For some people who suffer from depression, the so-called “hormone of love” might hold out hope. Researchers at the UC San Diego School of Medicine are conducting a clinical trial to study whether oxytocin – the brain hormone released with touches, hugs, or when a mother and her newborn baby bond – might help patients with depression.
“In humans, oxytocin is released when they hug or experience other pleasant physical touch, and it plays a part in the human sexual response cycle,” said Kai MacDonald, MD, assistant clinical professor of psychiatry at UC San Diego School of Medicine.
MacDonald went on to explain that oxytocin appears to change the brain signals related to social recognition via facial expressions, perhaps by changing the firing of the amygdala, the part of the brain that plays a primary role in the processing of important emotional stimuli. In this way, oxytocin in the brain may be a potent mediator of human social behavior.
“That’s why oxytocin is sometimes called ‘the love hormone,’” said MacDonald. “It’s said that the eyes are the window to the soul…they certainly are the window to the emotional brain. We know that the eye-to-eye communication, which is affected by oxytocin, is critical to intimate emotional communication for all kind of emotions – love, fear, trust, anxiety.”
UC San Diego researchers have previously discovered that oxytocin may help patients with schizophrenia, and MacDonald and colleague David Feifel, MD, PhD, UCSD professor of psychiatry, are now enrolling participants to examine its role in clinical depression.
“Studies of blood levels and genetic factors in depressed patients point to the possibility that this natural hormone might play a part in helping clinical depression,” said MacDonald. “Previously, studies of healthy individuals have shown that intranasal doses of oxytocin reduce activation of brain circuits involved in fear, increase levels of eye contact, and increase both trust and generosity,” MacDonald said. “Interestingly, people given oxytocin don’t report feeling any different, but they act differently.”
Early clinical data also indicates oxytocin may help women with anxiety disorders.
“A hug or a touch that causes a release of this hormone might somehow change brain signals,” MacDonald said. “We want to see if we can harness this response to help patients who suffer from depression.”
For more information on the clinical trial, contact 1-866-550-UCSD. | <urn:uuid:6728afb4-ebe4-4a31-a52d-f612ade315ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/pressrelease/could_love_hormone_help_treat_depression/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931062 | 571 | 3.265625 | 3 |
>In March 1994, a soft-spoken historian registered China's first legally recognized nongovernmental organizations ever, the environmental group Friends of Nature. Earlier that year, a subtle change in Chinese law authorized citizens to form their own NGOs, albeit with government permission and oversight, opening the door to a new era of citizen participation in China.
Today there are more than 3,000 registered environmental groups in China. And that soft-spoken historian, Liang Congjie, is acknowledged as the godfather of modern Chinese environmentalism. Liang died Thursday in a Beijing hospital from complications from a lung infection. He was 78.
Liang was a reluctant crusader. The grandson of a famous Qing dynasty reformer exiled for 14 years after proposing the imperial throne make way for a constitutional monarchy, and the son of prominent architect who angered Mao and was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, Liang knew from his earliest days the heartache and personal sacrifice that could accompany taking a stand in China. His father had campaigned vigorously to preserve the historic city walls of old Beijing - and lost. As a university professor in the turbulent 1980s, Liang kept company with such reform-minded thinkers as Dai Qing, an outspoken journalist who led a campaign for more open and aggressive reporting on geologic problems associated with the proposed Three Gorges Dam; such friends convinced Liang to step into the fray.
While Dai was later jailed (ten months in a maximum security prison in 1989), Liang managed to figure out how to network, organize, and have an impact in China without become a martyr and without going to prison. He was no doubt aided, even sheltered, by his lofty lineage and his connections with China's elite. While the crackdown of 1989 shuttered much public debate in China, environmentalism remained as one of the few causes around which it was relatively safe to organize; some of Liang's early followers were students and scholars involved in the democracy movement of the late 1980s.
Liang inspired a generation of young environmental leaders in China. Many of his disciples went on to found other leading groups in China, such as Yang Xin of Green River Network in Chengdu and Tian Dasheng of Green Volunteer League in Chongqing. Liang also demonstrated to officialdom that they need not view the mere existence of citizen groups as an outright threat. Even as Liang's fame grew throughout China, and internationally, he kept a relatively low profile, not authoring provocative tracts, and still riding his bicycle to his cramped office in downtown Beijing. In accepting a public service award in 2000, Liang spoke with characteristic humility: "China faces severe environmental problems and we have done too little. This honor today is not so much a reward for our achievements, as it is a reminder to us to do more." He added: "In such an era, we can choose a different life."
Over time, Liang extended his work from environmental education to more ambitious goals. In the 1990s, his Friends of Nature supported citizen groups campaigning to save the endangered Tibetan antelope from poachers in western China. In the mid 2000s, Friends of Nature played a role in coordinating a path-breaking national campaign to stop the construction of two large planned dams on China's last wild river, the Nujiang, and on a scenic section of the Yangtze called Tiger Leaping Gorge, both relatively untouched and rich in biodiversity. The activists were successful. In early 2004, Premier Wen Jiabao personally intervened to place the Nujiang dam plans on hold. Today Liang's group is working with other green groups in Beijing to promote environmental information transparency in China - and to reach out to Western consumers with information about the environmental footprint of products made in China.
In spite of these successes, Friends of Nature operates with substantial restrictions - on fundraising, on organizing new branches, on free speech. But it continues to attract bright and idealistic young workers. On a cold February morning in 2007, I visited Friends of Nature's Beijing office, a cramped courtyard house painted red, with bicycles parked outside. Elaborate murals of green vines with tendrils and blue and gold flowers adorned the inside walls, beside computer stations where young staffers and volunteers were busy typing away. Though I did not meet Liang, who was then traveling, I could see his impact in the enthusiasm and optimism of the young environmentalists working with him. Many of them were in college or just out. They gave me a pair of shiny, metal reusable chopsticks, wrapped in a green cloth with the Friends of Nature logo, and told me how many forest acres were cleared annually to supply China with disposable wooden chopsticks. Their determined, pioneering spirit - quite different from the common depictions we often see of a supposedly downtrodden or overly materialistic Chinese citizenry - reminded me of the idealism seen on American college campuses. Their spirited work wouldn't have been possible 20 years ago in China - and almost surely wouldn't be today, had it not been for Liang's leadership.
As Wen Bo, a 30-something activist in Beijing who has made environmentalism his career, puts it: "He inspired and mentored generations of young students to pursue a career in environmental field and take jobs at green groups .... Through his political and social influence and personal status, he was able to defend the right of existence of a truly Chinese environmental NGO."
In America, it's easy to take blue skies and the right to campaign for granted; in China, Liang Congjie stood up bravely for both. | <urn:uuid:da37246f-c746-4f2f-9ad5-a8d34e997112> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2010/10/liang-congjie-the-godfather-of-chinas-green-movement/65442/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972313 | 1,107 | 2.625 | 3 |
The health of the oceans is deteriorating far more rapidly than expected, scientists warned today. In a report, they predict that marine life could be on the brink of mass extinction.
The assessment, by the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO), suggests that a “deadly trio” of factors — climate change, pollution and overfishing — are acting together in ways that exacerbate the individual impacts.
“The findings are shocking,” said Alex Rogers, IPSO’s scientific director and professor of conservation biology at the University of Oxford. “As we considered the cumulative effect of what humankind does to the oceans, the | <urn:uuid:e5ef472d-c6e5-4fa6-a7c0-2750b1f7cd1f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/environment/article3068725.ece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919825 | 135 | 2.765625 | 3 |
A Deep Science for Everyone lecture
(Social hour, with hors d’oeuvres and a cash bar, begins at 5 p.m.
Download a flyer for your workplace or classroom.
The Higgs boson was the subatomic celebrity particle of the year in 2012, after physicists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland announced that maybe, just maybe, they had detected it. Learn more about who found the Higgs boson, how they did it and why it’s so important during a free public lecture on Tuesday, Feb. 12, at the Homestake Opera House in Lead, S.D. Physicist Beate Heinemann of the University of California, Berkeley, is a member of the ATLAS scientific collaboration, one of the major experiments at the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland, where the tantalizing “Higgs-like” particle was detected last year. Her talk, "The Observation of a Higgs-like Boson at the LHC,” is part of the Sanford Underground Research Facility's Deep Science for Everyone lecture series. Cosponsors of Heinemann’s talk include the Lead Chamber of Commerce, the Homestake Opera House and Versatile Carpets and Interiors of Spearfish, S.D.
Physicists believe we owe a lot to the Higgs boson. In fact, we owe everything. “According to the theoretical predictions, the Higgs field permeates the universe and all particles acquire mass from its presence,” Heinemann says. Without the Higgs, we would not exist.
The search for the Higgs also is related—through an exotic concept called “supersymmetry”— to research at the Sanford Underground Research Facility in Lead, where scientists are about to begin a search for another never-detected particle, so-called “dark matter.” Sanford Lab Principal Investigator Kevin Lesko of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory invited Heinemann to talk here because research at the LHC “meshes nicely with the dark matter searches researchers are making here.”
Heinemann earned a doctorate in physics from the University of Hamburg in Germany. She has worked at the Tevatron accelerator at Fermi National Accelerator near Chicago, and she currently is an associate professor of physics at UC Berkeley. | <urn:uuid:bba883fc-2a20-4e04-b855-ecd7f4eb11da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sanfordlab.org/events/higgslecture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944754 | 486 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Most bromeliad plants are ornamental, but one bromeliad, the pineapple, is an important food crop. These low growing plants are characterized by spiny leaves, with the fruit growing on top of these leaves. Plants eventually develop offshots known as pups. These pups are what can be divided from the main plant and replanted to grow new plants. While most plants require you to remove the plant from the ground when dividing, pineapple bromelaid plants can remain in the ground when you use the pups to reestablish new plantings.
Rake compost, manure or grass clippings into the loose soil to make it healthier.
Look for pups forming on pineapple plants. Pups can be identified by looking at the base of the plant. Pups are the new growth protruding from the base.
Dig a hole where each new plant will be transplanted (by doing so before dividing, the plant will experience less shock, as it can be placed into the ground immediately). Dig six to eight inches deep and as wide as the width you plan to cut the transplant.
Use a trowel or small shovel to dig into the soil between the pup and the base of the plant. Separate the joined roots of both plant sections.
Lift the pup from the ground.
Insert pup transplant into each hole. Pack soil around each new planting and original plant.
Water the soil around each planting until the ground is well saturated. | <urn:uuid:001bcd97-c5b1-43aa-8914-938a200e96fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/92508-divide-pineapple-bromalaid-plant.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937718 | 302 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Did you know an average 14-16 year old spends almost 5 hours a day on digital devices? We conducted a survey across 2,000 parents in the UK with children aged between 2 and 16, to find out how often our children actually use digital devices. The issues surrounding childhood obesity have been hammered home to us in recent years, but what about our children’s digital diet, and in particular, the impact this has on their eyesight?
In an age where tablets, smartphones and laptops are an integral part of our daily lives, our children are growing up to be more tech-savvy than ever, and technology plays an important part of their ongoing learning and development.
While it is important to embrace technology and integrate it into a child’s learning programme, we must also be aware of how to do this responsibly and ensure their eyesight is not compromised, especially in their earlier years.
We’ve put together a handy infographic which outlines how your child’s eyesight develops, and offers specialist advice on how to provide your children with a healthy digital diet.
Share This Infographic: | <urn:uuid:57580f51-6398-4574-8ca6-83a545c53c89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eyecare.lenstore.co.uk/your-childs-digital-diet-harming-their-eyesight | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960765 | 228 | 3.484375 | 3 |
DiFiori, John P. MD*; Benjamin, Holly J. MD†; Brenner, Joel MD, MPH‡; Gregory, Andrew MD§; Jayanthi, Neeru MD¶; Landry, Greg L. MD‖; Luke, Anthony MD, MPH**
* Youth sport participation offers many benefits including the development of self-esteem, peer socialization, and general fitness.
* However, an emphasis on competitive success, often driven by goals of elite-level travel team selection, collegiate scholarships, Olympic and National team membership, and even professional contracts, has seemingly become widespread.
* This has resulted in increased pressure to begin high-intensity training at young ages.
* Such an excessive focus on early intensive training and competition at young ages rather than skill development can lead to overuse injury and burnout.
* To provide a systematic, evidenced-based review that will:
∘ Assist clinicians in recognizing young athletes at risk for overuse injuries and burnout.
∘ Delineate the risk factors and injuries that are unique to the skeletally immature young athlete.
∘ Describe specific high-risk overuse injuries that present management challenges and/or can lead to long-term health consequences.
∘ Summarize the risk factors and symptoms associated with burnout in young athletes.
∘ Provide recommendations on overuse injury prevention.
* Medical Subject Headings (MeSHs) and text words were searched on March 26, 2012, for MEDLINE, CINAHL, and PsychINFO.
* Nine hundred fifty-three unique articles were initially identified. Additional articles were found using cross-referencing. The process was repeated July 10, 2013, to review any new articles since the original search.
* Screening by the authors yielded a total of 208 relevant sources that were used for this paper.
* Recommendations were classified using the Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT) grading system.
DEFINITION OF OVERUSE INJURY
* Overuse injuries occur due to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system when rest is not adequate to allow for structural adaptation to take place.
* Injury can involve the muscle-tendon unit, bone, bursa, neurovascular structures, and the physis.
* Overuse injuries unique to young athletes include apophyseal injuries and physeal stress injuries.
* It is estimated that 27 million US youth between 6 to 18 years of age participate in team sports.
* The National Council of Youth Sports survey found that 60 million children aged 6 to 18 years participate in some form of organized athletics, with 44 million participating in more than 1 sport.
* There is very little research specifically on the incidence and prevalence of overuse injuries in children and adolescents.
* Overall estimates of overuse injuries versus acute injuries range from 45.9% to 54%.
* The prevalence of overuse injury varies by the specific sport, ranging from 37% (skiing and handball) to 68% (running).
* Overuse injuries are underestimated in the literature because most epidemiologic studies define injury as requiring time loss from participation.
* Prior injury is a strong predictor of future overuse injury.
* Overuse injuries may be more likely to occur during the adolescent growth spurt.
∘ The physes, apophyses, and articular surfaces in skeletally immature athletes in a rapid phase of growth are less resistant to tensile, shear, and compressive forces than either mature bone or more immature prepubescent bone.
∘ A decrease in age-adjusted bone mineral density that occurs before peak height velocity may also play a role.
∘ Other factors that may contribute are a relative lack of lean tissue mass, an increase in joint hypermobility, and imbalances in growth and strength.
∘ Physeal stress injuries appear to be more common during rapid growth and may be related to a period of vulnerability of metaphyseal perfusion.
* There is little evidence to support a causal relationship between overuse injury and anatomic malalignment or flexibility.
* A history of amenorrhea is a significant risk factor for stress fractures.
* Higher training volumes have consistently been shown to increase the risk of overuse injury in multiple sports.
* Other factors that may contribute to overuse injury but lack clinical data include:
∘ Poor-fitting equipment, particularly when not adjusted for changes in growth.
∘ Overscheduling, such as multiple competitive events in the same day or over several consecutive days. This factor may be better considered as a marker for a high ratio of workload-to-recovery time.
READINESS FOR SPORTS
* Readiness for sports is related to the match between a child's level of growth and development (motor, sensory, cognitive, social/emotional) and the tasks/demands of the competitive sport.
* Chronological age is not a good indicator on which to base sport developmental models because motor, cognitive, and social skills progress at different rates, independent of age.
* Coaches and parents may lack knowledge about normal development and signs of readiness for certain tasks, both physically and psychosocially.
∘ This can result in unrealistic expectations that cause children and adolescents to feel as if they are not making progress in their sport.
∘ Consequently, children may lose self-esteem and withdraw from the sport.
* Sport specialization may be considered as intensive, year-round training in a single sport at the exclusion of other sports.
* There is concern that early sport specialization may increase rates of overuse injury and sport burnout, but this relationship has yet to be demonstrated.
* Diversified sports training during early and middle adolescence may be more effective in developing elite-level skills in the primary sport due to skill transfer.
HIGH-RISK OVERUSE INJURIES
* “High-risk” overuse injuries are those that can result in significant loss of time from sport and/or threaten future sport participation.
* These include certain stress fractures, physeal stress injuries, osteochondritis dissecans, some apophyseal injuries, and effort thrombosis.
* High-risk stress fractures include:
∘ The pars interarticularis of the spine, the tension side of the femoral neck, the patella, the anterior tibia (the “dreaded black line”), the medial malleolus, the talus, the tarsal navicular, the metaphyseal/diaphyseal junction of the fifth metatarsal (Jones fracture) and the sesamoids.
∘ A high index of suspicion should be maintained for athletes complaining of pain at the sites of potential high-risk bone stress injuries including the central lumbar spine, anterior hip, groin or thigh, anterior knee, anterior leg, medial ankle, dorsal/medial midfoot, lateral foot, and plantar aspect of the great toe.
* Physeal stress injuries can occur at the proximal humerus, distal radius, distal femur, and the proximal tibia.
∘ Although most physeal stress injuries resolve with rest, some may result in growth disturbance and joint deformity.
* Effort thrombosis in athletes occurs as a consequence of thoracic outlet syndrome.
∘ A significant percentage of upper extremity effort thrombosis happens in adolescents as result of overuse.
∘ First rib resection frequently results in a successful return to full activity.
∘ All cases should undergo evaluation for an underlying coagulopathy.
* Burnout is part of a spectrum of conditions that includes overreaching and overtraining.
* It has been defined to occur as a result of chronic stress that causes a young athlete to cease participation in a previously enjoyable activity.
* Sport specialization may be a factor.
∘ Data suggest that athletes who had early specialized training withdrew from their sport either due to injury or burnout from the sport.
* However, not all young athletes who drop out of sports are burned out.
∘ Most youth who discontinue a sport do so as a result of time conflicts and interest in other activities.
∘ Some may reenter the same sport or participate in a different sport in the future.
* In children there appears to be more of a psychological component related to burnout and attrition with adult supervised activities.
* Limiting weekly and yearly participation time, limits on sport-specific repetitive movements (eg, pitching limits), and scheduled rest periods are recommended. (B)
* Such modifications need to be individualized based upon the sport and the athlete's age, growth rate, readiness, and injury history. (C)
* Careful monitoring of training workload during the adolescent growth spurt is recommended, as injury risk seems to be greater during this phase. (B) This apparent increased risk may be related to a number of factors including diminished size-adjusted bone mineral density, asynchronous growth patterns, relative weakness of growth cartilage, and physeal vascular susceptibility.
* Preseason conditioning programs can reduce injury rates in young athletes. (B)
* Prepractice neuromuscular training can reduce lower extremity injuries. (B)
* Given the altered biomechanics that may occur with ill-fitting equipment, proper sizing and resizing of equipment is recommended, although data are lacking that demonstrate a link to injury. (C)
* To reduce the likelihood of burnout, an emphasis should be placed on skill development more than competition and winning. (C)
SUMMARY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
* Overuse injuries are underreported in the current literature because most injury definitions have focused on time loss from sport. (B)
* Preparticipation exams may identify prior injury patterns and provide an opportunity to assess sport readiness. (C)
* A history of prior injury is an established risk factor for overuse injuries that should be noted as part of each injury assessment. (A)
* Adolescent female athletes should be assessed for menstrual dysfunction as a predisposing factor to overuse injury. (B)
* Parents and coaches should be educated regarding the concept of sport readiness. (C) Variations in cognitive development, as well as motor skills, should be considered when setting goals and expectations.
