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Hydroponics is the science of growing plants without using soil. There are a variety of methods and styles of growing crops hydroponically, and most involve having nutrient-rich solutions flow over the exposed roots of the plants, where they take up the nutrients they need, and release waste products out into the flow.
A variation of this method, where nutrient- and oxygen-rich solution is sprayed onto plant roots that are hanging free in the air of a container is called AeroPonics?.
Another variation where fish are raised (MariCulture?) and their wastewater is used to fertilize plants is called AquaPonics?. In aquaponics, the fish help feed the plants, and the plants clean the water for the fish. This models what happens in nature, and makes a much more environmentally friendly system.
You can find more information about hydroponics at http://reality.sculptors.com/hydro
Please feel free to add more links and info here. | <urn:uuid:668833bf-04a9-44a3-9a70-b8a95ddc1715> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki?action=browse&diff=1&id=HydroPonics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936794 | 203 | 3.0625 | 3 |
What is the difference between
Sport Climbing and
Traditional (Trad) Climbing? Is it just that
sport climbing uses bolts?
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Both, sport climbing and trad climbing are a form of lead climbing, which means the first climber to go up is not protected by a rope from above. A sport climber uses quickdraws which, as you mentioned, get clipped to bolts that have been placed in 10 to 15 foot intervals. At the end of the climb, a sport climber can expect to find a belay anchor consisting of two to three bolts with rappel rings that he/she uses to build an anchor.
A trad climber carries not just quick draws, but a whole rack of climbing gear consisting of cams, nuts and sometimes hexes that get placed into cracks in the wall. In difficult to protect places there might be a bolt that has been placed by the first ascent team. At the end of the climb or pitch (one rope length on a multi-rope length climb) a trad climber often has to build an anchor with the trad-gear, but sometimes, just like in sport climbing, routes have belay stations with two to three bolts.
Sometimes the classification of sport and trad climbs gets a little messy. In Joshua Tree National Park in California for example, guide books refer to some climbs as "bolted climbs." These climbs are by no means sport climbs, even though the only means of protection on these routs are bolts in the rock. The difference is that those bolts are spaced 30 to 60 feet apart, which means the leader might fall up to 120 feet.
Often sport climbs were rap-bolted, which means the first ascent party rappelled down the rout, placing bolts on their way down. Traditional climbs get established from the bottom up, which means the first ascent party placed bolts they deemed necessary as they were climbing up. | <urn:uuid:c4667777-9c7c-4add-be00-129ea6a6dcbd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://outdoors.stackexchange.com/questions/4635/whats-the-difference-between-sport-climbing-and-traditional-climbing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972313 | 414 | 2.84375 | 3 |
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Portugal is a mid-sized country in Western Europe. It covers 35,600 square miles (92,300 sq. km), making it a bit smaller than the state of Indiana. It borders Spain and has coastline along the Atlantic Ocean.
The Iberian people settled modern-day Portugal many millennia ago, and later intermingled with immigrating Celts in the first millennium BCE. Around 200 BCE the Romans invaded the peninsula, conquering the entire region by the year zero. The Romans held the peninsula until the 5th century, when various Germanic tribes invaded and conquered the region. In the 6th century yet another Germanic tribe, the Visigoths, came in and re-conquered most of what is now Portugal.
At the beginning of the 8th century the Moors came in and took the lands from the Visigoths. Many of these Goths fled to the north to plan a counterattack and reclaim their lands. Eventually most of the lands were reclaimed, various kingdoms were unified, and Portugal eventually declared what most consider to be its modern independence in 1128, an independence formally recognized in 1143. In the mid-13th century the last Moorish strongholds were conquered, unifying Portugal in a form that conforms relatively closely to its modern borders.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the Portuguese Empire began its rise, continuing through the 16th and into the 17th century. During this period Portugal grew its territories enormously, with outposts in Brazil, the Caribbean, India, Mozambique, and many other regions throughout the world. More than just conquerors, the Portuguese Empire also opened trade with nations throughout the world, including Japan. The Portuguese trading routes served as the backbone for an empire that quickly became one of the wealthiest in all of Europe.
From the end of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th, Portugal was under the rule of a Spanish king, following a dynastic crisis at home. This, along with consistent attacks by the British and Dutch on their territories abroad, led to a decline in the power of the Portuguese Empire. By the 18th century Portuguese strength had definitely waned, and although the monarchy had been restored, Portugal would never regain its former position in Europe. In 1822 Brazil claimed independence, robbing Portugal of its most powerful territory abroad.
In 1910 Portugal was swept with democratic revolution, leading to the creation of the First Republic, and a spate of anti-Catholic acts and laws. This First Republic would last for less than two decades, before a coup led to the formation of the Second Republic in 1926, which would soon become the New State of António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. This New State was in many ways a Fascist one, and during World War II leaned heavily in favor of the Axis powers. Salazar’s state was strongly dictatorial, with the brutal repression of dissent, strong censorship and electoral controls, and a militant attitude towards Africa. After Salazar died in 1970 his successor continued to run the government in a similar manner.
This harsh repression eventually led to the Carnation Revolution in 1974. This revolution was, for the most part, without bloodshed, and led by the left wing of the country. The revolution implemented the Third Republic, reintroducing democracy, granting independence to all African colonies of Portugal, and releasing political prisoners. Since the Carnation Revolution Portugal has flourished, with the economy rebuilding rapidly, and Portugal becoming a part of many international organizations, including the European Union.
Portugal is a wonderful European nation, with plenty for visitors to do. The beaches are a particular draw during the summer months, with miles of sand and clear water, and plenty of beach towns, such as Lagos, with infrastructure built to support tourists. Many UNESCO World Heritage Sites can also be found throughout the country, and the nation’s Catholic past offers a number of amazing architectural achievements. Perhaps the best thing about Portugal, though, is the laid back pace of life and the genuine love of good things that the Portuguese possess. Amazing food, amazing dancing, and beautiful conversation await all who visit.
Flights arrive daily in Lisbon from all major airports throughout the world, and buses and trains are constantly coming and going from Spain and the rest of Europe.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:5ec2dfc4-88f1-4c5c-a595-575e15b04a3b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-should-i-know-about-portugal.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967172 | 935 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Should Abortion Be Legal?
The debate over whether or not abortion should be a legal option continues to divide Americans long after the US Supreme Court’s 7-2 decision on Roe v. Wade declared the procedure a "fundamental right" on Jan. 22, 1973.
Proponents, identifying themselves as pro-choice, contend that choosing abortion is a woman's right that should not be limited by governmental or religious authority, and which outweighs any right claimed for an embryo or fetus. They say that pregnant women will resort to unsafe illegal abortions if there is no legal option.
Opponents, identifying themselves as pro-life, contend that personhood begins at conception, and therefore abortion is the immoral killing of an innocent human being. They say abortion inflicts suffering on the unborn child, and that it is unfair to allow abortion when couples who cannot biologically conceive are waiting to adopt. Read more background...
Educators in 7,762 Schools Have Used ProCon.org
Last updated on 6/30/2016 8:28:18 AM PST | <urn:uuid:a4ef05e9-75d8-4b54-85c2-5ea5c624635c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://abortion.procon.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911528 | 214 | 2.625 | 3 |
At the 2015 meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, researcher Mary A. Fristad reported that omega-3 fatty acid supplements had a small beneficial effect on depression in children aged 7–14. The supplements did not noticeably improve bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (NOS) or mania. The supplements consisted of several types of omega-3 fatty acids, including 1400mg of EPA, 200mg of DHA, and 400mg of others per day. The children were also undergoing psychotherapy during the study.
A new long-term study of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for psychosis prevention shows that almost seven years after a 3-month stint of receiving these dietary supplements daily, adolescents and young adults at high risk for psychosis showed fewer symptoms of conversion to full-blown psychosis than those who received placebo during the same period.
The research team, led by Paul Amminger, originally found that among 81 youth (mean age 16.5) at high risk of developing psychosis due to their family histories, the 41 who received 12 weeks of daily supplementation with 700mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) omega-3s and 480 mg of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) omega-3s showed reduced likelihood of conversion to psychosis one year later than the 40 who received placebo.
The team followed up an average of 6.7 years later with 71 of the original 81 participants. Among those who had received the omega-3 intervention, 9.8% had developed psychosis. Among the placebo group, 40% had developed psychosis, and they had done so earlier.
In addition, the omega-3 participants were better functioning, they had required less antipsychotic medication, and they had lower rates of any psychiatric disorder than the placebo group.
Amminger wrote in the journal Nature Communications, “Unlike antipsychotics, fish oil tablets have no side effects and arent’s stigmatizing to patients.”
Editor’s Note: Because of their lack of side effects, a good case can be made for omega-3 fatty acids for patients at high risk for psychosis. The novel thing about this study is that short-term treatment with omega-3 fatty acids had preventive effects almost 7 years later.
Omega-3 fatty acids are found in some green vegetables, vegetable oils, and fatty fish. There is some evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements can reduce depression, but researchers are trying to clarify which omega-3s are most helpful, and for whom. A new study in Molecular Psychiatry suggests that depressed people with higher inflammation may respond best to EPA omega-3 fatty acids compared to DHA omega-3 fatty acids or placebo. Researchers led by M.H. Rapaport divided people with major depressive disorder into “high” and “low” inflammation groups based on their levels of the inflammatory markers IL-1ra, IL-6, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, leptin, and adiponectin. Participants were randomized to receive eight weeks of treatment with EPA omega-3 supplements (1060mg/day), DHA omega-3 supplements (900mg/day), or placebo.
While overall treatment differences among the three groups as a whole were negligible, the high inflammation group improved more on EPA than on placebo or DHA, and more on placebo than on DHA. The authors suggest that EPA supplementation may help relieve symptoms of depression in people whose depression is associated with high inflammation levels, a link common among obese people with depression.
Editor’s Note: These data add to a study by Rudolph Uher et al. in which people with high levels of C-reactive protein responded better to the tricyclic antidepressant nortriptylene, while those with low levels of the inflammatory marker responded better to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant escitalopram.
A new study finds that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation improves attention in boys both with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The study by Dienke J. Bos and colleagues in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology included 40 boys (aged 8–14) with ADHD and 39 demographically matched controls. Participants were given 10 g per day of margarine supplemented with either omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) or placebo.
The children who received EPA/DHA supplementation showed improvements in attention (as rated by parents) compared to those who received placebo. Improvement was greater in the children with ADHD. Supplementation did not affect cognitive control or brain activity on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Those boys who received omega-3s showed higher DHA levels on followup.
Children who have a parent with bipolar disorder are at risk for bipolar illness, but it may first present as depression. Treating these children with antidepressants has the risk of bringing on manic episodes. Researchers are looking for treatment options for youth at risk for bipolar disorder.
Robert McNamara and colleagues found that 12 weeks of omega-3 fatty acids (2,100 mg/day) significantly improved response rates in medication-free youth ages 9–20 years compared to placebo (64% versus 36%). Omega-3 fatty acids but not placebo also reduced the activation of limbic structures in the brain (the left parahippocampal gyrus) in response to emotional stimuli.
Editor’s Note: These data add to the literature on the positive effects of 1–2 grams of omega-3 fatty acids in depression. Given the safety of omega-3 fatty acids and the ambiguous effects of antidepressants in bipolar depression, omega-3 fatty acids would appear to a good alternative, especially since the FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics (quetiapine and lurasidone) are not approved for bipolar depression in people under age 18.
In a recent randomized, controlled clinical study comparing two types of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (one with EPA and one with DHA) with placebo in 196 adults with major depression, there were no statistically significant differences in outcomes across the three groups. The participants received the treatments for eight weeks, and response and remission rates were 40-50% in those receiving either omega-3 preparation (at doses of 1000mg/day) and 30% for placebo. The research was published by David Mischoulon and colleagues in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.
Omega-3 fatty acids (especially the type known as DHA) are essential for brain development and functioning, but most people eating a modern western diet consume low amounts of these compared to omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3s are anti-inflammatory while omega-6s are pro-inflammatory. A large UK study published in the journal PLOS One in 2013 reported that healthy 7- to 9-year-olds with lower levels of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in their blood (including DHA, DPA, and EPA) had lower reading ability and working memory, and also had more behavior problems.
The oils in fish are the best source of omega-3 fatty acids, and most of the children with poor reading ability in the study fell short of the UK nutritional guideline that recommends eating two portions of fish per week.
Girls in the study had more dramatic deficits in omega-3 levels than boys. In adults, women tend to metabolize long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids more easily than men, but this difference is driven by hormones, and because the girls in the study had not yet reached child-bearing age, they did not reflect this benefit.
Omega-3 deficits in children have been connected with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and supplementation with extra omega-3 fatty acids in the diet has led to improvements in ADHD.
Cultures where more omega-3 fatty acids (which have anti-inflammatory effects) and fewer omega-6 fatty acids (which have pro-inflammatory effects) are consumed have a lower incidence of depression and bipolar disorder. However, the exact role that each kind of fatty acid plays in the brain and whether dietary changes can improve mood disorders is still being investigated. A 2012 study in the Journal of Psychiatric Research examined the complete lipid profiles of participants with bipolar disorder to collect data on these questions.
The most significant results to come from the study were that levels of the long-chain omega-6 fatty acid dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) were positively correlated with neuroticism, depression severity, and decreased functioning. Depression severity was negatively correlated with the omega-6 fatty acid linolenic acid (LA) and the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and positively correlated with fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2), an enzyme that converts LA to the omega-6 fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid GLA.
The data suggest that particular omega-6 fatty acids and the enzymes that lead to their production may be used as biomarkers that can indicate depression.
Editor’s Note: Levels of specific omega-6 fatty acids and their related enzymes were found to correlate with depression severity in this study. Since omega-6 fatty acids are pro-inflammatory, diets higher in omega-6 fatty acids are associated with more cardiovascular problems, and a 2012 article by Chang et al. in the Journal of Psychiatric Research reported that completed suicides in bipolar patients with cardiovascular disorders were significantly higher than in those with bipolar disorder without cardiovascular illness, it seems a healthy diet can have multiple benefits, including potentially reducing depressive burden, cardiovascular risk, and suicide risk.
Several studies in adults and children suggest that omega-3 fatty acid supplementation may have antidepressant effects. At the 2013 meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in October, Melissa DelBello, a professor at the University of Cincinnati, reported on a new study of omega-3 fatty acids in depressed children who had a parent with bipolar disorder. The children taking omega-3 fatty acids were more likely to improve than those taking a placebo, but the findings were only of marginal significance.
Cold-water fish are a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, and DelBello said salmon is by far the best in this regard. People who live in countries where fish is consumed in greater quantities are less likely to suffer from depression. Other sources of omega-3 fatty acids include shellfish, plant and nut oils, English walnuts, flaxseed, algae oils, and fortified foods.
The omega-3 fatty acids from fish are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), while the omega-3 fatty acids from plants are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which breaks down into EPA and DHA. All of these are anti-inflammatory, though one must consume much greater quantities of ALA to match the benefits of EPA and DHA. In contrast, omega-6 fatty acids, which are much more common in the typical American diet, are pro-inflammatory.
In DelBello’s study of 56 depressed children of a parent with bipolar disorder, the participants were randomized to either 1.8 g of omega-3 fatty acids (1.2 g of EPA and 0.6 g of DHA) or placebo (olive oil). Those who received the omega-3 fatty acids had a 55.6% rate of remission versus 34.5% for those who received placebo, but while the odds ratio of 2.4 favored the omega-3 fatty acids, the difference in remission rates was not statistically significant, likely because of the small size of the study. However, improvement on the Children’s Depression Rating Scale was significantly different across the two groups, with children taking omega-3s improving more. Omega-3 fatty acids are known to have an anticoagulant effect (preventing the clotting of blood), and four children in the study did have prolonged clotting times (but no clinical problems with bleeding).
Editor’s Note: Given the existing literature on omega-3 fatty acids and the trend in this study, omega-3s are worthy of consideration for the treatment and potentially for the prevention of depression in children. This later possibility is further suggested by findings from Australia that, when compared to placebo, omega-3 fatty acids significantly reduced the rate of conversion from prodromal (preliminary) psychotic symptoms to a full-blown diagnosis of schizophrenia.
An article by Bloch & Qawasmi published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry last year suggested that omega-3 fatty acids could improve ADHD in children. The effects were milder than the standard pharmacological treatments for ADHD, but given that omega-3s have few side effects, there would be little risk to using them to supplement traditional treatments or in cases where traditional treatments cannot be used.
Editors note: It would also be worth seeing if omega-3s helped mood symptoms too. A meta-analysis we wrote about here suggests that the omega-3 fatty acid EPA or the combination of EPA plus DHA has positive effects on depression in adults. | <urn:uuid:7a86c9d6-4b63-4c73-b8de-03b9263a7d50> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bipolarnews.org/?tag=omega-3-fatty-acids | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948786 | 2,718 | 2.75 | 3 |
Governance: Board Officers
State laws stipulate which officer positions a nonprofit corporation must have, with the most common and necessary being the chair/president, vice chair/president, treasurer, and secretary. While these laws usually define the main functions for the officer positions, there is quite a bit of flexibility within the board to clarify the duties and tasks that each officer must carry out. During the first official board meeting the board assigns certain authorities to each officer.
The chair has a special role as the leader of the board. As expected for any leader who must ensure that a team remains cohesive and delivers on expectations, the board chair is constantly making decisions, and driving the board to come to decisions in the best interest of the organization. Some of these decisions include the appointment of committee chairs, the decision to call a vote once it is determined that an issue has been fully discussed and the management of a peer who has stepped out of line. When voting takes place in meetings, the chair has the same right to vote as other board members or the chair has the option not to vote at all, or to vote in order to break or avoid a tie. The voting rights of the Chair should be clearly defined in the bylaws or board manual. Outside of meetings the chair may act as the delegate and representative for the board but always within clearly defined boundaries. Duties include but are not limited to: | <urn:uuid:13cadce9-ae7d-4665-8184-1914a818930c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://my.ussa.org/aip/global/governance-board-officers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967342 | 281 | 2.625 | 3 |
The resurgence of life during the vernal equinox has been celebrated by all peoples who have inherited from remotest antiquity the meaning of what occurs in nature at that period. The many Saviors associated with the legends that have come down to us imbodied the myth of the cosmic spirit incarnating into matter, imparting something of its essence to the entities slowly evolving there, and then returning to its divine state. In the ancient Mysteries, symbolic geography was often used to teach both cosmic and human values. An example of this practice is the system of the ancient Egyptians.
The ritual adventures of Horus of Edfu — known also as the Winged Disk myth — dramatizes the soul's descent into matter and, through purification and self-conquest, its re-ascent to its source. Horus typifies the soul, and the country of Egypt, its towns, terrain, and the river Nile, the field of activity of that soul. We can thus visualize the mystical history of Egypt, the deeds of its gods and heroes standing for mans qualities in conflict with Typhon-Set or materiality.
If we read this account of what ensues in the arena of life in conjunction with a picture of the country of Egypt, we should look at the map facing the south, the position assumed by the Egyptian neophyte, and then we see the Delta as a triangle with point uppermost, suspended from a thread, the Nile. Imagine its source as representing the higher ranges of consciousness, with the divine ray falling downwards through the spiritual, mental, emotional and energic levels, to the Delta, the material realms. We now see Lower Egypt as the field of operations of the lower part of the mind, the "place of thick darkness," while Upper Egypt is the higher or more refined mental plane impinging on the intuitive level, called the "country of light," with the Nile as the stream bringing from above life, light and vitality to the soul, mind and body. There was a celestial Nile, distinct from the terrestrial.
Keeping this image in mind, we can see how the adventures of Horus in each particular locality symbolize and conform with the idea of soul development. Indeed, the whole of the legend with all its details of place names, localities — whether on the hills or the water, even the very weapons used — conveys to the student of symbolism the following story: Horus, the offspring of Osiris, the divine element in the universe and ourselves, and of Isis, goddess of wisdom and the spiritual chalice of that godspark, sails down river, after bidding farewell to his father, and does battle with Typhon-Set — material life and the egoism it engenders.
If we compare the names of physical sites with the geographical description given the same words in those religious texts where they occur, we often find their locations do not match each other. For instance, as Edouard Naville has pointed out, (The Old Egyptian Faith.) Osiris is referred to as the god of Dadon, supposedly the city of Busiris in the Delta. This implies he was a divinity of Lower Egypt. But the Book of the Dead (The correct title is Pert-em-Hru, Coming Forth by Day (or: of Light) clearly locates Dadon not in the Delta but in a region to the east where Osiris is to be born and receive the breath of life. He is represented there as the rising sun.
Some of the most valuable material about the culture of ancient Egypt published in the last 30 or 40 years has been the least noticed in specialist circles. We refer to the fruit of the labors of the French Egyptologist R.A.Schwaller de Lubicz and his wife Isha. His magnum opus, The Temple of Man, in three massive volumes, is a thorough examination of the small temple of Apet south of Luxor, and indicates a profound study of the inner aspect of the Egyptian civilization. M. Schwaller de Lubicz took the grid used as a canon for drawing the human figure and superimposed it upon a ground plan of the unusually shaped temple of Apet (a birth goddess), and in the process discovered much of interest about the knowledge of the Egyptians and the way they preserved it while veiling its essence. His wife's contribution bears the same vein of gold — her immense learning and remarkable insights finally being imbodied in two works, the English titles being: Her-Bak, the Living Face of Ancient Egypt, and Her-Bak, Egyptian Initiate. (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1954 and 1967 respectively. The original French editions of both books contain large appendices beautifully illustrated and richly documented, but unfortunately the English edition of volume 2 lacks these.)
Her books are a melding of Egyptian texts and an exposition of their meaning, threaded together by a story involving a farmer boy who is recognized to have latent capacities for training in the Sacred College of Initiates. The work deals with Her-Bak's education, the first volume treating of the normal school experiences leading into the "Lesser Mysteries"; his response to intimations of a higher teaching brings him to the doors of the "Greater Mysteries," the subject of the second volume. There the unfoldment of knowledge about life, the universe and man's self results in wisdom and understanding. He is tested all along the line to ensure that he may be entrusted with knowledge about natural forces — that he will not use the information gained for selfish purposes — culminating in the recognition that Altruism is the mark of a superior being.
In the course of this, the boy has learned that life is a manifestation of the divine presence, obscured for man only by his own self-centered pursuits. As he gains in knowledge, he is told that ambition "does to intuition what a weevil does in a granary," and that the Egyptian sages have seen the phenomenal world as stages of consciousness in a process of becoming. Her-Bak learns at last that the aim of his training was self-knowledge. "All is in yourself. Know your inmost self and look for what corresponds with it in nature." Further, that the path of progress through temple-training revolves also around the meaning of 'ternple,' which to the ancient Egyptian imbodied the whole of science, knowledge and wisdom. The living temple is man, himself a replica of the macrocosmic principles and functions, the "Neters."
Mme. Schwaller de Lubicz spent 15 years in Egypt, living among the ruined temples and steeping herself in the ancient culture. By her empathy as well as technical knowledge, she seems to have entered into and understood the idiom of the old times. Only when she felt she had achieved this did she embark on her effort to share her understanding of the overall method used in the Egyptian Mysteries to train the character of the neophytes. Her monumental books correlate the architecture of certain temples where initiations took place, with the 'blueprint' of cosmos and the nature of man. Initiation means a new 'beginning,' an inner change — not a ceremony that by itself confers a change, for such would be an empty ritual without the prior interior unfoldment of faculty and quality.
Egypt acquires a different face when considered against this background. It was called the Two Lands, not primarily to commemorate a historic event when the warrior Menes unified the divided country, but rather to denote the duality of spirit and matter: on earth, the subjective and objective spheres of activity; in man, his higher and lower selves.
Egyptologists often exclaim about the lack of a nationally coordinated religion in Egypt, stating that there were many sectarian systems of belief derived from various, unconnected sources. May it not be that what the Egyptians visualized as taking place in the cosmos at large they also saw reflected in the history of their nation? From this standpoint, what we regard as the megalomania of Rameses II in his claim of a great victory at Kadesh — really just an indecisive battle — or in the creation of his colossal statues, could be a misreading of what these represented on the solar and human scales: the materialization of cosmic life processes. Or we can take the so-called Memphite Theology, a cosmogony that could well be the prototype of the birth of a universe — or that of a civilization — in the subjective realms of Being, materializing through different epochs as the evolving forces become denser, more involved with matter. In this context, the Pharaoh (literally the 'Great House' or vessel of a particular quality prevalent at the time) was a living symbol representing something that as a person he may or may not actually have imbodied in himself. Behind him stood the members of the Sacred College, supervising the 'buildings' sealed by the emblematic name they chose for him when he became king.
The brotherhood of wise men provided that remarkable continuity of pattern, design or expression, that has been noted by so many scholars and laymen alike. Their communal identity, continuing through the ages, enabled the Egyptian inheritance to survive invasions and other vicissitudes during its long history. The names of the gods prominent in certain places at various times, which later merged with others, in the beginning designated several aspects of the original cosmic divinities (seen to be intelligent forces), now and again wearing the guises of the new times and conditions.
The Egyptians rejected our own kind of physically-based concept of evolution, claiming instead the ongoing unfoldment of quality and faculty from within: the evolving aspect being "the spiritual factor in creatures, the causes of becoming." In short, the inherent essence of any entity expresses itself in increasingly more perfected vehicles, the latter resembling the clothes we take off and cast aside when they are worn out. Thus the central emanator of quality, the magnet drawing together the material atoms, was described as "the impersonal being whose voice is the intelligence of the heart." Or as another author expressed the thought: the self in the center of each entity constantly influences the innermost structure of matter throughout aeons of time, and is that which led (and leads!) to the life forms on every rung of the evolutionary ladder.