* Early sport specialization may not lead to long-term success in sports and may increase risk for overuse injury and burnout. (C) With the possible exception of early entry sports such as gymnastics, figure skating, and swimming/diving, sport diversification should be encouraged at younger ages.
* When an overuse injury is diagnosed, it is essential to address the underlying cause(s). (C) The athlete, parents, and coaches should be involved in reviewing all risk factors and developing a strategy to attempt to avoid recurrent injury.
* All overuse injuries are not inherently benign. (A) Clinicians should be familiar with specific high-risk injuries, including stress fractures of the femoral neck, tarsal navicular, anterior tibial cortex and physis, and effort thrombosis.
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
Participation in youth sports can be an enjoyable experience for children and adolescents with many potential benefits. It offers opportunities for peer socialization, the development of self-esteem and leadership qualities, and also promotes health and fitness. However, the increasing highly competitive nature of youth sports has fueled trends of extensive training, sport specialization, and participation in large numbers of competitive events at young ages. Consequently, overuse injuries and burnout have become common.
This report will review what is currently known about the epidemiology and risk factors associated with overuse injuries and burnout in young athletes. It will highlight specific overuse injuries that may pose management challenges or lead to long-term consequences. Recommendations for prevention will also be presented.
The number of participants in youth sports is difficult to determine. The National Federation of State High School Associations reported that 7 713 577 student athletes (4 490 854 male, 3 222 723 female) participated in 2012–2013.1 However, this represents only a fraction of all participants at any level. Estimates for younger athletes and/or those in nonscholastic sports may best be projected from data obtained by national sport organizations. One recent survey found that approximately 27 million children and adolescents between the age of 6 and 17 years participate regularly in team sports in the United States.2 Among specific youth sport organizations, an estimated 2.3 million children played Little League baseball, over 600 000 participate in the America Youth Soccer Organization and 365 000 play softball.3,4 The 2008 National Council of Youth Sports survey found that approximately 60 million children aged 6 to 18 years participate in some form of organized athletics.5 Of these, approximately 44 million participated in more than 1 sport.5 In addition, although there is a paucity of data describing the extent of youth sport participation, it is clear that large numbers of children do not limit their sports to a given “season” and are involved throughout the calendar year in organized athletics. An emphasis on competitive success has become widespread, resulting in increased pressure to begin high-intensity training at young ages. This may be driven by parental goals of having their child selected for high-level travel teams, collegiate scholarships, and even professional contracts. Alternatively, the initiative may originate with the child or be fostered by coaches or peers. In pursuit of athletic success, children and their parents may enlist the services of a personal sport coach and/or fitness instructor, and also register for camps and showcase events. Some parents or coaches may encourage a child to concentrate on a single sport in an attempt to improve his or her chances of elite team selection, and therefore exposure to the college recruiting process. Children may also play on more than 1 team or participate in more than 1 sport at a given time. It is also important to recognize that children's sports are a big business.6 Coaches, personal trainers, club team organizations, sporting goods manufactures, tournament directors, and others have a financial stake in youth sports participation.
Given this trend toward early and multifaceted training, frequent competition, and single sport specialization, it is no surprise that overuse injuries and burnout are common. This paper will describe several issues related to the development of overuse injury and burnout. Particular attention will be placed on the unique factors surrounding growth and development that deserve special consideration in young athletes. By understanding these issues, clinicians will better be able to treat these injuries, educate parents, athletes and coaches, and provide recommendations for injury prevention.
Three electronic databases were searched on March 26, 2012, to identify potentially relevant articles: MEDLINE, CINAHL, and PsychINFO. A combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSHs) and text words were used in this search (Table 1). A total of 953 unique articles were identified. Additional articles and related information were found using cross-referencing and the authors' personal libraries. The articles were screened by title and by abstract. Those felt to be relevant to this document were reviewed in full by the authors. The process was repeated July 10, 2013, to review any new articles since the initial search was performed. A total of 208 unique references were ultimately chosen for this paper.
Definition of Overuse Injury
Although there is no clear consensus on the definition of overuse injury, it is generally recognized that overuse injuries occur due to repetitive submaximal loading of the musculoskeletal system when rest is not adequate to allow for structural adaptation to take place.7–10 Such injury may involve the muscle-tendon unit, bone, articular cartilage, physis, bursa, and/or neurovascular structures. During sport participation, repetitive loading to these structures results in microtrauma. When recovery between loading exposures is sufficient, tissue adaptation occurs to accommodate the imposed stress. However, excessive stress and/or an inadequate recovery period can overwhelm the ability of the tissue to remodel, resulting in a weakened, damaged structure. This imbalance between training loads and recovery is a key factor, perhaps even more so in young athletes with an immature musculoskeletal system.
Because of ongoing growth and development, the types of overuse injuries that occur in young athletes differ compared to adults.11,12 Specifically, growth-related conditions such as apophysitis and physeal stress injury are unique to young athletes.13–15
Apophyseal injuries typically occur in early adolescence. The most common sites involve the tibia tubercle of the knee (Osgood-Schlatter disease), the calcaneal apophyisis of the heel (Sever's disease), and the medial epicondylar apophysis of the elbow (often referred to as Little Leaguer's Elbow). Anterior knee pain is one of the most frequent complaints in the young athlete.16 In early adolescence this is usually due to Osgood-Schlatter disease, while in later adolescence the tibial tubercle apophysis matures, and patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) becomes the more common cause of knee pain.
Overuse injuries of the physis (eg, proximal humerus in throwers, distal radius in gymnasts) occur in early to mid-adolescence.14,17–19 As skeletal maturity is achieved, overuse injuries to bone begin to follow adult injury patterns (eg, stress reactions and stress fractures).
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF OVERUSE INJURIES
Overall, there is very little research specifically on the incidence and prevalence of overuse injuries in children and adolescents.20–24 Furthermore, studies of sports injuries in youth are limited by several issues including injury reporting methodology, injury classification, and standardization of outcomes. In particular, injury definitions that require time loss from sport underestimate the burden of overuse injuries.9,25
A recent study of 100 US high schools reported that the overall injury rate (acute and overuse) in 20 high school sports was 1.71/1000 athlete exposures (AEs) during the 2010–2011 school year.23 This database estimates 3.7 million injuries occurred that resulted in more than 1 day's time loss from sports. This estimate does not include injuries seen outside of the high school setting. Importantly, this study further underestimates injury rates since it does not account for injuries which did not result in time loss, as is the case in many overuse injuries.9 Another data source, the National SAFE KIDS Campaign, estimates that more than 3.5 million children are injured annually playing sports or participating in recreational activities.22
Estimates of the proportion of all sports injuries that are due to overuse range from 45.9% to 54%.7,24,26 Although evidence is sparse, there is concern that these injuries are increasing.27–29 The frequency and type of overuse injuries in elite young athletes varies by sport and by age.30 Sport-related training and conditioning are also factors (eg, resistance training as an adjunct to soccer training).30 Overuse, noncontact injuries in American football are 2.6 times more likely to occur at the college level than high school.31 In a recent 3-year study of 16 sports at 1 university, 29.3% of injuries were considered overuse injuries.9 Baxter-Jones et al studied 453 elite young athletes in 4 sports (231 boys, 22 girls; 8–16 years of age) and found that the prevalence of overuse injuries varied by sport: 63% for swimmers, 33% for gymnasts and tennis players, and 15% for soccer players.30 Other studies report the prevalence of overuse injury among different youth sports to range from 37% (skiing and handball) to 68% (running).32–34
RISK FACTORS FOR OVERUSE INJURIES
A variety of factors have been proposed to contribute to overuse injuries. They are often grouped into either intrinsic or extrinsic factors (Table 2). Intrinsic factors are defined as individual biological characteristics and psychosocial traits. Extrinsic factors refer to external forces related to the sport type, the biomechanics of the activity, and the sporting environment.35 Commonly cited intrinsic factors include variations in growth and development, anatomic alignment, muscle-tendon imbalance, flexibility, conditioning, biomechanics, and a history of prior injury. Extrinsic factors include workload, sport technique, training environment, and equipment. The contribution of an intrinsic or an extrinsic factor to injury risk is extremely variable depending on the individual athlete, the sport environment, and the interaction that occurs during participation.35–37 Furthermore, it is important to recognize that many overuse injuries result from a complex interaction of multiple risk factors in specific settings coupled with an inciting event. Understanding this concept is necessary for the comprehensive evaluation and treatment of athletes with overuse injuries.38,39
It is also relevant to note that some risk factors are modifiable (eg, strength, neuromuscular function), whereas others are not (eg, age, gender).38 Finally, in young athletes, characteristics of the developing musculoskeletal system are especially important to consider.
Although little data exist that identifies a causal relationship between proposed risk factors and overuse injury, recognizing these potential contributors to injury is important in limiting recurrent injury and in developing injury prevention strategies.15,37,40
Intrinsic Risk Factors
Previous injury is the strongest predictor of future injuries.41–50 Repeated overuse injury may occur as a result of inadequate rehabilitation of the index injury and/or a failure to recognize and correct the factors that contributed to the original injury.
Growth and Development
Children undergo growth and development at an individual rate. Biologic growth and maturation are primarily genetically regulated; development is more culturally mediated.36,51 For example, the development of child's play paradigms can vary depending on the cultural exposure to solitary play, parallel play, associate play, and cooperative play situations.52 Physical growth and cognitive development both influence successful participation in sports.
Overall body mass and height increase in the pre-adolescent and adolescent years.53 Girls tend to reach their peak height and body mass at approximately age 15, whereas boys may experience increases beyond age 18. Maturation is a complex process that encompasses skeletal, somatic, and sexual maturation. Each component of maturation occurs at an independent, sometimes asynchronous, rate in an individual. Although wide variations in the maturation rates have been suggested to increase injury risk, data demonstrating a definitive link between discordant maturation and injury are lacking.54,55
Overuse injuries may be more common during the adolescent growth spurt. Laboratory studies demonstrate that the growth cartilage present at the physes, apophyses, and articular surfaces in skeletally immature athletes in a rapid phase of growth are less resistant to tensile, shear, and compressive forces than either mature bone or more immature prepubescent bone.56–58 Acute distal radius fractures peak during and just before peak height velocity.59,60 Stress fractures, distal radial physeal stress injuries, and low back pain also appear to occur with a greater prevalence during the adolescent growth spurt.61–63 Prospective studies are needed to further evaluate this relationship.
A decrease in age-adjusted bone mineral density that occurs before peak height velocity may also play a role.64 A relationship to acute traumatic fractures has been demonstrated, but its role in overuse injury has not yet been determined. In addition, dissociation is seen between bone matrix formation and the occurrence of bone mineralization during the growth spurt resulting in relatively diminished bone strength.64,65
Other factors that may contribute are a relative lack of lean tissue mass, an increase in joint hypermobility, and imbalances in growth and strength.66–69 Longitudinal growth of extremities results in changes in length, mass, and stress forces on bone-tendon junctions, muscle-tendon junctions, growth cartilage, and ligaments that frequently occur asynchronously.69 These imbalances in growth and strength, coupled with repetitive loading, appear related to increased injury risk, although the exact relationship is not clearly delineated and is likely multifactorial.
Overuse injuries of the physis may be due to diminished perfusion related to excessive mechanical loading. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of physeal stress injuries of the distal radius in young gymnasts shows an appearance similar to experimentally induced injuries in which metaphyseal artery perfusion has been disrupted.55,70–72 This injury is significantly more likely to occur in gymnasts who are within the expected age range of the adolescent growth spurt.19,61
Alignment abnormalities such as patellofemoral malalignment, pes planus, pes cavus, elbow hyperextension, and excessive lumbar lordosis are some of the more commonly cited risk factors for overuse injuries.21,73–75 Joint hypermobility has also been associated with injury in some studies.76,77
Accurate assessment of these factors, including measuring both static and dynamic components, is difficult to achieve in the office setting. In addition, defining a cause and effect relationship between these characteristics and injury has been elusive.78,79 Recent studies have not established consistent predictors. Given the broad diversity of sport-specific demands placed on the body, considerably more information is needed to formulate models whereby anatomic alignment may predict injury risk.73,80,81 Overall, the significance of osseous alignment abnormalities versus soft tissue alignment abnormalities in relation to injury is complex, poorly understood, and likely sport specific.
Alignment can be altered through use of supportive equipment. The use of custom shoe orthotics to alter alignment, particularly in runners, is controversial, yet widely used. The use of an orthotic can have both a short- and a long-term effect on lower extremity kinematics such as rearfoot eversion angles, velocity, impact peak, and loading rate, as well as knee kinematics. However, the clinical significance of this with regard to effects on injury rates remains unknown.82 There is also the potential to increase injury risk depending on the effect of the altered kinematics on sport participation.
A causal relationship between flexibility and injury risk has not been documented. Early reviews proposed that inflexibility across the muscle-tendon unit develops during the adolescent growth spurt that may contribute to injury.83 However, several recent studies have not shown any relationship between growth and inflexibility in boys or girls.84–86 Studies investigating the role of pre-exercise stretching on injury risk have shown mixed results.87,88 Interventions that consider age, gender, and specific sports are needed.
Limb length, body mass, and moments of inertia change rapidly during the adolescent growth spurt, and all can affect coordination and movement patterns.53,66,69 This is likely due to the need for greater force generation for extremity movement during a time when strength and coordination are still developing. This may play a role in the increased risk for injury seen during the growth spurt.35,36,55–63
Structural or dynamic disturbances in extremity mechanics appear to increase eccentric loads.69,89 These findings can then serve as the basis for targeted rehabilitation programs that emphasize improvement in sport-specific biomechanics.89,90 In some cases, it is not clear if sport-related changes in joint range of motion play a role in overuse injury or reflect a positive biomechanical adaptation.91,92 In overhead athletes, a decrease in dominant arm internal rotation coupled with greater strength in internal rotators is typically seen relative to the nondominant arm.91 One laboratory study in Peewee ice hockey players performing a sprint start displayed “at risk” hip kinematics including internal hip rotation during flexion or “push-off” phase and external rotation during abduction or recovery phase, thus placing the hip in a position to potentially cause femoroacetabular impingement and/or labral stress.93 These studies suggest sport-specific kinematic profiles deserve further investigation to determine if such factors predispose to overuse injury.
Strength and Conditioning
Benefits of youth fitness include those related to cardiovascular health, bone health, and mental health.94–96 Among young athletes, general activity and fitness levels vary greatly. Children who have not developed some foundation of general strength, endurance, and motor skills may be at increased risk for injury, although little data exist at this time. Some potential risk factors that are modifiable include poor endurance and lack of preseason preparation.97–101
Menstrual Irregularity and Low Energy Availability
A history of amenorrhea, especially in sports that emphasize leanness, is a risk factor for bone stress injury. One study in collegiate female distance runners found a linear relationship between number of menses per year and risk of stress fracture, with amenorrheic runners having the highest risk.102 Several studies have suggested that a history of amenorrhea is a significant risk factor for stress fractures.99,101–105 The proposed mechanism correlates inadequate caloric intake with hypoestrogenemia, decreased bone density, and subsequent increased fracture risk.106,107 The relationship between oral contraceptive use and the likelihood of stress fracture is not well understood.108 The studies cited generally focused on young women and older adolescents. There is little data regarding menstrual irregularity, low energy availability, and overuse injury in younger adolescents. It is important that female athletes with bone stress injuries who are found to have menstrual irregularity are also screened for disordered eating and low bone mineral density (ie, the female athlete triad).107
Extrinsic Risk Factors
A variety of extrinsic factors such as sport technique and biomechanics, the volume and intensity of workloads, training environments, and equipment all have been theorized to affect overuse injury rates. Importantly, these are modifiable risk factors.
Higher training volumes have consistently been shown to increase the risk of overuse injury in multiple sports.26,109–112 In a study of 2721 high school athletes, there was a linear relationship between hours of sport participation and risk of injury.110 Specifically, training more than 16 hours per week was associated with a significantly increased risk of injury requiring medical care.110,113,114
The volume and intensity of training is correlated with overuse injury risk.79,109,115–117 In youth baseball, studies have shown that among pitchers, pitch volume has the greatest association with injury rate.118,119 Additionally, a 10-year prospective analysis of 481 youth baseball pitchers ages 9 to 14 years found a 3.5 times greater likelihood of suffering an injury resulting in time lost from sport participation in those players who pitched greater than 100 innings per year.111 Among young gymnasts, wrist pain was significantly related to training intensity, as measured by skill level and number of hours training per week.117 The recommended workload varies greatly depending on the sport, as well as individual characteristics, making it a challenge to define sport-specific workload thresholds that are related to increased injury rates.15,26,117
Scheduling issues have recently received more attention as possible factors that increase injury risk in youth athletes. Concern has been raised for year-round training in a single sport and simultaneous involvement in multiple teams in the same sport. Tournament scheduling, where several games are often played in a single day, extending over consecutive days, is also a potential factor.
One large cohort study showed that elite soccer players younger than age 14 sustained more acute and overuse injuries in training compared to older players.11 The frequency was highest early in the season for the younger players, compared to older players who suffered more game-related injuries. This suggests that younger players who reach elite levels may not have achieved optimal fitness levels and/or are experiencing training volumes and intensities that may adversely affect injury risk.
Studies in a variety of sports such as baseball, tennis, cricket, running, and soccer have demonstrated that high workloads between bouts of activity are consistently associated with increased injury risk.109,111,112,120,121 One study evaluating the relationships between seasonal patterns of athletic participation and overuse injury demonstrated a 42% increase in self-reported overuse injuries in high school athletes who participated all year versus 3 or less seasons per year.121
Tournament scheduling and showcases have also been a concern. Repeated same-day exercise has been shown to increase cardiovascular and thermal strain as well as perception of effort in subsequent activity bouts. Although there is little data to link these issues with overuse injury, longer rest periods between matches and games have been proposed in an effort to improve athlete safety and performance, enhance recovery, and minimize the “carryover” effects from previous competitions and environmental exposure.28 In terms of overuse injury, scheduling may simply be a marker for a high ratio of workload-to-recovery time.
Improper sizing and poor maintenance of equipment, as well as failure to use equipment that is appropriate for the sport may contribute to injury. Common examples of equipment concerns include grip size and string tension in racquet sports, weight and length of bats or other hand-held equipment, bike size, shoe type and fit, use of training aids such as swim paddles and weights, or other resistive training devices used during training. However, data is lacking with regard to direct relationships with overuse injuries.
READINESS FOR SPORTS
Readiness for sports can be defined in terms of the match between a child's level of growth and development (motor, sensory, cognitive, social/emotional) and the tasks/demands of the competitive sport.122 On the one hand, if a young athlete is expected to learn too many skills that are beyond their ability, there will be little motivation to learn new skills.123 On the other hand, mastering tasks and developing a feeling of competence may sustain a child's interest and motivate him or her to learn new skills.124
Unfortunately, coaches and parents often lack knowledge about normal development and signs of readiness for certain tasks, both physically and psychosocially. This can result in unrealistic expectations that cause children and adolescents to feel as if they are not making progress in their sport, especially related to their chronological peers. Consequently, children may lose self-esteem and withdraw from the sport.125
Physical growth and developmental readiness is important in order to learn the skills for sports. For example, a child cannot kick a ball until she or he has the strength and balance to stand on 1 leg to swing the kicking leg.126 However, readiness to learn specific skills cannot be determined by chronological age, body size, or biologic maturation alone.127 Readiness is assessed by determining what requisite antecedent skills will provide the basis for mastering the new activity.127 For example, children must have good eye tracking before being able to hit a pitched ball.128
Cognitive development must occur before the young athlete can participate in most organized sports. In early childhood, the young athlete may not understand the need to stay in position or be able to remember instructions.126 To enjoy a sport, the youngster needs to understand the fundamental rules and strategy of the sport. He or she must also have the cognitive ability to follow directions and interact with their fellow team members.
As with other child developmental milestones, motor skills develop at different rates among individuals.128 Therefore, there is no chronological age that will guarantee mastery of a certain task. However, for most motor skills, the young athlete will follow a predictable and necessary sequence. For example, learning to kick a ball requires 4 stages: first pushing a ball while standing, then learning to kick a ball with some wind-up, then taking a step or 2 to kick, and finally taking several rapid steps with a small leap before the kick.126
It is important for parents and coaches to be mindful of what activities are appropriate for each age group.126 For ages 2 to 5 (early childhood), children have limited fundamental skills and poor balance. Appropriate activities for this age group include running, swimming, tumbling, throwing, and catching. For the child 6 to 9 (middle childhood), posture and balance become more automatic, reaction times are improved, and transitional skills are emerging. Activities can include running, swimming, skiing, entry-level soccer, baseball, tennis, gymnastics, and martial arts. For the child 10 to 12 years of age, most can master complex motor skills but may have a temporary decline in balance skills during the pubertal growth spurt.129 For this age group, entry level for complex skill sports is appropriate in most cases. This includes football, basketball, hockey, and volleyball.
Thus, there is no simple way to determine if a child is ready for a particular sport. Four factors should be considered: sport-related skills, knowledge about the sport, motivation, and socialization.130 Chronological age is not a good indicator on which to base developmental models.131 Informal participation with family and friends can be a helpful gauge.130 Fortunately, when given the chance, children will naturally select and modify activities so that they can participate successfully and have fun.126
Sport specialization may be considered as intensive, year-round training in a single sport at the exclusion of other sports.132 Although the degree of specialization may occur along a spectrum, there is no consensus about what type of specialized training is most appropriate to develop elite-level skills. In addition, there is debate about whether early specialized training and intensive training volumes are necessary to achieve high skill levels in sports or if beginning more specialized and intensive training during late adolescence is more advantageous. Furthermore, there is growing concern regarding the potential negative effects of early sports specialization, including injury and sport burnout.
Although there are many examples of early specialized sports training, it appears that such training may be necessary in those technical sports that require elite-level competition prior to full maturation such as gymnastics or rhythm gymnastics, figure skating, and swimming/diving.133,134 This type of early specialized training typically occurs before the age of 12, and frequently as young as 5 or 6 years of age.
The cumulative amount of training necessary to achieve elite-level status may be far less than the 10 000 hours that some have proposed.133–135 More commonly, specialized, intense training occurs at later ages in many other sports and seems to be important with sports that require more physical skills or maximal aerobic capacity.135 Diversified sports training during early and middle adolescence may be a more effective strategy in ultimately developing elite-level skills in the primary sport due to a positive transfer of skills.136 Consideration should be given to delaying intensive, specialized training until late adolescence, rather than a specific age, to optimize skill development in most sports.
There are both theoretical and measurable risks associated with intense, specialized training. Injury rates in high school athletes have a direct relationship to exposure by h/wk.110 Other studies have found increased exposure to be an additional risk for injury, such as in youth baseball pitchers who pitch >8 mo/y who are more likely to have shoulder or elbow surgery.109 Meanwhile, as mentioned earlier, among youth pitchers, those who pitched more than 100 innings/year were 3.5 times more likely to be injured.111 Other risks related to intensive training include increased risk for injury with increased skill level and increased competition.112,117,137
The relationship between injury and sports specialization has not been clearly demonstrated. In 1 study evaluating 519 junior competitive tennis players, those players who reported competing only in tennis were 1.5 times more likely to have reported an injury.138 However, this study did not account for training intensity (eg, weekly training hours). Early data from a clinical study comparing young athletes with sports-related injuries to healthy, uninjured athletes presenting for sports physicals suggests that more specialized athletes were more likely to be injured.139
Future research in this area should evaluate the relationship of overuse injury and high-risk injury to specialized training while controlling for training intensity and year-round training. Additionally, it would be worthwhile to evaluate multi-sport athletes longitudinally compared to specialized athletes at various ages and stages of development to compare the effects of sport diversification with specialization.
HIGH-RISK OVERUSE INJURIES
Some overuse injuries may be described as “high risk” in that if they are unrecognized or inappropriately treated, they can result in significant loss of time from sport and/or threaten future sport participation. High-risk overuse injuries include certain stress fractures, physeal stress injuries, osteochondritis dissecans, some apophyseal injuries, and effort thrombosis (Table 3).
Bone stress reactions and stress fractures can occur in children as they do in adults, and risk factors are similar for both age groups.62 Most heal uneventfully if treated appropriately with rest, rehabilitation, and graded return to activity. However, certain stress reactions or fractures do not heal readily, and are thus deemed high risk. If these high-risk injuries are not identified and treated properly, the injury may go on to nonunion, result in chronic pain, and/or lead to the development of degenerative joint disease. For example, nonunion of a stress fracture of the tarsal navicular can lead to degenerative joint disease of both the talonavicular and naviculocuneiform joints.140
High-risk stress reactions and stress fractures include those to the pars interarticularis of the spine, the tension side of the femoral neck, the patella, the anterior tibia (the “dreaded black line”), the medial malleolus, the talus, the tarsal navicular, the metaphyseal/diaphyseal junction of the fifth metatarsal (a Jones fracture), and the sesamoids62 (Table 3). The incidence and prevalence of these injuries in children is not well described. Overall, delayed union and nonunion have been reported to occur in up to 10% of athletic stress fractures.141 Delayed union and nonunion were most often seen in the hallux sesamoids, mid-tibial shaft, metaphyseal/diaphyseal junction of fifth metatarsal, tarsal navicular, and olecranon.141
Spine (Pars Interarticularis)
Stress fractures of the pars interarticularis (spondylolysis) are a relatively common cause of back pain in active children. They are most frequent at the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae.142 Among young athletes evaluated for back pain, 48.5% of young athletes were found to have occult spondylolysis.143,144 Progression to nonunion ranges from 14% to 70%, with those who are untreated or undergo delayed treatment having the highest rates of nonunion. In a retrospective analysis of 57 youth soccer players diagnosed with lumbar spondylolysis, those who took at least 3 months off from the sport with or without bracing had the most optimal results.145 In another series evaluating outcomes of pars stress fractures in young athletes, the average time needed to return sport was 5.4 months.146 The decision regarding rigid anti-lordotic bracing remains controversial, though most would agree that a period of rest, with or without bracing until pain free, is necessary.147 Progression to spondylolisthesis of >20% occurs in only about 4% of cases over 7 years of follow-up.148 In a 45-year natural history study of pediatric spondylolysis, there was no risk for spondylolisthesis if the injury was unilateral.149 Surgical pars repair may be indicated for painful spondylolysis with nonunion after 6 months of nonoperative treatment and at least 9 to 12 months of symptoms.150 Surgical fusion may be indicated for spondylolisthesis >50%, and may be a relative indication for those with persistent radicular or neurologic symptoms in the setting of spondylolysis.150
Stress fractures of the femoral neck are not common in children and adolescents but have been reported.151,152 If not recognized early and treated, complete fracture may occur, with significant long-term implications.152 A high index of suspicion should be maintained with any young athlete who presents with anterior hip or groin pain. If x-rays are negative, an MRI should be obtained for diagnosis. Although the majority of these are compression-sided fractures, there are case reports of tension-sided fractures in youth.153 Tension-sided fractures should be referred to an orthopedic specialist and treated with strict nonweight-bearing and/or open reduction with internal fixation just as in adults because of the risk of nonunion, progression to a pathologic fracture, and development of avascular necrosis.152
Case reports of patellar stress fractures in children exist, but the true incidence is unknown.154,155 Patellar stress fractures should be treated with a 4- to 6-week period of immobilization in a long leg cast, but may heal faster than adults. Any displaced fracture or fracture with nonunion should be referred for surgical fixation.
Anterior cortical tibial stress fractures are tension-sided injuries that have a high risk of nonunion. Radiographs may display a defect of the anterior cortex, often referred to as the “dreaded black line.” If radiographs are negative, MRI or computed tomography (CT) with thin cuts may be helpful in making the diagnosis.156 In 1 case series, anterior tibial stress fractures were reported in 7 males and 4 females (mean age of 17 years).157 All patients had failed nonoperative treatment for a minimum of 4 months and had experienced symptoms for a mean of 12 months. All were treated with reamed intramedullary nailing. Clinical and radiological union occurred at 3 months. The mean duration for return to sports after surgery was 4 months.157
Ankle (Medial Malleolus)
Stress fractures of the medial malleolus are rare. In 1 case of a 15-year-old elite gymnast with open physes, the patient was treated initially with rest and then gradually returned to full activity.158 Two months later, however, she developed a complete fracture of the medial malleolus. This was treated surgically by open reduction and internal fixation with a cancellous screw with subsequent return to full activity.
In a retrospective review of 3 decades of x-rays from a single pediatric orthopedic clinic, 507 children with tarsal stress fractures were identified. Of the tarsal stress fractures identified, the following specific bones were involved: calcaneus (244), cuboid (188), talus (121), navicular (24), and cuneiforms (23). Many occurred during resumption of weight bearing after cast immobilization for another injury.159
The incidence of tarsal navicular fractures in the pediatric athletes is unknown. There is a case report of a 13-year-old athlete in the literature.160 The highest incidence appears to involve track and field followed by football or soccer.160 These fractures often have a delay in diagnosis as symptoms are vague, and the fracture plane may be missed on radiographs. Thus, advanced imaging with CT or MRI is often needed.
Stress fracture of the sesamoids of the great toe was reported in 5 female athletes (mean age 16.8 years; range, 13–22 years).161 When this injury is suspected, bone scan and CT scan are suggested as more reliable in confirming the diagnosis than other imaging methods. After failure of conservative treatment measures, surgical excision of the proximal fragment was successful in all patients. All patients regained full sports activity within 6 months (range, 2.5–6 months).
Although stress fractures of the talus and fifth metatarsal metaphyseal/diaphyseal junction are well described in adults as problematic injuries, there is no specific data regarding these injuries in children.
Clinical Clues to High-Risk Stress Fractures
A high index of suspicion should be maintained for athletes complaining of pain at the sites of potential high-risk bone stress injuries. These sites include the lower lumbar spine, anterior hip, groin or thigh, anterior knee, anterior leg, medial ankle, dorsal/medial midfoot, lateral foot, and plantar aspect of the great toe (Table 4). Because the spine cannot be adequately palpated on exam, history alone is cause for further imaging. For femoral neck stress fractures, palpation is not helpful. Pain may be reproduced with passive hip internal rotation, but the history may be the only clue that prompts imaging. For the other sites, palpable tenderness over the bone warrants definitive imaging.
Imaging of Stress Reactions and Stress Fractures
Imaging for stress reactions/fractures should begin with x-rays. However, bone stress injuries may not be visible on plain radiographs for several weeks following the onset of pain, and some may never become apparent on plain radiographs. Magnetic resonance imaging is the study of choice for early stress fracture diagnosis in most situations. A SPECT bone scan is frequently used for diagnosing spondylolysis, though MRI with STIR sequences is being used increasingly in some institutions. Early stress injuries and incomplete fractures to the pars interarticularis and pedicle in the lumbar spine may be missed on traditional MRI, and may need to be sequenced to enhance the ability to diagnose an early spondylolysis.162 The use of triple phase bone scans has fallen out of favor because of the radiation exposure and lack of specificity; however, they can be helpful in diagnosing rib stress injuries, or when the source of the pain cannot be localized on exam.
Treatment of high-risk stress reactions and stress fractures depends on the specific site of the injury (Table 4). For fractures that fail to heal and cause persistent symptoms, open reduction with internal fixation may be required. Surgical treatment may also be considered as initial treatment for stress fractures of the tension side of the femoral neck, anterior tibia, tarsal navicular, and at the diaphyseal/metaphyseal junction of the fifth metatarsal.
Prevention of Stress Fractures
There are no studies specifically on prevention of stress fractures in the pediatric and adolescent population. However, since the risks factors are generally the same as in adults, it is reasonable to employ the same prevention strategies including setting limits on impact activities, optimizing Vitamin D and calcium intake, screening for the female athlete triad, and considering the use of shoe orthotics. Early recognition is the key to optimal treatment.
Physeal Stress Injury
Physeal stress injuries related to participation in sports are known to occur, although injury incidence data are limited. Although most physeal stress injuries appear to resolve with rest, there is evidence that some may cause growth disturbance and joint deformity.13
Stress injury to the physis has been documented to occur at the proximal humerus, distal radius, distal femur, and the proximal tibia.17,72,163–166 Although symptoms may be prolonged, stress injury to the proximal humeral physis does not appear to have long-term consequences.17 Consequences of early closure of the distal femoral and proximal tibia physes can be significant as they account for 60% and 70% of the growth of those respective bones.167 Stress injury to theses physes may result in leg length discrepancy or angular or rotational malalignment of the affected leg.165
Perhaps the most studied physeal stress injury involves the distal radius in young gymnasts.19 A potential consequence of repetitive stress injury to the distal radial physis in gymnasts is premature physeal closure.168 If this occurs prior to closure of the distal ulnar physis, positive ulnar variance may ensue, which can lead to impingement of the triangular fibrocartilage complex, degenerative joint disease, and chronic ulnar-sided wrist pain. In a systematic review of the literature, radiographic abnormalities consistent with distal radius physeal stress reaction were described in 10% to 85% of gymnasts. Two studies indicated “abnormal” positive ulnar radial length discrepancy in 8% to 20%. Four studies showed significant correlations between training intensity and ulnar radial length discrepancy, suggesting a dose-response relation. Radiographic evidence of distal radial physeal arrest involving skeletally immature female gymnasts was reported in 4 studies. The results support the plausibility that stress-related distal radius physeal arrest may occur and lead to the subsequent development of positive ulnar variance, but are not conclusive.13,19
Physeal injury of the knee has been described in both the distal femur and proximal tibia of young athletes with knee pain.163–166 This abnormality may be visible on x-ray or T2-weighted MRI. In a retrospective review of the largest case series of 6 athletes, 5 were treated with 3 to 5 weeks rest and immobilization and had resolution of their pain and physeal widening at 1 to 3 months. One athlete continued intense training despite medical advice and developed bilateral genu varum deformities over the following 2 years.165 Further, boys who play load-bearing sports (track and field, basketball, volleyball, field hockey, tennis, badminton, and squash) show a significantly increased amount of genu varum from 13 to 15 years or older compared with sedentary boys.169 Growth plate widening has also been described in the distal tibia and fibula in young athletes.170
This injury to the subchondral bone and articular cartilage of joints may develop in young athletes from overuse or acute trauma. Recent data suggests that osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions occur due to injury affecting endochondral ossification from the secondary physis.171 The most common OCD sites are the femoral condyles, capitellum, and the talar dome. Osteochondritis dissecans typically occurs in the adolescent age group. Joint pain, swelling, limited motion, and mechanical symptoms are common. Radiographs may confirm the diagnosis. Magnetic resonance imaging may be needed for diagnosis if x-rays are not confirmatory. Magnetic resonance imaging is recommended for staging of OCD lesions with unstable lesions defined as articular fluid tracking behind the lesion.172 Stable lesions are initially treated nonoperatively and are more likely to heal if the physes are still open. Surgery is indicated for unstable lesions and for stable lesions that do not respond to nonoperative management.173
Recalcitrant or Complicated Apophyseal Injuries
Most cases of apophysitis resolve when the physis closes. However, a small number of these apophyses never fuse and may result in an ossicle that causes persistent pain. This can occur at the tibial tubercle, medial epicondyle, ischial tuberosity, olecranon apophysis, and the base of the fifth metatarsal. The incidence of apophyseal nonunion is unknown. In addition to nonunion, persistent pain may occur as a result of hypertrophy that results in a bony prominence that may be painful with trauma or overuse. This has been observed at the tibial tubercle, anterior inferior iliac spine, and ischial tuberosity. If the pain continues after skeletal maturity, ossicle resection, and/or tubercleplasty have been shown to be beneficial.174,175
Effort thrombosis of the upper extremity typically occurs in athletes as a consequence of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS). This venous form of TOS affecting the subclavian vein is sometimes referred to as Paget-Schroetter syndrome. Common presenting symptoms are unilateral arm swelling and discoloration. Case reports of effort thrombosis in adolescent athletes have been published.176,177 In 1 series of 32 cases of effort thrombosis in athletes (age range 16–26 years), 31% occurred in adolescents.178 The most extensive report of venous TOS in adolescents was recently published.179 This study described 17 adolescents with subclavian vein thrombosis (age range 10–18 years). Ten of these 17 cases were associated with athletic activities or overuse in other activities. All patients in this study underwent first rib resection and postoperative venography, with 13 requiring a period of anticoagulation post procedure. In both of these recent studies, patients with effort thrombosis treated with first rib resection regained full use of the affected extremity.178,179 The median time for return to full activity was 3.5 months.178 Because the contralateral extremity may be affected, diagnostic testing should be considered, even if that extremity is asymptomatic. In addition, all patients with effort thrombosis should undergo evaluation for an underlying coagulopathy.179
Burnout may be thought of as part of a spectrum of conditions that includes overreaching and overtraining. Overreaching may be functional or nonfunctional. Nonfunctional overreaching is defined as intense training that leads to a longer period of decreased performance than functional overreaching, but both result in full recovery after a rest period. Nonfunctional overreaching is further accompanied by increased psychological and/or neuroendocrinological symptoms.180 Overtraining syndrome is defined as extreme nonfunctional overreaching, with a longer performance decrement (>2 months), more severe symptomatology, and maladaptive physiology, and an additional stressor not explained by other disease.180 It has also been defined as a “series of psychological, physiologic, and hormonal changes that result in decreased sports performance.”181,182
Burnout has been defined by R.E. Smith as a “response to chronic stress” in which a young athlete ceases to participate in a previously enjoyable activity.183 The young athlete withdraws from the sport because they perceive it is not possible to meet the physical and psychological demands of the sport.184 Four stages of burnout were described by Smith in 1986: (1) the young athlete is placed in a situation that involves varying demands; (2) the demands are perceived as excessive; (3) the young athlete experiences varying physiological responses; and (4) varying burnout consequences develop (ie, withdrawal).183 In addition, Coakley states that the development of unidimensional self-conceptualization and lack of control leads to stress and ultimately burnout.184 The more fun and satisfaction the child perceives, the less anxiety they experience.184 Low self-esteem, low personal performance expectation, worrying more about failure and adult expectations, and increased parental pressure to participate are associated with increased anxiety.184 Excessive athletic stress can lead to loss of sleep and appetite, decreased fun and satisfaction, physical injury, lower performance, and subsequent withdrawal from the sport.184 Although stress in appropriate levels may be beneficial by learning stress coping skills to use later in life, this has not been studied.184
Attrition occurs when athletes drop out of their sport either permanently or temporarily. However, it is important to recognize that not all young athletes who drop out are burned out. In fact, most young athletes discontinue a sport due to time conflicts and interest in other activities, not because of excessive stress or burnout.184 Studies have shown that “youth sport attrition is a complex phenomenon influenced by a variety of personal and situational variables.”122 The most common variable is time conflicts with other activities. Others include interest in other activities, lack of playing time, lack of success, little skill improvement, lack of fun, boredom, and injury.123 It has also been shown that young athletes who discontinue participation may reenter the same sport or participate in a different sport in the future.122
It is difficult to determine the extent of overtraining/burnout in children and adolescents, in part due to the lack of standard terminology used in different studies. Overreaching was found to occur in 30% to 35% of adolescent athletes.185–187 One-third of young English athletes in 19 different sports experienced overreaching at least once.185 Thirty-five percent of adolescent swimmers from 4 countries reported having felt “stale” in a questionnaire.186
There are multiple risk factors for young athletes developing overtraining/burnout. Table 5 lists the environmental factors and personal characteristics. Among elite young athletes there is a higher incidence in females, athletes in individual sports, and those competing at the highest level of their sport.185,187 It is not clear if age is a risk factor.