The psychology of the Two Lands symbol, or the inner and outer selves of the cosmos and man, may seem a strange distillation from ancient Egyptian history — the use of an event in time to represent a timeless, profound concept about the essence of Being and its manifestations. It may also sound odd to regard temples of stone as seats or dwelling places of cosmic principles, "a projection on Earth of some aspect of the cosmic organism." But it is not so strange if we bear in mind that each hieroglyph was not only a letter in a word, but also an ideograph, containing meanings for every facet of man's nature and activities. In this light, the "rhythm of Osiris" was the rhythm of becoming, in which its opposite, that of disbecoming or return is latent.
Her-Bak stresses that the open-hearted see the principles by living the life that unfolds the qualities of the many selves in man — aspects of body, soul and spirit. These aspects of the mythic gods represent qualities in us all, processes we may help forward by orienting to the spiritual north: the center within the heart.
There is a glyph of Osiris as the god at the top of a series of steps; and a text that says: "it is his own ladder that a man must climb" — he must ascend his own nature. If we remember that everything is evolving, and that a divine spark is at the core of every entity, we shall recognize the common bond that binds together all on earth. Altruism is indeed the mark of the superior being, who renounces personal salvation in order to shed light upon all, remaining with mankind until that day when everyone will have grown to be a transparent imbodiment of his own inner Osiris. There is a purpose in every important act of Nature, whose acts are all cyclic and periodical.
(From Sunrise magazine, April 1972; copyright © 1972 Theosophical University Press)
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Much of my attention on this blog so far has centered around issues of participatory culture — the ways fans and consumers are taking media in their own hands whether through user-generated content or through exerting a collective influence over the circulation and reception of media content. I have suggested that the new media landscape — and the social structures and cultural practices which grow up around it — creates unique opportunities for everyday people to get involved as media-makers and as they do so, we all benefit through the increased diversification and innovation that results.
To insure that every kid in America is able to fully participate within this emerging culture, though, there needs to be a greater commitment to media literacy education. By media literacy, I mean not simply the ability to critically interprete the images and stories that circulate in our culture, but also the ability to produce media (and to understand all of the factors that shape the production of media). We would not consider someone to be literate in the traditional sense if they could read but not write. We shouldn’t consider someone to be media literate if they can consume but not produce media. Indeed, the greatest insights about media — even mass media — come when we are able to step into the role of media producer and understand the choices that shape the media that we consume.
Several weeks ago, Renee Hobbs helped to launch a fascinating new site — My Pop Studio — which takes this premise as a starting point. The site targets young middle school and early high school aged girls, encouraging them to reflect more deeply about some of the media they consume — pop music, reality television, celebrity magazines, and the like — by stepping into the role of media producers. The site offers a range of engaging activities — including designing your own animated pop star and scripting their next sensation, re-editing footage for a reality television show, designing the layout for a teen magazine. Along the way, they are asked to reflect on the messages the media offers about what it is like to be a teen girl in America today and to think about the economic factors shaping the culture that has become so much a part of their everyday interactions with their friends. If you have a daughter, granddaughter, niece or neighbor who falls into that age bracket (and who may be looking increasingly bored with the same ol’, same ol’ by this point in the summer), you would be doing them a favor by sending them to this site. (Full disclosure: I was one of a number of leading media and child development experts Renee and her team consulted in developing this project.)
I wanted to use my blog today to alert my readers to this new project and share some of the thinking that went into it. Renee Hobbs has spent more than 20 years of her career focused on promoting media literacy education — through schools, after school programs, and now, through this imaginative intervention into popular culture itself. Hobbs directs the Media Education Lab at Temple University and is a co-founder of the Alliance for a Media Literate America (AMLA), the national membership organization that hosts the National Media Education Conference. She co-directed the Ph.D. program in Mass Media and Communication at Temple University in 2004-2005 and currently hosts the Media Smart Seminars, a free professional development program for Philadelphia educators, media professionals and community leaders. She’s one of the people in this field I admire the most: someone who remains concerned about the issues young people face in their long transition into adulthood and who seeks ways to empower young people to take charge of the media that surrounds them.
She was nice enough to agree to answer some of my questions about the project.
You’ve been involved with media literacy for a number of years. What do you see as some of the most important challenges facing media literacy at the present time?
Right now, there are a number of opportunities and challenges. One great opportunity is the impending retirement of millions of K-12 teachers. Over the next 10 years, there will be huge shift in the demographics of the teaching profession, and this will help media literacy. Younger teachers have different attitudes about media and technology than older teachers. They are aware that popular film, when used skillfully in the classroom, can promote rich learning experiences. These teachers are already using materials they haveobtained from the Internet— and they recognize the need for critical thinking skills about images, media, popular culture and technology.
This leads to a great challenge. Lots of teachers are using media and technology in the classroom, but not always in ways that promote critical thinking and communication skills. Many teachers use audio-visual media as a reward or a treat. Other teachers send their students to the computer lab— but do not create assignments that are structured to provide rich learning experiences. As a result, a lot of what is happening with media and technology in K-12 education is not building the kinds of skills that are important for success in the world outside the classroom. You can see my recent article, “Non-Optimal Uses of Media and Technology in the Classroom,” from Learning, Media and Technology for more on this issue. Over half of classroom teachers say that film and television is used in non-educational ways in schools. This includes as a substitute teacher, for “downtime,” as a reward, or to fill time. That’s a problem that must be addressed, because educational leaders will never accept media literacy as fully legitimate until the problem of misuse of media and technology is confronted head-on.
Another important challenge is the need to keep media literacy relevant to the continually changing media environment of the 21st century. As media literacy becomes institutionalized in K-12 settings, for example, the curriculum tends to freeze. In some schools, students in 2006 are learning about how to critically analyze news and advertising using artifacts and examples from the early 1990s. Sometimes this works— but often it diminishes one of the major strengths of media literacy: its perceived relevance in bridging the gap between the classroom and the culture. But this problem is challenging to address, because it’s hard for teachers to continually adapt their curricula to match the changing media environment. Few have the training, knowledge, resources, time or tools to do this.
This project speaks directly to young girls through the use of images and activities inspired by popular culture. What are the advantages of this approach over one which is focused more on intervention through educational or civic institutions?
One advantage is obvious– no gatekeepers are required. Girls will learn about My Pop Studio from their friends. Parents and teachers may steer a girl toward the site, but it’s also likely that girls will share the site with their peers. Media literacy education has typically been “leader-driven,” as individual teachers, parents or youth leaders initiate it with children and young people. My Pop Studio is an approach to media literacy that girls can experience independently.
There’s another advantage as well. My Pop Studio makes an assumption about young people that comes from developmental psychology: that play and learning are related to each other. Play can help promote confidence and build a sense of social competence. Girls already participate in popular culture— My Pop Studio aims to re-frame popular culture in ways that can be powerful for girls.
What do you see as the most important issues confronting young girls today? How do you see this project as addressing those issues?
Adolescence is a challenging time of life. A strange thing happens between age 10 and age 15 for many American girls. At age 10, girls are confident, spunky, outspoken, and see themselves as healthy, capable and strong. By age 15, 30% of teen girls are smokers. Many have chosen to avoid more rigorous courses in math and science, even when they have the capability to perform well in these classes. Teen pregnancy rates, while declining since the 1990s, are still high, especially among young women living in poverty. Tween and teen girls experience higher rates of depression. More than 4 million teen girls shoplift. Nutrition and body image are problems, too. The average teen girl guzzles 21 ounces of soda pop a day and less than 14 ounces of milk. Finally, the intense peer culture of adolescence is stressful: material possessions and social relationships take center stage. The hierarchies and gamesmanship can be overwhelming, exhausting and hard on the ego.
My Pop Studio gives girls an opportunity to be competent at creative activities involving technology, and a sense of competence is important for adolescents. The public health literature informs us that a sense of competence is a “protective factor” that can keep girls healthy during adolescence. The website lets girls take on, in a playful way, the role of a multimedia producer. This gives them the opportunity to feel the power of making creative choices that result in publishable products. At the website, girls can make their own pop star, reflect on values messages in media, and get feedback from peers on their creative choices. They can edit a teen TV program and compose a scene. They can compose a multi-page magazine spread and reflect on how digital images create unreal realities, depicting the bodies and lives of young women in a highly unrealistic way. On My Pop Studio, girls can create and share web comics about how digital media affect their own social relationships. Girls can comment on various kinds of social situations that occur with digital media. They can create their own comics, read comics created by other girls, and use a simple blogging tool to comment on them.
During a time when feelings of confidence diminish, these high-interest activities may help girls to continue to see themselves as capable, competent and part of a creative community, able to make good choices about their lifestyle and health.
How did you choose which forms of popular culture to address through this project?
We looked at the literature on the media consumption habits of children and adolescent girls aged 9 – 14. We talked to over 50 girls who participated in My Pop Studio focus groups from five geographically diverse sites around the nation. That’s why popular music takes center stage in My Pop Studio. We looked carefully at girls’ feelings of attachment to celebrities. We wanted to tackle issues related to celebrity culture, because this topic has not been well-explored in the context of media literacy pedagogy. Because girls this age are beginning to read fashion magazines, we wanted to address issues of body image and digital image manipulation. Although girls this age are not (generally) using social networking sites, they are feeling social pressure to own cell phones, watch R-rated videos, and many are quite active with IM/chat. So we wanted an opportunity to explore the diversity of family attitudes about media/technology use and encourage girls to reflect on how new media create new kinds of social relationships with family and peers. We wanted to focus on forms of popular culture that were most available to all girls, regardless of their families’ economic situation.
How do you balance entertainment and education goals when working on a project like this?
The site has to be entertaining, or girls won’t play with it. Play and learning are related, so the language of the site provides a “behind-the-scenes” perspective to offer information about issues in media industries — minus the didacticism or preachiness.
We tried to build educational goals into the deep structure of the activities, as in Pop Star Producer, where in making choices about your pop star, you learn 1) that there are many choices to be made and 2) that different choices have consequences— they affect how people interpret your character. Most girls in this age group are not aware of how media messages are constructed— stuff just appears on the TV set, or on the radio, or in the magazines, or on the Web. These activities provide an “aha” about the constructedness of media messages just by playing.
At My Pop Studio, we have a learning community where younger girls participate in dialogue with older girls. Temple University undergraduate students enrolled in a “Mass Media and Children” course will be responsible for maintaining and updating the site, and they will comment on girls’ creations and participate in the creative community. Undergraduates can share their ideas with younger girls, which will extend the learning of both groups.
We also created downloadable lesson plans that can be used by parents in informal, home-based learning as well as with middle-school students in a computer lab. The lesson plans show how My Pop Studio activities can be used to promote rich dialogue, reading, writing, and discussion to strengthen critical thinking and communication skills.
Several of your activities here are focused on remixing media content. Remixing has been a controversial aspect of contemporary youth culture. Do you see remixing as a media literacy skill? Why or why not?
Remixing is now an important part of contemporary media production. In remixing, media texts, now at the center of our cultural environment, get re-interpreted by other creative people through techniques of collage, editing, and juxtaposition. Remixing is a type of creative expression. Through remixing, people can generate new ideas. It can be a vehicle for people to comment upon the role of media and technology in society.
Remixing can strengthen media literacy skills because it can deepen people’s awareness of an author’s purpose and context. Context is often not well-understood as a component of meaning. Through strategic juxtaposition and shifts in context, messages change their meanings. Remixing illustrates a key concept of media literacy: that meaning is in people, not in texts. | <urn:uuid:d39322f5-ee0e-4c6a-b971-19a85fb4b195> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://henryjenkins.org/2006/07/behind_the_scenes_at_pop_studi_1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955193 | 2,781 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Quantum Dots Lead to Entanglement Breakthrough
January 14, 2006 11:18 AM
comment(s) - last by
The new discovery from Toshiba Research Europe and the University of Cambridge can be used in a number of different ways
Researchers from Toshiba Research Europe Ltd. and the University of Cambridge have announced a quantum
device that can create entangled light
. The process starts with a silicon-based device that uses quantum dots inside a block of indium arsenide. Quantum dots are essentially nanocrystals small enough to exist in the quantum confinement regime. When the quantum dot is excited by a laser pulse, two electrons in the indium arsenide are excited. The energy will then be converted into two entangled protons that can be split outside the device.
The technology has many different uses: including quantum computing, medical imaging, chip production and communications. Quantum computing, here we come!
This article is over a month old, voting and posting comments is disabled
1/15/2006 3:52:20 AM
Um could some one explane the thing about Quantum computing lol haha sorry im a noob.
1/15/2006 12:26:51 PM
its hight advanced phisycs ...
as litle as i understand the great boom in it is it velocity, eletrons run on light speed, and the possibylit of six stages (is that the word ?) not the the (0 or 1) of the binary system...
If we use it right its like folowing 6 paths on a labirinth a time soh you can try all the ways faster ...
This is a very simle with a right possibily to be wrong explanation...
or a similar article in it !
Ps: Sorry by the lack grammer, my english sux!
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Dakota Clarke - Miracle Toddler
Tuesday, 24 March 2009
2 year old Dakota Clarke from Newtonabbey in Co Antrim suffers with a rare condition called Septo Optic Dysplasia. This condition, which she was born with, means that she was registered blind as well as a host of other problems. Her parents Darren and Wilma raised £30,000 to send her to China for a pioneering treatment of stem cell injections. After just three weeks of the treatment Dakota was able to recognize people and objects and focus for the first time
Today Dakota and her parents are in studio to tell their amazing story
What is Septo Optic Dysplasia?
A child with SOP has optic nerves that are small and poorly developed. Instead of having over 1 million connections (nerve fibers) from each eye to the brain, people with SOP have far fewer connections. The more connections between the eye and the brain the better the vision. Some people with SOP have near normal vision in one eye, others have decreased vision in both eyes, and others are severely affected and nearly blind. An eye doctor (Ophthalmologist) can diagnose SOP by looking inside the eye with an ophthalmoscope. The front surface of the optic nerve (optic disc) appears smaller than normal. Most people with SOP have a nystagmus (unusual eye movements). The eyes may seem to move around with no real pattern or purpose. This occurs because the eyes are not able to focus well enough to hold still.
Typically people with Septo Optic Displasia have abnormalities of the brain. These abnormalities may include how the brain is formed (brain structure) and how the brain works (brain function). While both usually occur, sometimes a child has a problem only with the structure of the brain and at other times, a child has a problem only with the function of the brain. All problems with the brain can range from mild to very serious. When a child is diagnosed with Septo Optic Dysplasia he or she will undergo a number of evaluations and brain function tests (neurologic tests). A brain specialist (Neurologist) can look at the brain structure through the use of CT (computerized tomography) or MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). After these tests are performed your doctor should be able to tell if there are major problems with the brain structure.
However, doctors cannot always predict if a child will or will not have problems with brain function. When a child is less than 3-4 years of age, it is often difficult to predict future brain functions such as speech, intelligence and learning. It is sometimes difficult to assess the brain function and overall development of a child with poor vision. Visually impaired children must be taught and tested in ways that are different than children who are not visually impaired. Be sure that your child is tested and treated by professionals who have experience working with children with poor vision. Testing to determine how you child is developing and to screen for learning problems can be done by specialists such as: pediatricians, psychologists, occupational therapists (OT's), speech therapists (SP's), physical therapists (PT's) and teachers of the visually impaired (VI's). Testing can be done in several different settings including your own home, schools, hospitals, or other clinical settings. (source: www.magicfoundation.org ) | <urn:uuid:20d597ea-0c88-4fb9-8cf8-9c2c382e8a54> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rte.ie/tv/theafternoonshow/2009/0324/dakotaclarke730.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968317 | 692 | 2.75 | 3 |
Daniel Ortega (b. 1945) came to power in Nicaragua by overthrowing the Somoza dynasty and enforcing a Communist regime on the country. The Contras rose up to defy his dicatatorship and were supported by United States President Ronald Reagan including covertly diverting funds to their cause that created the Iran-Contra affair.
After seizing power in Nicaragua, the Sandinista regime instituted dictatorial rule as early as December 1979, and formally announced a State of Emergency in 1982. Under the new "Law for the Maintenance of Order and Public Security" the "Tribunales Populares Anti-Somozistas" allowed for the indefinite holding of suspected counter-revolutionaries without trial. The State of Emergency, however, most notably affected rights and guarantees contained in the "Statute on Rights and Guarantees of Nicaraguans. Many civil liberties were curtailed or canceled such as the freedom to organize demonstrations, the inviolability of the home, freedom of the press, freedom of speech and, the freedom to strike. All independent news program broadcasts were suspended. In total, twenty-four programs were cancelled. In addition, Sandinista censor Nelba Cecilia Blandón issued a decree ordering all radio stations to hook up every six hours to government radio station, La Voz de La Defensa de La Patria. The rights affected also included certain procedural guarantees in the case of detention including habeas corpus. The State of Emergency was not lifted during the 1984 elections. There were many instances where rallies of opposition parties were physically broken up by Sandinsta youth or pro-Sandinista mobs. Opponents to the State of Emergency argued its intent was to crush resistance to the FSLN. James Wheelock justified the actions of the Directorate by saying "... We are annulling the license of the false prophets and the oligarchs to attack the revolution.”
Jamie Glazov describes human rights under this goverment as follows: "All Nicaraguans had to take part in the Marxist experiment. Thus, in perfect Khmer Rouge style, the Sandinistas inflicted a ruthless forcible relocation of tens of thousands of Indians from their land. Like Stalin, they used state-created famine as a weapon against these "enemies of the people." The Sandinista army committed myriad atrocities against the Indian population, killing and imprisoning approximately 15,000 innocent people. The crimes included not only mass murders of innocent natives themselves, but a calculated liquidation of their entire leadership – as the Soviet army had perpetrated against the Poles in Katyn in 1943. According to the Nicaraguan Commission of Jurists, the Sandinistas carried out over 8,000 political executions within three years of the revolution. The number of "anti-revolutionary" Nicaraguans who had "disappeared" in Sanadinista hands or had died "trying to escape" were numbered in the thousands. By 1983, the number of political prisoners in the Sandinistas' ruthless tyranny were estimated at 20,000. Torture was institutionalized. Numerous human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and the United Nations Human Rights Commission, have documented the atrocious record of Sandinista human rights abuses, which stood as the worst in Latin America. Political prisoners in Sandinista prisons, such as in Las Tejas, were consistently beaten, deprived of sleep and tortured with electric shocks. They were routinely denied food and water and kept in dark cubicles that had a surface of less than one square meter, known as chiquitas (little ones). These cubicles were too small to sit up in, were completely dark and had no sanitation and almost no ventilation.”
The Sandinistas sent Soviet helicopter gunships and elite army units to attack the Indians; carried out mass arrests, jailings and torture; burned down 65 Indian communities; inflicted ethnic cleansing on 70,000 Indians; and tried to starve the Indians by cutting off food supplies. The Sandinistas boasted that they were “ready to eliminate the last Miskito Indian to take Sandinism to the Atlantic Coast.”
For decades, Nicaragua had experienced some of the fastest economic growth in the hemisphere. Within a few years of Sandinista rule, wages had been fixed below poverty level and there was mass unemployment. There were shortages of nearly all basic goods, with inflation at 30,000%. Government studies found that three-quarters of schoolchildren suffered from malnutrition, while living standards were lower than Haiti. The World Bank found that Nicaragua was on the economic level of Somalia.
An inability of the Sandanistas to defeat the Contras caused Ortega to call the first free and open elections in Nicaragua since the Communists seized power for 1990. Although he was heavily favored to win, in a shocking turn of events he was defeated in an election for the Presidency of Nicaragua by Violetta Chamorro in 1990. Ortega stepped down with the defeat, but left much of his power structure behind that would make it difficult for the new government.
His regime was responsible for the deaths of as many as 50,000 people.
Ortega never completely left the political scene and ran and lost again for President in 1996 and 2001, but 16 years later after his initial defeat, he became president of Nicaragua again, this time democratically, after winning the election held on November 5th, 2006. He was aided by a change to the rules that a candidate only needed 35% of the vote to avoid a runoff instead of the previous 45%. He campaigned as the candidate of peace and that land grabbing and attacking the church would no longer be a part of his future as it was his past.
Soon after Ortega assumed the presidency it was discovered that his ways had stayed the same. Under Ortega, Nicaragua established close ties with the terroristic regime of Iran and Hugo Chavez's tyrannical government. Ortega has also used voter fraud in order to help his party win mayoralities during the 2008 municipal elections and had judges loyal to him use judicial activism in order to disregard the Nicaraguan constitution allow him to run for president again in the upcoming November 2011 elections.
- As one of the leading commanders of the Sandinista forces that ousted Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza in July 1979, he became head of the ruling junta in the subsequent leftist regime. In disputed elections in November 1984, he was elected president. (CNN)
- West, W. Gordon. "The Sandista Record on Human Rights in Nicaragua (1979-1990)" http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/publications/revue/pdf/ds22/ds022-03.pdf (PDF). Réseau Européen Droit et Société. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- Chomorro Cardenal, Jaime (1988). La Prensa, The Republic of Paper. University Freedom House. p. 20.
- West, W. Gordon, ibid.
- "Behind the State of Emergency". Envío. November 1985. http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3413. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
- Roger Miranda and William Ratliff, The Civil War in Nicaragua (Transaction Publishers, 1993), pp253-4.
- Max Blumenthal, "The Kinder, Gentler Daniel Ortega," http://www.thenation.com/doc/20070205/blumenthal
- Iran and Nicaragua vow close ties - BBC
- Nicaragua and Venezuela’s Well-Oiled Relationship - The American Enterprise Institute
- Nicaragua’s Presidential Elections: How Daniel Ortega Could Shame Democracy - The American Heritage Foundation | <urn:uuid:146f504b-e1b0-4a7e-b870-073327bcab88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Daniel_Ortega&oldid=1043903 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965458 | 1,593 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The emperor, Takeda said, was valued "not because he is intelligent or handsome."
"It's because he is the inheritor of the blood that has been preserved for 2,000 years," he said.
Other opponents add genetics to their argument. Since women have two X chromosomes while men have an X and a Y, the imperial throne's male line has preserved its Y chromosome intact.
"Maintaining the male line is the condition to preserving that Y chromosome," said Hakubun Shimomura, a lawmaker for the governing Liberal Democratic Party, who is one of the leaders of a campaign to reject the panel's recommendation.
"The bloodline is important for the emperor to be a symbol of the nation and the unity of the people," Shimomura added. "This symbolic imperial throne preserves Japan's culture and tradition in total. The imperial throne is Japan itself."
Like many other opponents, Shimomura does not oppose Princess Aiko's ascension to the throne, as long as a male with the right Y chromosome will succeed her. Princess Aiko would be a "pinch hitter," he added, the same way the previous eight empresses had been.
But where to find the right Y? During the US postwar occupation, two groups that had ensured male heirs over the centuries were abolished: other imperial branch families, like Takeda's, and concubines, who are said to have given birth to about half of past emperors.
Reacting against the panel, a cousin of the emperor, Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, 59, wrote that those two groups should be resurrected to maintain male lineage.
"I wholeheartedly support it," the prince wrote about a revival of the concubine system, "but I think that the social mood inside and outside the country may make it a little difficult."
"Unless we carefully hold and express opinions regarding 2,665 years of history and tradition, we'll move in the direction of changing Japan's `national essence,'" the prince said. "Furthermore, one day, arguments that the imperial system is not needed will even emerge."
But some supporters of the panel's recommendations say that a female line would bring badly needed equality to a society where a woman is still expected to join a man's family upon marriage, take his family name and be buried in his family's grave.
For most of the throne's history, emperors lived quietly in Kyoto. But during the Meiji Restoration of the late 1800s, as Japan tried to modernize and catch up with the West, Emperor Meiji was brought to the forefront to try to unify Japan; his grandson, Emperor Hirohito, who died in 1989, was considered divine until Japan's defeat in World War II.
Mikiyo Kano, a professor of women's history at Keiwa College, said that after Meiji, the emperor and his wife were held up as models for the Japanese. Starting with Meiji and until Japan's defeat, emperors dressed in military uniforms, while their wives promoted the Red Cross and patriotic associations.
"I think the male succession system in the imperial family has led to the discrimination and oppression of women in general in Japan," Kano said.
A female line would make a woman the symbolic leader of the nation and show a man deferring to her, as wives of emperors do. | <urn:uuid:d1a876fd-b7ee-4316-a667-32eb9ab2ffc0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2005/12/29/2003286524/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979346 | 693 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The much-debated Keystone XL pipeline would pose little additional environmental risk, according to a State Department report released Friday on the proposed project.
The report, called the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, concluded, based on a market analysis, whether the pipeline is built or not the demand for the oil would likely remain.
"Approval or denial of any one crude oil transport project, including the proposed Project, is unlikely to significantly impact the rate of extraction in the oil sands or the continued demand for heavy crude oil at refineries in the United States based on expected oil prices, oil-sands supply costs, transport costs, and supply-demand scenarios," the report stated.
The report did acknowledge that the oil from the tar sands is "generally more [greenhouse gas] intensive than other heavy crudes they would replace or displace in U.S. refineries, and emit an estimated 17 percent more GHGs on a lifecycle basis than the average barrel of crude oil refined in the United States in 2005."
The project is estimated to emit approximately .24 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents annually during the construction phases, and anywhere from 1.3 million to 27.4 million metric tons annually throughout the project's total lifecycle. The latter figure would be the equivalent of the annual carbon emissions from 5.7 million cars or more than 1.3 million homes.
The pipeline, if built in full by TransCanada, would form a spine down the center of the U.S., traversing nearly 1,700 miles, carrying 830,000 barrels of crude oil from the Alberta tar sands in Canada to its refineries in the Gulf of Mexico, crossing six states along the way. The southern portion of the pipeline, already constructed, began shipping oil from Oklahoma to the Gulf earlier this month.
Pipeline supporters have pointed to the pipeline adding to the U.S. energy portfolio as well as jobs, while opponents have emphasized the environmental impact and has questioned how many jobs, particularly long-term positions, it would actually create.
The State Department noted that the report does not provide a decision one way or the other on the project, but rather an assessment for state officials and the president to consider among other factors. A commenting period opens Feb. 5 and closes March 7.
At that point, the department, led by Secretary John Kerry, must determine how the pipeline would serve national interests, and consult with at least eight agencies – the Departments of Defense, Justice, Interior, Commerce, Transportation, Energy, Homeland Security, and Environmental Protection Agency. From there, the department makes its recommendation to President Barack Obama, who will make the final decision.
That ruling is not expected for months.
In the meantime, a document yet to be released is expected to provide insights into whether a primary contractor to the impact statement had a conflict of interest due to its ties to TransCanada. The Inspector General of the State Department, who conducted the report, told The Washington Post that its report would not come out Friday.
Reaction to the impact statement was resigned among environmental groups, who have singled out the pipeline as a line-in-the-sand issue on addressing climate change. A year ago in February, more than 35,000 people assembled in Washington to call for meaningful movement to address climate change, including a rejection of Keystone.
The grassroots climate group 350.org, one of the primary organizers of the rally, has pledged to ramp up its pressure on the president to reject Keystone while the State Department begins its review. It has planned nationwide rallies for Monday, and says that more than 80,000 people have committed to civil disobedience should the pipeline's approval appear likely.
"The fight against Keystone XL has put more people in the streets and sent more people to jail than any other environmental issue in a generation," its executive director May Boeve said in a statement. "We're entering the fourth quarter with a sense of momentum and determination. We're determined to win this thing and we're willing to hit hard to do it."
Though disappointed with the report's overall conclusions, some noted that the assessment recognized that the tar sands oil
"Even though the State Department continues to downplay clear evidence that the Keystone XL pipeline would lead to tar sands expansion and significantly worsen carbon pollution, it has, for the first time, acknowledged that the proposed project could accelerate climate change. President Obama now has all the information he needs to reject the pipeline," said Susan Casey-Lefkowitz, international director of the Natural Resources Defense Council.
The American Petroleum Institute welcomed the impact statement, the fifth such assessment of the project in the last five years.
"This final review puts to rest any credible concerns about the pipeline's potential negative impact on the environment. This long awaited project should now be swiftly approved," said Jack Gerard, the institute's president. | <urn:uuid:fba3e29f-ae87-4cbf-9e39-ea1dea7ca29d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ncronline.org/blogs/eco-catholic/report-keystone-pipelin-adds-little-environmental-risk | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964723 | 990 | 2.59375 | 3 |
This is the stunning interior of Cardiff Castle, where Nato heads of state and government will dine tonight during the Nato Summit.
The leaders will eat in the castle's banqueting hall, created by architect William Burges in 1873 for the third Marquess of Bute, then one of the richest men alive.
It is a large medieval-style hall at the heart of the castle house, decorated with medieval imagery, with the walls portraying stories from the 12th century.
The chimney piece features Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I, who owned Cardiff Castle in the 12th century.
The hall is famous for its hammerbeam roof, inspired by church architecture, with its heraldry and angels.
Cardiff Castle itself is located at the heart of the capital city with 2,000 years of history.
The Roman fort at Cardiff was probably established around 50-60AD, the first of four forts at the site.
After the Norman conquest, the castle's keep was built re-using the site of the Roman fort. The Norman keep still stands inside the castle grounds.
The castle in 1766 by marriage to the Bute family. The 2nd Marquess of Bute, John Crichton-Stuart, was responsible for turning Cardiff into one of the world's major ports, where it exported coal brought down from the South Wales Valleys.
His son, John Patrick Crichton-Staurt, was interested in religion and academia.
In 1865, he met Burgess and the two embarked on a architectural partnership which still sees Cardiff Castle as one of the finest creations of the late Victorian Gothic Revial era. | <urn:uuid:45209242-f1fa-436c-bd47-b4caa2e983be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/nato-summit-2014-inside-cardiff-7721994 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958979 | 344 | 2.609375 | 3 |
University of Leicester Archaeologists open the mysterious lead coffin found buried just feet from the former grave of King Richard III
Issued by University of Leicester Press Office on 2 March 2015
Images from the Grey Friars Dig available to download at: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/v19ktjguwzmanzv/AAAMnSyu4K5W7FEJq9hS2NR1a?dl=0
- King Richard III to be reinterred in Leicester this month (March 2015)
- University of Leicester team that discovered King Richard III investigate other burials at former car park site
- Lady in lead coffin is opened
‘This is the first stone coffin in Leicester to be excavated using modern archaeological practices. This makes it a unique discovery which will provide important new insights into the lives of the people of medieval Leicester.’- Mat Morris, archaeological lead, University of Leicester
A mysterious lead coffin found close to the site of Richard III's hastily dug grave at the Grey Friars friary has been opened and studied by experts from the University of Leicester.
The coffin was discovered inside a much larger limestone sarcophagus during a second excavation of the site, in August 2013 – one year after the remains of the former King of England were unearthed. Richard III will be reinterred at Leicester Cathedral this month (March) after his mortal remains are taken from the University of Leicester on Sunday 22 March.
Inside the lead coffin, archaeologists found the skeleton of an elderly woman, who academics believe could have been an early benefactor of the friary – as radiocarbon dating shows she might have been buried not long after the church was completed in 1250 (although analysis shows her death could have taken place as late as 1400).
The high status female was in one of 10 graves discovered in the grounds of the medieval complex, including that of Richard III, six of which were left undisturbed. Those that were examined were all found to have female remains.
Grey Friars site director Mathew Morris, who led the dig said: “Although it might seem unusual that Richard III is the only male skeleton found inside the Grey Friars church, the other four skeletons all being female, it must be remembered that we have only excavated five of ten identified graves in the church’s chancel with the potential for hundreds more burials elsewhere inside the church, the other friary buildings and outside in the cemetery.
“Excavations of other monastic cemeteries have found ratios ranging from 1:3 to 1:20 woman to men buried, with urban monastic cemeteries typically having greater numbers of women buried in them than rural sites.
“In Leicester, ULAS’s excavation of the medieval parish church of St Peter (today situated beneath the John Lewis store in Leicester’s Highcross retail quarter) found that the burial of men and women inside the church was broadly equal.
“Statistically, the sample is too small to draw any conclusions to the significance of so many women at Grey Friars. After all, if we carried out more excavations it is possible that we could find that these are the only four women buried in the church. Richard III would certainly not have been the only male buried here during the friary’s 300 year history and historic records list at least three other men buried in the church. What stands out more is the contrast between the care and attention taken with these burials – large, neatly dug graves with coffins – and the crudeness of Richard III’s grave. The more we examine it, the clearer it becomes how atypical Richard III’s burial really was."
The lead coffin, with an inlaid crucifix, the location of her burial in presbytery of the friary's church (possibly close to the high altar) meant that she had a special significance to the holy Catholic order.
The discovery is the first example of an intact medieval stone coffin to be unearthed in Leicester during modern excavations.
Mathew Morris added: “The stone sarcophagus was a tapered box carved from a single block of limestone. Inside, the wider end was curved, creating a broad head niche.
“Unfortunately, the stone lid did not properly fit the coffin allowing water to get inside, and its immense weight had badly cracked the sarcophagus, meaning it could not be lifted intact.
“However, inside the inner lead coffin was undamaged except for a hole at the foot end of the casket where the lead had decayed and collapsed inward exposing the skeleton’s feet.
“This is the first stone coffin in Leicester to be excavated using modern archaeological practices.
“This makes it a unique discovery which will provide important new insights into the lives of the people of medieval Leicester.”
Of the other nine sets of remains found at the Grey Friars, during the second excavation, three more were exhumed by University archaeologists, and six left undisturbed.
Two graves inside the choir – where Richard III was found – contained wooden coffins and inside were two females aged between 40 and 50-years-old.
Radiocarbon dating shows there is a 95 per cent probability that they died between 1270 and 1400.
Osteological examinations found that one of the women had a possible congenital hip dislocation which forced her to walk with a crutch.
The other was found to have lived a life of hard physical labour – regularly using her arms and legs to lift heavy weights.
And she was not alone.
A fourth female skeleton, which had been disturbed, was also thought to have believed to had led a life of hard physical work.
She is believed to have died in her early to mid-20s.
Analysis of the three intact sets of female remains – including the lady in the lead coffin – show that all of the women had a highly-varied, protein-rich diet including large amounts of sea fish.
A diverse diet like this would indicate that they would have been wealthy, and were able to consume expensive foods like game, meat and fish.
“Analysis of Skeleton 4 shows that she had a life of hard physical work, frequently using her arms and legs to lift and support weight. It is interesting then that she is buried in an area of the church which would have typically been reserved for wealthy benefactors and people of elevated social status.
"Her presence in this area might suggest that the friary’s main source of donations came from the town’s middle-classes, merchants and tradespeople who were probably of more modest means, and worked for a living.”
There is a small clue as to who is buried at the site, which is in Leicester city centre, just a few yards from Leicester Cathedral where Richard III will be reinterred in March.
But not enough information remains to say with any accuracy whether the records relate to any of the female skeletons found by Mathew and the team.
Documents dating back to the time of the burials – about 700-years – name a lady called Emma, who was married to John of Holt.
In September of that year, 1290, the Bishop of Lincoln issued an indulgence granting 20-days off Purgatory for anyone who would say 'a Pater and a Ave for the soul of Emma, wife of John of Holt, whose body is buried in the Franciscan church in Leicester'.
However, little is known about her, including what she looked like, her age at death or where in the friary church she was buried.
Mathew said: “We know little about her and a lack of fundamental information, such as her age at death, what she did for a living, what she looked like or where in the church she was buried, coupled with no known descendants who can provide a DNA sample, make it impossible to say for certain whether one of these skeletons is that of Emma, or indeed anyone else. Sadly, they will forever remain anonymous.”
For more information on the 2013 Grey Friars excavation please go to the ULAS news blog at: https://ulasnews.wordpress.com/2015/02/26/grey-friars-phase-ii-the-2013-excavation/
- The Dig for Richard III was led by the University of Leicester, working with Leicester City Council and in association with the Richard III Society. The originator of the Search project was Philippa Langley of the Richard III Society.
NOTE TO NEWSDESK:
For more information, please contact Mathew Morris on email@example.com | <urn:uuid:11426373-2038-4db2-b4de-77b704297d8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/march/university-of-leicester-archaeologists-open-the-mysterious-lead-coffin-found-buried-just-feet-from-the-former-grave-of-king-richard-iii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972263 | 1,802 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Today, in spite of advanced video conferencing, shared virtual environments, and gaming environments such as Second Life, it is still simply much more efficient to physically travel to remote location for business, scientific or family meetings—even if at a huge environmental, energetic and opportunity cost.
The science and technology developed in BEAMING will for the first time give people a real sense of physically being in a remote location with other people, and vice versa—without actually travelling.
BEAMING is a four year FP7 EU collaborative project which started on Jan 1st 2010.
BEAMING raises a number of ethical and legal issues that are familiar from existing virtual reality and telecommunications technologies.It also raises several novel issues.
You can read more here.
The AR-Rift from Will Steptoe at UCL has been featured in several high profile pieces:
Neelie Kroes came by to see Anton from Starlab beam back to the EventLAB in Barcelona to chat with Mel.
Feeling like a child again Immersive virtual reality can give adults such a strong illusion of being inside a child’s body that it affects their perception of the physical sizes of objects as well as their personal attributes, according to a study. Mel Slater and colleagues use immersive virtual reality to give adults avatars. Half had the virtual body of a 4-year-old and the other half a scaled-down adult body, the same size as the child body.
Telepresence experiment studies how interview subjects in Spain will respond to questions posed by a robot being operated in LA
Who/What: Researcher Nonny de la Peña, a pioneering immersive journalist and USC Ph.D student who is exploring how new technologies can be used in journalism, is going to be interviewing researchers and activists in Spain via a robot. De la Peña will be operating the robot wearing a motion capture suit (like the ones used in Avatar) at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies’ Mixed Reality Lab in Playa Vista. Her movements and interactions will be relayed into the robot, which will be in Spain with the interview subjects. Her gestures and gaze will be replicated by the robot, in order to create a communication experience that goes beyond talking on a phone or using Skype.
Why: Aside from being interesting topics (the AIDS researchers’ breakthroughs and the Catalan independence movement), this is an experiment in telepresence – exploring what it means to have the reporter in the room (as a robot) interviewing the subjects in Spain from the lab here in LA. This project is part of a larger EU-funded research investigating how a person can visit a remote location feel fully immersed in the new environment. Will a reporter get to “go” to the moon next? Travel to a dangerous frontline story during a revolution? Walk the bottom of the ocean? To our knowledge, this will be the first time a reporter is driving a robot to do an interview. Talk about advancing the story!
The BEAMING Project is organising a special session at this years Eurographics conference to be held in Girona on May 8th 2013. The session is open to all and will showcase Beaming technology and applications developed in the project.
A workshop, ‘Emerging Legal Issues with Remote Presence Technologies’ was held at the Faculty of Laws, University College London (UCL) on the 5th November 2012. The workshop, which was held as part of the BEAMING project, was the first of its kind to look at this technology and these issues from a l
On Wednesday, 10th October the BEAMING Consortium met for a workshop on the ethical and legal implications of researching and developing BEAMING and BEAMING-like technologies.
The workshop began with a brief introduction from Patrick Haggard about the importance of integrating ethical and legal issues into the core research activity of any project developing new technologies. The aim of the workshop was to help the Consortium think about what type of issues BEAMING might raise and how we could address them.
Beaming into the Rat World: Enabling Real-Time Interaction Between Rat and Human Each at their Own Scale
Research published in PLOS ONE today by BEAMING researchers at the EventLAB in Barcelona shows how we can seamlessly beam from human scale to rat scale and vice versa.
Read more here: dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048331
You can also watch the video on Beaming's YouTube Channel: http://youtu.be/tdo08is9Xw0 | <urn:uuid:d8709feb-46ba-4b8c-9c25-3cd2b1ec0055> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.beaming-eu.org/home | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939178 | 940 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Adamantius Origen (A.D. 184-254), was born in Alexandria, Egypt, and was one of the most famous "church fathers," was instrumental in editing manuscripts upon which the NIV, NASB, and all modern versions, are based. He attended the School of Alexandria, which was a theological school and was established in the 2nd century after Christ. This school mixed Greek philosophy or Gnostic beliefs (secret mystical occult knowledge) with Biblical teaching.
Origen taught many non-Christian doctrines (see below). He stated that he would not hand down Christian teachings, pure and unmixed, but rather clothed with the precepts of pagan philosophy. Adam Clarke says Origen was the first "Christian" teacher of purgatory. A pupil of the Gnostic star worshipper Clement of Alexandria, Origin lightly esteemed the Bible's historical basis. "The Scriptures," Origen maintained, "are of little use to those who understand them as they are written." He is known for the Old Testament six-column Bible called the "Hexapla" in which each column had a different version of the Bible. Origen was well known for his labor to produce a "so-called" correct text of the Greek New Testament. He was known for spiritualizing or turning biblical events into allegories.
Origen greatly influenced Eusebius (260-340), who produced 50 copies of an "ecumenical" Bible (at the behest of Emperor Constantine). Although Constantine is remembered for establishing Sunday worship and the "Christian" (Catholic) Church as the state religion, his action in choosing Eusebius' rendition of Origen's Bible was perhaps more important, since ALL MODERN VERSIONS are based on the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, which are of the Eusebio-Origen type. Many authorities believe they were actually 2 of the 50 Constantine Bibles.
Some of Origen's Beliefs:
Jack Moorman author of the book Forever Settled writes: "He (Origen) is considered by many to be the most profound mind in the history of the church. But in fact it may be said that he had a greater corrupting influence on the early church and on the Bible itself than any man."
According to Les Garrett in his book Which Bible Can We Trust?, "Origen, being the textual critic, is supposed to have corrected numerous portions of the sacred manuscripts. Evidence to the contrary shows that he changed them to agree with his human philosophy of mystical and allegorical ideas. Thus, through deceptive scholarship of this kind, certain manuscripts became corrupt."
Does it Really | <urn:uuid:4a3eadfe-8fb1-4d09-bd8c-b0b04071260e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.1611kingjamesbible.com/origen.html/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970331 | 539 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Expectant mothers read about the second stage of labor and how to push. They attend childbirth education classes and learn how to push. Then, they arrive in labor and are told yet another method of pushing. Who is right?
Regular and rhythmical breathing during pushing allows a mother to push longer while maintaining good oxygen flow to the baby and reducing fatigue. Breathing/bearing down techniques may include spontaneous pushing, slow exhalation pushing or directed pushing. They may even include "purple pushing."
The urge to push is a relentless urge to push ~ it is nearly involuntary. To push spontaneously, many women find that holding their breath during pushing increases the intensity and strength of the push. Remember, it is important to come up for air! Spontaneous pushing is most often used during early as it is probably the least effective of the three. It is good however, for expectant mothers to learn from and to begin listening to how their body will be pushing out their baby.
Slow Exhalation Pushing
Working with the urge to push and producing a push that is slow and easy, Slow Exhalation Pushing is similar to blowing up a new balloon. During a contraction, a mother inhales and exhales slowly through pursed lips in much the same way as if she were blowing up a balloon. This is often preferred to breath-holding when the baby indicates (via an electronic fetal heart monitor) that he/she may not be tolerating the second stage well. This may also be preferred when the mother and care giver are trying to avoid an episiotomy, since the push from Slow Exhalation Pushing is so gentle.
Directed Pushing is the most commonly used type of pushing in the United States. Again during a contraction, a mother inhales and then holds her breath while a support person counts a quick count of 10. This is not 10 actual seconds (it is actually about 6 clock seconds)! However for clarity, at a time when mothers do not process information well, a count of 10 is helpful to her. At the end of the count of 10, she exhales and inhales rapidly again, holding for another count of 10. This cycle is repeated until the contraction goes away.
Purple pushing refers to holding the breath so long and with such force that the small capillaries in the cheeks and face burst. Purple pushing produces Valsalva's Maneuver. Valsalva's Maneuver occurs with prolonged breath-holding ~ longer than 6 clock seconds. With prolonged breath-holding, there is an increase of the maternal intrathoracic pressure by forcible exhalation against the closed glottis. The maneuver causes a trapping of blood in veins, preventing it from entering the heart. When the breath is released, the intrathoracic pressure drops and the trapped blood is quickly propelled through the heart, producing an increase in the heart rate (tachycardia) and the blood pressure. Immediately, a reflex bradycardia ensues. All of this disrupts the blood flow to the uterus and ultimately to the baby. This disruption in blood flow indicates a disruption in oxygen flow, which ultimately shows up on the fetal heart monitor as fetal distress.
There is no clear evidence that closed glottis pushing (Valsalva's Maneuver) shortens second stage, decreases fatigue or minimizes pain. It has otherwise been suggested that bearing down for a prolonged period with a closed glottis alters the contractile pattern of uterine smooth muscle, leading to inefficient contractions and failure to progress. Studies suggest that encouraging women to believe in their ability to push the baby out may be as important as the type of breathing. A variety of studies published between 1992 and 1996 show that physiological effects of Valsalva's Maneuver can include: impeded venous return; decreased cardiac filling and output; increased intrathoracic pressure; affected flow velocity in middle cerebral artery; raised intraoccular pressure; changed heart action potential/repolarization; increased arterial pressure; increased peripheral venous pressure; altered body fluid pH, which contributes to inefficient uterine contractions; decreased fetal cerebral oxygenation. (Nursing Times 95:15, April 15, 1999)
Because there is much to learn about proper pushing techniques, it is imperative that the expectant mother spends adequate time practicing for the second stage of labor. This practice time should definitely include the partner as he/she will likely take an active role in assisting the mom during this stage of labor. Likewise, the expectant mother should take some time to discuss with her care giver any concerns with breathing techniques with regards to pushing. Learning how to push effectively, allowing optimal oxygen flow to the uterus, mom and baby, can lead to a beautiful, healthy birth.
Bobak, I., Jensen, M. Maternity & Gynecologic Care: The Nurse and the Family. (1989) St. Louis: Mosby Publishers.
Nichols, F., Humenick, S. Childbirth Education: Practice, Research & Theory (2000) Saunders & Co.
Whitely, N. A Manual of Clinical Obstetrics (1985) Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.
Reeder, S., Martin, L., and Koniak-Griffin, D. Maternity Nursing: Family, Newborn, and Women's Health Care. (1997) Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. | <urn:uuid:f649403e-e750-4f70-af6f-58d4f9160c95> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birthsource.com/scripts/article.asp?articleid=148 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940207 | 1,126 | 3.28125 | 3 |
During the 670s and 680s there was a dramatic change in how people were buried in Anglo-Saxon England, according to a new study released by English Heritage.
The research project, which was done with Cardiff University and the Queen’s University Belfast, examined 572 Anglo-Saxon burials from across England and was able to give them more precise dating by using a new method to combine the radiocarbon dates on skeletons from graves with analysis of the typological sequence of their accompanying grave goods.
They reveal that around the end of the seventh century the pre-Christian tradition of of burying men and women fully clothed with weapons, dress fittings, and other equipment, had disappeared. The researchers said that the end of this practice happened earlier and more abruptly than first thought.
The end of this burial practice happened during period when Theodore of Tarsus served as Archbishop of Canterbury (AD 669 – 690). According to Bede, Theodore of Tarsus “was the first archbishop whom the whole church in England agreed to obey”. He arrived in May 669 and swiftly visited all of the then English parts of Britain and issued instructions on orthodox Christian practices. It would now appear that burial rites were a main concern, something not recorded in historical sources.
Professor John Hines from Cardiff University explained, “Over a period of at least a century starting in the second half of the 6th century, a series of radical changes in burial practice coincided with hugely important developments in social and political organisation, economic life, and institutional religion in England.
“All of these must be interrelated. However, the exact contemporaneity of the end of traditional furnished burial and Theodore’s reign as Archbishop of Canterbury is striking, and unlikely to be a mere coincidence.
“It sheds new light on how Christianity consolidated its hold over the lives and experiences of everyone in England, and how ideas and practices that have prevailed for centuries took shape in this turning point in our history.
“If our interpretation of the abrupt and comprehensive change in burial practice which saw the final demise of the older tradition is correct, Theodore effected a truly comprehensive shift which brought the lives of everybody in Anglo-Saxon England into a common framework defined by the anticipation of how their body would be treated in death, and not even the Viking invasions and conquests two centuries later would alter this.”
Dr Helen Geake of the University of Cambridge, told BBC historyextra: “This new research will make a huge difference to Anglo-Saxon studies. The findings are important because now, for the first time, we can match what’s going on in early Anglo-Saxon archaeology – the broad sweep of human life – to the precise historical dates of specific events and people.
“Until now, archaeology and history have had to be studied almost in isolation, but now potentially we can combine them to learn far more than we ever could before.”
The new way of analysis for this project, which combined radiocarbon dates of individual samples with the sequence of the burials obtained by examining their shared traits and the co-occurrence of similar types of artefacts, is also being heralded as an important breakthrough.
Dr Alex Bayliss, English Heritage dating expert, added “It is only through precise dating that historians can start to construct what happened at specific times. The who, what, and how suddenly come to life. This dating programme has considerable significance for the dating of other finds, such as those from the Staffordshire Hoard and also has far-reaching significance beyond Anglo-Saxon graves, setting the standard for understanding a wide range of newly excavated finds from different periods.” | <urn:uuid:061bddff-7d78-40ce-92be-d0b22a363a13> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medievalists.net/2013/09/03/research-uncovers-how-christianity-changed-anglo-saxon-burial-practices/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967275 | 766 | 3.5 | 4 |
"The Dead Call Us To Remember": Illuminating the Lives of Enslaved Blacks among the Cherokees
by Tiya Miles
The purpose of this booklet is to illuminate, commemorate, and contextualize the lives of enslaved Africans and African Americans who labored on the Vann plantation in the Cherokee Nation. The larger goal is to contribute to the public history mission of the Chief Vann House historic site.
In an essay titled "Revolutionary 'Renegades': Native Americans, African Americans, and Black Indians," scholar bell hooks argues that the conjoined history of African Americans and Native Americans has long been suppressed in the United States. Hooks attributes this suppression to a national practice of separating racial groups from one another and structuring those groups into a hierarchy of relative power and regard, with white Americans placed at the top and Indians and blacks placed at the bottom. Hooks insists that in order to challenge unjust racial hierarchies and to honor those whose lives have been forgotten, we must recover these lost histories.
"The dead call us to remember" the buried stories of our past, hooks urges (180). And in recent years, scholars and community groups have responded to this call, taking up the subject of black and Native interrelated histories and cultures — thereby reconstructing what historian Carter G. Woodson, the founder of Black History Month, has called, "one of the longest unwritten chapters of the history of the United States" (Woodson 45).
The Chief Vann House State Historic Site, operated by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, offers a rare opportunity for the exploration of African American life among American Indians. James Vann was a wealthy businessman of Cherokee and Scottish parentage who, in 1804, built a plantation called Diamond Hill in present-day northwest Georgia. Vann and his heir possessed over 100 of the 583 black slaves owned by Cherokees in the first four decades of the 19th century (Norton 60; McLoughlin, Ghost Dance 234, 240).
The Vann home has been restored by local preservationists and state officials and is open to the public for guided tours and organized community events. In July 2002, the Vann House was augmented by the opening of a visitor's center and museum, including a permanent exhibit and documentary film. Because James Vann allowed Moravians (a German-speaking Protestant denomination) to operate a mission on his land, a detailed record of life on the Vann plantation exists in the form of missionary diaries and letters.