Single sport intensive training is another potential risk factor. Several studies have suggested that athletes who had early specialized training withdrew from their sport either due to injury or burnout from the sport.189–191 Swimmers who specialized early spent less time on the national team and retired from swimming earlier than athletes who specialized later.189 Early specialization also seems to be correlated with reports of decreased general health and psychological well-being.134,190
The diagnosis of overtraining syndrome/burnout can only be made by taking a thorough history and requires the recognition of nonspecific and varied symptomatology in athletes (Table 6). Table 7 outlines important historical features. Laboratory studies and other tests should only be performed if indicated by the history.
Treatment of overtraining syndrome/burnout depends on the etiology for the specific young athlete. Any diagnosed organic disease should be treated appropriately. Rest or relative rest is an important component of the treatment plan. Prevention of attrition is possible by changing adult-controlled factors. Efforts should also be made to develop realistic but positive perceptions of competence in young athletes.122 One difference in children compared with adults is that there appears to be more of a psychological component to burnout and attrition with adult-supervised activities. Consultation with a mental health expert (ie, sport psychologist) should be considered due to this aspect in young athletes. Treatment of depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances should initially be addressed with nonpharmacological methods. Pharmacologic agents may be implemented with appropriate consultant guidance.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR OVERUSE INJURY PREVENTION
Studies demonstrating successful overuse injury prevention methods are limited. Given the prior discussion, this section (and the summary that follows) will summarize recommendations based upon the available data using the Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT) grading system193 (Table 8).
As discussed above, overuse injury in youth has been shown to be related to higher workloads, including training volume and intensity.
* Limiting weekly and yearly participation time, limits on sport-specific repetitive movements (eg, pitch count limits), and scheduled rest periods are recommended. (B)
* Such modifications need to be individualized based upon the sport and the athlete's age, growth rate, readiness, and injury history. (C)
* Careful monitoring of training workload during the adolescent growth spurt is recommended, as injury risk seems to be greater during this phase. (B) The apparent increased risk may be related to a number of factors including diminished size-adjusted bone mineral density, asynchronous growth patterns, relative weakness of growth cartilage, and physeal vascular susceptibility.
Strength and Conditioning
Strength gains, injury prevention, injury rehabilitation, enhanced long-term health, and improved sport performance are all potential benefits of youth strength training.194–198
* Preseason conditioning programs can reduce injury rates in young athletes. (B)199–202
* In addition, prepractice neuromuscular training can reduce lower extremity injuries. (B)203–205
Regular participation in a resistance training program can improve bone health and body composition and potentially reduce sport-related injuries.197,206–208 It is now well established that with proper supervision and planning, such training programs can be performed safely in the pediatric population.196,198
During periods of rapid growth and development, equipment size and fit can change dramatically and necessitate frequent evaluation.
* Although data are lacking that link such issues to overuse injury, given the altered biomechanics that may occur with ill-fitting equipment, proper sizing and resizing of equipment is recommended. (C)
Measures to prevent burnout from sports should include avoidance of both overscheduling and excessive time commitment to sport.
* To reduce the likelihood of burnout in youth sports, an emphasis should be placed on skill development over competition and winning. (C)
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overuse injuries are common in children and adolescents participating in sports, particularly for those participating on a nearly continuous yearly schedule. In young athletes these injuries are the result of a complex interaction of multiple factors, including growth-related factors that are unique to this population. Although often thought to be self-limited injuries, recovery time can be lengthy, often more so than acute injuries. In addition, some overuse injuries have the potential to negatively affect future participation, and may result in long-term health consequences. Further, in the setting of competitive youth sports, the specter of burnout is also a concern. It is thus essential that health care providers provide comprehensive evaluation and treatment of young athletes with overuse injuries and/or those who exhibit features of burnout.
In addition to the recommendations regarding prevention, the following summary statements are made:
1. Overuse injuries are underreported in the current literature because most injury definitions have focused on time loss from sport. (B)
2. Preparticipation exams may identify prior injury patterns and provide an opportunity to assess sport readiness. (C)
3. A history of prior injury is an established risk factor for overuse injuries and should be noted as part of each injury assessment. (A)
4. Adolescent female athletes should be assessed for menstrual dysfunction as a potential predisposing factor to overuse injury. (B)
5. Parents and coaches should be educated regarding the concept of sport readiness. (C) Variations in cognitive development, as well as motor skills, should be considered when setting goals and expectations.
6. Early sport specialization may not lead to long-term success in sports and may increase risk for overuse injury and burnout. With the exception of early entry sports such as gymnastics, figure skating, and swimming/diving, sport diversification should be encouraged at younger ages. (C)
7. When an overuse injury is diagnosed, it is essential to address the underlying cause(s). (C) The athlete, parents, and coaches should be involved in reviewing all risk factors and developing a strategy to attempt to avoid recurrent injury.
8. All overuse injuries are not inherently benign. (A) Clinicians should be familiar with specific high-risk injuries, including stress fractures of the femoral neck, tarsal navicular, anterior tibial cortex and physis, and effort thrombosis.
The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their valuable review of this document: Michael F. Bergeron, PhD, University of South Dakota; David T. Bernhardt, MD, University of Wisconsin; and Cynthia R. LaBella, MD, Northwestern University. Special thanks to Rikke S. Ogawa of the UCLA Biomedical Library for her assistance with the literature search methodology.
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Copyright © 2014 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:423ac696-3a7d-48ea-84ff-6e1078b9badc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journals.lww.com/cjsportsmed/Fulltext/2014/01000/Overuse_Injuries_and_Burnout_in_Youth_Sports___A.2.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxALLx20100222xxFRIEND | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905658 | 23,261 | 3.046875 | 3 |
August 20, 2013 11:00:35 AM
Begs to differ
I could not believe what I was reading. By the tone of Adele Elliott's column on her early Catholic education ("Canonization," Aug. 11), she never matured past that. How many students were in her classroom, 30 to 50? How would she keep order conducting a overcrowded class of students? Swatting across the hands with a ruler might be the least to be reverted to. Ask students from public schools of that era and they will tell you similar tactics were used to discipline. The 'nuns' were not different.
I took offense at your judgment of the Sisters. They were/are some of the most dedicated Catholic Christians in our society today. They worked for minimum wage and provided an excellent education for little or nothing for the children and continue to respond to the needs of the people today.
There is no better educated or more generous group of women in the U.S. today than Sisters. They started and still run hospitals (St. Dominic's in Jackson), schools and universities, run soup kitchens and clothing co-ops (Excel in Okolona), as well as living among the poorest of the poor in the US and throughout third world countries.
I think it is time for her to open her eyes and think deeper about the gift of a good education that she received and the impact of nun's today.
Clare Van Lent
2. Voice of the people: Dave Hood LETTERS TO THE EDITOR (VOICE@CDISPATCH.COM)
3. Our View: Summitt's legacy is her impact on the game, lives DISPATCH EDITORIALS
4. Editorial cartoon for 6-29-16 NATIONAL COLUMNS | <urn:uuid:a1737000-65fb-4549-8667-1e4cf7592787> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdispatch.com/opinions/article.asp?aid=26406 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982482 | 364 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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Indiana has more than 3,268 miles of trails and bikeways open for public use across the state.
A 2006 Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR) plan, Hoosiers on the Move: The Indiana State Trails, Greenways & Bikeways Plan, set a goal of having a trail within 7.5 miles (or 15 minutes) of all Indiana residents by 2016. The plan also established a visionary system of statewide interconnected arterials.
In 2006, 83 percent of all Indiana residents had a hiking, biking, or equestrian trail available within 7.5 miles of their home and 70 percent lived within five miles of a trail. As of July 2013, 97.9 percent of all Indiana residents live within 7.5 miles of a trail and 93.2 percent live within five miles of a trail.
The original goal of the DNR plan – a trail within 7.5 miles of all Hoosiers – virtually has been realized. In addition, the nearly 1,000 miles of State Visionary Trails were built quickly because of the completion of several extensive trail corridors. In 2006, 131 miles of this visionary system were complete. As of July 2013, an additional 197 miles of this system had been completed.
By completing several of the longest rail-trails in the state, Indiana boasts destination trails that enhance tourism, promote healthy lifestyles, and help boost economic development along those corridors and in surrounding communities.
Trails provide a number of benefits, including:
• Economic: Numerous studies have shown that trails attract businesses to communities and boost tourism, property values, and quality of life.
• Transportation: With growing concern over pollution and energy costs, more people than ever are looking for alternative ways to travel.
• Infrastructure Corridor: Co-locating important infrastructure such as sewage, water, gas and cable lines underneath trails could serve an important dual purpose.
• Health: Trails provide Hoosiers with a place to recreate and exercise. Trails also connect neighborhoods to parks, natural areas, sports fields and community resources. Increased physical activity reduces the chances of heart disease, cancer and obesity, and contributes to a healthy lifestyle.
Traditionally, trail development in Indiana has been paid for through a combination of federal and state funds, with local matching dollars coming from public and private sources.
State and private funds for trails also have been secured and directed toward trails since 2006. Substantial amounts of American Recovery and Reinvestment Act special federal stimulus Transportation Enhancement funding was made available for trails in Indiana.
Jeanette P. Wilson
Transportation Planner, Bicycle & Pedestrian Coordinator
Office of Asset Planning & Management
Indiana Department of Transportation
100 N. Senate Ave., Room N955
Indianapolis, IN 46204 | <urn:uuid:9fc88c34-047e-447d-95fc-b827649152c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://in.gov/indot/2828.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938135 | 596 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The Internet of Everything is on the mind of seemingly every major technology vendor these days. The IoE is also sometimes called the Internet of Things, though the terms may refer to slightly different concepts. With smartphones, tablets and ultra portable laptops having already revolutionized how, when and where people go online, makers of sensors and other networked endpoints are looking to take things to the next level with an even more sophisticated ecosystem of devices.
Breaking down the IoE: Basic concepts and technologies to know
At the recent Cisco Live U.S. 2014 conference in San Francisco, Cisco vice president Mala Anand stated that the IoE was a model for “business transformation at scale” and referenced the company’s prediction that IoE-related technologies could eventually become a $19 trillion market.
But what is the IoE, exactly? While it is not that different from what currently exists with billions of IP-enabled endpoints all over the world, its name usually connotes increasing scale and complex interactions between machines and humans. Some of the core categories of the IoE may include:
- Machine-to-machine: Smart sensors, robots and servers can communicate to streamline and automate processes such as inventory maintenance, real-time infrastructure monitoring and factory production.
- Machine-to-people: Also known as machine-to-machine-to-people, this category includes increasingly popular devices and services designed for tasks such as health monitoring. Wearables such as the Jawbone Up and Fitbit Flex have extended the reach of data collection and IP networking beyond just PCs and other devices with screens. To give a sense of scale: Last year, Jawbone announced that it collected 60 years of sleep data each night.
- People-to-people: The name sounds strange, but many individuals already use something that fits into this category – social networks. Web-scale infrastructure and highly efficient algorithms keep these platforms running, but the key connections are between humans
On a more technical level, the Internet of Everything entails a slew of new networked hardware. Toothbrushes and refrigerators that connect to the Internet may still be over the horizon in terms of mainstream acceptance, but there’s already been plenty of attention on companies such as Nest Labs. The maker of smart, programmable thermostats and smoke detectors was acquired earlier this year by Google for more than $3 billion.
There are a lot of potential benefits to the IoE. Some industry proponents, such as Salesforce.com’s JP Rangaswami, have argued that the IoE will do for technology what widespread electrification projects did for electricity – make it ubiquitous and an invisible – but constant and important – part of everyday life.
“The net effect [of the Internet of Everything] will be to reduce waste everywhere: in physical flows and logistics, in the movement of people and goods; in logical flows and logistics, in the movement of ideas and information; decisions will be made faster and better, based on more accurate information; prior errors in assumption and planning will be winkled out more effectively,” stated Rangaswami, according to eWeek.
What security risks exists with the Internet of Everything?
Almost as popular a topic as the IoE’s business impact is the IoE’s implications for cybersecurity and privacy. Prominent Internet-enabled properties, from eBay to Adobe, already struggle to steward the private information of users, falling victim to substantial data breaches that in turn fuel future cybercrime, as attackers acquire the credentials needed to go after other accounts. What will happen if and when connections are more pervasive?
A report from Pew Research and Elon University’s Imagining the Internet Center, “The Internet of Things Will Thrive by 2025,” delved into both the risks and possible rewards of an extensive IoE. On the worrisome side are the authors’ expectations that the evolution of the IoE, like the advances in computing capabilities in general, is going to set off an arms race between the security community and cybercriminals.
Certainly, equipping a large number of endpoints with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and/or cellular radios could be productive in some use cases, such as monitoring for equipment failures and relaying the findings back to a server. But it is unclear what how – and by whom – all of these new data exchanges will be secured.
Taking responsibility for IoE security
Individuals and organizations are right to be concerned about whomever bears the responsibility for securing the IoE. The Heartbleed flaw demonstrates that even critical technologies such as encryption, which shield transactions such as online banking and payments, are vulnerable and in need of increased funding from the many vendors that benefit from them. Given the scope of the IoE, the stakes for cybersecurity are only going to get higher.
“You’re going to have to secure the device or the sensor, you need to secure the data, and you’re going to have to secure that across an open network – it really is a massive, massive change,” stated Stuart Dommet, Intel head of business marketing, according to The Inquirer. “The access to personal data is probably one of the biggest changes we’ve got going forward – and it can destroy your company. It’s very important [that] we understand what that security model is going to look like, because we can’t afford to run private networks.”
Depending on the types of data being transferred, companies and security experts may have to consider locking them down or implementing access controls. In this respect, IoE security may weave in many traditional cybersecurity practices, only at much greater scale than ever before. Due diligence will require attention to a broader range of devices, as well as the knowledge that there is now a larger potential number of attack surfaces that could be gateways for data breaches.
None of this means that consumers have to start worrying now about sensationalist possibilities such as their toasters or freezers being hacked. But it worth examining the tradeoffs that are inherent in the IoE – having network access all the time, everywhere, means that security and privacy strategies have to be front and center. We will take a closer look at managing the IoE in the next part in this series. | <urn:uuid:9acbcfbc-01ba-4a97-a3e2-3a14f7d01392> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.trendmicro.com/dealing-risks-rewards-internet-everything-part-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950976 | 1,296 | 2.78125 | 3 |
A box of sticks of equal lengths is provided.
The minimum number sticks needed to build a frame to enclose a 3 dimensional volume is
2)We can make cube with the help of 12 sticks.
It will definitely enclose 3 dimensional figure.
1)Also with the help of 6 sticks I can make tetrahedron
Here 3 sticks are require to make base
Also with other 3 sticks,its top is formed
I think it is the answer
3)According to me, it is not possible
4)It is rejected as I make 3 dimensional figure in option (1)
But suggest me the 3 dimensional figure formed by 8 sticks.
Am I doing right ???? | <urn:uuid:5942f116-b606-4a12-8f27-5b66415e77ac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/369393/minimum-number-sticks-requirement | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905945 | 144 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Browsing downloads in "Geological Timeline"
The Geological Timeline tells, through words and pictures, the story of the Earth from its formation 4600 million years ago to the present day. It describes the key events in the evolution of life, from its earliest stages to the emergence of humans, and goes on to consider what the future may hold for the Earth¿s environment and all its inhabitants.
A walk through geological time at BGS Keyworth, a brief guide
The Geological Walk celebrates the diverse geology of Britain and Northern Ireland though a display of impressive specimens and natural stone paving. The display, covering almost 3 billion years of Earth history, includes many of the fascinating rocks that shape our landscape and are associated with our natural resources. This leaflet is your guide to the Geological Walk and other aspects of the new-look Keyworth site. Inside is a detailed map and key to all the rock types featured. | <urn:uuid:11578613-1c7c-412a-bc08-1806d93822e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/browse.cfm?sec=8&cat=42 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919389 | 188 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Using Interactive Visualization to Enhance Understanding of a Fisheries Model
Fishery management is the science of setting rules for governing fishing so that it is done in a sustainable manner. An ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) approach has been advocated to recognize ecosystems as the complex systems that they are. If EBFM is to be put into effect, then fishery managers require ecological models which take many factors into account to help them make management decisions. MS-PROD is one such model; it is a multi-species production model which forecasts the biomass of ten species of fish in the Gulf of Maine over 30 years. In the model, the biomass of each fish species depends on effects from harvesting and interactions with the other fish species. An interactive visualization to the model was designed and implemented to allow the user to investigate the impact of changes in fishing effort in real time. By combining time series with a network representation, this visualization shows the predicted biomasses of the fish, the changes in biomass that can result from changes in fishing effort, the causal relationships that help to explain the effects of changes in fishing effort, and the uncertainty of the model. An evaluation was conducted to compare four different methods for depicting the two types of causal relationships in the model---predation and competition---which found that representing those relationships with arc diagrams enhanced the understanding of the model. This visualization is a novel combination of features which may be a powerful tool that could assist fishery managers in making informed decisions.
Carmen St. Jean works in the Data Visualization Research Lab as a Research Assistant for Colin Ware. She is pursuing a master's degree in Computer Science and is expected to graduate in 2014. In 2010, Carmen graduated from UNH with a B.S. in Interdisciplinary Mathematics Computer Science and a minor in German. From March 2011 to August 2012, she worked on the nowCOAST project with John Kelley and Jason Greenlaw. Her hobbies include film photography, running, playing board games, traveling, and learning languages. | <urn:uuid:f7aa394b-3464-4b62-8c24-99e39cf2b36e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ccom.unh.edu/seminars/using-interactive-visualization-enhance-understanding-fisheries-model | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950734 | 405 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Building a fire is often considered by many to be simple child's play, but what if you find yourself in need of building a fire during or immediately following a torrential downpour? The steps to building a fire under such wet conditions are not as simple as grabbing sticks from the ground and setting them ablaze. Doing so is not impossible, but there are some very important factors to consider when faced with just such a situation.
The following tips have the potential to save your life should you ever need to get a fire started in the rain, or simply wet conditions.
Logic might dictate that fallen limbs may be a better choice, but it is much less likely that the lower limbs of trees that are still standing have been protected from moisture by the limbs and foliage above them. If you have a knife or other sharp tool, you can expose the dry wood hiding just beneath the wet surface.
Perhaps one of the greatest finds, if at all possible, would be what many people call "fat wood" or "fat lighter." This is wood that has become soaked with tree sap or resin and is usually found as part of a pine or cedar stump. You can tell you have found "fat wood" by breaking it apart and smelling the inside layers of wood. If it has a strong tar odor or oozes with sap, you have found a wonderful fire starter. Other natural fire starters include:
- Dry grass
- Shaved bark
- Cattail fluff
- Dry pine needles
- Poplar Cotton
Of course being prepared before the need arises is one of the best methods of ensuring that you have what you will need to start a fire. Homemade fire starters are quite easy to make and store. Perhaps one of the best methods is to smear petroleum jelly on cotton balls, then store them in dry packaging. If you are preparing a survival kit that includes fire starters, the best thing to do is practice with the materials beforehand. The saying goes, "necessity is the mother of invention," but in survival mode, it is better to have already prepared for such necessities. Examples of fire starters you can load into your survival gear include:
- Birthday candles can be easily stored, but they will melt if they are exposed to too much heat
- Cotton balls
- Compressed wood encased in wax (While you can make your own, most barbecue supply stores sell this item with a strike-ready material already on them)
- Dryer lint
- Fuzz sticks (Made by taking a knife and gently carving "wings" that extend out from the stick)
- Steel wool #0000 (Yes it burns! You can even place this across the terminals of a lantern battery to get a fire started!)
- Blast Match
- Ferrocerium rod
- Magnesium Block
- Misch metal rod
- Strike Force
- Swedish Firesteel
Besides the tinder, you will also want to gather up and prepare slightly larger wooden material. This kindling will be placed on the tinder as soon as it is ignited, so make sure it is at hand before starting your fire.
Once the kindling has begun to burn, you will then begin placing larger pieces of wood in the flames. Start with pieces about as big around as a pencil and gradually increase the size as it burns. Just remember to be patient when building your fire. Trying to put too much wood on a small fire will remove the much needed supply of oxygen and it will go out.
Never try to build a fire that is too large for your immediate needs. Many people think that a large fire will warm them up quicker, but the truth is, the larger the fire, the further away you have to sit from it. Sitting close to a small fire produces much better results. Also, once the fire is burning, don't quit. Locate an additional supply of tinder, kindling and wood and place it near the fire so that it will be dry and ready for you the next time it is needed. | <urn:uuid:6be5c95f-18c0-4c1e-a834-835bf0d103c1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.secretsofsurvival.com/survival/starting-a-fire-in-wet-conditions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962377 | 821 | 2.578125 | 3 |
When you receive a set of financial statements, are you able to look at them and gain an understanding of the association's financial position? Or do you, like many people, only look at a few important figures, such as what the association has in cash, investments and replacement reserves, or if the association has net income for the year.
A set of financial statements can provide valuable information if you are knowledgeable about what you are looking for. This will be the first in a series of articles related to financial statements. In the coming months, Association Times will review the income statement, general ledger, and other pertinent reports.
The balance sheet is a picture of the association, reflecting its financial position at a specific point in time. The balance sheet is categorized into three areas: Assets, Liabilities, and Members Equity. The three are always in balance, thus the equation: Assets = Liabilities + Members' Equity (see below).
Assets, such as cash, accounts receivable, property/equipment, and prepaid expenses are items that the association owns.
A liability is an amount the association owes to others, such as vendors, or perhaps even a banking institution for a loan. Liabilities usually include association reserves that are supported by a reserve study.
Member's equity is the association's net worth. Basically, it's what the association owns less what it owes. Member equity is usually divided into Prior Year and Current Year.
The balance sheet provides a cumulative, complete picture of the association. The current year's equity reflected on the balance sheet is the net income or loss being added or subtracted for the year's operations.
What is the value of the balance sheet? How can these figures provide meaningful information? Here are some common ratios that can be applied, using the sample balance sheet below.
Current ratio is a measure of the short-term liquidity of the association. It is measured by:
Current ratio = current assets / current liabilities
= $436,500 / $4,000
= 109 times
We can say that this association has current liabilities covered 109 times over.
Long Term solvency can be measured with the total debt ratio, which addresses the association's long-run ability to meet is obligations.
Total debt ratio = total assets total equity / total assets
= $456,500 - $59,500 / $456,500
= .87 times
What this means is that for every $1 in assets, the association has $.87 obligated to liabilities, which would be the case since most of the cash is allocated to long-term reserves.
The basic concept to remember about the balance sheet is that it provides the basis for evaluating assets versus liabilities and members' equity - - - much the same way an individual would list their personal assets owned versus the liabilities that are attached to those assets.
|Consolidated Balance Sheet December 31, 2002|
|Total Current Assets||$436,500||$414,000|
|Long Term Assets|
|Total Long Term Assets||$20,000||$12,000|
|Total Current Liabilities||$4,000||$6,000|
|Long Term Reserves||$393,000||$354,000|
|Total Long-Term Liabilities||$393,000||$354,000|
|Prior Yrs Equity||$54,000||$52,500|
|Current Yr Equity||$5,500||$1,500|
|Total Member Equity||$59,500||$54,000|
|Total Liabilities and Members' Equity||$456,500||$414,000|
- What is an HOA or Homeowner Association?
- How to Start a Neighborhood Association
- HOA Website Can Save Money And Increase Communication
- How Neighborhood Assoc Websites Can Increase Participation
- A Condo Association Website Can Facilitate Communication
- Neighborhood Watch-How to Start One!
- Utilizing a Neighborhood Watch Website
- An Effective Meeting Agenda
- Funding a Reserve Study
- HOA Maintenance - Who Has Responsibility for What?
- Budget Preparation Tips
- Directory of Association Articles | <urn:uuid:a19b6042-6c97-452d-82d2-fe3e6ec6bd14> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.neighborhoodlink.com/article/Association/Understanding_Financial_Statements | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923604 | 863 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Planned Parenthood Marks National Black HIV/AIDS Awareness Day
New York, NY — Today, Planned Parenthood Federation of America marks National Black HIV/AIDS Awareness Day by reminding people of the importance of prevention and access to health care in combating the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the black community.
African Americans are the racial/ethnic demographic group most affected by HIV. New analysis released yesterday by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shows that many HIV-positive African Americans do not receive the critical HIV care and treatment they need and, those under the age of 25 had lowest rate of receiving care. Additionally, a new CDC report on HIV infections and care among black men who have sex with men (MSM) in North Carolina underlined the role that testing and diagnosis play in engaging HIV-positive partners in treatment and care.
Statement from Dr. Vanessa Cullins, Vice President for External Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America:
“This data demonstrates the need to expand access to critical HIV testing and treatment for African Americans so that they can get the care they need — no matter what their HIV status. National Black HIV/AIDS Awareness Day is an opportunity to raise awareness around this epidemic and work together toward the healthiest generation of African Americans.
"We know that blacks account for nearly half of Americans living with HIV and nearly half of all new HIV infections. An estimated 1 in 16 black men and 1 in 32 black women will be diagnosed with HIV infection in their lifetime. Despite progress, there is still work to be done — and we are committed to that work.
"Planned Parenthood is proud to help people access a wide range of critical health care services — including HIV testing and safer sex education — every day in communities across the country. We are also committed to educating people about the benefits of the Affordable Care Act and how they can access the critical health care they need to keep themselves and their communities healthy. Under the Affordable Care Act, millions more people will be eligible for health insurance and HIV care. It is a crucial tool in our nation's fight against HIV/AIDS.”
- According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, African Americans are the racial/ethnic demographic group most affected by HIV. African Americans account for almost half of all HIV infections in the U.S. (510,000 out of 1.1 million people).
- In 2010, African-Americans accounted for 44 percent of all new HIV infections.
- Despite the drop in infection rate for African-American women between 2008 and 2010, women of color remain disproportionately affected by HIV. African-American women accounted for 64 percent of all new infections in women in 2010, and the rate of new HIV infections among black women was 20 times that of white women.
- Men who have sex with men are severely affected by HIV, having seen a 12 percent increase between 2008 and 2010. In particular, young black men who have sex with men account for more new HIV infections than any other subgroup of gay and bisexual me
- In the United States, HIV infection rates remain highest in the South. Cities like Miami, Jackson, New Orleans, and Baton Rouge have some of the highest rates of HIV infection in the country — and the least access to affordable preventive health care.
- The HIV/AIDS epidemic for African-American women living in the South is even more severe. They account for 71 percent of new HIV diagnoses among women in the region.
- Under the Affordable Care Act, millions are eligible for health insurance and increased access to HIV counseling, testing, and care.
- Especially important to those living with chronic medical conditions like cancer or HIV/AIDS, the ACA guarantees that no one can be denied coverage or charged more on the basis of pre-existing conditions. Additionally, insurance companies can no longer put a dollar limit on how much they will pay out for essential health benefits.
- Planned Parenthood is among the nation's leading providers of HIV testing. Last year, Planned Parenthood conducted 700,000 HIV tests.
- In 2012, Planned Parenthood served more men than ever before — primarily for STD testing — as part of its commitment to provide affordable, quality health care to everyone.
Planned Parenthood is the nation's leading provider and advocate of high-quality, affordable health care for women, men, and young people, as well as the nation's largest provider of sex education. With more than 700 health centers across the country, Planned Parenthood organizations serve all patients with care and compassion, with respect and without judgment. Through health centers, programs in schools and communities, and online resources, Planned Parenthood is a trusted source of reliable health information that allows people to make informed health decisions. We do all this because we care passionately about helping people lead healthier lives.
— WebWireID185247 —
View Comments and Join the Discussion! | <urn:uuid:bb601f9e-ba11-4194-ba65-bc44d6eb1fc9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.benzinga.com/pressreleases/14/02/w4292032/planned-parenthood-marks-national-black-hivaids-awareness-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945682 | 981 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The reader has sbeen in the previous chapters what was the condition of the Indians in South Africa at the outbreak of the Boer War and what were the steps taken so far in order to ameliorate it.
In 1899, Dr. Jameson carried out his raid on Johannesburg in pursuance
of the conspiracy, which he had entered into with the owners of the gold
mines. The conspirators had expected that the Boer Government would come
to know of the raid only after they captured Johannesburg. Dr. Jameson
and his associates badly blundered in this calculation of theirs. They
fell into another error when they imagined that even in a case of the
plot being discovered, untrained Boer farmers could do nothing against
sharpshooters trained in Rhodesia. The raiders had likewise expected that
a large majority of the population of Johannesburg would receive them
with open arms. Here too the good Doctor was reckoning without his host.
President Kruger had full information beforehand. With great deliberation,
skill and secrecy he made preparations to meet Dr. Jameson and simultaneously
arranged to arrest his fellow conspirators. Dr. Jameson, therefore, was
greeted by the Boers with gunfire before he had reached anywhere near
Johannesburg. The Doctor’s party was in no position to try conclusions
with the army which faced them. Arrangements were similarly complete for
preventing a rising in Johannesburg. None dared raise their heads and
the millionaires of Johannesburg were dumbfounded in consequence of President
Kruger’s action. The result of his excellent preparations was that
the raid was disposed of with a minimum of loss in men as well as money.
Dr. Jameson and his friends, the owners of gold mines, were arrested and
placed on their trial without delay. Some were sentenced to be hanged.
Most of these convicts were millionaires; but the Imperial Government
could do nothing for them, as they were guilty of a raid in broad daylight.
President Kruger became an important man all at once. Mr. Chamberlain,
the Secretary of State for the Colonies, sent a humble cablegram to him,
and appealed to his sense of mercy on behalf of the convicted magnates.
President Kruger was perfect master of his own game. He had no apprehension
of his independence being challenged by any powser in South Africa. The
conspiracy of Dr. Jameson and his friends was a well-planned affair in
their own eyes, but to President Kruger it seemed to be an act of insensate
folly. He therefore complied with Mr. Chamberlain’s humble request
and not only did not enforce the sentence of death against any of the
convicts but granted them all full pardon and set them free.
But things could not go on like this for any length of time. President
Kruger knew that the Jameson raid was only a minor symptom o f a serious
malady. It was impossible that the millionaires of Johannesburg should
not endeavour to wipe out their disgrace by all means in their power.
Again, nothing had been done to carry out the reforms for which the Jameson
raid purported to have been organized. The millionaires, therefore, were
not likely to hold their peace. Lord Milner, the British High Commissioner
in South Africa, had full sympathy with their demands. Mr. Chamberlain,
too, while expressing his appreciation of President Kruger’s magnanimity
towards the Jameson raiders, had drawn his attention to the necessity
for reforms. Everyone believed that an appeal to the sword was inevitable.
The demands of the Uitlanders were calculated in the end to extinguish
Boer domination in the Transvaal. Both the parties were aware that the
ultimate result would be war, and both were therefore preparing for it.
The war of words which ensued was worthy of note. When President Kruger
ordered out arms and ammunition, the British Agent warned him that the
British would be compelled to bring troops arrived into South Africa,
in self defence. When British troops arrived in South Africa, President
Kruger taunted the British and pushed forwards his preparations for war.
Thus each side was protesting against the other’s activities and
strengthening its own preparations.
When President Kruger had completed his preparations, he saw that to delay
any longer was to play into the hands of his enemies. The British had
an inexhaustible supply of men and money. They could, therefore, afford
to bide their time, gradually preparing for war and in the meantime ask
President Kruger to redress the grievances of Uitlanders, and thus show
to the world that they could not help waging war as he refused to grant
redress. Then they would enter the war with such grand preparations that
the Boers could not stand the shock and would have to accept British demands
in a spirit of humiliation. Every Boer man between eighteen and sixty
years in age was a skilled fighter. Boer women, too, were capable of fighting
if they chose. National independence had with the Boers all the force
of a religious principle. Such a brave people would not suffer humiliation
even at the hands of a world empire.
President Kruger had already arrived at an understanding with the Orange
Free State. Both the Boer republics followed an identical policy. President
Kruger had not the slightest intention of accepting the British demands
whether in full or even to the extent of satisfying the Uitlanders. Both
the republics, therefore, thought that war being inevitable, for them
to give any more timeitem to the British was only to give them a chance
of advancing their preparations. President Kruger thereupon delivered
an ultimatum to Lord Milner, and at the same time mobilized troops on
the frontiers of the Transvaal as well as the Free State. The result of
such action was a foregone conclusion. A world empire like the British
would not take a threat lying down. The time limit laid down in the ultimatum
expired and Boers, advancing with lightning speed, laid siege to ladysmith,
Kimberley and Mafeking. This great war thus broke out in 1899. The reader
will remember that one of the causes of the war alleged by the British
was the treatment accorded to the Indians by the Boers
The great question, as to what the Indians in South Africa should do on
this occasion, now presented itself for solutions. Among the Boers, the
entire male population joined the war. Lawyers gave up their practice,
farmers their farmsfirms, traders their trade and servants left their
service. The British in South Africa did not join the war in anything
like the same proportion as the Boers. However, a large number of civilians
in cape Colony, Natal and Rhodesia enrolled themselves as volunteers.
Many distinguished English traders and lawyers followed suit., I now found
very few lawyers in the court where I was practicing as an advocate. Most
of the senior members of the bar were engaged in war work. One of the
charges laid against the Indians was, that they went to South Africa only
for money-grubbing and were merely a dead weight upon the British. Like
worms which settle inside wood and eat it up hollow, the Indians were
in South Africa only to fatten themselves upon them. The Indians would
not render them the slightest aid if the country was invaded or if their
homes were raided. The British in such a case would have not only to defend
themselves against the enemy but at the same time to protect the Indians.
We Indians carefully considered this charge. All of us felt that this
was a golden opportunity for us to prove that it was baseless. But on
the other hand the following considerations were also urged by some:
“The British oppress us equally with the Boers. If we are subjected
to hardships in the Transvaal, we are not very much better off in Natal
or the Cape Colony. The difference, if any, is only one of the degree.
Again we are more or less a community of slaves; knowing as we do that
a small nation like the Boers is fighting for its very existence, why
should we be instrumental in their destruction? Finally, from a practical
point of view, no one will take it upon himself to predict a defeat for
the Boers. And if they win, they will never fail to wreak vengeance upon
There was a powerful party among us, which strongly advanced the above
argument. I could understand it and allowed it due weight. However, it
did not command itself to me and, I refuted it to myself and to the community
“Our existence in south Africa is only in our capacity as British
subjects. In every memorial we have presented, we have asserted our rights
as such. We have been proud of our British citizenship, or have given
our rulers and the world to believe that we are so proud. Our rulers profess
to safeguard our rights because we are British subjects, and what little
rights we still retain, we retain because we are British subjects. It
would be unbecoming to our dignity as a nation to look on with folded
hands at a time when ruin stared the British in the face as well as ourselves,
simply because they ill-treat us here. And such criminal inaction could
only aggravate our difficulties. If we missed this opportunity, which
had come to us unsought, of proving the falsity of a charge which we believed
to be false, we should stand self-condemned, and it would be no matter
for surprise if then the English treated us worse than before and sneered
at us more than ever. The fault in such a case would lie entirely at our
door. To say, that the charges preferred against ourselves had no foundation
in fact and were absolutely untenable, would only be to deceive ourselves.
It is true that we are helots in the Empire, but so far we have tried
to better our condition, continuing the while to remain in the Empire.
That has been the policy o f all our leaders in India, and ours too. And
if we desire to win our freedom and achieve our welfare as members of
the British Empire, here is a golden opportunity for us to do so by helping
the British inus the war by all means at our disposal. It must largely
be conceded that justice== is on the side of the Boers. But every single
subject of a state must not hope to enforce his private opinion in all
cases. The authorities may not always be right, but so long as the subjects
own allegiance to a state, it is their clear duty generally to accommodate
themselves, and to accord their support, to acts of the state.
“Again, if any class among the subjects considers that the action
of a government is immoral from a religious standpoint, before they help
or hinder it, they must endeavour fully and even at the risk of their
lives to dissuade the government from pursuing such a course. We have
does nothing of the kind. Such a moral crisis is not present before us,
and no one says that we wish to hold aloof from this war for any such
universal and comprehensive reason. Our ordinary duty as subjects, therefore,
is not to enter into the merits of the war, but when war has actually
broken out, to render such assistance as we possibly can. Finally, to
suggest that in case the Boers won, and a Boer victory was well within,
the range of possibility, our last state well within, the range of possibility,
our last state would be worse than our first, and the Boers would exact
frightful revenge, would be doing injustice to the chivalrous Boers as
well as to ourselves. To waste the slightest thought upon such a contingency
would only be a sign of our effeminacy and a reflection on our loyalty.
wWould an Englishman think for a moment what would happen to himself if
the English lost the war? A man about to join a war cannot advance such
an argument without forfeiting his manhood.”
I advanced these arguments in 1899, and even today I do not see any reason
for modifying them. That is to say, if I had today the faith in the British
Empire which I can then entertained, and if I now cherished the hope,
which I did at that time, of achieving our freedom hope, which I did at
that time, of achieving go our freedom under its aegis, I would advance
the same arguments, word for word, in South Africa, and in similar circumstances,
even in India. I heard many attempted refutations of these arguments in
South Africa, and subsequently in England. But I discovered no ground
for changing my views. I know that my present opinions have no bearing
on the subject of this volume, but there are two valid reasons why I have
adverted to the matter here. I have, in the first place, no right to except
that the reader who takes up this book in a hurry will give it a patient
and attentive perusal, and such a reader will find it difficult to reconcile
the above views with my present activities. Secondly, the underlying,
principle in the above arguments in Satyagraha, insistence on truth. That
one should appear to be as one really is and should act accordingly, is
not the last, but the first step to practical religion. The building up
of a religious life is impossible without such a foundation.