It is in this context that an undergraduate class titled "Blacks, Indians, and the Making of America" at the University of Michigan set out to increase awareness of African American history at this historic site. Nearly 30 students from diverse racial and cultural backgrounds researched the history of the Vann plantation, relying on sources ranging from Moravian missionary diaries to Works Progress Administration narratives of former slaves of Indians, including classic secondary sources on slavery in the Cherokee Nation by scholars such as Theda Perdue, William McLoughlin, and Rudi Halliburton.
Students shared their research findings with the class, and then wrote individual papers on their topics. The papers were edited, shortened, combined, and compiled by a team of African American and Native American students.
Students in this course were passionate about their projects and deeply serious about the topics and questions they explored. The student authors crafted the essays in this booklet with care, and the editors worked diligently to identify and correct mistakes. Errors or gaps in information are inevitable, however, especially in a project like this one. We encourage readers to refer to the partial bibliography of scholarly publications at the end of this booklet for further learning.
With permission from Tiya Miles, University of Michigan, 2006. | <urn:uuid:9dea3634-f446-45b2-aa15-f1a1f5123fbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.onbeing.org/program/toward-living-memory/feature/dead-call-us-remember-illuminating-lives-enslaved-blacks-among | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943641 | 762 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Animals that use their sense of sight to navigate generally have a hard time getting around without light. Some, like owls, have very large eyes that they use to collect lots of light. They also use their other senses to gather information about their surroundings. Humans, on the other hand, have put a lot of effort into creating portable, often artificial light sources, from torches to light bulbs and LEDs. Some bioluminescent life forms have an entirely different approach -- they make their own light and carry it around in their bodies.
Many animals use the light they produce the same way people use flashlights or searchlights. But animals produce light very differently from the way light bulbs do. Traditional light bulbs create light through incandescence. A filament inside the bulb gets very hot and emits light. This process isn't particularly efficient, since generating enough heat to create light wastes an enormous amount of energy.
Glowing animals, on the other hand, typically create light through luminescence. In luminescent animals, chemical compounds mix together to produce a glow. It's a lot like the way the substances inside a light stick combine to make light. Luminescence is far more efficient than incandescence. It neither requires nor generates much heat, so it's sometimes known as cold light.
Scientists had a basic idea of the difference between incandescence and luminescence as far back as 2,500 years ago. In the 1600s, researchers began to discover exactly how animals make their own light. But since different animals use different substances, scientists still don't know precisely how every bioluminescent species makes light. In some cases, researchers haven't figured out why an animal makes light or how it controls its on-off switch. Bioluminescence can also be difficult to study, since many animals exhaust their luminescent abilities when captured. In other cases, the process of capture destroys the light-producing organs.
In this article, we'll examine the basic process behind luminescence, as well as how animals use luminescent abilities to their advantage. We'll also take a look at some of the unanswered questions about how and why animals make light. | <urn:uuid:05b50897-40a0-483b-9d16-60cc0f847e26> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://animals.howstuffworks.com/animal-facts/bioluminescence.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960101 | 448 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Sample: Truth and Knowledge Part 1
|Rudolf Steiner Book & Lecture Series: Rudolf Steiner was a devotedly “renaissance man.” His philosophy tested various facets of what it is to be human. During a period of forty-years, Steiner developed and directed a path of inner expansion or spiritual exploration he termed “anthroposophy.” From his discoveries, he offered sensible attestation for virtually every realm of human undertakings. Religion, medicine, money matters, science, architecture, art, hospice care, social orderliness, there is practically no subject he did not influence.
The Genesis of Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Steiner came into the world in the small parish of Kraljevec, Austro-Hungarian Domain, in 1861 and passed away in the canton of Dornach, Switzerland in 1925. During his years at university, he focused on chemistry, physics, and mathematics. After writing his dissertation on philosophy, Steiner received his doctorate and afterward took an interest in literary and scholarly circles while indulging in the opulent social and political life in Vienna.
Throughout the 1890s, Steiner was employed for seven years at the Goethe archive in Weimar where he abridged Goethe’s scientific works and partnered in a comprehensive edition of Schopenhauer’s work as well. At the time, Weimar was the focal point of European culture. This allowed Steiner to interact with many well-known cultural icons and renowned artist. Steiner produced his first important meaningful composition, Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom, currently available as a segment of the Foundation Works of Anthroposophy.
After leaving Weimar, Steiner traveled to Berlin, German. There, he edited a forward-thinking scholarly magazine. Once more, Steiner coddled himself in the opulent, briskly transforming culture of a metropolis that had become the hub of various extremist groups and movements. He educated others about natural science and history and proposed sensible training in public speaking. Steiner disavowed himself from any ideology of any political organization, which distanced him from the countless activists in Berlin at the time. In 1899, Rudolf Steiner’s life expeditiously transformed. His autobiography imparts a personal insight into his personal trials that developed into an important crossroads.
A Time for Transformation
Rudolf Steiner began to orate frequently to theosophical groups. This disturbed and bemused many of his associates. The highly regarded, and sometimes iconoclast historian, scholar, writer, philosopher, and scientist began to emanate as a soothsayer of sorts. Steiner’s resolve to speak right from his personal spiritual explorations was not pretentious on his part. His desire was not to become a spiritual leader, nourish inquisitiveness, or to renew some primordial wisdom. It appeared as an acuity of what was considered necessary of his time.
Rudolf Steiner made it his duty to examine the spiritual workings of the realities of the universe within the realms of nature. He scrutinized the inner attributes of the spirit and soul of humanity and comprehended the promise of future development. Additionally, he cultivated innovative methods of meditation; he explored the condition of the human Soul before and after death; he studied the spiritual past and evolution of humankind on earth; and he correlated thorough studies of karma and reincarnation. After a few years, Rudolf Steiner grew to be ever more operative in the arts. He viewed art as a means of communicating his spiritual knowledge into societal and cultural modernization.
Manifesting the Tangible
In 1913, the building of the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland commenced. This astonishing wooden edifice came to fruition gradually during WWI. An international committee of volunteers partnered with skilled artisans and native builders gathered to form the distinctive carved structures and forms designed by Steiner himself.
Steiner believed that architecture is an attendant of humanity, so he designed the Goetheanum to provide the work of anthroposophy drama and specifically eurhythmy. In 1922, New Year’s Eve, the Goetheanum was completely destroyed by an arsonist. Rudolf Steiner went on to devise a second building that was finished following his death. Today, it is the intermediary for Anthroposophical Society and School of Spiritual Science.
These observations are the foundations of Steiner’s responses to the demands of the present, and have enthused a rekindling of modern life. Farmers, therapists, doctors, scientists, businesspersons, teachers, academics, pastors, and theologians all moved toward Steiner to infuse freshness into their undertakings. Biodynamic-agriculture started with a series of lectures asked for by an assembly of farmers fretful about the disparaging leaning towards scientific farming. Steiner’s collaboration with doctors advanced to a medical movement that includes hospitals, clinics, and numerous types of therapeutic work. Eurhythmy is also utilized with educational and therapeutic work.
The Waldorf school evolution formulated with a school for the children of workers at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette plant. Currently, Waldorf schools can be found all around the world. There are village neighborhoods, homes, and schools for adults and children with special needs that utilize the Waldorf School’s teachings.
The Soul of Rudolf Steiner is embedded into his Work
Throughout his thirties, Rudolf Steiner aroused an inner acknowledgment of what he called the “turning-point in time” in the history of humankind’s spiritual awakening and past. He accepted that the understanding of this turning-point in time rises above all disparities among nations, races, and religions and has ramifications for the whole of humanity.
Steiner desired to cultivate a means of knowledge to grasp today’s profound and insistent needs. Those ethics, though improperly understood, could guide individuals to finding a continued encouragement in anthroposophy for their everyday lives. Rudolf Steiner gave the world the product of meticulous spiritual analysis and insight, a vision that is effortless and completely conscious of the veracity of thinking and comprehending intrinsic in natural science. Today, we understand what results when natural science circumvents the human spirit and deciphers knowledge into technological nihility without refinement, magnificence, or empathy.
In the world today, wherever you find a human need you will find groups of individuals utilizing Steiner’s ideas. There are a probable 10,000 initiatives globally. Steiner’s anthroposophy is a breeding ground of entrepreneurial movement, political and social activism, scientific research, and community enhancement. Modern expressions of Rudolf Steiner’s influence include the Camphill Movement that provides support to individuals with disabilities, Biodynamic farming and gardening, and Waldorf Education.
We may never know if Steiner craved love and acceptance like the ordinary human being. He had a mission that seemed to be the catalyst of his entire life. In his world of immaculate spirituality, there was only one thing to do; share his insights with the world and leave humankind something to embrace. Steiner wrote over 400 books in the course of his life and we will add them here as they become available. Due to the incredible generosity of Dale Brunsvold we have 22 audio books complete as well as over 775 audio lectures. If you wish to purchase hard copies of these works please visit Steiner Books to purchase the books and support the ongoing effort to keep Rudolf Steiners works alive. If you are a follower of Steiners you will realize what an incredible resource this is and if new to his works you will soon realize what a gold mine you have found.
|Rudolf Steiner Books
Rudolf Steiner Lectures: 80 Lecture Series, Over 780 Individual Lectures
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- Rudolf steiner on heavenly bodies audiobook | <urn:uuid:377ba64c-0b40-4352-95c0-f07d4c4aa1fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.audioenlightenment.com/rudolf-steiner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948921 | 1,709 | 3.21875 | 3 |
A fatal plane crash in New Zealand has been cited in a report stating that the use of cellphones and other devices in midair may create a "perfect storm" of conditions that can have disastrous consequences.
This is because most personal electronic devices emit electromagnetic waves which can interfere with a plane's electronics, an investigation by the New York Times has found.
Although it has remained difficult to prove, experts suspect electronic interference has played a role in some airline accidents and have warned passengers not to be complacent.
The 2003 crash in Christchurch was used as an example where a mobile phone is believed to have interfered with the plane's navigational equipment.
Eight people were killed when the plane flew into the ground short of the runway.
The pilot had called home some time before the crash, remaining connected for the last few minutes of the flight.
A final report into the incident by the New Zealand Transport Accident Investigation Commission found that "the pilot's own mobile phone may have caused erroneous indications" on the navigational aid.
"Electronic devices do not cause problems in every case," said David Carson, an engineer with Boeing. "However it's bad in that people assume it never will."
Older planes may be particularly vulnerable to interference. Another contributory factor is the plane's altitude.
"A plane is designed to the right specifications, but nobody goes back and checks if it is still robust," said Bill Strauss, an engineer and former doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon University.
"Then there are the outliers - a mobile phone that's been dropped and abused, or a battery that puts out more [power] than it's supposed to, and avionics that are more susceptible to interference because gaskets have failed.
"And boom, that's where you get interference.
"It would be a perfect storm that would combine to create an aviation accident."
In 2007, another pilot recounted an instance when the navigational equipment on his Boeing 737 failed after takeoff. The problem resolved itself after a passenger was told to turn off a hand-held GPS device.
However new technology is combating the potential danger electronic devices can pose to aircraft. In July last year the Australian Communications and Media Authority ruled that mobiles do not disrupt aircraft navigational equipment if airlines install special technology, paving the way for travellers to be able to make calls and send text messages in flight. | <urn:uuid:f82393c2-02c1-4a45-84e3-1693aeed0708> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10701029 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966302 | 484 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Freemasonry is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by shared ideals of both a moral and metaphysical nature, and, in most of its branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being. Freemasonry is an esoteric art, in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols."
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar) (2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools (1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion (3), the Roman Collegia (1), the Comacine masters (1), intellectual descendants of Noah (1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations.
Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is thought by many that Freemasonry cannot be a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons. Amongst the reasons given for this conclusion, well documented in Born in Blood, are the fact that stonemasons' guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a stonemasons' guild.
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).
Some members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints note similarities between the church's sacred "Endowments" performed in LDS temples, and masonic rituals. Some Mormons have said this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths. It may also be that early Mormon leaders (including Smith) were members of Freemasonry and incorporated its liturgy into the new religion.
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript, or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ca. 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.
It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally.
In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of England (GLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret Lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The GLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.
Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesied in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.
According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, Burton, Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled The Sufis, beginning on page 205.
Main article: Grand LodgeThere are many different jurisdictions of governance of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally recognizes. If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be in amity, which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa.
Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for regularity. This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the ancient landmarks of Freemasonry - the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.
Freemasonry is often said to consist of two different branches: the Anglo and the Continental traditions. In reality, there is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into distinct camps like this. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.
The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a Grand Lodge, or sometimes a Grand Orient. These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that. (In North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge.)
The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the Grand Lodge of England (GLE),(the Moderns)founded in 1717. This later became the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) when it joined with another English Grand Lodge (the Antients) in 1813. It is today the largest jurisdiction in England, and generally considered to be the oldest in the world. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London.
The oldest in the Continental branch, and the largest jurisdiction in France, is the Grand Orient de France (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, the Anglo and Continental branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF around the time it started unreservedly admitting atheists, in 1877.
In most Latin countries, and in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.
Most jurisdictions allow their members to visit Lodges in recognized jurisdictions without reservation, leaving it to the foreign Lodge to confirm that the two jurisdictions are in amity. The UGLE, on the other hand, requires its members to check with them before visiting lodges abroad to confirm amity - for example visiting American lodges is discouraged.
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet as a Lodge and not in a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet as a church, with the actual building officially considered no more than a meeting place.)
According to Masonic legend, the operative lodges (the Medieval lodges of actual stonemasons) constructed a lodge building adjacent to their work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called the South.
Early speculative lodges (which included members who were not actual stonemasons) met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.
Lodge buildings have for many years been known as Temples. In many countries this term has now been replaced by Masonic Centre. (Shriners and their Temples.)
In North America, Masonic Lodges are typically known as "Blue Lodges", and are the foundation of a collection of further "appended" Masonic groups or bodies: York Rite, Scottish Rite and The Shrine. To be a member of these other bodies, a man must pay dues to a Blue Lodge. The Blue Lodge and its ceremonies establish the fundamental bond which makes all Masons "brothers", and is the cement which binds all other appendant Masonic bodies together.
Some specific specialist lodges exist within many Masonic jurisdictions.The most obvious are the specially constituted Lodges of "Research and Instruction" (R&I). These are associated with a world-wide organization of Masonic research, typically specialising in discovering and interpreting historical records and the meanings of Masonic symbolism left unrecorded, and for preserving and developing Masonic ritual. Membership in these many Lodges is typically open to interested members of other, normally-constituted Lodges.There are also Lodges formed by groupings of persons with similar interests or background, such as "old boy" Lodges associated with certain schools, universities, military units, or businesses.
Freemasonry is associated with several appendant bodies, such as the Scottish Rite, which is actually a complete system of Freemasonry, developed on the Continent (particularly in France), and the York Rite, which includes three sovereign and distinct rites, including the Holy Royal Arch, Royal and Select Masters (aka Cryptic Masonry) and Knights Templar.
In regard to the (Masonic) Templars, this particular organization is limited to Royal Arch and Cryptic Masons of the Christian faith and does not in any way impose this requirement on the entire York Rite system, as is commonly and erroneously believed.
Other groups include the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, the Society of Rosicrucians, and the Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot, among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Craft or Blue Lodge Freemasonry - often with additional so-called higher degrees - while improving their members and society as a whole. The Shrine and Grotto tend to emphasise fun and philanthropy and are largely a North American phenomenon.
Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some consider them wholly outside of Freemasonry proper. Others may give them some sort of formal recognition (or not). Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "Craft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12–21 who have Masonic sponsorship), Job's Daughters (for girls aged 10-20 with proper Masonic relationship) and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11–20 who have Masonic sponsorship). The Boy Scouts of America is not a Masonic organization, but was first nationally commissioned by Freemason Daniel Carter Beard. Beard exemplified the Masonic ideals throughout the Scouting program.
Freemasonry accepts members from almost any religion, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. In Lodges following in the Continental tradition, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase Supreme Being is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Spinoza and Goethe (himself a Freemason), or views of The Ultimate or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology).
This leads some to suggest that even Anglo Freemasonry will, in practice, end up accepting certain kinds of atheists those willing to adopt a certain brand of spiritual language. Such claims are difficult to evaluate, since many Anglo jurisdictions consider any further enquiry into a prospective member's religion, beyond the "Supreme Being" question, to be off limits. However, in some Anglo jurisdictions (mostly English-speaking), Freemasonry is actually less tolerant of naturalism than it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must:
Traditionally, membership was limited to men only, and the degree of recognition that should be accorded to feminine and co-Masonic jurisdictions is still a matter of great controversy. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but remains there for historical reasons (it is often interpreted as meaning something like "freethinking"). The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated: the separation of Church and State, the replacement of religiously-affiliated schools with secular ones, and democratic revolutions (such as the United States and France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy). In some places, especially Continental Europe and Mexico, Freemasonry has at times taken on an anti-Catholic and anti-clerical overtone.
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.
Freemasonry is often called a secret society, and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets".
The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are usually clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practised more in earnest.
Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip (by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light"); however, Masons acknowledge that these "secrets" have been widely available in printed exposés and anti-Masonic literature for, literally, centuries.
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. While this has been slowly changing, especially over the past century, there were exceptions to the rule as early as the 18th century. Perhaps the most authoritative account of a woman being admitted to Freemasonry in these early years surrounds Elizabeth Aldworth (nee St. Leger), who is reported to have viewed the proceedings of a Lodge meeting held at Doneraile House, the house of her father, first Viscount Doneraile, a resident of Cork, Ireland.
In the early part of the 18th century, it was customary for Lodges to be regularly held in private houses; this Lodge was duly warranted as number 150 on the register of the Grand Lodge of Ireland. Apparently, she removed a brick and saw the ceremony in the room beyond. After being discovered, Elizabeth's situation was discussed by the Lodge, and it was decided that she should be initiated into Freemasonry.
The story is supported by other accounts that record how she was a subscriber to the Irish Book of Constitutions of 1744 and that she frequently attended, wearing her Masonic regalia, entertainments that were given under Masonic auspices for the benefit of the poor and distressed. She afterwards married Mr. Richard Aldworth of Newmarket. It is also reported that when she died she was accorded the honor of a Masonic burial.
International Co-Masonry began in France in 1882 with the initiation of Maria Deraismes into the Loge Libre Penseurs (Freethinkers Lodge), a men's Lodge under the Grande Loge Symbolique de France. Along with activist Georges Martin, in 1893 Maria Deraismes oversaw the initiation of sixteen women into the first Lodge in the world to have both men and women as members, creating the jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH).
In the United Kingdom and France, and most other countries, women still generally join co-Masonic Lodges, such as those under LDH, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons per se, but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, such as the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.
The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women, although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense.
The UGLE, for instance, has recognized (since 1998) two local women's jurisdictions as regular in practice, except for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry is rapidly changing in the English-speaking world. While in many cases North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.
In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free by birth. When the Military Lodge left the area, the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees nor to do other Masonic Work.
These individuals applied for, and obtained, a Warrant for Charter from the Grand Lodge of England in 1784 and formed African Lodge #459. Despite being stricken from the rolls (like all American Grand Lodges after the 1813 merger of the Antients and the Moderns) the Lodge restyled itself as the African Lodge #1 (not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa), and separated itself from UGLE-recognised Masonry. This led to a tradition of separate, predominantly African American jurisdictions in North America, known collectively as Prince Hall Freemasonry.
Widespread racism and segregation in North America made it impossible for African Americans to join many so-called "mainstream" Lodges, and many mainstream Grand Lodges in North America refused to recognize as legitimate the Prince Hall Lodges and Prince Hall Masons in their territory.
Presently, Prince Hall Masonry is recognized by some UGLE-recognized Grand Lodges and not by others, and appears to be working its way toward full recognition. It is no longer unusual for traditional lodges to have significant African-American membership.
John Marrant the Huntingdonian minister preached to the Prince Hall Lodge on 24th June 1789. His Nova Scotia congregation was significant in the successful agitation for repatriation by Black Loyalists as well as the subsequent revolt which occurred in Sierra Leone in 1800.
The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the medieval operative Masons who actually worked in stone. One of their principal symbols is the square and compasses, tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter G placed there, usually said to represent God and/or Geometry.
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore) (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Holy Bible, but it can be whatever book(s) of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on—whether the Bible, the Qur'an, or other Volumes. A candidate for a degree will normally be given his choice of VSL, regardless of the Lodge's usual VSL. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and spiritual revelation, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.
Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Fichte, Goethe, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as the Grand Geometer, or the Great Architect of the Universe (GAOTU). Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.
There are three initial degrees of Freemasonry:
Freemasonry in the Arts
Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:
The British author Rudyard Kipling also made use of Masonic symbolism and myth in his story, The Man Who Would Be King, which was later made into a film. Two adventurers are taken to be representatives of Alexander the Great because of their Masonic emblems.
An expression often used in Masonic circles is to be on the square, meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Another phrase from Freemasonry in common use is meeting on the level (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as the Craft, a term also used to distinguish the basic level of Freemasonry from other Masonic orders. A Mason who has served as Worshipful Master is known as a Past Master, which has passed into common use to indicate an expert in a subject.
Landmarks are the ancient and unchangeable precepts of Masonry, the standards by which the regularity of Lodges and Grand Lodges is judged. However, since each Grand Lodge is self-governing and no single authority exists over Craft Masonry, even these supposedly-inviolable principles can and do vary, leading to controversies and inconsistency of recognition. Some examples of common landmarks include:
Freemasonry has a system of Lodges of Research and Instruction. Additionally, most Masonic jurisdictions appoint Lecturers who are empowered to research, develop and/or deliver lectures in Lodges for the purpose of instructing the members.
On 5 March 2001, the University of Sheffield in England established the Centre for Research into Freemasonry, as part of the University's Humanities Research Institute, that "undertakes and promotes objective scholarly research into the historical, social and cultural impact of freemasonry, particularly in Britain." The CRF is headed by Professor Andrew Prescott, a medieval historian and expert on humanities computing, who was initially seconded from the British Library to the University of Sheffield for three years to establish the new Centre.
Most Grand Lodges and many regional Masonic Centres/Temples have a library, which is used for research.
One notable collection is the collection at the library of the University of Poznan in Poland. Some 80,000 books are housed at the main library and the Chateau de Ciazen some 80km distant. These were reportedly collected during World War II when Heinrich Himmler's SS confiscated the books of Masonic libraries in Germany and other occupied countries such as Belgium and stored this archive in Poland.
The GLE (Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the Moderns, to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the Antients. The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the GLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. The Antients tended to be more working class in membership, and probably more Christian, while the Moderns were more aristocratic and educated, and less religiously orthodox.
Benjamin Franklin was a Modern and a Deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone Antient, and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see Revolutionary Brotherhood, by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996). It has been speculated that the Antients desired a more Christian style of Masonry, since they made popular a higher degree, called the "Holy Royal Arch", which is generally thought of as having a more Christian flavour than the first three degrees.
The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated into the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, and kept Freemasonry per se as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree . This compromise, along with subsequent changes made in 1815 , left English Masonry still clearly not Christian, but at the same time somewhat less comfortable for unorthodox members, such as Deists and Pantheists. The merger also marked a levelling of the Masonic membership, in terms of social class and education.
Because both the Antients and the Moderns had daughter Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single Rite, such as the York Rite (which is popular in the United States; not to be confused with York Rite), or the Canadian Rite (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the Antients and Moderns).
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see ). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges.
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine [Freethinker]" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves". Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine".
It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.
In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions.
They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)
Historically, Freemasonry has been identified with 19th-century bourgeois liberalism, and Freemasons have often tended to regard traditional Christianity as allied to reactionary powers defending the status quo against the advance of human freedom. Masonic Lodges of this period were often associated with anticlericalism, and were part of a broader movement, as is pointed out by Ralph Gibson: "The republican enemies of the Church did not simply attack it on the grounds of its political alignment, but also in terms of more positive ideologies: to the old traditions of the Enlightenment were added first positivism, and then scientism.
Science was supposed to be the key to the understanding of the universe, and even to enable men to grasp its essential meaning. Social science was believed to be able to provide the basis for an ethical system. This new faith was ardently preached under the Third Republic in Masonic lodges and circles of libre pensée, in learned journals, and in educated republican society in general" (A Social History of French Catholicism, 1789-1914 [London & New York: Routledge, 1989], pp.237-38).
Controversies over the historical involvements of Freemasonry and anticlericalism reach a peak in attempting to understand the role of Freemasonry in the history of anticlericalism in Portugal, Italy, and Mexico. Freemasons were prominent in the foundation of the modern Mexican state and the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and the writing of its anticlerical constitution. Under the regime of Plutarco Elías Calles, the enforcement of anticlerical laws provoked the Cristero War. These animosities persist. As recently as 2004, Norberto Cardinal Rivera of Mexico at a conference in Mexico City denounced the influence of Freemasonry.
Because of the sometimes secret nature of its rituals and activities, Freemasonry has long been suspected by both church and state of engaging in subversive activities.
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons.
In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the Lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently).
In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons.
In the 1990s in Britain, the Labor Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.
Opinions about Freemasonry around the world may differ from place to place, but Freemasons always stress non-dogmatism and tolerance (albeit often within certain defined limits). This openness has led to friction between Freemasonry and organizations which hold a negative view of ecumenism, or are themselves intolerant towards other forms of belief and worship. Masons have been opposed throughout history by various religious groups, such as some Protestants and certain Muslims.
In general, there are two doctrinal objections to Freemasonry made by established Christian denominations, Catholic and non-Catholic alike:
The most vigorous opposition to the fraternity has come from the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church is openly hostile to Freemasonry, deeming it at least partly responsible for the French Revolution and the resulting decline of the church in Europe. The Knights of Columbus and other Catholic fraternal organizations were established to provide alternatives to Freemasonry for observant Catholics. (Ironically, one of these organizations, Opus Dei, has been the target of accusations similar to those leveled against the Freemasons.) Although most Freemasons in the English-speaking world are Protestant, some Protestant churches hold that Freemasonry is incompatible with being a member of a community of Christian faith, based on the scriptural holding that "no man can serve two masters".