To return to our narrative.
My arguments commended themselves to many. The readers must not suppose
that I was the only one to advance them. Moreover, even before these views
were set forth, there were many Indians who held that we should do our
bit in the war. But now the practical question arose: Who would lend an
ear to the weak voice of the Indians when there was raging this terrible
whirlwind of war? What weight would this offer of help carry? None of
us had ever wielded a weapon of war. Even the work performed by non-combatants
in war required training. None of us knew even how to march required training.
None of us knew even how to march in step. It was no easy task to perform
long marches with one’s baggage on one’s own shoulders. Again,
the whites would treat us all as ‘coolies’, insult us and
look down upon us. How was all this to be borne? And if we volunteered
for service, how could we induce the Government to accept our offer? Finally,
we came to the conclusion, that we should make earnest endeavours to get
our offer accepted, that the experience of our work would teach us to
do more work, that if we had the will, God would grant us the ability
to serve, that we need not worry how we could do the work entrusted but
should train ourselves for it as best we might, and that having once decided
to serve, we could cease to think of discriminating between dignified
work and other and serve, putting up even with insults if it came to that.
We encountered formidable difficulties in getting our offer favourably
entertained. The story is interesting but this is not the place to detail
it. Suffice it to say that the leaders among us received training in nursing
the wounded and the sick, obtained medical certificates of physical fitness
and sent a formal letter to the Government. This letter and the eagerness
we evinced to serve in whatever capacity the gGovernment would accept
us created a very good impression. The Government thanked us in reply
but rejected our offer for the time. Meanwhile the Boers continued to
advance like a great flood, and it was feared that they might reach Durban.
There were heaps of wounded and dead everywhere. We were continually renewing
our offer, and sanction was given at last for the formation of an Indian
ambulance Corps. We had expressed our willingness even to do sweepers’
or scavengers’ work in hospitals. No, wonder, therefore, that the
idea of an Ambulance Corps was perfectly welcome to us. Our offer had
been made, in the first instance, in respect of free and ex indentured
Indians, but we had suggested the desirability of permitting the indentured
Indians too to join the rest. As Government was then in need of as many
men as they could get, they approached the employers of indentured labourers
to allow their men to volunteer. Thus a large and splendid corps composed
of nearly eleven hundred Indians left Durban for the front. At the time
of our departure, we received the congratulations and the blessings of
Mr. Escombe, whose name is already familiar to the reader and who was
the head to the Europeans volunteers in Natal.
All this was a complete revelation to the English newspapers. No one expected
that the Indians would take any part in the war. An Englishman wrote in
a leading newspaper a poem eulogistic of the Indians with the following
line as a refrain: ‘We are sons of the Empire after all.’
There were between three and four hundred ex-indentured Indians in the
Crops, Who had been recruited by the efforts of the free Indians. in the
crops, who had been recruited by the efforts of the free Indians. Of these,
thirty-seven were looked upon as leaders, as the offer to Government had
been sent under their signatures and as they had brought the others together,
among the leaders there were barristers and accountants, while the rest
were either artisans such as masons or carpenters or ordinary laborers’.
Hindus and Musalmans, Madras is and upcountry men, all classes and creeds
were well represented. There was hardly any trader in the crops, but the
traders subscribed considerable sums of money. The crops had needs which
were not adequately met by the military ration, and which, if satisfied,
might provide them with some amenities in their hard camp life. The traders
undertook to supply such comforts, and likewise --rendered good assistance
in entertaining the wounded in our charge with sweets, cigarette and such
other things. Whenever we camped near towns, the local traders did their
best to look after us.
The indentured laborers, who joined this Corps, were under the charge
of English overseers from their respective factories. But the work for
them was the same as for ourselves and as we were all to live together,
they were highly pleased at the prospect, and the management of the entire
Crops naturally passed in to our hands. Thus the whole Crops were described
as the Indian Crops, and the community received the credit for its work.
As a matter of fact the Indians were not entitled to the credit for the
inclusion of indentured laborers in the corps, which should rightly have
gone to the planters. But there is no doubt that the free Indians, That
is to say, the Indian community, deserved credit for the excellent management
of the Corps when once it was formed and this was acknowledged by general
Builler in his deispatches.
Doctor Booth, under whom we had placed ourselves for training in first
aid, joined the Corps in the capacity of medical Superintendent. He was
a pious clergyman, and though his work chiefly lay among the Indian Christians,
he freely mixed with Indians of all denominations. Most of the thirty-
seven leaders mentioned above had received their training at his hands.
There was a European Ambulance Crops as well as the Indian, and both worked
side by side in the same place.
Our offer to Government was absolutely unconditional, but the letter by
which they accepted it granted us immunity from service within the firing
line. This meaint that the permanent Ambulance Crops attached to the army
was to bear far away the soldiers as they got wounded and leave them behind
the army outside the line of fire. The temporary ambulance Crops of Europeans
as well as Indians were formed in view of the great effort, which General
Buller was to put forth for the relief of General White in Ladysmith and
in which, it was apprehended, there might be more wounded than could be
dealt with by the permanent Corps. In the country where the armies were
operating there were no made roads between the battlefield and the base-hospitable
and it was therefore impossible to carry the wounded by means of ordinary
transport. The base-hospital was always situated near a railway station
and at a distance of between seven and twenty-five miles from the battlefield.
We soon got work and that too harder than we had expected. To carry the
wounded seven or eight miles was part of our ordinary routine. But sometimes
we had to carry badly wounded soldiers and officers over a distance of
twenty-five miles. The march would commence at eight in the morning. Medicines
must be administered on the way, and we were required to reach the base-
hospital at five. This was very hard work indeed. It was only once that
we had to carry the wounded twenty-five miles in a single day. Again the
British army met with reverse after reverse in the beginning of the war
and large numbers were wounded. The officers therefore were compelled
to give up their idea of not taking us within the firing line. But it
must be stated that when such as emergency arose we were told that as
the terms of our contract included immunity from such service, General
Builler had no intention of forcing us to work under fire if we were not
prepared to accept such risk, but if we undertook it voluntarily, it would
be greatly appreciated. We were only too willing to enter the danger zone
and had never liked a remain outside. We therefore welcomed this opportunity.
But none of us received a bullet wound or any other injury.
The Corps had many pleasant experiences into which I may not enter here.
It must however be placed on record, that although our Corps, including
the indentured laborers who might be supposed to be rather uncouth, often
came in contact with the members of the temporary Ambulance Corps composed
of Europeans as well as with the Europeans soldiers, none of us felt that
Europeans treated us with contempt or even with discourtesy. The temporary
Corps was composed of South African Europeans, who had taken part in the
anti-Indian agitation before the war. But the knowledge that the Indians,
forgetful of their wrongs, were out to help them in the hour of their
need, had melted their hearts for the timethem being. I have stated already
that our work was mentioned by the General Buller in his deispatches.
War medals too were conferred on the thirty-seven leaders.
When General Buller’s operations in connection with the relief of
Ladysmith were over, that is in about two months time, our Corps was disbanded
as well as the Europeans. The war continued long after this. We were always
prepared to rejoin, and it was stated in the order disbanding our Corps
that Government would certainly utilize our services if operations on
a long scale were again necessary.
This contribution of the Indians in South Africa to the war was comparatively
insignificant. They suffered hardly any loss of life. Yet even a sincere
desire to be of help is bound to impress the other party, and is doubly
appreciated when it is quite unexpected. Such fine feeling for the Indians
lasted during the continuance of the war.
Before closing this chapter, I must place a note-worthy incident on record.
Among those who were in Ladysmith when it was invested by the Boers, there
were besides Englishmen a few stray Indian settlers. Some of these were
traders, while the rest were indentured laborers, working on the railways
or as servants to English gentlemen, one o f whom was Parbhusingh. The
office in command at Ladysmith assigned various duties to every resident
of the place. The most dangerous and most responsible work was assigned
to Parbhusingh who was a ‘coolie’. On a hill near Ladysmith
the Boers had stationed a pom-pom, whose operations destroyed many buildings
and even occasioned some loss of life. An interval of a minute or two
must pass before a shell which had been fired from the gun reached a distant
objective. If the besieged got even such a short notice, they could take
cover before the shell dropped in the town and thus save themselves. Parbhusingh
was to sit pearched up in a tree, all the time that the gun was working,
with his eyes fixed on the hill and to ring a bell the moment he observed
a flash, on hearing on the bell, the residents of Ladysmith instantly
took cover and saved themselves from the deadly cannon ball whose approach
was thus announced.
The officer in charge of Ladysmith, in eulogizing the invaluable services
rendered by Parbhusingh, stated that he worked so zealously that not once
had he failed to ring the bell. It need hardly be said that his own life
was constantly in peril. The story of his bravery came to be known in
Natal and at last reached the ears of Lord Curzon, then his bravery came
to known in Natal and at last reached the ears of Lord Curzon, then Viceroy
of India, who sent a Kashmir robe for presentation to Parbhusingh and
wrote to the Natal Government, asking them to carry out the presentation
ceremony with all possible publicity. This duty was assigned to the Mayor
of Durban who held a public meeting in the Town Hall for the purpose.
This incident has a twofold lesson for us. First, we should not despise
any man, however humble or insignificant-looking he may be. Secondly,
no matter how timid a man is, he is capable of the loftiest heroism when
he is put to the test. | <urn:uuid:1e58d7aa-339d-4582-8b5e-af0cf51185a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mkgandhi.org/satyagraha_safrica/09boer_war.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979658 | 5,561 | 3.421875 | 3 |
By Dr. Mercola
Compelling research shows that your brain has great plasticity, which you control through your diet and lifestyle choices. Unfortunately, the American public has been grossly brainwashed by the sugar and processed food industries into believing that sugar is a perfectly reasonable "nutrient" that belongs in a healthy diet.
A piece of fruit, or even a treat like ice cream, isn’t going to cause you too much trouble… provided it truly is just that – a treat and not something that you overindulge in.
Most Americans, however, are overindulging – and that’s putting it mildly. The average American consumes one-third of a pound of sugar per day, half of which is processed fructose.
Other statistics found in Dr. Richard Johnson’s book, The Sugar Fix, suggest about 50 percent of Americans consume as much as half a pound, more than 225 grams, per day!1
Talk surrounding excess sugar consumption is often centered on obesity, to which it does contribute. However, this is an issue of far more than weight gain alone. When you consume too much sugar, it leads to serious imbalances in your body, including microbial changes that have far-reaching effects on your health.
Eating Too Much Sugar Is Detrimental to Your Brain
Obesity, type 2 diabetes, and even heart disease are commonly known to be caused, in part, by a poor diet with excess sugar (including fructose). But brain troubles? These, too, are strongly linked to eating sugar, unbeknownst to many Americans.
A study in mice, published in the journal Neuroscience, revealed that a high-sugar diet lead to changes in gut bacteria that were in turn related to a significant loss of cognitive flexibility, which is a measure of your brain’s ability to adapt to changing situations.2
Impairments in both long-term and short-term memory were also noted.3 After four weeks of consuming excess amounts of sugar, the mice performed poorly on a variety of tests related to mental and physical function when compared to mice fed a normal diet.
Further, an analysis of the mice microbiome revealed that an imbalance of bacteria in the guts of the high-sugar mice directly correlated with their poor performance on tests of cognitive flexibility.
Kathy Magnusson, a professor in the OSU College of Veterinary Medicine and principal investigator with the Linus Pauling Institute, said in an Oregon State University news release:4
“It’s increasingly clear that our gut bacteria, or microbiota, can communicate with the human brain… Bacteria can release compounds that act as neurotransmitters, stimulate sensory nerves or the immune system, and affect a wide range of biological functions…
We’re not sure just what messages are being sent, but we are tracking down the pathways and the effects.”
Too Much Sugar Makes You Stupid…
This isn’t the first time sugar has been linked to declines in brain function. In 2012, researchers investigated the effects of high-fructose syrup, similar to high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), a cheap sweetener six times sweeter than cane sugar, which is used in many soft drinks, processed foods, condiments, and even some baby foods.
The team sought to study the effects of a steady intake of this super-processed, concentrated form of fructose. They fed rats a fructose solution as drinking water for six weeks, then tested their ability to remember their way out of a maze.5
The rats fed fructose syrup showed significant impairment in their cognitive abilities—they struggled to remember their way out of the maze. They were slower, and their brains showed a decline in synaptic activity. Their brain cells had trouble signaling each other, disrupting the rats' ability to think clearly and recall the route they'd learned six weeks earlier.
Additionally, the fructose-fed rats showed signs of resistance to insulin, a hormone that controls your blood sugar and synaptic function in your brain. Because insulin is able to pass through your blood-brain barrier, it can trigger neurological processes that are important for learning and memory.
Consuming large amounts of fructose may block insulin's ability to regulate how your brain cells store and use sugar for the energy needed to fuel thoughts and emotions.6
In this case, a second group of rats was given omega-3 fats in the form of flaxseed oil and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), in addition to the high-fructose diet. After six weeks, this group of rats was able to navigate the maze better and faster than the rats in the non-DHA group.
The researchers concluded that DHA is protective against fructose's harmful effects on your brain. DHA is essential for synaptic function—it helps your brain cells transmit signals to one another, which is the mechanism that makes learning and memory possible.
Your body can't produce enough DHA, so it must be supplemented through your diet in wild-caught seafood or a supplement like krill oil. Many Americans are seriously deficient in omega-3 fats, which means they may be especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of excess fructose.
Elevated ‘Normal’ Blood Sugar Levels Linked to Memory Loss
Remember how the fructose-fed rats showed signs of insulin resistance, which could play a role in its negative effects on brain health? Even if you don’t have type 2 diabetes or pre-diabetes suggestive of insulin resistance, higher blood sugar levels appear to have a negative influence on cognition.
One study involved people (with an average age of 63) who were free from diabetes and pre-diabetes (or impaired glucose intolerance). Yet, even among this group, those with higher blood sugar levels scored lower on memory tests.
For each 7-mmol/mol increase in HbA1c (a measure of blood glucose), participants recalled two fewer words on memory tests.7 Those with higher blood sugar levels also had lower volume of the hippocampus, a brain region linked to memory. As one of the study’s authors said:
"Clinically, even if your blood sugar levels are 'normal,' lower blood sugar levels are better for your brain in the long run with regard to memory functions as well as memory-relevant brain structures like the hippocampus.
Scientifically, we were able to shed further light on the mechanisms mediating these effects. DTI-based (diffusion tensor imaging) measurements demonstrated that not only volume of the hippocampus, but also microstructural integrity is lower if blood sugar levels are higher."
If You Become Desensitized to Insulin, Your Whole Body Suffers
Most likely, this effect has to do with the increased levels of insulin being released in response to the chronically elevated blood sugar levels… Any meal or snack high in grain and sugar carbohydrates typically generates a rapid rise in blood glucose.
To compensate for this, your pancreas secretes insulin into your bloodstream, which lowers your blood sugar to keep you from dying. Insulin, however, is also very efficient at lowering blood sugar by turning it into fat – so the more you secrete, the fatter you become.
Unfortunately, If you consume a diet consistently high in sugar and grains, your blood glucose levels will be correspondingly high and over time your body becomes "desensitized" to insulin and requires more and more of it to get the job done.
Eventually, you become insulin resistant, and then full-blown diabetic. But as the new study showed, health effects of this elevated blood sugar/insulin cycle begin to occur even before insulin resistance sets in.
Even Dementia Has Been Linked to a Poor Diet
It's becoming increasingly clear that the same pathological process that leads to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes may also hold true for your brain.
As you over-indulge on sugar and grains, your brain becomes overwhelmed by the consistently high levels of insulin and eventually shuts down its insulin signaling, leading to impairments in your thinking and memory abilities, and eventually causing permanent brain damage, among other health issues.
Research has even shown that higher glucose levels are associated with a higher perceived age;8 in other words, the higher your glucose levels, the older you’ll tend to look!
Even Alzheimer's disease was tentatively dubbed "type 3 diabetes" in early 2005 when researchers discovered that in addition to your pancreas, your brain also produces insulin, and this brain insulin is necessary for the survival of brain cells. Studies have found that people with lower levels of insulin and insulin receptors in their brain often have Alzheimer's disease.
Neurologist Dr. David Perlmutter, MD insists that being very strict in limiting your consumption of sugar and non-vegetable carbs is one of THE most important steps you can take to prevent Alzheimer's disease for this very reason. He cites research from the Mayo Clinic, which found that diets rich in carbohydrates are associated with an 89 percent increased risk for dementia.
Sugar Decimates Your Gut Health, Which in Turn Decimates Your Brain…
Getting back to the featured study, the impairments in memory were directly linked to changes in gut microbiota caused by excess sugar consumption. This isn’t entirely surprising since your gut, which is teeming with microbial life, also communicates with your brain, via what’s known as the “gut-brain axis.” Embedded in the wall of your gut is actually your enteric nervous system (ENS), which works both independently of and in conjunction with the brain in your head.
This communication between your "two brains" runs both ways and is the pathway for how foods affect your mood or why anxiety can make you stick to your stomach, for instance. However, this gut-brain connection is about far more than just comfort food or butterflies in your stomach. According to Scientific American:9
"The gut-brain axis seems to be bidirectional—the brain acts on gastrointestinal and immune functions that help to shape the gut's microbial makeup, and gut microbes make neuroactive compounds, including neurotransmitters and metabolites that also act on the brain."
Changes in Your Gut Bacteria May Lead to Brain Disorders
Download Interview Transcript
The close connection between your microbiome and your brain also explains why changes in your gut bacteria are linked to brain disorders and more, including depression. Jane Foster, PhD, an associate professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences at McMaster University, described to Medicine Net the multiple ways your gut microbes communicate with your brain:10
“One is via the enteric nervous system, the part of the nervous system that governs the digestive tract. Also, gut bacteria can alter how the immune system works, which can affect the brain. The gut bacteria are involved in digestion, too, and the substances they make when they break down food can affect the brain. And under certain conditions, such as stress or infection, potentially disease-causing gut bacteria, or bad bugs, can leak through the bowel wall and enter the bloodstream, enabling them and the chemicals they make to talk with the brain through cells in blood vessel walls.
Bacteria could also communicate directly with cells in certain regions of the brain, including those located near areas involved in stress and mood…”
Dr. Perlmutter also explains that one of the primary mechanisms of action that explains how a healthy diet "works" for preventing disease, including neurological disorders, is that it upregulates, modifies, and improves the quality of your gut microbiome.
"We're now recognizing from research at our most well-respected institutions from around the globe that the gut bacteria are wielding this very powerful sword of Damocles… They determine whether we're going to have a healthy brain or not, whether our brain is going to function well or not, and whether our brain is going to become diseased or not. Who knew that we'd be referring back to the gut?"
How to Keep Your Gut (and Brain) Healthy
A healthy gut may therefore be the key to a healthy brain, and one of the key strategies toward this end is limiting excess sugar, including fructose. There is no question in my mind that regularly consuming more than 25 grams of fructose per day will dramatically increase your risk of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. So you’ll want to limit your intake to 25 grams per day (or less), and 15 grams or less if you are overweight or have diabetes, pre-diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure.
Further, consuming naturally fermented foods, such as sauerkraut, naturally fermented pickles, miso, tempeh, and fermented dairy made from raw, unpasteurized grass-fed milk (yogurt, kefir, etc.), is one of the best ways to optimize your microbiome, which in turn may optimize the health of your brain. Fermented vegetables are particularly easy to make in your own kitchen.