The first papal condemnation of Freemasonry came in 1738 from Pope Clement XII in his papal bull "Eminenti Apostolatus Specula", repeated by several later popes, notably Pope Leo XIII in the "encyclical Humanum Genus" (1884).
The 1917 Code of Canon Law explicitly declares that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication; the revised Code issued in 1983 does not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies condemned in canon 1374. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics and it is not unusual to find Catholic members. The Eastern Orthodox church forbids its members from being Masons. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some denominations of Protestantism.
However, in a letter to the United States Bishops from the Office of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the interpretation was made clear - the prohibition against Catholics joining Masonic orders remains. Many Catholic Masons in the US choose to rely on the letter of the law.
One reason the Free Methodist Church was founded in the 1860s was that its founders believed the Methodist Church was being influenced by Freemasons and members of secret societies. The Free Methodist Church continues to prohibit its members from also joining societies such as the Freemasons. Recently the Southern Baptist Convention, the largest association of Baptists in the United States, also stated that participation in Freemasonry is inconsistent with its beliefs.
This form of criticism has been markedly reduced, since modern nation states like the USA and Europe in general are founded on religious tolerance, and many adherents of the religions that formally opposed Masons now believe in the main Masonic principles.
Freemasonry has been a long-time target of conspiracy theories, which see it as an occult and evil power - often associated with the New World Order and other "agents," such as the Pope, the Illuminati and Jews - either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.
Nowadays, the main theme of anti-Masonic criticism involves the idea that Masons involve their organization in covert political activities. This assumption has been influenced by the assertion of Masons that many political figures in the past 300 years have been Masons.
Some say the Masons constantly plot to increase their power and wealth, others say the Masonic Brotherhood is engaged in a plot to produce a new world order of a type different (usually more sinister) than the existing world order. These theories would be possible to apply to almost any secret society (since a society with secret meetings allows secret coordination, the very essence of a conspiracy). Nevertheless, Masons have been the largest target because of their size and notable membership.
The historical complaints that the Masons have secretly plotted to create a society based on their ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity, and religious tolerance, are not denied by Masons. In an enlightened age many have now accepted the core Masonic values as stated, and persistent enemies of the society have been forced to come up with more sinister motives as to what Freemasons allegedly conspire to achieve.
Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. In Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too easily recognized) square and compasses.
Another criticism that may or may not have to do with the specific nature of Freemasonry, but may be applied generally to any type of organization or secret society, is the practice of cronyism, or giving favors to fellow members. Anecdotely many have the impression that one increases chances for employment by joining the Masons. This type of cronyism can be seen in the movie "Gypysie", where the general idea is alluded to, although possibly not in reference to Freemasons, but to fraternities like the Moose Lodge. Unscrupulous Masons have been known to claim they can get out of driving tickets because of Masonic logos on their car. Again, this criticism can be easily applied to almost any fraternity, but the Masons are a big target because they are the largest fraternity, and because they are worldwide, and not simply based in colleges.
Although fraternal organizations with religious overtones can be criticized for the moral faults of some of their members, Freemasonry is especially vulnerable to criticism because amongst its aims is the drive to improve its members' morality above and beyond whatever religion the individual member might profess his preference for.
A general fault ascribed to the Masons is that a Freemason would be charitable mainly to other Masons, an assumption which is made worse by the accusations of classism and racism sometimes leveled against Masonic Lodges. The phrase "charity begins at home" goes some way towards justifying this natural proclivity.
Critics also attack what they perceive as a preoccupation with ritual minutiae and personal status (ie. degree, a concept critics call similar to the thrill of an RPG level) within the hierarchy of the organization. Some critics also argue that the Freemasons are primarily a social club.
Masons respond to these criticisms by pointing out that they can equally well be applied to Christians (or practically any religion) - the assumption being that if certain members of a group are bad, the group itself must be bad.
In a sectarian age many hold that Freemasonry is a new religion. Externally, to some at least, it has many similarities to a religion: it has its own version of the Bible (the VSL), it has its own way of saying "amen" ("So mote it be," a literal translation of "Amen"), it has far more developed rituals than most Protestant denominations, some groups of Masons (especially the Scottish Rite) call their Lodges "temples," and it has a large amount of iconography and symbolism. From the perspective of many religions, which feel that they present the perfect system of morality, any competing system of morality can be considered opposed to them - and if not strictly another religion, then certainly as competitor.
Many Masons argue in response that the ritual observances of Masons should be seen in the same context as rituals maintained in the military services, in government, and civil authorities. It has been argued that any organized system of morality (which the Masons claim to be) is a religion; the Green Party might thus qualify as such.
While the practice of any given magical or mystical system is not specifically associated with Freemasonry (mainstream Masonry has always tended as much to rationalism as to mysticism), there are some groups of Masons, such as Masonic Rosicrucians, that may interpret Masonic ritual magically (or "hermetically"), which is their right as Masons, given the fraternity's non-dogmatic stance.
However, the very existence of hermetic interpretations within Masonry has lead some Christians to label Freemasonry as "Satanic". This charge is commonly made about any hermetic society that has ritualistic practices reserved for the initated.
Many Anti-Masonic activists quote Albert Pike's Morals and Dogma to "prove" that Masons worship Lucifer. The oft-quoted section (Chapt. XIX; p.321) reads:
Some Masons counter that the critics who cite this as evidence of Freemasonry's Satanic leanings ignore the first part of the passage while emphasizing the association of Lucifer with Light. Alternately,the argument is made that because a Pike claims the works of Plato and Philo were as divinely inspired as the The Apocalypse of Saint John, and b that Plato and Philo were pre-Christian pagans, and c that all pagan beliefs are Satanic, and therefore d that Pike (and Freemasonry) practice Satan worship.
Other Masons counter simply by pointing out that Masonry is non-dogmatic, and hence Pike's opinions about it are his own personal (and now somewhat out-dated) interpretations.
The Roman Catholic Church has repeatedly condemned Freemasonry, and although not claiming that it is directly Satanic, the church has claimed that Freemasonry has "led on or assisted" "partisans of evil" (from Humanum Genus).
Much of the landscape of Washington D.C. is thought by many to be inspired by, or directly designed by, Freemasons, including the layout of national buildings, the mapping of streets and roadways, and the placement of national monuments. This has caused some to speculate that some of the esoteric practices and symbolism in Freemasonry, seen as "occult", have embedded themselves within the structure of several governments - in this case, the United States.
The traditional Masonic obligations, sworn by a candidate during the initiation ritual, are sometimes called "blood oaths", particularly by those critical of the fraternity. The candidate wishes severe physical punishment upon himself should he ever reveal the secrets of Freemasonry to a non-Mason. While many non-Masons are horrified by this, Masons defend the traditional obligations as no more literal than the commonplace childhood "blood oaths", like "cross my heart and hope to die"—a very psychologically powerful way to express a serious bond or promise.
In addition, some Masons argue that the bloody punishments mentioned in the obligations are, historically, references to the punishments that the state used to inflict on defenders of civil liberties and religious freedoms, such as Freemasons. But in spite of repeated attempts to defend them, by the early 1980s, the "blood oaths" had become quite problematic from a public relations standpoint, and many Masonic jurisdictions replaced them with more politically correct "bloodless oaths".
Some conspiracy theorists look at certain historical killings and deduce that they were done as a fulfillment of the blood oath. In particular, Jack the Ripper is theorized by some to have been a Mason made psychotic for having to carry out a blood oath, and who then killed random people in the same fashion. Masons counter that the Ripper mutilations have no similarity to the symbolic punishments of the Masonic obligations.It should be noted that there are only 3 penalties that Masonry can actually impose on a member: censure, suspension of membership, and expulsion.
It is commonly held that individuals become Freemasons through invitation, patrimony, or other non-democratic means, but officially an individual must ask freely and without persuasion to become a Freemason in order to join the fraternity.This arrangement is said by some to conflict with the Freemasons mission to "make good men better", on the basis that a hidden society cannot promote itself publicly. If the society is secret, it is argued, how is a good man supposed to be attracted to it?
In practice, Freemasons have been known not to question the motives of anyone seeking membership, but clearly members are going to prefer those individuals who can offer something of value to the group, and will thus indicate to potential members some clue that they may be appropriate candidates; it is then incumbent upon the seeker to make the request.
Many of these myths have taken hold in the imagination of "conspiracy buffs" partly because many Freemasons, like government intelligence agencies and big business, and understanding the value of misinformation, have had a tendency of allowing the uninitiated to argue amongst themselves, so that the truth remains private. Masons have only in recent years attempted to make their organization more open to public view.
George Washington, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, James Polk, James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln (inducted postmortem by the lodge that he had petitioned for, and was denied, membership in while running for the U.S. Senate), Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Taft, Warren Harding, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman, Lyndon Johnson, and Gerald Ford.
Famous early Americans who were Freemasons: Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, Paul Revere, Benedict Arnold, Stephen Austin, Jim Bowie, David Crockett, and Sam Houston.
Rudyard Kipling used masonic symbols and characters in some of his writings, most notably The Man Who Would Be King.
One of the main characters in Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace becomes a Freemason.
The plot of the opera "Die Zauberflöte" ("The Magic Flute") contains several references to Masonic ideals and ceremonies. Mozart and his librettist Emanuel Schikaneder were brothers in the same Masonic lodge.
Freemasons, along with the Illuminati and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, feature heavily in Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson's satire, The Illuminatus! Trilogy.
Dan Brown's bestselling books Angels and Demons and The Da Vinci Code draw heavily on Masonic lore and symbolism.
Foucault's Pendulum by Umberto Eco also deals with Masonry.
Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon religion was a Freemason as were the first five presidents of the Church: Smith, Brigham Young, John Taylor, Wilford Woodruff, and Lorenzo Snow. When the Mormons first settled Utah, the entire church hierarchy was composed of Freemasons. Many Mormon symbols and rituals bear a striking similarity to Masonic ceremonies.
One of the main characters in Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace becomes a Freemason.
Freemasonry Google Videos
March 11, 2004 - MSNBC
In the wake of an accidental killing, a historian explains who the Freemasons are, what they do and why conspiracy theorists seem drawn toward them.
Induction ceremonies aren't supposed to go this way. William James, 47, was killed shot in the face‚ during his induction at a Masonic lodge in Patchogue, N.Y., Monday. The shooter, a 76-year-old World War II veteran named Albert Eid, was supposed to fire a .22-caliber handgun with blanks at the pledge, but instead grabbed the .32-caliber gun with live rounds he was carrying in his other pocket.
A freak accident, claim the Masons (James' induction ritual was also to have involved large rat traps, a six-foot replica guillotine and a plank he would have been forced to walk.) But instead of everything proceeding cloaked in the usual secrecy, the Patchogue's Southside Masonic Lodge No. 493 flung its umbrella organization, the Freemasons, into a very unsecret national spotlight.
The modern incarnation of Freemasons dates back to 1717 with the founding of the first Grand Lodge of England. The organization is rooted in the guilds of medieval stonemasons who would pass their trade secrets on to each other through handshakes and passwords that served as proof of their skill level. Freemasons, frat boys of the post-Bacc set, played a visible role in the American Revolution, the Constitutional Congress and the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Ben Franklin, George Washington and Andrew Jackson were all Masons.
So were Theodore Roosevelt, Harry Truman and Duke Ellington. Al Gore is a Mason. The symbols on U.S. currency are Masonic allusions - that floating eyeball-pyramid thing, for example, symbolizes Hiram Abiff, the builder of King Solomon's temple.
It is perhaps little wonder that conspiracy theorists and satirists are drawn to the secret society like bears to honey. "The Simpsons" famously spoofed the fraternal order in its Stonecutters episode, featuring a song that included the lyrics: "Who keeps the metric system down?/We do! We do!/Who leaves Atlantis off the maps? Who keeps the Martians under wraps?/We do! We do!"
But is the group that brought the modern world fez-doffing Shriners really something to fear, or even scorn? Steven C. Bullock, author of "Revolutionary Brotherhood" (University of North Carolina Press 1996) has found historical significance in the group, but little that points to anything sinister.
Bullock, a professor at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Massachusetts, recently spoke with Newsweek's Brian Braiker about Freemasonry's role in forming the American democratic system, what Masonry is about today and whether conspiracy theorists might‚ just might‚ on to something.
Who are the Freemasons?
They're a fraternal society. The traditional Masonry is by and large about men; it uses secret rituals and meetings that are closed to outsiders to teach morality, encourage charity, learning to a certain extent and certainly to encourage fellowship.
So why the secrecy?
It comes out of craftsmen organizations [with] the roots in the 1600s and early 1700s, but there are these texts and these traditions get passed along. You didn't want outsiders in there because you were doing things that were supposed to be secret: Part of it is setting wages, setting prices and things. You want to have a chance to discipline people who were doing bad things that you don't want to get out. And then later on, the secrecy is part of its appeal to a great extent. The point of the rituals is they are a transformation from one status to another. If this is something which can come in and look at, it's not going to have the same impact on a person who is going through it.
A lot of our presidents have been Freemasons, all the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Yeah, there's a lot of that talk. There' s a lot of conspiracy theories. A lot of that is really overblown. Compared to the proportion of Masons in the country, they are very disproportionately represented in presidencies and all those Revolutionary meetings.
So why is that?
I think because Masonry tended to attract people who were relatively well-to-do, who were more cosmopolitan than average, who were higher status than others. That began to change maybe since World War II or the 1930s with greater openness. More people had been allowed to join. In the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, they were really a high powered group. To a great extent that there are these theories is that they were pretty powerful people. Then in the 30s really does it really challenge this fraternal model. The Depression makes people less interested in these voluntary association. Masonry is really the only one that comes out of World War II with any kind of success. The Oddfellows still exist, but they're falling away very rapidly. The Masons actually continued to grow into the 1960s.
Membership rates in civic groups have been declining across the boards for a while now. Has that been the case for the Freemasons as well? Yeah, it's been a huge decline for the Freemasons as well. I think there were about 4 millions Masons in the 1960s nationwide; now it's like 1.8 million. So in just 40 years or so, it's been cut in half.
What kind of feedback have you gotten from them about your book?
They've been very pleased. I was pretty nervous about that. They're sort of like an ethnic group that feels a little embattled. They're very nervous about somebody coming in and not taking them very seriously and embarrassing them.
Well, in light of what happened on Monday, why on earth should they be taken seriously?
As a historian, I think the point is they have this incredible history going back nearly 300 years and attracting really some of the most important people in American history from Ben Franklin to George Washington to Andrew Jackson to Theodore Roosevelt to Harry Truman to Duke Ellington to Jesse Jackson. An amazing number of people have found that this is something significant for them.
Just going through that list names, it's no wonder that some people jump to -
There's sort of a fear there, yeah. I can see the secrecy business is hard for us to understand. It's been hard for people for 300 years. In a way, it would have been better for me as a historian if they were trying to take over the world. It would have made a better story.
As an outsider, do you think there's a chunk of the story you might have missed?
I don't really think so. I think some Masons think there is. I've never had the experience of going through the ritual itself, but it's amazing how much stuff is available. The rituals which are meant to be secret were easily available even in early America.
Rituals such as?
The 'First Degree' is you are dressed in an odd sort of way and you are blindfolded and a Mason knocks on the door for youČ you're outside, so symbolically you are not part of the group. You come in, you are made to repeat some sort of obligation along the lines of - I promise not to repeat the secrets of Masonry. I will be a good brother; I'll do the right things. I think this is still true, but they used to take a compass - the kind you use for drawing circles - and the point is pressed against your breast to suggest that this is really serious. It's designed to make you feel ill at ease, out of sorts, to feel disoriented. And then at a certain moment they ask, "What do you desire?" You say "More light." Very symbolic. Then your blindfold is opened up, you see the lodge and your brothers for the first time.
Can you talk a little about the philanthropy of Masons, like the Shriners Hospitals? And what's with the fez?
A lot of money goes through Masonry and goes out. Every year, more than $80 million a year in charitable giving. There's a fair amount of volunteering going on as well. There's a whole series of Masonic organizations. There's the lodge itself, which people often call the Blue Lodge - that's the basic three degrees. Then there are further degrees you can take.
Shriners are a group within Masonry. It's the most popular one; the one we know the most about. They're a late nineteenth century group founded with the dual purpose of just the enjoyment of hanging around and doing fun things with other men. And the other part of it is the charity. They push that very far too with the whole network of hospitals. [They're] sometimes called the Playground of Masonry wearing fezzes and things. I think you have a little more silliness involved with them.
What was the role that the Masons played in the Revolution?
They didn't take on the Revolution as their pet cause. Masons were divided on the Revolution as they do in all things. Benedict Arnold was actually a Mason. in all things. Benedict Arnold was actually a Mason.
Yet a lot of the men you named were big players in the Revolution. A lot these people become the Founding Fathers. Masonry spreads to a great extent through the Continental Army, the official army of the Revolution. I think Masonry comes out of the Revolution with this reputation of being this huge part of the Revolution. They come to symbolize the ideas of the Revolution, that we are a country that is based upon equality; that no one is better than anyone else. It doesn't matter what religious group you belong to, it doesn't matter where you come from, it doesn't matter what political affiliation you have, you're still a brother.
And then after the Revolution, they seem everywhere in politics. There are some hints that sometimes in the nineteenth century that this was sort of used as people knew you as a Mason and therefore you're more likely to be elected. Some of these big states in the years after the revolution where there wasn't this culture of a statehouse yet, Masonry becomes a way of building those ties and figuring out how you make connections with the state. A huge number of the early governors were Masons because you're building ties at a time when it's very difficult to make connections if it's more than a day or two away by horse.
They get so big that even an anti-Masonic political party emerges in the 1830s. After the Revolution it expands enormously. Masons became sort of symbolic figures of the Revolution and are called upon to dedicate all these public buildings. The cornerstone of the U.S. Capitol is dedicated with a Masonic ceremony. Virtually every small town in America has a lodge by the 1820s. Masonry becomes a way for people to establish yourself, to do business, to make connections with people. So on the one hand Masonry after the Revolution becomes a way of identifying yourself with the values of the Revolution, on the other hand it's something you can do for your own benefit. In the 1820s those things are really in tension and it's all set off by a guy in upstate New York, William Morgan, who tries to publish a book with all the rituals in them.
The Masons around there are driven to distraction by it and a number of them get together and kidnap him, take him to Fort Niagara and, who knows, he's never seen again. I tend to believe he was murdered. It's a different world now. It is, although you kind of wonder when you see this stuff at this lodge here. It's sad. The shooter is in his seventies - a World War II vet - because the average age is really very high these days. It's up in the 60s I think in every state.
MYSTERY SCHOOLS & SECRET SOCIETIES
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ALL FILES
CRYSTALINKS HOME PAGE
PSYCHIC READING WITH ELLIE
2012 THE ALCHEMY OF TIME | <urn:uuid:a2416104-dc96-403e-8e50-846bc686fa5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crystalinks.com/freemasons.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967739 | 13,111 | 2.8125 | 3 |
I Can Tell a Story
Children love to hear and tell stories. Reading to your child helps them understand that stories have a beginning, middle and end. Telling stories helps children learn how to describe things, tell events in order and retell stories. Being able to talk about and explain what happens in a story helps a child understand the meaning of what he/she is reading.
- Talk to your child. Talk about what you are doing, where you are going, or talk about your day.
- Read to your child
- Have your child tell you a story or retell a story
- Sort items by shape, size or color | <urn:uuid:52b8391d-31de-4f49-be57-39c2bdecd61f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.naperville-lib.org/content/tell-story | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966188 | 132 | 3.9375 | 4 |
A recent study has revealed that vitamin shots may be beneficial in preventing severe long-term disability in multiple sclerosis patients.//
Presently there exists no effective treatment for the chronic progressive phase of MS, when serious disability is most likely to appear.
The Children's Hospital Boston study appearing in the Journal of Neuroscience, and conducted in mice showed that giving them a type of vitamin B3 known as nicotinamide cut the risk of nerve degeneration in mice with MS-type symptoms.
About 85,000 people in the UK, suffer from MS which is a disease of the central nervous system. The symptoms begin with the break down of the myelin sheath that coats nerve fibers, disrupting the ability to conduct electrical impulses to and from the brain.
Patients usually develop a form of the disease called relapsing-remitting MS, where outs of illness are followed by complete or partial recovery during which stage anti-inflammatory drugs can help.
However this stage is often followed by the chronic progressive phase, at which stage no effective treatment has been found.
The Boston team worked on mice with an MS-like disease called experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE).
The study revealed that daily nicotinamide shots protected the animals' nerve cells from myelin loss, stabilizing the condition of those cells that had already been affected.
It was found that the greater the dose of nicotinamide, the greater the protective effect.
Rating disability on a scale of one to five, mice receiving the highest doses of nicotinamide scored between one and two, while animals who received no shots at all scored between three and four.
It was found that nicotinamide boosted levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a vital chemical, in the animals' nervous systems.
In addition Nicotinamide also significantly reduced neurological deficits even wh
en treatment was delayed until 10 days after the induction of EAE - raising hope that it will also be effective in the later stages of MS.
Lead researcher Dr Shinjiro Kaneko said: "The earlier therapy was started, the better the effect, but we hope nicotinamide can help patients who are already in the chronic stage."
According to the researchers nicotinamide was cheap, and was considered to have few side effects. However, they said further work was needed to test its effect on humans.
Simon Gillespie, chief executive of the MS Society, said: "Any potential treatment for reducing the chronic progression of disability in MS deserves pursuing.
"This is interesting early research which we should like to see developed, adding our usual caution that what works in mice does not always work in men."
A spokesperson for the MS Trust said: "These are interesting results, but studies in mice with the experimental equivalent of MS may not necessarily translate into a successful treatment for people with MS."
Vitamin shots may help protect multiple sclerosis patients from severe long-term disability, a study suggests.
Currently, there is no effective treatment for the chronic progressive phase of MS, when serious disability is most likely to appear.
NLA Related medicine news :1
. Vitamin B12 can help in detecting cancers2
. Vitamins-The answer to Heart Disease?3
. Vitamin E, the latest warrior against diabetes4
. Vitamin Shields Brittle Bones5
. B Vitamin protects and lowers toxicity of Arthritis Drug6
. B Vitamin Supplementatoin Saves Money and Lives7
. Eat Vitamin C and stay young8
. Vitamin C for the heart9
. Vitamin B for Hepatitis10
. Vitamins reduce pre-eclampsia11
. Vitamin E useful for Alzheimers | <urn:uuid:cf57fbf6-8011-4588-a9fe-c8a6a4a3d863> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news/Vitamin-Shots-to-Combat-MS-Pain-14371-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949947 | 752 | 3.046875 | 3 |
A prolonged economic slump could mean more than just losses of material wealth; it could spark a desire in men to seek more sexual partners, a Kansas University researcher has found.
Omri Gillath, associate professor of social psychology, said that men, when faced with an environment that threatens their survival, turn to a sexual strategy that maximizes the potential for reproduction.
In his lab, he placed people in situations and had them think about their own death, a condition that relates to low survivability conditions. Afterward, he showed the people images, including both sexual and non-sexual images. He measured their heart rates to indicate their level of arousal. Men’s rates of arousal increased after thinking about their own death.
Other situations that also threaten survivability could have similar effects, such as going off to fight in a war.
“All of these signs would push you towards more partners and more sex,” Gillath said.
His findings are based in part on the established “life history theory,” which has helped explain low birthrates in richer countries and the lower age of first sexual encounters in poorer neighborhoods.
Gillath likened a worsening economic situation to living on the savannah when food and water become scarce.
He said that if men in committed relationships begin to experience these kinds of feelings, it’s probably best to air it out with your current partner, which could serve to build the relationship even further.
“It’s not a new excuse for guys to have sex,” Gillath said. The desires may be there, but “at the end of the day, it’s your decision.”
The research will be published in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology in November. | <urn:uuid:8eda827a-39bd-422b-bf62-99b2990cac45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.ljworld.com/news/2011/oct/17/ku-profs-research-links-slow-economy-increase-mens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969453 | 362 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Can the technologists, artists, or tinkerers who live next door change how your city works?
The Urban Prototyping Festival (or “UP Fest”) started with a call for citizen-sourced prototypes for addressing a specific urban need or problem and offer a solution that integrates both physical and digital elements. The projects were to utilize existing infrastructure — fences, fire hydrants, et cetera — and be replicable in any city, with a prototype budget of $1,000 or less.
Nearly 100 teams submitted prototypes and a panel of judges selected 18 of these, providing the teams stipends for materials and giving them a platform for sharing their ideas at UP Fest. (...)
A few notable prototypes:
DIY Traffic Controller, developed by Theodore Ullrich, an industrial designer from Tomorrow Lab and his partner Aurash Khawarzad, is comprised of off-the-shelf roadway sensors linked to software that tracks the speed and volume of vehicles – either cars or bikes – moving over the sensors.
the P-Planter, a hack of the traditional Port-a-Potty but one that could address the need for more public urination facilities while also solving the stink issue and adding more plant life to city streets. UP Fest participants made use of the P-Planter urinal at the event (thanks to disposable pee funnels, both male and females could use the outhouse). The urine is routed through a biofilter before being mixed with water and made available to the adjacent plants (large bamboo stalks, in the prototype). Sensors measure the amount of urine entering the urinal and monitor ammonia levels.
the Fruit Fence, converts the ubiquitous chain link fence into an urban plant nursery. Planter bags made of recycled Tyvec building material could be slung over or hung from fencing and used to grow, say, strawberry plants or lemon tree starters. Sensors in the bags alert passersby that the plant needs water or fertilizer, or these signals can be sent to community members via text message.
By Mary Catherine O'Connor
25 Oct 2012 | <urn:uuid:f6ab5325-b33c-4cc3-8833-bfee2ff45649> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scoop.it/t/arrival-cities/?tag=DIY | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937078 | 430 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Although the creation of Aikido is the work of one man, Morihei Ueshiba (1883-1969), Aikido is also the culmination of several traditional Japanese martial arts. Japanese sword, staff and spear techniques and jujutsu (particularly Daito-ryu jujutsu, in which he was taught by Sokaku Takeda) were part of his life-long commitment to budo.
However, he gradually developed what he had learned into an original art that integrated not only the various techniques but also the spiritual insights he had derived from his remarkable life experiences. He began using the term
aiki, as in
aiki-budo and later
aikido to emphasize that his was an art of harmony, in which one would attempt to enter into and blend with the physical and spiritual energy of an attacker.
Aiki signifies a relaxed, fluid and centered movement that is connected to, and guides, an attack even before contact is made. Not only would this approach bring an effective end to aggressive conflict, but would also allow the defender to purify their own aggressive impulses.
Because of this remarkable contribution, students of Aikido usually refer to Morihei Ueshiba as
O Sensei, signifying the great esteem in which he is held. | <urn:uuid:70216d1e-dba4-4b85-8894-4901b9a52d95> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chenangoaikido.com/principles.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982759 | 263 | 3.25 | 3 |
Glossary of Cigar Terms
A Cuban term for a tobacco grower.
A sticker or seal affixed on the edge of the box’s lid right over the nail. Part of the Tapaclavo is found stuck to the top of the outer lid while the rest of it wraps down to the front section, known as the larguero. It must be sliced with a tool in order to open the box.
A Spanish term for the tent under which shade-grown wrapper leaf is cultivated (see photo). The cover was traditionally made of cheesecloth, today it is made of nylon. It takes some 5,000 yards of shade to cover an acre of tobacco.
The person at Cigar Aficionado who buys cigars at retail, removes them of their identifying bands, and codes them for blind testing. The Tasting Coordinator is the only person who knows the code, and is not a taster.
Cigars are taxed at various rates, which are typically passed onto the consumer. All cigars sold in the United States are accessed a federal excise tax when imported. The federal excise tax on large cigars used to be modest, less than five cents per cigar, until April 2009 when the $32.8 billion expansion of the State Children’s Health Care Initiative (SCHIP) caused the federal excise tax to balloon to 40.26 cents per cigar. Some companies didn’t increase prices, but most did. Most states charge a tobacco tax, which is assessed at the cash register. Taxes are one of the reasons why cigars may seem more expensive at the cigar shop than they appear in Cigar Aficionado magazine.
A hand-powered bunching machine device consisting of a leather pad, metal handle and guides that aids in the creation of the bunch. These devices are used practically everywhere in the Dominican Republic, but are rare in Central America and not used in Cuba. The devices are also known as Liebermans.
Large, palm bark-wrapped bales (see photo) used for aging fermented cigar tobacco in some cigar factories.
Photo by David Savona
A popular type of flat, rectangular cigar box with 13 cigars on top and 12 on the bottom, with a spacer. The boxes are typically closed with a brass nail. These boxes are also known as flat tops. They are part of the group of cigar boxes known as dress boxes or semi plain boxes, which are wood or cardboard, and are finished with overlays of decorative embossed paper, usually emblazoned with logos, seals and crests.
A Cuban-style of cigar head, also known as a mounted head or triple cap. These heads are flat, and have three seams. This method is being found in a variety of other countries now, including the United States, some factories in Nicaragua and Honduras, and in very rare instances the Dominican Republic.
A tobacco beetle is the scourge of cigar smokers. The beetles eat cigar tobacco, and although they are very small they can ruin a cigar very easily. Beetles begin as eggs, and when the temperature inside a humidor rises above 72 degrees, the eggs can hatch and form beetles, which will burrow out of a cigar. If you see a tiny, perfectly circular hole in a cigar, or little canals, it’s a sure sign of a beetle problem. For more, check out the video below.
The name given to a bicycle used to roll up the cloth runner that stretches between rows of tobacco plants in certain Connecticut shade tobacco fields. A worker pedals the bike, which retrieves the cloth running, bringing in freshly harvested tobacco. This method minimizes the amount of travel between tobacco rows, reducing breakage of tobacco leaves. To see a video of the bike in action, see below.
A tiny object the size of a candy sprinkle, from which a tobacco plant will grow. A bottle cap worth of seeds can plant an entire cantero, or seed bed, measuring 90 feet long by three feet wide. The seeds are so small that many need to be pelletized, coated with an inert substance such as clay for easier handling. (The coating melts away when watered.) Many tobacco growers get their seeds by selecting their heartiest plants and harvesting the seeds from the flower that grows at the top of the plant. The seeds are planted to create seedlings. In about 60 days, a seed will turn into a seedling a few inches tall that's ready to plant. At that stage, cigar tobacco grows at a furious pace. It takes about two months for a seedling to grow into a mature plant, depending on the type of plant. In weight, a tobacco seed grows by a factor of 20 million in only 90 days. Once harvested, it spends another 40 to 60 or so days in a curing barn. After that, it's time to ferment, and then to age.
The most old-fashioned way of planting seed is directly in the ground. When it's time to move to the field proper, the tiny plant is dug up and then replanted, a traumatic process that results in great mortality of seedlings. Raised beds provide better results, and planting in trays makes it better still, for the root balls slip fairly effortlessly from the trays and are ready to go into the ground.
The seeds' size make them quite easy to smuggle, one reason why Cuban seed has made innumerable trips from the island to such places as Nicaragua, Honduras and the Dominican Republic. Some companies, such as A.S.P. Enterprises Inc. in Miami, keep their seed locked in safes and grow sterile plants to ensure that competitors can't steal the product.
Tobacconists’ Association of America
A group of cigar shop retailers.
The grain pattern characteristic of less smooth wrapper leaf, such as leaf from Cameroon. The tooth appears as tiny, fine bumps, which are pockets of oils. Tobacco with tooth is called toothy wrapper.
The act of removing the flower, and sometimes the entire upper portion of a tobacco plant. This causes the tobacco plant to redirect its energies from creation of the flower (which contains tobacco seeds) to the tobacco leaves. Cigar tobacco plants that have been topped is referred to as desflorado. Topped tobacco is stronger than tobacco that has not been topped. Check out the video below for more.
Cigar Aficionado magazine’s annual ranking of the 25 best cigars of the year. To see the current ranking, and an archive of previous winners, click here.
A Spanish term for a cigarmaker.
A type of lighter that uses a jet of very hot flame to light your cigar. These are very handy for lighting outdoors.
An increasingly popular cigar size, toros or corona gordas (which literally translates to fat coronas) are fatter than coronas and sometimes also longer. The typical Cuban standard size is 5 5/8 by 46, but today it’s not uncommon to see many with ring gauges well over 50. For Cigar Aficionado's ratings on toros, click here.
A cigar shape that features a closed foot, a pointed head and a bulge in the middle.
Totalamente a Mano
Made totally by hand; a description found on cigar boxes. Much better than "Hecho a Mano" (made by hand, which can mean it is filled with machine-bunched filler), or "Envuelto a Mano" (packed by hand).
A mechanized device that enables a farmer to plant large amounts of tobacco in a relatively short amount of time. As a driver moves the transplanter, which is often pulled behind a tractor, the worker drops a tobacco seedling into a hopper. The transplanter digs a furrow for the seedling, puts it into the desired depth, adds water and then digs it into place. Some transplanters are set up several workers abreast, to plant a very large amount at one time. These devices are common in the Connecticut River Valley and Ecuador, but are far less prevalent elsewhere. They cannot be used on hilly plots of land.
The decorative trimming that runs along each edge of a cigar dress box. Also called filete.
The Spanish term for filler, the individual tobacco leaves used in the body of the cigar. The filler leaves are held together by the bunch. A fine cigar usually contains between two and five different types of filler tobacco. Handmade, premium cigars are typically made entirely from long-filler tobacco, which are whole leaves. Machine-made cigars are made from short-filler tobacco, chopped up leaves, which are the leftovers from handmade cigar production.
A Cuban-style of cigar head, also known as a mounted or three-seam cap (see photo). These heads are flat, and have three seams. This method is being found in a variety of other countries now, including the United States, some factories in Nicaragua and Honduras, and in very rare instances the Dominican Republic.
A form of figurado where the foot is the thickest point and the cigar’s girth gradually narrows to the head. The shape is more common in Central America than anywhere else.
Trunk pressing takes box pressing to the extreme. Cigars are placed in wooden containers, with a wooden slat between each cigar. Pressure is applied from above, and the cigars are pressed, then later rotated. This pressing and rotation squares off the edges of a cigar to a dramatic degree, giving the cigars a very square shape. The process was popularized in the United States by Padrón Anniversary cigars. The practice is commonly called box pressing, which is technically incorrect.
Many cigars come packed in individual wood, metal or glass tubes. Metal, particularly aluminum, is the most common type of tube (or tubo), and the tube can be painted or unpainted. A tube can keep cigars fresh (although it’s hard to trust the seals on tubes, so Cigar Aficionado advises putting even tubed cigars in a humidor) and provides an attractive and protective covering for your cigar. Tubed cigars are particularly good for cigar smokers on the go. Most tubes come with a cedar sleeve so as to better preserve the flavor of the tobacco, thereby avoiding any metallic flavors that the aluminum may impart. Tubes come in two varieties: pull-top or screw cap.
Spanish for tube.
The unwelcome phenomenon of having your cigar burn unevenly. To prevent it, rotate your cigar now and then.
Search our database of more than 17,000 cigar tasting notes by score, brand, country, size, price range, year, wrapper and more, plus add your favorites to your Personal Humidor. | <urn:uuid:37755a1b-0d16-4a89-91de-5f6947dd1025> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cigaraficionado.com/glossary/index/word/T | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945306 | 2,212 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Margaret Chase Smith Campaign Poster, 1964
Item Contributed by
Margaret Chase Smith Library
Text by Candace Kanes and Sheri Leahan
Images from Margaret Chase Smith Library and Northeast Historic Film
Margaret Chase Smith (1897-1995) of Skowhegan had an independent streak.
As a young woman, she taught school briefly, worked as a telephone operator, worked in the circulation department of a local newspaper, and was an executive at a textile mill. She was active in the Skowhegan and Maine Business and Professional Women's Clubs.
When she got involved in politics through her husband, Clyde Smith, her independence again shone through. He was serving in the U.S. House of Representatives when he died in 1940. Margaret Chase Smith replaced him and served eight years in the House before being elected to the U.S. Senate in 1948 – the first woman elected to the Senate in her own right and the first woman to serve in both houses of Congress.
Her political independence shone through when she challenged fellow Republican Sen. Joseph McCarthy because she believed his anticommunism crusade had gone too far.
Smith was popular in Maine, elected repeatedly by large margins, and influential in Washington, serving on the Armed Services, Aeronautical and Space, and Appropriations committees.
When she ran for the Republican nomination for President in 1964, she made history – and stuck to her principles, running an unorthodox campaign. | <urn:uuid:71709740-6a10-4149-b2e8-5b38e624e85b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mainememory.net/sitebuilder/site/294/page/557/display?use_mmn= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974769 | 294 | 2.640625 | 3 |
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.
Dec. 28, 2007
NASA Scientists Fly Over Arctic to Study New Year Meteor Shower
MOFFETT FIELD, Calif. - NASA scientists and astronomers will take to the skies in the afternoon of Jan. 3 to observe nature's New Year's celebration: the Quadrantid meteor shower.
Scientists believe this could be the most brilliant meteor shower in 2008 with over 100 visible meteors per hour at its peak. Best viewing times with the highest meteor rates are expected to be in either the late evening of Jan. 3 over Europe and western Asia or the early morning of Jan. 4 over the eastern United States.
“We will fly to the North Pole and back to compensate for Earth's rotation and to keep the stream in view throughout the flight,” said Peter Jenniskens, a principal investigator at NASA's Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif., who also works for the SETI Institute, Mountain View, Calif.
A Gulfstream V aircraft will take off from San Jose, Calif., to fly scientists and their instruments for 10 continuous hours over the Arctic and back to San Jose. The primary goal of the lengthy airborne mission is to observe the Quadrantid meteor shower in ideal and virtually unchanging conditions far above light pollution and clouds to determine when it peaks and how the stream is dispersed.
The Quadrantid meteor shower begins every year about Jan. 1 and lasts for just under a week. Jenniskens theorizes the Quadrantids were formed 500 years ago in a breakup event involving a near-Earth asteroid, 2003 EH1, and a comet observed in China in 1491, C/1490 Y1. Scientists will use their observations to better understand how and when it originated and how much Jupiter's immense gravitational pull influences the Quadrantid's orbit. They hope to use the information they gather to make more precise predictions of when future Quadrantid showers will peak. WHAT:
NASA scientists will fly in a Gulfstream V, similar to the plane used to observe the Aurigid meteor shower Sept. 1, 2007, to measure the Quadrantid meteor shower. WHEN:
Approximately 4:30 p.m., Jan. 3 to approximately 2 a.m. PST, Jan. 4. WHO:
Peter Jenniskens, principal investigator from NASA's Ames Research Center and SETI Institute will be available Jan. 2 from 12 p.m. to 2 p.m. PST for interviews. To schedule an interview, please contact Rachel Prucey, Ames public affairs specialist, at (650) 604-0643 before 12 p.m. PST, Dec. 31, 2007. WHERE:
A Gulfstream V will take off from the Mineta San Jose International Airport, San Jose, Calif. at approximately 4:30 p.m. PST, Jan. 3, and will fly to the Arctic and back, returning to San Jose at approximately 2 a.m. PST, Jan. 4 to complete the mission.
For more information about the Quadrantid Multi-Instrument Aircraft Campaign, visit: http://quadrantid.seti.org/
To learn more about how to observe the Quadrantids, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/multimedia/podcasting/2007/Quadrantids.html
For information about NASA and agency programs, visit: http://www.nasa.gov
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NASA Image Policies | <urn:uuid:9873df0d-262f-466a-b44c-08b7ab57001c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2007/07_93AR.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.843123 | 782 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Web Developer Center
The ESRI Shapefile or simply a shapefile is a popular geospatial vector data format for geographic information systems software. It is developed and regulated by ESRI as a (mostly) open specification for data interoperability among ESRI and other software products. A "shapefile" commonly refers to a collection of files with ".shp", ".shx", ".dbf", and other extensions on a common prefix name (e.g., "lakes.*"). The actual shapefile relates specifically to files with the ".shp" extension, however this file alone is incomplete for distribution, as the other supporting files are required.
Shapefiles spatially describe geometries: points, polylines, and polygons. These, for example, could represent water wells, rivers, and lakes, respectively. Each item may also have attributes that describe the items, such as the name or temperature.
KML, or Keyhole Markup Language, is an XML grammar and file format for modeling and storing geographic features such as points, lines, images, polygons, and models for display in Google Earth and Google Maps. You can use KML to share places and information with other users of Google Earth and Google Maps. You can find example KML files on the KML Gallery and Google Earth Community site that describe interesting features and places.
A KML file is processed by Google Earth and Google Maps in a similar way that HTML and XML files are processed by web browsers. Like HTML, KML has a tag-based structure with names and attributes used for specific display purposes. Thus, Google Earth and Google Maps act as browsers of KML files. Learn more.
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a general-purpose specification for creating custom markup languages. It is classified as an extensible language, because it allows the user to define the mark-up elements. XML's purpose is to aid information systems in sharing structured data, especially via the Internet, to encode documents, and to serialize data; in the last context, it compares with text-based serialization languages such as JSON, YAML and S-Expressions. | <urn:uuid:dede6b3b-a1d0-4fb3-aaa5-eb898f8ed6ad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.colorado.gov/webDevCenter/documentation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.887277 | 443 | 3.515625 | 4 |
View of Apollo 14 on its way to launch pad
Astronauts Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchel were launched from Earth on Jan. 31, 1971 aboard Apollo 14. Their mission was to land on the Moon and carry out experiments on it surface, similar to those of Apollo 12.
Four days later, the Apollo 14 lunar module touched down in Fra Mauro, which had been the destination of the ill-fated Apollo 13 spacecraft. Astronauts Shepard and Mitchell stayed on the lunar surface for a day and a half, performing two space walks and making use of a newly designed handcart. The handcart made it easier for them to transport equipment and collect larger amouts of soil and rock.
Apollo 14 safely returned to Earth on Feb. 9, 1971.
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During 1966 through 1967, five Lunar Orbiter spacecrafts were launched, with the purpose of mapping the Moon's surface in preparation for the Apollo and Surveyor landings. All five missions were successful,...more | <urn:uuid:4f0cf569-f07d-431b-88e2-a38475501b70> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.windows2universe.org/space_missions/apollo14.html&edu=elem | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953669 | 519 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Scientists discover that caterpillars can whistle
Caterpillars can whistle, a new study has found. One species was found to be whistling to frighten away birds.
Caterpillars apparently can whistle, letting out squeaks that can fend off attacking birds, scientists have now found.
They don't whistle by puckering their lips and blowing, since they don't have lips. Instead, they blow out their sides, researchers said.
Scientists have known for more than 100 years that many caterpillars can generate clicking or squeaking noises. However, researchers have only recently begun to experimentally investigate how these noises are made and what roles they might play.
Neuroethologist Jayne Yack at Carleton University in Ottawa had shown that silk-moth caterpillars (Antheraea polyphemus) make clicking sounds by snapping their mandibles together. Now she and her colleagues for the first time have revealed that walnut sphinx caterpillars (Amorpha juglandis) can toot from their sides.
Using high-speed video, the researchers noticed they pulled their heads back to compress the body cavity while they whistled. Unlike reptiles, birds and mammals, insects don't breathe using their mouths, but with holes in their sides known as spiracles, and the scientists reasoned they were forcing air out these holes to whistle, generating squeaking noises.
To confirm their idea, researcher Veronica Bura at Carleton University gently applied latex over all eight pairs of the caterpillars' abdominal spiracles and then uncovered each pair systematically while pinching the larva. The whistles definitely came from the eighth pair, generating trains of whistles lasting up to four seconds each, and spanning frequencies that ranged from those audible to birds and humans up to ultrasound.
Silk-moth caterpillars make clicks to warn predators that they would make nasty meals, so why do walnut sphinx caterpillars whistle? To find out, Yack and Bura teamed up with researchers at Queen's University in Kingston, Canada, who studied captive yellow warblers (Dendroica petechia), a bird that is known to frequently eat caterpillars and lives where the walnut sphinx caterpillar does.
The scientists put walnut sphinx caterpillars on twigs in cages with yellow warblers and patiently filmed the encounter. Surprisingly, when the birds attacked, the caterpillars whistled and the bird typically flinched and hopped or flew away. In tests with three warblers and two attacks each, the caterpillars got away completely unscathed. [Video of the whistling caterpillar]
"These birds are clearly startled by the unexpected sounds coming out of this caterpillar," Yack told LiveScience. "They dove for cover."
The sounds are probably not advertising that the walnut sphinx caterpillars are distasteful. The birds simply appear to be startled, "because these sounds are unexpected," Yack said.
The scientists detailed their findings online Dec. 10 in the Journal of Experimental Biology. | <urn:uuid:3ceb7261-332b-4120-830e-b7da3184465e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2010/1210/Scientists-discover-that-caterpillars-can-whistle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950238 | 633 | 4.15625 | 4 |
“Bow-Ow”, it’s hot out there.
Most pets adapt to seasonal temperature changes without issue, provided owners use common sense in their day-to-day care. But extended periods of sweltering heat and humidity pose serious dangers to the most doted upon pets.
Dogs are particularly at risk, given an inefficient cooling system that releases heat only through panting and minimal paw secretions. Plus Fido doesn’t have much say in how long or when he is exercised, how much shade is available, whether the water in his bowl is cool, or if he’s hauled around on errands (really bad idea during a heat wave).
Cats, while susceptible to heat stroke, are given more freedom to find cool spots to rest, either indoors or out. They tend to become lethargic during heat waves which helps regulate their body temperature. Providing a steady supply of cool water is most important.
Here are tips to keep your precious pooch safe and comfortable during oppressive summer heat:
Take walks and plan other strenuous activity for early morning/late evening hours. Observe your dog for signs of heat exhaustion such as excessive panting, difficulty breathing, bright red gums and tongue, thick saliva or lagging gait. If you suspect heat stroke, cool him with wet towels and moderately cool water (not ice or ice cold water, as this could make things worse). Seek veterinary attention immediately.
Avoid Hot Surfaces
Paws are not little shoes, and a dog’s feet can burn easily on sizzling asphalt, concrete and other surfaces that hold heat. Give it the “hand test” first and if too hot, stick to grassed areas.
Home Alone Is Cooler
Resist the temptation to take your pooch on trips around town during heat waves. So much can go wrong, such as your car breaking down or griddle-hot upholstery that can burn tongues and paws. And never ever leave a dog unattended in vehicles which become virtual “ovens on wheels” during the summer.
Cool Water A Must
Assure an ample supply of cool water is available at all times. Add ice cubes to water bowls and change water frequently.
The sun is not your dog’s best friend. Not only will he overheat faster but delicate skin areas can burn. Doggie sunscreens are available but avoiding direct sun a much better idea. Assure your dog has shelter from the sun in his yard area.
Summer Coat Care
There’s nothing wrong with a summer haircut, but don’t shave your dog to the skin unless medically necessary. Coats help insulate Fido from both heat AND cold and shield against pesky insects.
Cool Tools For Travel Safety
If your pooch is accompanying you on vacation or simply going for his annual vet visit, keep a jug of fresh water, re-freezable ice packs and towels in the vehicle at all times. Uncrated dogs should have access to a thermal cooling pad for rest, particularly if the interior is dark or leather. Crates can be equipped with battery-operated fans AND cooling pads.
A few summers ago I had a harrowing experience traveling with two Newfoundlands on a brutally hot July day. A flat tire stopped us dead in our tracks in a totally shade-less area of Route 15 near the Pa./Md border. My van sat in the scorching sun for over two hours on the hot asphalt until help arrived. One of the Newfs was elderly, so I frantically called 911, state and local police only to be told they didn’t consider that an emergency. Thank god for the crate fans, ice packs and jug of water, or I fear she’d have never made it.
One thing I learned from that near disaster was that I should have told the dispatcher it was ME, not a dog, who was suffering in the heat. I could have kicked myself for not thinking of that sooner. Had I been a little more clever, my girl would have had VIP treatment and a nice rest in an air conditioned police cruiser (so I fantasized anyway).
Just something to think about when you hit the road with Fido. Happy summer!
Send questions & comments to Karen Steinrock at ksteinrock@comcast. net or P.O. Box 306 Grantham, PA 17027. | <urn:uuid:1850dee5-2b28-45c9-b3ad-55c45759b212> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pennlive.com/pets/index.ssf/2011/07/post_7.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95509 | 912 | 2.515625 | 3 |
For centuries, millions have cherished this evangelical masterpiece. Written in prison, it's an insightful allegory of the conflict between religion and society, featuring Bunyan's own spiritual struggle as he found salvation in Christ and began preaching. Journey with Christian as he travels toward the Celestial City! Priced just right for your book discussion group. 320 pages, softcover from Baker.
The classic drama of Christian's journey to discover eternal life offers readers encouragement and direction for their own pilgrimage.
John Bunyan (1628-1688) was an English preacher and author best known today for his religious allegory The Pilgrim's Progress, which became one of the most published books in the English language in the centuries following Bunyan's death. He spent twelve years in prison for leading religious gatherings other than at the established Anglican parish church. It was during this time in prison Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress, though it was not published for another six years after his release in 1672.
Have a question about this product? Ask us here. | <urn:uuid:02934430-8da7-40b3-b773-1459373feb88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://christianbook.com/pilgrims-progress-search-eternal-christian-allegory/john-bunyan/9780800786090/pd/0786092?event=Christian-Living | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972303 | 210 | 2.5625 | 3 |
When Beloit College became coeducational in the fall of 1895, 33 women took seats in classrooms alongside the men, able to fully partake in academic life. Extracurricular activities were another story. Beloit’s men were not eager to allow women to join their popular literary and debating societies, music clubs or social clubs, and only grudgingly permitted women minor posts in student government and on the Round Table staff.
To large extent, women had to make do with their own organizations. In 1896, they also formed a secret society, as reported by the Round Table: “The appearance of seven very tastily designed Greek letter pins upon as many of our co-eds ushers in the first society of its kind among the young ladies of the college. Theta Pi Gamma is the euphonious name of this new club…” A cartoon found in an early Theta Pi Gamma record book depicts seven seated women in caps and gowns facing President Edward Dwight Eaton, with the caption, “It’s for the Uplifting of Woman.”
Fraternities had existed among the students since 1860. However, the college administration and faculty discouraged social organizations outside their supervision and were adamant about keeping an even more watchful parental eye on Beloit’s young women, leading to a faculty discussion about “the forming of a Greek letter society by some of the young women of the Freshman Class without permission of the Faculty.” By the summer of 1896, faculty minutes reveal a decision designed to both placate the women and squelch any further plans to expand the sorority:
“The following action was taken by the Faculty in regard to the secret society formed by some of the young women of the Freshman Class. The Society, although organized in disregard of the regulations of the College, will be permitted by the Faculty to continue its existence on the following express condition to be definitely accepted by the Society.
1. That it is to undertake literary work after the example of women’s clubs.
2. That it is to have no affiliation with any society outside Beloit College; the Faculty not approving of the forming of Sororities in Beloit.
3. That it do not pledge or admit any members, beyond the seven original members, until the Faculty shall have given formal consent to do so, when in our judgment the Society shall have given evidence of its value to the life of the young women of the College.”