They are also the most cost-effective way to get high-quality probiotics in your diet. Your goal should be to consume one-quarter to one-half cup of fermented veggies with each meal, but you may need to work up to this amount. In the long run, making sure you’re eating a healthy diet is the key to a healthy gut and stellar brain health alike. | <urn:uuid:0f4a4757-b0b1-4701-a238-befbaf9fe1f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2015/07/08/high-sugar-diet-gut-bacteria.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947848 | 2,740 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The consequences of drug abuse!
Very clear, explicit laws on drug abuse exist in every nation. Some nations have very hard laws and sentences. You can spend a lifetime in jail, or many years including huge fines that can potentially damage your finances for life. Other things that will follow include:
You will have a criminal record on your file, and will not look good if you have a case with authorities.
Career and employment:
Many employers will turn you down because you have a criminal record. Employers do not want criminals around.
Having a criminal record can prevent a person from getting many sorts of licenses; for example, licenses for driving a taxi or running a liquor store.
Many countries require that people traveling there get a visa.
These countries can refuse to give a person a visa if they have a criminal record.
Many individuals and groups of people discriminate against people with criminal records. A criminal record can affect your standing in the community, the attitudes of your co-workers, neighbors and your relationships with your family and friends.
Drug abuse can adversely affect every major system in the human body. See more on this page
Mental health problems such as depression, developmental lags, apathy, withdrawal, and other psychosocial dysfunctions frequently are linked to substance abuse among adolescents. Others include conduct problems, personality disorders, suicidal thoughts, attempted suicide, and suicide. Marijuana use, which is prevalent among youth, has been shown to interfere with short-term memory, learning and psychomotor skills.
People think they will never get addicted, but many end up addicted. Someone who is addicted looses control and judgment and when use of the drug is stopped, may suffer severe psychological or physical symptoms, such as anxiety, irritability, unhappiness and stress.
Drugs directly affect the brain, and our brains control almost everything we do. Your actions will therefore affect:
Your behavior to loved ones will change, you will begin to do and say things that you usually will never do or say. This will damage your relationship with others.
Substance abuse affects the emotional, financial, and psychological well-being of the entire family. Teens who use drugs withdraw from their family members and family activities, as well as set bad examples for any younger siblings. Because their judgment and decision-making ability becomes greatly impaired, they may become more hostile toward family members and even steal from them to get money for drugs.
Your peers will stay away from you. No one will like to have bad influence, and they will feel scared around you. You will loose good friends, and only bad friends will stay with you.
Chances are, you will drop out of school. Why? Your brain is affected, and you are no more in control of your school work. You may rebel and get a suspension, You are more likely to commit a crime, and the results… you know it.
Read the story of an addicted teen who know she needs help.
No doubt you shall soon begin to sell your personal belongings, phones, music iPods, personal jewelry that your parents gave you, etc, as you will need more money to buy more drugs. Remember that there is a big drug dealer who is making money out of your situation. They use your money to do more organized crime and we all get to suffer the consequences.
Click next to learn more... | <urn:uuid:d3e5f504-9913-41ee-a5a8-796e6fbfacc0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eschooltoday.com/drug-abuse-and-teens/consequences-of-drug-abuse.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9548 | 692 | 2.59375 | 3 |
"Pooh" saves "Tigger"
UA researcher uses tiger poop to study tigers and figure out a way to save the species
Ashwin Naidu’s friends call him the Scat Man.
But the nickname isn’t a jab — he earned it after long nights in the lab studying tiger feces, which can tell him a lot about the species.
A graduate research associate in the UA School of Natural Resources and the Environment, Naidu has devoted most of his academic career to the conservation of tigers and other big cats in urban-surrounded environments. The Reid Park Zoo has helped to fund Naidu’s research.
The decline in the tiger population can be linked to habitat destruction, illegal livestock and poaching, according to Naidu. He said he feels that the threats facing tigers are “dead serious.”
Savannah Douglas / The Daily Wildcat Anna Marie Vitale takes photographs of the Malayan Tigers at the Reid Park Zoo in Tucson, Arizona on Wednesday. The Malayan Tigers are endangered.
It is not enough to just work to protect tiger populations. While tigers are an important species, the goal is to conserve the whole ecosystem. This will ensure that all the animals and plants are preserved, Naidu said.
Naidu conducts his research in several locations, including at the Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in south central India.
He is investigating how many tigers are roaming in this urban-surrounded sanctuary.
The ability to monitor the number of tigers present in the wild is an important factor in the success of his conservation efforts, but it can be difficult to make an accurate estimate because tigers are solitary animals that live in forests.
In the past, Naidu had used paw prints to identify individual animals, but now he is able to use genetics. Genetic material has to come from either hair or scat.
“I use poop to study wildlife,” Naidu said. “It’s a gold mine.”
Genetic testing can be used not only to identify animals in the wild, but also where food and other products come from.
Myths surrounding the health benefits of consuming tiger parts and the black market have created a demand for tigers. Thanks to researchers using the same or similar methods as Naidu, people can now identify if products being sold contain tiger and other illegal animals meats, Naidu said.
“[Naidu] wants people to be aware that tigers need protection,” said Jennifer Stoddard, education coordinator at Reid Park Zoo. Naidu’s project was at the top of the list for funding this year.
“[Naidu] totally gets how a zoo can help to get his message out,” Stoddard said. Awareness of the dangers tigers and other animals face is the first step to help protect them, she added.
The Reid Park Zoo works to spread knowledge about conservation.
“We have a responsibility to educate our visitors,” said Jason Jacobs, administrator at Reid Park Zoo. Jacobs said he has seen tigers in the wild and feels that Naidu’s research is important to fund and share.
Naidu shares in the Reid Park Zoo’s philosophy.
“One of the most important tools is education,” Naidu said. | <urn:uuid:9f297fce-537b-4545-a2b4-87a4098fa4a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wildcat.arizona.edu/article/2013/11/pooh-saves-tigger | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953877 | 695 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Los Angeles Cigarette-smoking Americans receive higher doses of the most potent carcinogens than do smokers in many foreign countries because of variations in the way tobacco is processed for cigarettes, researchers from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported Monday.
American cigarettes are typically made from “American blend” tobacco, a specific blend that, because of growing and curing practices, contains higher levels of cancer-causing tobacco-specific nitrosamines. The most popular Canadian, Australian and British brands, in contrast, are made from “bright” tobacco, which is lighter in color and cured differently.
The study was designed primarily to correlate how well levels of the chemicals in cigarettes correlate with levels of their metabolites in smokers’ urine. The data about exposure to the chemicals in different countries were an added benefit.
The CDC team enlisted 126 regular smokers in Australia, Canada, Britain and, in the U.S., in New York and Minnesota. All smoked one brand routinely, typically the most popular brands in their country. Smokers in Minnesota smoked Marlboro, Newport, Marlboro Light and Camel Light, while those in New York smoked Marlboro, Newport, Newport Light, Camel Light and Marlboro Menthol.
The team focused on the most lethal carcinogen in the tobacco smoke, 4-(methylnitrosoamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), and its primary metabolite in urine, known informally as NNAL. They collected cigarette butts from each smoker over a 24-hour period and analyzed them for the content of NNK, an indicator of how much of the carcinogen the smokers were exposed to. They also collected urine and measured levels of NNAL.
The team reported the amount of NNAL in urine was directly related to the amount in the cigarette butts, and significantly higher levels were found in U.S. smokers, with levels in New York higher than those in Minnesota. The lowest levels were found in Australia and Canada, while the British smokers displayed intermediate levels. | <urn:uuid:59fc64bf-24b9-4345-be37-34832988b948> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2010/jun/02/american-cigarettes-contain-more-carcinogens-other/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952141 | 425 | 2.625 | 3 |
"When a food product recall occurs, the entire food industry is held accountable for it, not just the offending company," said our Midwestern meat processor. "When Toyota had their issues with speed control, only Toyota was on the firing line, not all the rest of the auto makers."
"In recent years, 'processed foods' have been the subject of growing negative perceptions in terms of their nutritional value and impact on health, as well as their safety," says a report from the International Food Information Council (IFIC, www.foodinsight.org). "However, there are many safe, high-quality, and nutritious processed foods, and in many cases, processing can help make our food safer and more nutritious."
"People don't realize food processing is thousands of years old," says IFT's Bowman. "They don't recognize what it takes to get food from the farm to their fork. There's a reason we pasteurize milk and cook meats" -- and increase shelf-life and otherwise preserve foods.
SOLUTION: First of all, keep on processing. The food industry needs to regain the upper hand that processing is, first and foremost, a way to make food safe.
"As a communicator, you can help share the facts and clear up misinformation about modern food production, food processing and processed foods," says IFIC. Its "Understanding our Food" toolkit offers processors several resources for communicating with consumers and clients. Primarily it helps define processed foods, describes the scope of foods and products they include and provides information about the many benefits of food processing that often are overlooked.
But because the primary inputs are created outdoors and in dirt, there probably always will be contamination incidents. "The best way to deal with a food safety issue is to be as transparent [there's that word again] as possible," says Chicago consultant Martinez. "Acknowledge the problem, show people the steps you're taking to fit it and to prevent it from ever happening again. Bad things happen to good companies, and people will forgive you if you're perceived as honest and trying to do the right thing"
A classic example we've chronicled in the past was a 2008 listeria outbreak stemming from a Maple Leaf Foods plant. A hard-to-clean slicing machine sent up to 1.4 million lbs. of contaminated deli meats to restaurants, hospitals, nursing homes and retail and deli counters.
The outbreak took possibly 22 lives, cost tens of millions of dollars and led to intense organizational soul-searching at Maple Leaf. The company emerged with a very public pledge to instill a "culture of food safety" that commits the company, among other things, to being a "global leader in food safety" and to "openly sharing our knowledge with industry, government and consumers." (See www.FoodProcessing.com/articles/2010/foodsafety-mapleleaf.html).
Two key elements are aggressive environmental testing and an aggressive response to every positive result, according to Randy Huffman, a high-profile food safety expert who was hired in the wake of the outbreak as the company's chief food safety officer, reporting directly to the CEO. "That," he says, "is where the rubber really hits the road."
Voice your opinion now. If you want to include an anonymous comment regarding the topics covered in this article, type it in the box below. We will not ask for your name or e-mail address. | <urn:uuid:7990857d-6a4f-420d-be01-ebc887aebc11> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2012/food-industry-fights-back/?start=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969509 | 709 | 2.703125 | 3 |
The Difference between Bookkeeping and Accounting
1 of 12 in Series: The Essentials of Accounting Basics
Every business and not-for-profit entity needs a reliable bookkeeping system based on established accounting principles. Keep in mind that accounting is a much broader term than bookkeeping. Bookkeeping refers mainly to the record-keeping aspects of accounting; it's essentially the process of recording all the information regarding the transactions and financial activities of a business.
Bookkeeping is an indispensable subset of accounting. Bookkeeping refers to the process of accumulating, organizing, storing, and accessing the financial information base of an entity, which is needed for two basic purposes:
Facilitating the day-to-day operations of the entity
Preparing financial statements, tax returns, and internal reports to managers
Bookkeeping (also called recordkeeping) can be thought of as the financial information infrastructure of an entity. The financial information base should be complete, accurate, and timely. Every recordkeeping system needs quality controls built into it, which are called internal controls.
The term accounting is much broader, going into the realm of designing the bookkeeping system, establishing controls to make sure the system is working well, and analyzing and verifying the recorded information. Accountants give orders; bookkeepers follow them.
Accounting encompasses the problems in measuring the financial effects of economic activity. Furthermore, accounting includes the function of financial reporting of values and performance measures to those that need the information. Business managers, investors, and many others depend on financial reports for information about the performance and condition of the entity.
Accountants design the internal controls for the bookkeeping system, which serve to minimize errors in recording the large number of activities that an entity engages in over the period. The internal controls that accountants design are also relied on to detect and deter theft, embezzlement, fraud, and dishonest behavior of all kinds.
Accountants prepare reports based on the information accumulated by the bookkeeping process: financial statements, tax returns, and various confidential reports to managers. Measuring profit is a critical task that accountants perform — a task that depends on the accuracy of the information recorded by the bookkeeper. The accountant decides how to measure sales revenue and expenses to determine the profit or loss for the period. | <urn:uuid:e04e22f0-7622-43e2-afb4-d38f56562e69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-difference-between-bookkeeping-and-accounting.seriesId-258044.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947239 | 458 | 3.53125 | 4 |
There are more stars in our universe than grains of sand on all the shores of oceans of this planet earth. Try to grasp that, just one of the many startling findings of astronomers. More down to earth, an astronomer at an observatory in South Africa tells local politicians: “If tensions in troubled areas risk escalating into violence, do not send in the troops, send in astronomers.” An awareness of our infinitesimal place in this incredible universe, the scientist believes, might relativize our struggles and possibly help us to live together in peace. Although the potential of astronomy to contribute to world peace is one possible fruit, this is not the main focus of Unesco’s Year of Astronomy, whose motto is “The Universe—Yours to Discover.”
Why this year? The year 2009 is the 400th anniversary of Galileo Galilei’s first observations with the telescope, which led to the discovery of the four moons of Jupiter. His observations helped demonstrate that the earth is not the center of the universe. Yet 24 years later, Vatican authorities put Galileo under house arrest because of these views and forbade him to publish. How times change! Sixteen years ago Pope John Paul II rehabilitated Galileo. In announcing the Catholic Church’s participation in the Year of Astronomy, Pope Benedict praised Galileo, calling him a man of faith who “saw nature as a book written by God.” Echoing the thought of St. Bonaventure and Galileo, the pope explained that God has given us two books to read: “the book of Sacred Scripture and the book of nature.” The church is joining in this year with special events sponsored by the Vatican Museum, the Vatican Observatory and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.
Why should Catholics join the celebration? A more accurate understanding of our universe should lead to a deeper appreciation of the God who Christians believe created the heavens and the earth, and of Jesus Christ who is “the firstborn of all creation” (Col 1:15). Here are a few recent discoveries of astronomers to help us situate ourselves. The universe is approximately 13.7 billion years old. We know that beyond the few thousand stars (suns) visible to the naked eye, there are more than 100 billion galaxies, each with perhaps 100 billion stars of immense variety. We have discovered quasars that emit the light of a trillion suns and stars that are 40 million times brighter than our sun. While gazing on the second nearest star, we see it as it was 4.2 years ago. That is how long it took the light to travel to our planet. We can also see light that left another star 2.5 million years ago. Most recently we are finding planets orbiting many of the stars in our galaxy. The planet Jupiter, we see now, has not four but 64 moons. Most “shooting stars” (meteors), it may be a surprise to learn, are bits of dirt or dust the size of a grain of rice that delight our sight as they burst into our atmosphere 60 miles above us.
We know now that the universe is expanding, and with it our notion and appreciation of the power of God must also expand. (Deus semper major—God is always greater—is a traditional saying of Christian theologians.) Our hope is that schools and parishes, teachers and preachers, might pick up the year’s theme, “The Universe—Yours to Discover.” One recent survey found that more Americans believe in the biblical six days of creation than in the magnificent scenario set before us by scientists. Close to a majority do not believe in evolution and are therefore most likely unaware of the true size, shape and history of our incredible universe. How many Christians realize that if the history of the universe were reduced to one year of 365 days, then Jesus Christ would have become flesh at 23:59:58—that is, two seconds before midnight on Dec. 31?
In addition to learning more about our universe, we hope that many will take time to go outdoors on a clear evening, find a spot without too much light pollution and grow in appreciation of our awesome universe and of the loving God who created the heavens and the earth. Indeed, the poet Gerard Manley Hopkins, S.J., urges us: “Look at the stars! Look, look up at the skies! O look at all the fire-folk sitting in the air!” St. Ignatius Loyola wrote of himself in his memoirs almost a century before Galileo that “it was his greatest consolation to gaze upon the heavens and the stars, which he often did, and for long stretches at a time, because when doing so, he felt within himself a powerful urge to be serving our Lord.” If the Year of Astronomy leads some of us to overcome violence, as the South African astronomer hopes, or to engage in service, as St. Ignatius experienced, or simply to appreciate our universe, as Hopkins urges, it will have achieved much. | <urn:uuid:67ea910b-8181-4b96-9ad4-ed5451ee758c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.americamagazine.org/issue/692/editorial/star-struck | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951877 | 1,043 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Safer Food For a Healthier You
Produce and Pesticide Residue
Farmers use pesticides on many conventionally grown fruits and vegetables. The EPA sets limits on how much pesticide residue can remain on food. It’s a complex process that’s not easy to understand, incorporating variables such as the toxicity of the pesticide and how much of the food people generally eat. At the end, each of the 9,700 pesticides (at last count, in 1996) receives a number called a “tolerance.”
The EPA, FDA, and USDA all play a role in ensuring pesticides on our food don’t exceed the tolerances. In 1999, 40% of U.S. produce tested by the government contained pesticide residue. About 1% of domestically produced and 3% of the imported food had levels that violated standards.
While those numbers might seem reassuring, skeptics point out that no one could possibly test all the food grown or imported into the U.S. Even 1% of the total produce in the U.S. is a huge amount, Gillman points out.
And although pesticide tolerances are assumed to be safe, these chemicals are by their very nature toxic, and haven’t been studied directly in people.
According to Minowa, the individual safety profiles of pesticides don’t take into consideration any hazard from their combined effects. “Take a box of [cereal] off the shelf, and you can find residues from 32 pesticides,” Minowa says. “Each one is within its tolerance, but what’s the effect of those chemicals acting in combination in our bodies?”
According to FDA data analyzed by the nonprofit Environmental Working Group, the following fruits and vegetables tend to contain the highest levels of pesticide residue:
- Sweet bell peppers
- Imported grapes
The foods with the least pesticide residues were:
- Frozen sweet corn
- Frozen peas
You can reduce your exposure to pesticides by buying organic for the high-pesticide items. Conventionally grown produce should be fine for those on the low-residue list, according to EWG.
Whether it’s organic or conventional, you should take steps to reduce contamination of fresh food by pesticide or bacteria:
- Always wash fresh produce thoroughly.
- Peeling produce reduces pesticide residue and bacteria, although it also can remove valuable nutrients. | <urn:uuid:d99fc640-1a75-4206-b9e9-8fa11bb4f800> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/health-ehome-9/pesticides-hormones-in-food?page=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918358 | 496 | 3.578125 | 4 |
|Astronomical designation||Alpha Scorpii|
|Right ascension||16h 29m 24s|
|Declination||-26o 25′ 55|
|Type of object||Supergiant star|
|Magnitude||Apparent Mag: 0.9~1.8, Average: 1.09|
Absolute Mag: −5.28
|Distance from Earth||~600 ly|
|Radial Velocity||−3.4 km/s|
|Proper Motion||RA: −10.16 mas/yr|
Dec.: −23.21 mas/yr
|Parallax||5.40 ± 1.68 mas|
Antares, also known as Alpha Scorpii is a binary system that consists of a red supergiant and its hot, blue companion star located in the constellation Scorpius. Antares is easily seen in the night sky as the fifteenth brightest star, known since ancient times.
Antares in Culture and History
The name Antares is a derivative of the Ancient Greek Αντάρης, meaning "(holds) against Ares (Mars)" because like Mars, the star appears with a reddish hue in the sky. It is this distinct color that made Antares well known to ancient cultures.