Their consent was not forthcoming and records remain silent until the fall of 1898, when women petitioned the faculty for recognition of the national Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority. The faculty Committee on Social Life, led by Beloit’s first Dean of Women, L. May Pitkin, recommended that the faculty reject the petition. The committee believed that the women could attain their goals more properly through open societies not connected with the “secret society systems of other institutions.” They feared the “distracting influences [on] scholarly life” and the harmful effect of such societies on non-affiliated students: “We believe that the formation of such a secret society among the young women of the College, so many of whom live together in Emerson Hall, might bring a disadvantageous element of bitterness into the lives of those women not included in the membership and would naturally cultivate among the members a spirit of exclusiveness not the most wholesome.”
Three years later, women students tried again, now armed with a persuasive letter signed by alumnae. The faculty voted against passage. Students tried again in 1902 with the same result.
By 1904, the Board of Trustees joined the fray, with a special committee corresponding with several distant colleges, including Radcliffe, Mt. Holyoke, Knox, and Carleton. Eight of nine institutions spoke against sororities, including those that had them. Only Smith offered “no opinion.”
The Round Table caught wind of this latest stumbling block toward official sanction: “The girls are very much disappointed and feel that there should be further consideration of the matter in its relation to Beloit in particular.”
Meanwhile, Theta Pi Gamma had continued to operate sub rosa. In 1906, they tried a different tactic, meeting with Dean George Collie and sending each “sister” in the sorority to speak to individual faculty members before submitting yet another petition for recognition. The issue stalled for another year. Theta retained its line of communication with Dean Collie, reporting in their minutes on September 26, 1907: “Sister Thornton then gave a report of her talk with Dean Collie, in regard to wearing our pins, that until we are recognized it is best not to antagonize any more those of the faculty who are already unfavorable and it was also emphasized that if we were not to wear the pins, we should all conform to our resolution.” A month later, the faculty took up the debate once again. By this time, however, diehard sorority opponents were losing their sway. An amendment “that the evils of sororities are such that we should proceed as a Faculty to eradicate them,” lost. Instead, the faculty decided to ask their Committee on Rules, along with the Administration Committee, to formulate a set of regulations formally allowing local sororities at Beloit College.
The faculty approved and adopted regulations for sororities “upon their recognition by the faculty of the college,” insisting that chapters remain local and forbidding the “singing of fraternity songs, giving of ‘calls,’ or the holding of formal meetings” inside dorms.
1908 dawned with Theta Pi Gamma and Chi Epsilon agreeing to reorganize their chapters after signing the new regulations. On January 8th, sorority officers presented their constitutions and formal petitions for recognition to the faculty, which then allowed the formerly “secret societies” to achieve official status at last. After twelve years, and after remarkable patience and persistence, Beloit women had achieved one more step toward parity with the men. They retrieved their hidden sorority pins and wore them proudly. Going “national” would be their next battle. | <urn:uuid:b48ebaeb-5245-4107-81dd-666904e34474> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.beloit.edu/campus/news/?story_id=316120&filter1=category-318410 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971737 | 1,276 | 3.140625 | 3 |
In the largest study of its kind, government health officials report that gay, lesbian and bisexual teenagers are significantly more likely to engage in risky, unhealthy behaviors — such as smoking, drinking, using drugs, having unprotected sex and contemplating suicide — than their straight peers.
The new analysis by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is based on data from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, which were conducted from 2001 to 2009 and involved high-school students in seven states and six large urban school districts (including New York City, Chicago, Boston, San Francisco, Milwaukee and San Diego). The surveys asked teens about all manner of risky behaviors, including whether they had ever used heroin or tried throwing up to lose weight, their habits regarding unprotected sex, whether they drove after drinking alcohol, whether they wore seatbelts and bike helmets, carried a gun or drank soda every day. The surveys also asked about teens’ sexual orientation.
(More on TIME.com: Obese Teens Are More Likely to Smoke, Have Riskier Sex)
What researchers found was that students who identified as being gay, lesbian or bisexual were more likely to report engaging in 70% of all the risk behaviors measured, compared with heterosexual students, particularly behaviors related to violence (like not going to school for fear of personal safety) or to attempted suicide (such as making a suicide plan), tobacco use, alcohol use, other drug use, sexual behaviors and weight management.
The disparities were dramatic: for example, while 8% to 19% of straight teens reported smoking cigarettes, about 20% to 48% of gay teens reported the same. Bisexual teens reported the highest rates of many risky behaviors, even higher than gay and lesbian students; 33% to 63% of bisexual students reported binge drinking, for instance, compared with up to 16% to 44% of straight students and 17% to 44% of gay students.
Why? Reported The Advocate:
Much of what’s ailing these students can be attributed to a lack of “safe and supportive environments,” according to the CDC report, which mentioned a survey that found gay and lesbian students feel unsafe while at school.
The CDC calls for state and local governments to do more — in the form of policies or programs such as gay-straight alliances — to combat what’s happening to gay youth. It also calls for better information. The center’s analysis was based on a common tool for judging the risk of students — called the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System — but in 2009, only 10 states and seven large school districts even asked whether the students were gay or bisexual.
(More on TIME.com: Gay-Friendly Communities Are Good for Straight Teens Too)
“This report should be a wake-up call,” Dr. Howell Wechsler, director of CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health, said in a statement. “We are very concerned that these students face such dramatic disparities for so many different health risks.” | <urn:uuid:818f76d5-7e88-49a6-b9bd-d5d4bac40e02> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://healthland.time.com/2011/06/06/cdc-gay-and-bisexual-teens-are-more-likely-to-risk-their-health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960116 | 620 | 3 | 3 |
Yadav caste history & information
Yadav or Yadava is an ethnic caste which traces its descent from Yadu. Yadavas have been mentioned as one of the ancient Vedic panchjanya tribes in ancient Dharmic texts. They mostly follow Vaishnav traditions and Dharmic religion and are located in different parts of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Traditionally and they are classified under the Kshatriya varna in Hinduism.
In Hindu mythology, Yadvas are described as the descendants of Yadu, the eldest son of King Yayati. Yadu and his descendants ruled in places that are referred to in the Hindu scriptures as Jambudvipa. According to Dharmic mythology, Jarasandh, Kansa's father-in-law, and king of Magadha attacked Yadavas to avenge the killing of Kansa which led Yadavas to shift their capital from Mathura to Dwaraka.
Abhira, which is considered to be a subgroup of Yadava caste today, is assumed to be different from ancient Yadavas. Linkage is obscure and views vary from scholar to scholar. The term was used for cowherds initially but has been extended to include Yaduvanshis and Nandavanshis too by its corrupt version Ahir. Abhira means "fearless" and appear in most ancient historical references dating back to the Abhira kingdom of the Saraswati Valley, who spoke Abhiri until the Buddhist period. Analysis of Hindu scriptural references of the Abhira kingdoms has led some scholars to conclude that it was merely a term used for Holy Yadava Kingdoms. In Bhagavatam, the Gupta dynasty has been called Abhir.
Some historians also seek a connection between Yadavas and Jews. According to their theory, the Greeks were referred to the Jews as Judeos, or Jah deos or Yadavas, meaning people of Ya.
Yadav as an Ethnic Category
Yadava is a category consisting of several allied castes which together constitute about one-tenth of the total population of India. The castes coming under this category are spread over in different parts of India, Burma, Nepal and Sri Lanka and are known as the Ahir in the Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat and Rajasthan; the Goalas and Sadgopa in Bengal and Orissa; Gavli and Gopala in Maharashtra; Golla in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and Idayan and Konar in Tamil Nadu. There are also several sub-regional names such as Thetwar and Rawat in Madhya Pradesh, and Mahakul (Great Family) in Bihar.
Two things are common to these cognate castes. Firstly, they claim to be the descendants of the Yadu Dynasty(Yadava) to which Lord Krishna belonged. Secondly, many castes in this category have a set of occupations centering round cattle. The Krishna mythology lends a kind of legitimacy to the pastoral occupations relating to cattle, and as the castes following these occupations are to be found in almost all parts of India, the Yadava category encompasses a whole range of related castes.
Besides this mythical origin of the Yadavas, semi-historical and historical evidence exists for equating the Ahirs with the Yadavas. It is argued that the term Ahir comes from Abhira who were once found in different parts of India, and who in several places wielded political power. The Abhiras are equated with Ahirs, Gopas and Gollas, and all of them are considered Yadavas.
It is also stated that the Allahabad iron pillar inscription of Samudragupta (fourth century AD) mentions the Abhiras as one of the tribal states of west and south west India. A fourth century AD inscription found in Nashik speaks of an Abhira king and there is proof that in the middle of the fourth century the Abhiras were settled in eastern Rajputana and Malwa. Similarly, when the Kathis arrived in Gujarat in the eighth century, they found the greater part of the country in the possession of the Ahirs. The Mirzapur district of the United Provinces has a tract known as Ahraura, named after the Ahir and another piece of country near Jhansi was called Ahirwar. The Ahirs were also kings of Nepal at the beginning of the Christian era. Khandesh and the Tapti valley were other regions where they were kings. The Gavlis rose to political power in Deogarh, on the Chhindwara Plateau in the central provinces. The Saugar traditions traced down the Gavli supremacy to a much later date, as the tracts of Etawa and Khurai are said to have been governed by the chieftains till the close of the seventeenth century.
Some scholars, such as Robert Sewell believe that the rulers of Vijayanagara Empire were Kurubas (also known as Yadavas). Many ruling Rajput clans of India traced their origin to the Yaduvanshi lineage, a major branch of the Chandravanshi Kshatriyas. These include the Banaphars and the Jadejas. The Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri also claimed descent from the clan of Lord Krishna, although various experts have put alternative theories about their origin.
Some early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas of Mysore were also the descendants of the original Yadava clan, by referring to the Yadava vamsa (clan) as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India. The founder of the Wodeyar dynasty, Vijaya, also claimed descent from the Yadu and took on the name Yadu-Raya.
Legends of the cowherd Krishna and his dances with cowherdesses are mentioned in the Sangam classics. The term Ayarpati (cowherd settlement) is found in Cilappatikaram. It is argued that the term Ayar has been used for the Abhiras in ancient Tamil literature, and V. Kanakasabha Pillai (1904) derives Abhira from the Tamil word Ayir which also means cow. He equates the Ayars with Abhiras, and scholars treat this as evidence of migration of the Abhiras to the south in the first century AD.
Many groups and clans claiming descent from the ancient Yadu clan call themselves Yadavs. The major clans among these are:
* Ahirs (variously called Ahira and Abhira) are divided into clans called Khanap:
o Nandavanshi (descendants of Nanda}
o Gwalvanshi (descendants of Holy Gwals)
* Behera, Pradhans in Orissa
* Bharwad in Gujarath
* Bhatrajus (Andhra Pradesh)
* Dhangars (in Maharashtra and Karnataka), having 108 clans
* Edayar (Tamil Nadu)
* Gaurs (also called Goriya, and mentioned in the Mahabharata)
* Gadri / Gadariya
* Gaddi in Chamb and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh.
* Gouda (Orissa)
* Kone [The Yadava king name] Tamil Nadu
* Konars (Tamil: கோனார் in Tamil Nadu and Kerala)
* Kurubas or Gollas ( Karnataka)
* Krishnauth (claiming direct lineage from Lord Shri Krishna)
* Kurubas (Karnataka)
* Maniyani (in Kerala)
* Manjrauth (linked with Jarasandh)
* Mandal & Bhagat (Bihar)
* Sadgops (in Bengal)
* Servai, Tamil Nadu
* Vadukayar, Tiruvnelveli in Tamil Nadu
* Deshwal (some city in U.P)
The language of the Ahirs was known as Ahirani in Khandesh, resembling Marathi. While the Ahirs of Kathiawad and Kachh have a dialect which resembles Gujarathi. Abhira bhasha is in fact considered to be Apabhransha. In the ninth century BC, it had become the language of the people, and was spoken from Saurashtra to Magadh, and it has been proved that poetry was composed in this language around the sixth century BC. In addition to the ones above--Gaddi, which is currently the dialect spoken in Gadderan, on the outskirts of the Chamba and Kangra hills and Gandi is spoken in some parts of Madhya Pradesh. Abhiri as a dialect has been recorded by Sanskrit poets such as Bharata and Dandin. The dialect the people of Ahirwal in Haryana speak has a resemblance to Rajasthan.
Through numerous political parties such as the Samajwadi Party, Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata Dal (Republic), Janata Dal (Communal) and Makkal Tamil Desam (Tamil Nadu), the Yadavs have considerable political influence, especially in the North Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
* LORD KRISHNA
* Neminatha, The 22nd Teerthankar of Jains & cousin of Lord Lord Krishna
* Vasudeva, father of Lord Krishna
* Kartaveerya Arjuna, Emperor of Mahismati, also known as Shasrabahu
* Kunti, sister of Vasudeva and mother of Pandavas and Karna
* Kansa, a tyrannical king of Mathura, who was killed by Lord Krishna
* Ugrasen, the father of Kansa
* Rao Tula Ram, 1857 Freedom Fighter
* Pran Sukh Yadav, fought along with Rao Tula Ram Yadav at Nasibpur
* Akhilesh Yadav, Politician
* B.P. Mandal, Chairman of Mandal commission and Former Chief Minister of Bihar
* Babulal Gaur, Former Chief Minister, Madhya Pradesh
* Baleshwar Yadav, Politician
* Chandrapal Singh Yadav, Politician
* Chitra Lekha Yadav, Politician
* Devendra Singh Yadav, Politician
* Dharam Pal Yadav, Politician
* Dr. Jaswant Singh Yadav, Politician
* Giridhari Yadav, Politician
* Jay Prakash Narayan Yadav, Politician
* Kailash Nath Singh Yadav
* Karan Singh Yadav, Politician
* Laloo Prasad Yadav, RJD chief
* M. Anjan Kumar Yadav, Politician
* Mulayam Singh Yadav, Samajwadi Party Chief
* Nand Kishore Yadav, Cabinet Minister in Bihar
* Pappu Yadav, former RJD Politician
* Rabri Devi, former Chief Minister of Bihar & Wife of Laloo Prasad Yadav
* Raghu Yadav, Politician
* Ram Gopal Yadav, Politician
* Ram Kripal Yadav, Politician
* Ram Singh Yadav, Politician
* Ramakant Yadav, Politician
* Rambaran Yadav, Politician
* Rao Balbir Singh , Politician
* Rao Birender Singh, Former C.M. Haryana
* Rao Inderjit Singh, Cabinet Minister
* Sadhu Yadav, Politician
* Sitaram Yadav, Politician
* Suresh Kalmadi, Politician
* Umakant Yadav, Politician
* Upendra Yadav, Politician
* Babru Bhan Yadav, Maha Vir Chakra recipient, 1971 Indo-Pak War.
* Dr. K Sanjeeva Rayudu Yadav, Capt AMC Army Doctor and Professor of Surgery Indo-China War.
* Namdev Jadav, Victoria Cross recipient.
* Pran Sukh Yadav, Military Commander in Anglo-Sikh Wars.
* Umrao Singh, Victoria Cross recipient, World War II, Burma Front
* Yogendra Singh Yadav, Param Vir Chakra recipient, Kargil War.
* Lietenant General JBS Yadav, retired as Deputy Chief of Army.
* Dharmendra Yadav, Boxer 1990 Commonwealth Medal Winner
* Hemulal Yadav, Cricketer
* Jai Prakash Yadav, Cricketer
* Jyoti Yadav, Cricketer
* Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav, India's first individual Olympic medalist
* Shivlal Yadav, Cricket player
* Vijay Yadav, Cricket player
Artists / Writers
* Anand Yadav, Marathi writer
* Parbhu Dayal Yadav, Artisan
* Poonam Yadav, Singer
* Raghubir Yadav, Film Actor
* Rajendra Yadav, Hindi novelist and Editor of HANS
* Rajpal Yadav, Film Actor
* Dr. Jhillu Singh Yadav, Director, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad
* Dr. M. Gopalakrishna Yadav, Former CMD Indian Bank
* Santosh Yadav, Mountain Climber
* Swami Ramdev Ji, Yoga Teacher | <urn:uuid:45c9d9cc-8466-4390-98e9-a30969abd4b3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mohanrajyadav.blogspot.com/2011/10/yadav-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943579 | 2,884 | 3.5 | 4 |
MINNEAPOLIS (WCCO) — Minnesota’s official influenza season started in October and will last through April.
It’s the same for much of the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, the months are reversed. Flu season down happens during their winter – from May through September.
Across the globe, there is rarely a flu case during the summer.
So, that had Beth from New Ulm wondering: Why do we only see the flu in the winter?
“There’s a lot of controversy around this,” said Allina Medical Clinic Infectious Disease expert Dr. Frank Rhame.
He credits much of the reason to crowding.
“When winter comes, we get closer together, the windows get closed, the ventilation isn’t as good, so airborne spread is more likely to occur,” he said.
And why there is winter flu in warmer states like Florida, where much of their crowding occurs in the air-conditioned summers, Rhame said the spread of influenza has a “whole country effect” that requires a critical mass.
“Even though Florida is more temperate than we are, within the country there’s a ramping up of people getting closer together, and they have to give it to each other to get it in full force,” he said.
And, as Chris Cloud of Minneapolis – who came down with the flu last December — pointed out, “There’s these things called planes that people get on from all over the world.”
Kris Ehresmann, head of infectious diseases at the Minnesota Department of Health, offers a different theory.
“It’s likely related to humidity,” she said.
In 2007, Mount Sinai hospital flu researcher Dr. Peter Palese wrote a study that found dry conditions favor transmission of the virus.
“Our mucous membranes get drier in the winter and they may be more susceptible to infection when they’re drier,” Rhame said.
Other researchers have suggested less exposure to Vitamin D during the winter might also contribute to the spread of the flu in the winter.
In the summer of 2009, the H1N1 strain of the flu virus started surprised scientists with its unique combination of genes they’d never seen before. Researchers said it’s still unclear why that strain was so powerful in the summer, but point out that after its first 18 months, it transitioned into a winter virus and stayed there ever since. | <urn:uuid:56a4e0b8-5730-46d5-8c15-141410c640fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2013/10/30/good-question-why-do-we-only-see-the-flu-in-the-winter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960038 | 533 | 3.1875 | 3 |
The Center for Biological Diversity and allies filed a legal challenge on June 1 against the Environmental Protection Agency for its failure to fix woefully out-of-date air quality standards. The agency itself admits that these standards are inadequate to protect the nation’s parks, forests, rivers and lakes from acid rain.
Instead of following the law and doing what is necessary to protect our natural resources, the EPA has chosen to sit on the sidelines when even its own scientists have identified the problem and provided a formula for action. Meanwhile, acid rain continues to poison our waters and threaten our forests.
“Acid rain isn’t a thing of the past, but an ongoing and very real threat to forest ecosystems and wild fisheries across the country,” said Kevin Bundy, a senior attorney with the Center for Biological Diversity. “The EPA is ignoring the hard work of its own scientific experts and instead relying on outdated air-quality standards that it knows are not protective enough.”
Power plants and other industrial operations pump pollution, including sulfur and nitrogen compounds, into the air. When this pollution later falls onto forests, rivers and lakes, it has an acidifying effect — hence the term “acid rain.” Acidic waters harm fish and other aquatic organisms. In the Adirondack Mountains, for example, lakes with more acidic water support only half the species of fish that might otherwise live there. Reduced growth rates in trout and salmon have also been attributed to acid stress.
Acid rain threatens entire forest ecosystems, national parks and wilderness areas. Although places across the country are at risk from this pollution, the eastern United States — including the Adirondacks, the Green and White mountains, and the Appalachians — and the upper Midwest are among the most sensitive areas.
This legal battle has a long history. The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set so-called “secondary” air-quality standards limiting ambient concentrations of air pollutants that affect “public welfare,” which includes ecosystems and natural resources. The Center for Biological Diversity and other groups sued the agency in 2005 over its failure to review the secondary standard for acid rain-causing sulfur and nitrogen compounds — a standard first established in 1971 and not strengthened since. That litigation led to the EPA’s current review of the standard, in which the agency admitted that existing standards are inadequate to protect sensitive ecosystems and fish species from the effects of acid rain. Yet the EPA chose to leave these inadequate standards in place, rejecting efforts by the agency’s own scientific experts to devise a new, more protective standard.
Photo of acid rain-contributing power plant courtesy of flickr commons/zacheryjensen | <urn:uuid:9886d42c-adcc-41e0-a025-f650c94edd68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.care2.com/causes/epa-fails-to-protect-nation-from-acid-rain.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928547 | 552 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Will drinking one or two cans of diet cola per day increase your risk of cancer? That’s a question that many people would love to get a clear cut answer to. Unfortunately, it is virtually impossible to design and execute long term studies on human subjects without beholding them to an impossible regimen of diet and lifestyle in order to negate the effects of any other potential causes.
A recently published study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition tried to assess the risk of leukemia in people who consumed aspartame sweetened drinks. Aspartame is found in most popular soft drinks, such as Diet Coke and Diet Sprite. The data collected for the study was based on the national Nurses’ health Study over 22 years. This long term project has been collecting information from nurses since 1976. Researchers slice and dice the data points to reach various conclusions regarding (mostly) women’s health issues.
The aspartame results came back very iffy. There was an increased chance of cancer for men who consume one diet drink a day, but nor for women. Could it be a statistical error? Maybe. The scientists suggest that more research be conducted.
We suggest: Why take the risk? Water does not cause cancer, that’s for sure. Get used to drinking water and save yourself from nasty surprises in the future. | <urn:uuid:74340410-70c5-4698-ade3-7567cdd2442b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.fooducate.com/2012/10/27/diet-cola-aspartame-and-cancer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949126 | 271 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The bitter end
To the limit of one's efforts - to the last extremity.
Bitter has been an adjective meaning acrid or sour tasting since the year 725 AD at least. The word was in common use in the Middle Ages and Shakespeare uses it numerous times in his plays and poems, as do many other dramatists. The phrase 'the bitter end' would seem, fairly obviously, to come directly from that meaning.
But not so fast. Enter, stage left, Captain Smith. Here's what he has to say, in his publication Seaman's Grammar, 1627, which is the earliest citation of the phrase in print:
"A Bitter is but the turne of a Cable about the Bits, and veare it out by little and little. And the Bitters end is that part of the Cable doth stay within boord."
As you might have deduced, a bitt is a post fastened in the deck of a ship, for fastening cables and ropes. When a rope is played out to the bitter end, it means there is no more rope to be used.
But again, not so fast. Folk etymologists are those who say something is true with no more justification than that they would like it to be true. They are thickest on the ground in the area of military and especially naval attributions. People seem to love a sailor's yarn, and anything with a whiff of the sea is seized on with enthusiasm. So much so that more thoughtful etymologists have dreamed up the inventive acronym CANOE - the Committee to Ascribe a Naval Origin to Everything.
So, is this one from CANOE or not? We like to be definitive and, although the naval origin does seem to have a good case, it isn't conclusive. This time we'll sit on the fence and let you decide.
See other Nautical Phrases.
See other phrases and sayings from Shakespeare. | <urn:uuid:c6b3c895-51fe-41f7-9a7d-a0460da9c50b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/the-bitter-end.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974419 | 405 | 3.46875 | 3 |
is a branch of statistics
that denotes any of the many techniques used to summarize a set of data. In a sense, we are using the data on members of a set to describe the set. The techniques are commonly classified as:
- Graphical description in which we use graphs to summarize data.
- Tabular description in which we use tables to summarize data.
- Parametric description in which we estimate the values of certain parameters which we assume to complete the description of the set of data.
In general, statistical data can be described as a list of subjects or units and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction.
We have two objectives for our summary:
- We want to choose a statistic that shows how different units seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a measure of central tendency.
- We want to choose another statistic that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a measure of statistical variability.
When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the arithmetic mean, the median, or the mode. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the cumulative distribution function called quantiles.
The most common measures of variability for quantitative data[?] are the variance; its square root, the standard deviation; the statistical range; interquartile range; and the absolute deviation[?].
All Wikipedia text
is available under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License | <urn:uuid:3a6560b3-6e6c-4781-8fd5-2b36e1903db9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/de/Descriptive_statistics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.875194 | 327 | 4.125 | 4 |
Feature Story: Goats, Turtles and WHIP Help Rare Natural Area
In northern Illinois, an 80-acre piece of remnant land is being carefully managed to re-establish an oasis for wildlife and native plants. This unique area, called the Piscasaw Fen, will once again become a place where native species can flourish with the help from some unusual partners. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) with the Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP) and the Boone County Conservation District (BCCD) with their goats. This includes a surprising discovery of a state endangered species - the Blanding’s turtle.
The land is considered remnant, which means “it has never been plowed,” said Ellen Starr, biologist for NRCS. “These types of areas are a rare find. They offer much in native plants and lend themselves to quality habitats for wildlife once restored.” Savannas are the rarest type of habitat found in Illinois, even more rare than wetlands. This site is an excellent example of a historic landscape: a savanna/wetland complex.
The BCCD purchases land in Boone County when it becomes available and restores it back to its native state. NRCS District Conservationist Lewis Nichols said “this was one site where we started to work with the previous owner and continued with BCCD after they acquired the property. Once acquired, we just followed up with BCCD and enrolled them in WHIP.”
From left: Lewis Nichols (NRCS),
Ellen Starr (NRCS), Joshua Sage (BCCD)
and Aarron Minson (BCCD)
review the map for the Piscasaw Fen.
The acreage includes 40 acres of savanna and 40 acres of wetlands which lies along the Piscasaw Creek. A native northern Illinois savanna would consist of white oak, bur oak and shagbark hickory with a prairie understory. To open the canopy for those species to reproduce, undesirable and invasive trees and shrubs such as elms, cherry, bush honeysuckle and buckthorn must be removed.
Sage and Minson stand in Wetland in winter with standing water.
cleared savanna in winter. Photo courtesy of BCCD.
Photo courtesy of BBCD.
Through the incredible labor of only two BCCD employees and some seasonal help, the area will gradually revert back to a native savanna with plants such as pointed tick trefoil, a staple for the savanna. Water seeps out from the savanna’s hillside to feed the adjacent wetland. This unique type of wetland is called a Fen.