In Ancient Egypt, many temples are aligned in such a way that the light from Antares plays a role in the temple ceremonies. The Persians referred to Antares as Satevis and it was referenced in their culture to as far back as 3000 B.C. as one of the four royal stars. In ancient India the star was called Jyeshtha, and the Arabs called it Ķalb al Άķrab, or the "Scorpion's heart",which is translated from the ancient Greek Καρδια Σκορπιου Kardia Scorpiou. .
Antares was also seen as one of the four archangel stars, or the four keys of heaven. Antares represented Oriel, the Watcher of the West. Along with Fomalhaut (Gabriel), Watcher of the South, Regulus (Raphael), Watcher of the North, and Aldebaran (Michel), Watcher of the East.
The Antares system is actually a binary star system even though the unaided eye sees only the primary star. The system itself is estimated to be some 600 light years from Earth; despite this distance Antares still has an average apparent luminosity of 1.09. However Antares is a variable star and thus its luminousity ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 over a period of years.
The primary star, Antares (also called Antares A), is a class M1.5Iab-b supergiant. The star is so large, that its diameter was calculated using its parallax, and angular diameter, which lead to a radius of 822 ±80 that of our Sun. If the star was at the center of our solar system, it would extend to between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Despite Antares’ size, it contains only 15 to 18 times the mass of the sun; giving Antares a very low average density. Its visual luminosity is some 10,000 times that of the sun, with an absolute luminosity of 60,000 times, much of which is in the infrared. Like all M class stars, its surface is relativity cool in comparison to other stars, at 3600K.
Antares B, the companion star, is a blue star of spectral type B2.5V. Although much dimmer then it’s giant companion, Antares B is still 170 times as luminous as our Sun. By itself the star could be seen by the unaided eye, but because of the glare of its neighbor, a small telescope is required to resolve the star at all. It is estimated that the two stars are some 550AUs from each other, taking 878 years to complete an mutual orbit, but their orbit is still poorly understood.
- Richard Hinckley Allen, Star-names and their meanings (1936), p. 365.
- Dr Eric Morse, The Living Stars, p.56 ISBN-13: 978-0944256022 | <urn:uuid:b530bc0f-7910-4c29-82a5-a0d5756b9feb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/Antares | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914735 | 900 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Posted by: mystery_man on November 29th, 2012
The Namitarou is a giant fish said to lurk in Takanami Pond in Niigata prefecture, Honshu, Japan. Eyewitnesses describe the fish as being from 2 to 4 meters (6.5 to 13 feet) in length and covered with large, prominent scales. Although it rarely comes to the surface, this cryptid fish has become quite well known in the area, and has even been photographed on occasion.
The Namitarou is said to be most likely a giant carp of some variety.
Several species of large carp were introduced in Japan as a food fish at the end of the 19th century. At the time, the Meiji government had taken over control of the country and in a bid to become an economic and military power, Japan made an effort to ramp up food production substantially. To meet their protein needs, many experts started looking for an easy way to farm fish, preferably very large ones. Domesticated carp are typically hardy, fast growing fish that are easy to care for and farm, so it was thought that this was the key to improving food production.
It was known at the time that China regularly farmed types of carp that far exceeded the sizes of those found in Japan. Consequently, specimens of several species were brought back to Japan to be farmed for food. These included the grass carp and silver carp, as well as black carp and bighead carp. The results pleased the Japanese, as some of these species had phenomenal, explosive growth rates and thrived in the Japanese climate.
It was only a matter of time before these fish spread out from their ponds and were released into rivers, where these species have become a tenacious pest in many areas today.
The two main candidates most often brought up for the Namitaro are the grass carp (Ctenopharyngdon idella), or the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). Among the exotic types of carp known in Japan, these species are the most successful and widespread. Grass carp can reach lengths of over 1.2 meters (3.9 ft) long and weights of up to 18kg (40lbs), while silver carp can get over 1 meter long (3.2 ft), and up to 27 kg (60 lbs). Perhaps a long lived specimen with its run of the pond has reached an even larger size?
Other possibilities include the black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus), which can get to around 2 meters in size (6 feet), and the bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis). Both are very large fish and have also been imported into Japan at one point or another.
Black carp do not seem to thrive as well in Japan and thus have a more limited range. Black carp are only known to be in the Tone river in Kanto, but bighead carp have become rather widespread and are an invasive species in some areas.
There is also the possibility that another large species of exotic introduced fish could also be behind the sightings. The world’s largest species of carp is the Siamese carp (Catlocarpio siamensis). These fish can get truly huge and are also incidentally valued as a food fish in many areas of Asia. In Japan, where carp are also widely eaten and are also often kept for ornamental purposes, it is thought that this exotic species may also have been imported from elsewhere and released into the pond.
Giant Siamese carp
Takanami Pond lies 540 meters (1,772 feet) above sea level in a wilderness area. It is an unusual place to find a cryptid of any type since the pond is not particularly large, and is only 13 meters deep at its deepest point. The surrounding area is famous for its camping, and is actually fairly developed as a tourist spot, with hiking trails, campgrounds, playgrounds, restaurants, and shops.
The pond has become a popular destination for people looking to get a glimpse of its mysterious inhabitant, and the wave the fish is said to produce when breaking the surface has become affectionately known as the “Tarou Wave,” from which the name “Namitarou” comes from ( nami is Japanese for “wave”).
There are some fishermen who have claimed to have caught the creature only to have lost it or had their lines broken. If you are an avid fisherman and are ever inclined to go fishing in Japan, perhaps you might want to consider dropping a line in Takanami Pond. You may end up with quite an interesting fish story. | <urn:uuid:8f31e80b-5983-4846-a356-73496b8e7302> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cryptomundo.com/cryptotourism/namitaro/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982614 | 958 | 2.875 | 3 |
The week-long discussions and decisions of the Nomenclature Section of the XVIII International Botanical Congress took place in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011. This meeting is held every six years and it is where the world's premier experts on the rules for naming algae, fungi and plants get together to debate and update the rule book for naming the organisms they study. This is the primary product of the meeting, the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, which was published in 2012. The other important product is the official report for the historical record, which has just been published as an open-access forum paper in PhytoKeys.
Several significant decisions were made at this meeting, most visibly the change of the title of the rules of nomenclature from the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - which implies it applies only to plants - to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants - which accurately reflects its scope. This change had been particularly desired by mycologists, the scientists who study fungi.
There were other major changes, foremost among them the possibility to publish new names of algae, fungi, and plants in electronic form only. This means that printed copies, which had previously been mandatory, are no longer required. Another break with tradition was to allow English to be used as an alternative to Latin when publishing formal descriptions of organisms new to science. Previously only Latin could be used.
Co-author Nicholas Turland said "Permitting electronic-only publication was arguably the most important decision made in Melbourne, bringing taxonomy into the 21st century and the electronic age. As for Latin, it has become increasingly difficult to use and is often regarded as an irrelevant anachronism by modern scientists. The meeting clearly wanted an alternative."
The report was co-authored by Christina Flann, Species 2000, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands; Nicholas J. Turland, Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Germany; and Anna M. Monro, Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, Canberra, Australia. Production of the report was supported by funds from the International Association for Plant taxonomy (IAPT; http://www.
The meeting in Melbourne was well attended, especially in view of the distances many people had to travel. There were 204 delegates representing 56 countries. The geographical composition was uneven with a predictably high number from Australia (about one-third) and about as many from other Anglophone countries.
Co-author Christina Flann said "The much lower African, Asian, and Central and South American presence is far from ideal. These inequalities have deep historical roots and are compounded by uneven access to funding to attend the meeting." She went on to note "On this occasion there was a strong female presence in leadership positions, despite the ratio of delegates still being skewed toward the male side; about one-third were women. Dr. Sandra Knapp, from the Natural History Museum, London, did an exemplary job in the role of President of the meeting."
Flann C, Turland N, M. Monro A (2014) Report on botanical nomenclature--Melbourne 2011 XVIII International Botanical Congress, Melbourne: Nomenclature Section, 18-22 July 2011. PhytoKeys 41: 1-289. doi: 10.3897/phytokeys.41.8398 | <urn:uuid:788e4b1c-1103-4174-9312-a8877ce60786> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-09/pp-wmo082914.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96486 | 709 | 2.875 | 3 |
What Is The Lewis Dot Structure For BF4?
As you mentioned BF4 this is not a possible binary compound as Boron has oxidation number 3 and Flourine has oxidation number 1-, therefore the with the sole purpose possible binary compound is BF3. Due to the limitations of this editor it is not possible to offer a Lewis structure of Boron triflouride.
How Can Bacteria Be Helpful?
Bacteria are very useful microorganisms in different ways. Some of the benefits of bacteria are listed here: Nitrogen fixing bacteria are massively important for converting the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds. Plants also make symbiotic relationship with microbes to get important nutrients from soil like nitrogen fixing germs make symbiotic...
Who First Discovered Iron, How And When?
West Africans began smelting iron ore about 1200 BC, but it is thought that naturally occurring meteorite iron be used in toolmaking for thousands of years before this.
Can you briefly describe definition of Economics given by Adam Smith...
Adam smith wrote a book in 1776 whose title was "Wealth of Nations". In his book he discussed the word 'wealth' through its four aspects: production of wealth, exchange of material comfort, distribution of wealth and consumption of wealth. There fore it can... | <urn:uuid:3cf02c6e-81e8-4d86-a0e3-cd8130144c3d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.isfaq.com/science/84137.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94055 | 262 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Arming and Disarming provides a careful exploration of how social, economic, cultural, legal, and constitutional concerns shaped gun legislation and its implementation, as well as how these factors defined Canada’s historical and contemporary ‘gun culture.’The TOC:
Chapter 1: “Every man has a right to the possession of his musket”: Regulating Firearms before Confederation
Chapter 2: “The government must disarm all the Indians”: Controlling Firearms from Confederation to the Late-Nineteenth Century
Chapter 3: “A rifle in the hands of every able-bodied man in the Dominion of Canada under proper auspices”: Arming Britons and Disarming Immigrants from the Late Nineteenth Century to the Great War
Chapter 4: “Hysterical legislation”: Suppressing Gun Ownership from the First to the Second World Wars
Chapter 5: Angry White Men: Resistance to Gun Control in Canada, 1946-1980
Chapter 6: Flexing the Liberal State’s Muscles: The Montreal Massacre and the 1995 Firearms Act, 1980-2006A review, from the Literary Review of Canada, is available here.
Hat tip: bookforum | <urn:uuid:48d883ba-5c18-42c9-aa2d-12171df9658b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://legalhistoryblog.blogspot.ro/2013/04/brown-arming-and-disarming-history-of.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.878924 | 246 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Fruit and veg may be good for you but in 10 years time we could be replacing fossil fuels and helping to save our planet by using the inedible bits that we throw away to run our cars, boats and planes.
The University of Nottingham is to lead the way in the development of sustainable bioenergy fuels Ethanol and Butanol. These sustainable bioenergy fuels use non-food crops, such as willow, industrial and agricultural waste products and inedible parts of crops, such as straw, so do not take products out of the food chain.
The University of Nottingham is leading two of six research projects being run by the national 27m BBSRC Sustainable Bioenergy Centre which was announced in London today January 27 2009. This will be the biggest ever single UK public investment in bioenergy research. The centre has been funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC).
Experts in microbiology and brewing science at The University of Nottingham will be leading the two five-year research programmes.
Katherine Smart, Professor of Brewing Science in the School of Biosciences, and a world leading fermentation scientist, will lead a team of researchers hoping to develop yeast capable of breaking down plant cell walls. Scientists will then be able to break down the inedible and unusable parts of plants such as the skin and stalks to produce ethanol. They will be collaborating with University of Bath, University of Surrey, BP, Bioethanol Ltd, Briggs of Burton, British Sugar, Coors Brewers, DSM, Ethanol Technology, HGCA, Pursuit Dynamics, SABMiller and Scottish Whisky Research Institute.
Professor Katherine Smart said: "The government is committed to producing replacement transport fuels. We can already buy petrol with five per cent ethanol in it but this is imported and it is important that Britain has strong energy security. Our fuel will be produced through materials which currently end up in landfill or simply go to waste. The challenge is to break down the toughest part of the plant, unlock the sugars, and by developing the very best yeast find an extremely efficient way of converting these sugars into ethanol."
The green tops of carrots, straw that is currently ploughed back into the ground, wood shavings, the husks from barley grains, even the stalks from grapes can be used to produce ethanol.
The bacteria that produce butanol belong to an ancient group of bacteria called Clostridium.
Nigel Minton, a professor of Applied Molecular Microbiology, and a world expert in the genetic modification of Clostridium bacteria, will be developing a process for the large scale production of butanol by developing microbes capable of converting plant waste into this biofuel.
Butanol has significant advantages over ethanol. It has a higher energy content, is easier to transport, can be blended with petrol at much higher concentrations and even has potential for use as an aviation fuel
Professor Minton said: "We really are focussed on the holy grail of biofuel research developing bacteria that are able to convert non-food, plant cell wall material into a superior petrol replacement, butanol. If you had asked me a couple of years ago, I would have said it was not possible. However, my team have now developed some world beating technologies which will allow us to generate the Clostridium strains required."
The research will be carried out in collaboration with Newcastle University and TMO Renewables Ltd.
Researchers from across the scientific spectrum chemists, engineers, microbiologists, mathematicians and fermentation scientists will be involved in the two research programmes.
Minister of State for Science and Innovation, Lord Drayson, said: "Investing 27 million in this new centre involves the single biggest UK public investment in bioenergy research. The centre is exactly the sort of initiative this country needs to lead the way in transforming the exciting potential of sustainable biofuels into a widespread technology that can replace fossil fuels.
"The expertise and resources of The University of Nottingham makes it well placed to make a valuable contribution to the new BBSRC Sustainable Bioenergy Centre and help to make sustainable, environmentally-friendly bioenergy a reality."
The 27m BBSRC Sustainable Bioenergy Centre has been launched to provide the science to underpin and develop the important and emerging UK sustainable bioenergy sector.
The BBSRC Sustainable Bioenergy Centre is focussed on six research hubs of academic and industrial partners, based at each of the Universities of Cambridge, Dundee and York and Rothamsted Research and two at The University of Nottingham. Another seven universities and institutes are involved and 15 industrial partners across the hubs are contributing around 7m of the funding.
The Centre's research activities will encompass many different stages of bioenergy production, from widening the range of materials that can be the starting point for bioenergy to improving the crops used by making them grow more efficiently to changing plant cell walls. The Centre will also analyse the complete economic and environmental life cycle of potential sources of bioenergy.
Currently the fuels we use to provide electricity or to run cars and other vehicles is derived from coal, oil and gas. Their use is a major contributor to global warming through the production of carbon dioxide. And it is projected that in 50 years time these fossil fuels will be exhausted. So the search is on to find more environmentally friendly and renewable systems for producing liquid fuels to run cars and other vehicles.
|Contact: Professor Katherine Smart|
University of Nottingham | <urn:uuid:506071c3-c438-4569-95e3-f40878835afe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Transportation-fuels-of-the-future-3A-Nottingham-leads-the-way-6797-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923002 | 1,111 | 3.484375 | 3 |
|scientific name Abagrotis brunneipennis (Grt.)|
It is found in sandy habitats in association with blueberry.
A medium-size (3.3-3.7 cm wingspan) moth with brick-red forewings and black hindwings. The forewings vary in color in the same population from dull brown with rather prominent dark orbicular and reniform to deep brick red with black basal and subterminal bands (illustrated). The banded form of brunneipennis is unmistakable. Most brunneipennis have a deeper more saturated almost greasy-looking appearance. The markings on most specimens are faint or obsolete, with the dark shade at the top of the subterminal shade most prominent. They are very closely related and most likely to be confused with A. cupida, most specimens of which are lighter orange-red and have lighter black hindwings. Brunneipennis is associated with sandy habitats in the cooler boreal forest and foothills regions, while cupida frequents dry often clay habitats south of the boreal forests. Although bar-code sequence fails to differentiate between cupida and brunneipennis, there are significant differences in both the male and female genitalia. Lafontaine (1998) illustrates the various forms of adults and genitalia of both sexes.
Adults are nocturnal and come to both light and sugar bait. There is a single annual brood with adults in August and early September.
Wild larvae have been collected on blueberry (Vaccinium sp.)
Abagrotis brunneipennis is found from Newfoundland west to Vancouver Island, south to west central Oregon, Utah, Colorado and North Carolina. In Alberta it has been collected sparingly throughout the boreal forest, from Redwater north almost to Lake Athabasca and in the foothills near Kananaskis.
Abagrotis brunneipennis is another Abagrotis species that was not collected in Alberta by earlier workers who did little if any collecting in the boreal forests of the province, with the exception of the FIDS surveys in the 1940s and 1950s which concentrated on species feeding on woody plants. It is a species found in association with blueberry in the boreal and foothills of sand deposits. Both brunneipennis and cupida occur where the northern fingers of open grassy habitats meet the southern edge of the boreal forest just north of Edmonton, with cupida on open grassy eroding south-facing slopes of the Sturgeon River valley and brunneipennis in pine woodlands on the dunes in the Redwater Natural area.
Comments are published according to our submission guidelines. The EH Strickland Entomological Museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed. | <urn:uuid:41b910f9-cbbc-407a-82b4-8d8109faa8af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.entomology.ualberta.ca/searching_species_details.php?b=noctuoid+moths&r=543&ref=b&o=1&c=6&s=6121 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917806 | 567 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Washington followed up the coast and took up his quarters at White Plains.
AID FROM FRANCE; TRAITORS
This month of July, 1778, marked two vital changes in the war. The first was the transfer by the British of the field of operations to the South. The second was the introduction of naval warfare through the coming of the French. The British seemed to desire, from the day of Concord and Lexington on, to blast every part of the Colonies with military occupation and battles. After Washington drove them out of Boston in March, 1776, they left the seaboard, except Newport, entirely free. Then for nearly three years they gave their chief attention to New York City and its environs, and to Jersey down to, and including, Philadelphia. On the whole, except for keeping their supremacy in New York, they had lost ground steadily, although they had always been able to put more men than the Americans could match in the field, so that the Americans always had an uphill fight. Part of this disadvantage was owing to the fact that the British had a fleet, often a very large fleet, which could be sent suddenly to distant points along the seacoast, much to the upsetting of the American plans.
The French Alliance, ratified during the spring, not only gave the Americans the moral advantage of the support of a great nation, but actually the support of a powerful fleet. It opened French harbors to American vessels, especially privateers, which could there take refuge or fit out. It enabled the Continentals to carry on commerce, which before the war had been the monopoly of England. Above all it brought a large friendly fleet to American waters, which might aid the land forces and must always be an object of anxiety to the British.
Such a fleet was that under Count d’Estaing, who reached the mouth of Delaware Bay on July 8, 1778, with twelve ships of the line and four frigates. He then went to New York, but the pilots thought his heavy draught ships could not cross the bar above Sandy Hook; and so he sailed off to Newport where a British fleet worsted him and he was obliged to put into Boston for repairs. Late in the autumn he took up his station in the West Indies for the winter. This first experiment of French naval cooeperation had not been crowned by victory as the Americans had hoped, but many of the other advantages which they expected from the French Alliance did ensue. The opening of the American ports to the trade of the world, and incidentally the promotion of American privateering, proved of capital assistance to the cause itself. | <urn:uuid:a30e2b67-4be0-4ee2-99f3-b21f30871280> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/12540/50.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984014 | 537 | 2.984375 | 3 |
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