A Fen is an alkaline (high pH) wetland typically located at the base of a hill and is composed of a unique community of plants that thrive in high pH conditions. Plans for restoring the wet prairie include removal of trees like box elder and sugar maple along with some of the red-osier dogwood. “We want to keep the silky dogwood, also known as blue-fruited dogwood,” said Joshua Sage, BCCD Restoration Project Manager. “They are a good food source for birds.”
A portion of the fen is hayland consisting of non-native grasses; predominately timothy and brome. It is hayed every year after nesting season for ground-nesting birds like the bobolink and grasshopper sparrow. This area is left as pasture to accommodate their preferred habitat.
An old Piscasaw oxbow, a U-shaped body of water formed from a meander in the Piscasaw Creek, runs through portions of the fen providing deeper water habitat for many wetland-dependant species.
Aarron Minson (BCCD) holds a
Blanding’s turtle that was
found living in the wetland.
In 2010, the Illinois State Endangered Blanding’s turtle was discovered in the area. Aarron Minson, BCCD Restoration Technician, outfitted four turtles with transmitters and tracks their movements daily. The transmitters emit a signal that is picked up by an antennae/receiver. “We can track them to determine habitat availability and usage in their range and modify our restoration efforts accordingly,” said Minson. “We know they have been nesting here. The fact we have so many varying ages of turtles is good news.”
WHIP Restoration Plan
The eight-year WHIP contract helps Sage and Minson remove unwanted brush and control invasive species. The first step in the process is removing the dense invasive shrubs by hand. Then goats are brought in and enclosed with a solar powered electric fence where they eat the remaining invasive species such as multiflora rose, thistle, and garlic mustard.
“It takes about two to three full growing seasons,” said Sage, “for the goats to remove most of the unwanted vegetation.” Afterwards, Sage and Minson, along with a few volunteers, come in with hand or mechanical brush removal techniques during the winter to finish the clearing. Goats prefer the thorny multiflora rose thistles – “go figure!” says Starr.
Goats are enclosed in specific
areas to eat invasive species.
The WHIP contract includes a prescribed burn which is scheduled in 2014, followed by seeding of native plants such as bristly aster, sweet indian plantain, fen thistle, Michigan lily and other plants in areas as needed. “It is always nice to come out and see a native plant come up that wasn’t there before,” said Minson. “Especially one we didn’t plant.”
Another remnant savanna that is currently pastureland near the Piscasaw Fen is in a Land Trust, but the Boone County Conservation District will eventually acquire the land. “That land is a Plug & Play savanna with a little fire to help,” said Sage. “That will be the next stop for the goats.”
The BCCD looks forward to using conservation and best management practices within the watershed of the Piscasaw Creek to help provide needed habitat for many species including the State Listed Blanding’s turtle whose largest threat is habitat fragmentation. “WHIP really just landed in our lap. Our working relationship with NRCS has been outstanding,” Sage continued.
“The BCCD is doing an excellent job on restoring the remnant savanna and wetland,” said Starr. This past summer Starr organized a field day at Piscasaw Fen with BCCD’s assistance for NRCS and SWCD field office personnel so they have a better understanding of what all is involved with restoring these rare habitats. “They got to see firsthand the beginning stages of the restoration process,” she continued. “In subsequent years we will revisit the site as the restoration progresses for more training opportunities.”
For more information on the Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program and other NRCS programs and assistance, visit your local USDA Service Center or go to www.il.nrcs.usda.gov.
Goats, Turtles and WHIP Help Rare Natural Area (PDF, 514kb)
NRCS - Helping People Help the Land
An Equal Opportunity Provider and Employer
For more information, contact:
Jody Christiansen, IL NRCS Public Information Officer
IL NRCS State Office
2118 W. Park Court
Champaign, IL 61821
Download Name Here
The following document is available in Adobe Acrobat format.
filename.pdf (PDF, 00 kb) | <urn:uuid:390240f4-0b2c-42e0-bd9f-e5c1e45b9c98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/il/newsroom/features/?cid=nrcs141p2_030838 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943675 | 1,619 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Group 17Sayak Gupta (49)Srinivas (54)Sujit Mishra (56)
Agenda Introduction History Objective Member Economies APEC relations Demographics APEC Structure Bogor goals How APEC operates APEC summits Strengths & weaknesses Achievements Implications for MNE’s
APEC Forum APEC is the premier forum for facilitating economic growth, cooperation, trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific region. It is an inter-governmental forum, which operates on the basis of non binding commitment and open dialog. No treaty obligations APEC has 21 member economies with a population of over 2.6 billion which accounts for more than 40% of the world’s population. APEC countries have a combined GDP of 21 trillion US dollars which is more than half of world GDP. APEC accounts for nearly half of world trade.
Member Economies* Australia * Malaysia* Brunei Darussalam * Mexico* Canada * New Zealand* Chile * Papua New Guinea* Peoples Republic of China * Peru* The Republic of the Philippines * Hong Kong, China* The Russian Federation * Japan* United States of America * Indonesia* Chinese Taipei * Singapore* Republic of Korea * Viet Nam
History of APEC APEC begins as an informal Ministerial-level dialogue group in Canberra, Australia in 1989. It is a 21 member economic forum at present. Founding members are Australia, New Zealand 6 ASEAN economies Japan and South Korea Canada and the United States Later the co-operation expanded to China, Taiwan, & Hong Kong in1991 Mexico & Papua New Guinea in 1993 ,Chile (1994 ) , Russia, Vietnam, Peru in 1998. India, Mangolia, Pakistan, Laos, Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador are among a dozen countries seeking membership in APEC.
Mission and Vision To support sustainable economic growth and prosperity in Asia-Pacific region To build a dynamic and harmonious Asia-Pacific community Decrease number of obstacles in trade and also reduce tariffs across APEC nations Set it’s eye on achieving ‘Bogor goals’ by the year 2010 To encourage the flow of goods, services, capital, and technology To develop and strengthen the multilateral trading system; and
APEC Relations ASEAN and APEC ASEAN has been at APECs core from the very beginning and is doing its part to advance APECs purposes and is consistent with APEC goals. ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) can be said to be a building block for the fulfillment of the goals that APEC set for eventual free trade among its members. It can be said that the two organizations could be seen as complementing, and not competing with each other. NAFTA and APEC Accomplishment of Bogor goals and free trade among APEC member economies leads to significant trade diversion from western countries to APEC member economies. Western economies trying to maintain balance of power between east and west in APEC decisions by restricting Asian countries into economic co-operation.
APEC and India India tried for membership in APEC. It was initially supported by United States, Japan Australia but was denied later. India would have been had an undue advantage in trade if it is a member of APEC. Reasons :o Decision was made not to admit more members until 2010 till Bogor goals are accomplished.o India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current members doo There is a concern among Western countries that Indias entry might tilt the balance of power shifts in favour of India.
APEC Secretariat APEC secretariat operates as the core support mechanism for the APEC process. It provides coordination, technical and advisory support as well as information management, communications and public outreach services. It performs a central project management role It is based in Singapore The APEC Secretariat is headed by an Executive Director and a Deputy Executive Director Muhamad Noor Yacob is the present Executive Director
BOGOR GOALS APEC Economic Leaders Declaration Of Common Resolve (1994) Free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2010 for developed economies by 2020 for developing economies
THREE PILLARSThree specific areas crucial to achieving the Bogor Goals: Trade and investment liberalization Business facilitation Economic and technical cooperation
Trade and Investment liberalization Reducing and eliminating tariff among member countries Reducing and eliminating non-tariff barriers to trade and investment Opening of marketsAchievements :1) Changes in the global trade of APEC industrialized and volunteering economies.
Cont ..2) Stocks of inward and outward FDI in APEC industrialized and volunteering economies.3) Real GDP/capita for APEC industrializedeconomies and volunteering economies
Business facilitation Reducing the costs of business transactions Improving access to trade information Bringing into line policy and business strategies to facilitate growth Free and open tradeAchievements :1. The Single Window Strategic Plan, adopted in 2007, provides a framework for the development of Single Window systems which will allow importers and exporters to submit information to government once, instead of to multiple government agencies, through a single entry point.
Cont ..2. As a result of the APEC Trade Facilitation Action Plan (TFAP I) the cost of business transactions across the region was reduced by 5% between 2002 and 2006.3. In 2008, a groundbreaking Investment Facilitation Action Plan was endorsed which aims at improving the investment environment in Member Economies.4. The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) provides substantial time and cost savings to business people and facilitates their travel in the region, by allowing visa free travel and express lane transit at airports in participating economies.
Economic and technical cooperation ECOTECH is dedicated to providing training and cooperation to build capacities in all APEC Member Economies to take advantage of global trade. This area builds capacity at the institutional and personal level to assist APEC Member Economies and its people gain the necessary skills to meet their economic potential.Achievements : APECs Economic and Technical Cooperation (ECOTECH) activities are designed to build capacity and skills in APEC Members at both the individual and institutional level, to enable them to participate fully in the regional economy and liberalization process Since APEC first began to undertake capacity building work in 1993, more than 1200 projects have been initiated; and in 2008, APEC was implementing a total of 212 capacity building projects with a total value of US$13.5m. A network of 41 APEC Digital Opportunity Centers (ADOC) now operate in seven Member Economies.
APEC BUSINESS ADVISORY COUNCIL 1995 with the aim of providing advice to the APEC Economic Leaders on ways to achieve the Bogor Goals Each economy nominates up to three members from the private sector to ABAC These business leaders represent a wide range of industry sectors
HOW APEC OPERATES APEC operates as a cooperative, multilateral economic and trade forum. It is a voluntary association in which participants do not cede powers of regulation or enforcement to a supra-national institution; Every year one of the 21 member economies plays host to APEC meetings, Serves as the APEC Chair Chairs the annual economic Leaders meeting & ministerial Meetings Fills Executive Director of the APEC Secretariat.
CONT .. Member Economies take individual and collective actions to open their markets and promote economic growth Activities are centrally funded by small annual contributions from member Economies Member economies provide considerable resources to assist in the operations APEC’s project database contain all project related information
ANNUAL MEETINGS OF THE ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATIONSummit Year Place Summit Year Place 1 1989 Australia 13 2001 Peoples Republic of China 2 1990 Singapore 14 2002 Mexico 3 1991 Republic of Korea 15 2003 Thailand 4 1992 Thailand 16 2004 Chile 5 1993 United states 17 2005 Republic of Korea 6 1994 Indonesia 18 2006 Vietnam 7 1995 Japan 19 2007 Australia 8 1996 Philippines 20 2008 Peru 9 1997 Canada 21 2009 Singapore 10 1998 Malaysia 22 2010 Japan 11 1999 New Zealand 23 2011 United states 12 2000 Brunei Darussalam
STRENGTHS OF APEC A supporter of the of the multilateral trade negotiations, apply pressure to key countries, suggest visionary initiatives and monitor compliances. APEC has considerable experience in the reform process and can act as a model or demonstration to the rest of the world. APEC is a large group of countries that could be extremely influential if adopted a common approach and joint bargaining objectives.
WEAKNESSES OF APEC Absence of priorities- The effort in trade reform within APEC has been diffused across too many areas and there is need for more focus. Shortfalls in member commitments- Many countries have gone no further than their existing pledges. Weak evaluation procedures- there is lack of outside scrutiny of individual members’ progress in implementing reforms Dearth of specific APEC incentives- APEC operates by consensus and there is no mechanism for enforcing group decisions.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MNES Share in World GDP, The group of five APEC industrialized 2011 economies — Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand and United States — has made good progress towards the Bogor Goals of free and open trade and investment by 2010. Contributions to Global GDP Growth The 21 APEC members account for 55 percent of world GDP; 45 percent of global trade; and 40 percent of the world’s population. Sixty percent of U.S. goods exports go to APEC economies.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MNES The industrialized economies have • cut tariffs • increased the proportion of goods imported tariff free • reduced non-tariff measures • opened up services trade • liberalized investment and • actively promoted greater trade and investment through facilitation initiatives.• The average applied tariff rate for the industrialized economies fell from 7.0 per cent in 1996 to 3.9 per cent in 2008.• The share of imports entering duty free has increased from 42.6 per cent in 1996 to 60.1 per cent in 2008.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MNES• The assessment of progress has highlighted the areas where more work is needed, including in the reduction of high tariffs and trade-distorting non-tariff measures on agricultural and textile, clothing and footwear products, and an increased focus on services and investment.• The gathering pace of globalization poses real challenges for trade and economic policy makers in the region.• Global dynamics have created the impetus for APEC economies to tackle a broader set of issues in their efforts to foster and reap the gains from greater economic integration. | <urn:uuid:d4cf1f28-93d3-49cc-86cd-dea0eba2386a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slideshare.net/ruchir1/apec-ppt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910363 | 2,138 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Despite taboos and lost legitimacy, armed groups around the world engage in extreme acts of violence, symbolic and otherwise. In order for decision-makers to understand what can be done about the increasing brutality, they must understand what’s behind it. In the fourth installment of Baker Institute Viewpoints, an institute postdoctoral fellow in drug policy and two outside scholars conducting doctoral research on these issues explain why some armed groups utilize extreme symbolic forms of violence, and how they justify their actions. The series will run each day through Thursday.
Guest writer John Sullivan, a Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department lieutenant writing his dissertation on criminal insurgency, leads off with a discussion of Mexico’s hyper-violent drug cartels:
Mexico’s drug war has challenged state solvency throughout the sexenio, or six-year-term, of President Felipe Calderón. During the intense confrontation among drug cartels, gangs and state institutions at all levels, the cartels have battled for freedom of movement. They seek to operate freely without interference from the government of Mexico or its constituent organs. The battle is for dominance of the drug trafficking plazas (zones) in Mexico and the illicit flows that extend to the United States, Europe and Latin America at large.
Extreme and Hyper Violence
While brutality and hyper-violence punctuate this conflict — indeed, violence is the narrative of the narco — corruption, impunity and state confrontation are core elements of the cartel threat. About 99,667 persons have been killed in the sustained narco-conflict, with an additional 24,000 persons reported missing or disappeared. Journalists, mayors, police, the military and members of civil society are among the victims of the violence.
Kidnappings, assassinations, drive-by shootings, grenade attacks, car bombings, dismemberment, beheadings, mass murders and now crucifixion are the symbolic and instrumental means used by the cartels to demonstrate raw power. In a September 2012 crucifixion in Michoacán, an alleged rapist was seized by cartel operatives (allegedly members of the Caballeros Templarios/Knights Templar) from police custody. The victim was tortured, castrated and crucified in a symbolic ritual that projected cartel power while eroding the legitimacy of municipal police and the state.
Narcocultura frames the drug traffickers as powerful heroes for the disenfranchised. Narco-folk saints like Santa Muerte and Jesus Malverde are venerated to bond narcos into a cohesive social structure that provides justification for their actions and spiritual protection for their deeds. Blockades, banners, corpse-messaging (leaving a message on a corpse), messages or communiqués, and graffiti accompany acts of violence and are often transmitted via social media and through folk songs to amplify the cartels’ ethos. Attacks against journalists and civil society actors aren’t designed to silence, but rather to shape the power relations and public perceptions of the narcos.
Assault on the State
Traditionally, organized crime seeks to avoid the state and minimize violence. When that fails, they seek to co-opt the state through public corruption. If their efforts are successful, a balance between the underworld and public power becomes the norm — an equilibrium in the interaction between the state and organized crime. When the equilibrium breaks — as when Calderón cracked down on cartels — organized crime confronts the state. The confrontation — a state of siege and “battle of all against all” — has characterized Mexico’s sexenio de sange (regime of blood), or the past six years of unabated brutality and violence.
Here I’m not being critical of Calderón. The president of the Republic had little choice.
The cartels were increasingly gaining control of territory and turf, transitioning from criminal elites into true centers of power. Impunity reigned and brutal narcopolitics were consuming state organs, municipalities and penetrating many Mexican states. The federal center in Mexico City was strong, but many parts of the nation were hollow. Not only were police (municipal, state and federal elements) corrupted, oftentimes they acted as extensions of the cartels: effectively a “black” paramilitary militia serving criminal mafias. The cartels combined traditional gangster intimidation and brutality with infantry tactics — including deploying improvised armored vehicles — wearing uniforms and marking their vehicles with distinctive cartel insignia.
Collectively, the cartels began forging criminal enclaves where they could operate without state interference by using extreme violence, exerting control over turf (zones of impunity), co-opting public officials, collecting “street taxes” and attacking and plundering oil and natural gas resources from PEMEX, the state oil monopoly. Nuevo León and Tamaulipas are exemplary in this regard. Terror reigns in this combat zone where Los Zetas are eradicating the Gulf cartel to effectively dominate northeast Mexico. Here lawlessness reigns in the Zetas’ bloody confrontation with both the Sinaloa Federation and Mexican government.
State Reconfiguration: From Drug War to Criminal Insurgency
The result of cartel confrontation with the state is what I and others have termed a “criminal insurgency.” The cartels — essentially criminal networks — seek not overt, formal recognition of power, but rather freedom of movement and informal, but raw, unadulterated power and control. In effect they create what author George Grayson calls “dual sovereignty” in Mexico and beyond. The result is a radical redistribution of power within states that fuels and permeates illicit global economic circuits. States are reconfigured and co-opted to support the global illicit political economy. The impact of this transition is a potentially radical, hence insurgent, reconfiguration of the monopoly of violence to non-state violent actors, criminal states and criminal soldiers with a concomitant redistribution of power.
John P. Sullivan is a career police officer. He currently serves as a lieutenant with the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. He is also an adjunct researcher at the Vortex Foundation in Bogotá, Colombia; a senior research fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies on Terrorism (CAST); and a senior fellow at Small Wars Journal-El Centro. He is co-author of “Mexico’s Criminal Insurgency: A Small Wars Journal-El Centro Anthology” (iUniverse, 2011). His current research focus is the impact of transnational organized crime on sovereignty in Mexico and other countries. | <urn:uuid:f678871a-71d3-4ea8-b55a-3d55aa6547af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.chron.com/bakerblog/2012/10/extreme-narco-violence-in-mexico/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928599 | 1,331 | 2.6875 | 3 |
1(In England and Wales) a judicial court for civil cases.
- It is more that there is a stark difference in my understanding of the powers of the county court and High Court jurisdictions…
- Permission is required from the Court of Appeal for any appeal from that court from a decision of a county court or the High Court which was itself made on appeal.
- Proceedings in England and Wales shall be brought only in a county court.
1.1US A court for civil and criminal cases.
- To the dismay of gay rights advocates, a county court dismissed his suit.
- They could have gone to the county court in Eagle County, Colorado, or the federal court in Denver.
- If agreement can be reached, the contract must be filed with a county court where either of the parties lives.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: county court
Definition of county court in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:479fadbd-2fa9-4668-9197-1c6ca96ff4cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/county-court | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922593 | 217 | 2.921875 | 3 |
This portrait of Martha Washington (1731–1802) is the work of Charles Willson Peale, who also painted the sitter several times earlier. But those canvases do not survive. Thus she often is remembered by the image displayed here, rendered in 1795. Martha Washington then was age 64, the wife of the President, and near the end of her life. We do not see the vivacious young woman whom George Washington married and John Wollaston painted forty years earlier.
According to one account, Charles Willson Peale met President Washington at the market in Philadelphia and remarked to him that he had just seen Mrs. Washington, who looked so well that her portrait must again be painted. This image resulted from that conversation. The glow that animates her face is the focus of this painting, not the sitter's short stature or rotundity that less observant contemporaries saw as predominant features of her appearance.
Martha Dandridge was born in New Kent County. At age 18 she had married a wealthy heir of the region, Daniel Parke Custis. Soon she was busy as a mother caring for the couple's four children, two of whom died in infancy. At her husband's death eight years into their marriage, Martha Custis was suddenly an eligible young heiress. At age 27 she selected George Washington from a host of suitors.
George and Martha indulged her two young children—and after their premature deaths, two of her grandchildren–in lieu of the Washington offspring they never would produce.
George Washington's social ascent was not only financed with her Custis fortune, but also took place with Martha by his side. She even wintered with him at Valley Forge. She was everywhere accepted as the respected wife of the renowned general and President.
(VHS accession number: 1857.3)
Visit the online exhibition, The Custis Family Papers: Saving an American Treasure. It contains a sample of the documents in the Custis family papers at the VHS and describes the process of conserving them.
Image rights owned by the Virginia Historical Society. Rights and reproductions | <urn:uuid:cda83b1d-a15c-4fc8-8392-6c5475f35c68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/martha-dandridge-custis-washington | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979175 | 436 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Boundary layer with linear velocity profile—E. Review the simplified treatment of Section 8.2 for the boundary layer on a flat plate. Repeat the development with the following expression for the velocity profile in the boundary layer, instead of Eqn.:
You should obtain expressions for both δ/x and cf, similar to Eqns. 1 and 2. Also see Table. What are the merits and disadvantages of this linear velocity profile?
Table Solutions for Different Assumed Velocity Profiles
Approximation for vx/vx∞
2ζ − ζ2
2ζ − 2ζ3 + ζ4 | <urn:uuid:ebd60523-3d42-41b9-82d2-41f5204b2773> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/fluid-mechanics-for-chemical-engineers-with-microfluidics-and-cfd-2nd-edition-chapter-8-solutions-9780131482128 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.792614 | 133 | 2.640625 | 3 |
In a democracy, voting ought to be compulsory
Debate Rounds (3)
are ethically troubling, though this is not obviously so. There is no reason to
suppose that people should be equally interested in politics at all times, or that all
people should find voting equally satisfactory.(stoker,2006) Above all, it is morally
and politically important to distinguish amongst different types of non-voters.
There may be reasons to be troubled by those who do not vote because they are
not particularly excited by any candidates, or because they are disenchanted by
their favored political Party " as the failure to vote may point to deep-seated weaknesses in the
competitive party system, and in the organization and ideology of the main
political parties. But these problems, real as they are, seem far less urgent than
those of the people who do not vote because voting and political participation of
any form seem as alien and remote as university education, stable, well-paid
work, decent housing, safe streets, and respect from other members of society.
The difficulty in such cases is to see how compulsory voting will address, rather
than exacerbate, the alienation of these non-voters, who are typically the objects,
not the subjects, of political debate and policy, and who typically constitute the
"problems" that politicians are competing to solve. (Irwin and holsteyn, 2005). In
this situation compulsory voting would impact the results negatively.
Contention 2: compulsory voting takes away rights .
30 The right to abstain, or to refrain from political selfidentification and
participation is an important one, symbolically and practically. It captures two
ideas that are central to democracy. The first is that government is there for the
benefit of the governed, not the other way round. The second is that the duties
and rights of citizens are importantly different from those of their representatives,
because the latter have powers and responsibilities that the former do not.
Citizens do not owe their government electoral support or legitimacy. This is one
reason to doubt that citizens have a duty to vote even though, as Rawls claims,
people have a natural duty to support just, or nearly just, institutions.(Rawls,
1971) 31 In some circumstances this natural duty might place citizens under a
moral obligation to vote and, even, to vote one way rather than another. The
point of democracy is to give people choice and compulsory voting takes that right
Contention 3:penalties for not voting and enforcement. Proponents of
compulsory voting tend to say that the penalties for non-voting are, typically, no
higher than a relatively low fine. According to Ballinger, "High penalties are often
thought not to be appropriate: such penalties disproportionately affect the poor,
and can lead to heavy costs on an electoral commission". (11) But even where that is true, it is important to realise that people can, and do, go to prison for failing to
pay fines, and that this is the case, as well, for those who fail to pay fines for nonvoting. For example, in 1999 Melissa Manson was sentenced to one day in prison
for failing to pay the fines incurred by her failure to vote in the 1993 and 1996
Federal elections. Manson, apparently, believed that there were no candidates
worth voting for, and therefore objected both to voting, and to paying the
resulting fine, on principle.(Hill, 6 " 7 and 17) Before holding that compulsory
voting is justified, therefore, we need to be prepared to make criminals of people
who do not pay their fines for not voting " and need to be confident that doing so
is consistent with the democratic values and objectives that animate this case for
compulsion. If compulsory voting is instituted the aff agrees to inforce laws that
infringe on peoples rights.
It is for all these reasons that I must negate todays resolution.
I hereby state that the opinions stated below and the arguments presented do not necessarily dictate my personal opinions.
As commonly proposed, democracy is of the people, for the people, and by the people. The basis of democracy depends on the effectiveness of the state to grant its citizens with the right to vote and the citizens to respect that right. Democracy exists on the notion that all the eligible citizens vote for a future that they would like to see. However, in many democracies, today, a decrease in this number of eligible citizens at the voting booths has been witnessed. This is why I call for voting to be compulsory in all effective democracies.
I will first present a mechanism that will address the issues at hand. Then, I will refute the arguments presented by Con as I go through my first two arguments and get to any points of rebuttal left at the end.
All registered voters will be asked to compulsorily cast a vote during the elections. However, for those who do not have a chosen candidate or do not wish to vote on the particular election, there will be an option to not vote which would say something on the lines of “I wish to abstain from voting”. Those citizens who are registered, but do not place a vote, will be withdrawn from the list of registered voters, until they register again. On the second time of registration, they will be fined a decently hefty amount. So, we are looking into a system where a onetime registered person will be expected to vote each election year.
There will be an additional law added which will ask all employers to give a day off for each one of their employees such that workload does not become an issue of low turnout.
Argument 1: A better distinction between the citizens.
People who are registered voters have an interest in voting for the country. By mandating them to vote each year, we are keeping our responsible eligible voters active. The turnout rate has gone very low with unequal turnout also a big issue. However, what the status quo does not tell us is the real reason behind this low turnout. Once this distinction is made, the state will be more aware of their political institutions. This will then help them see if attention should be paid to improve the campaigning systems and the procedure of political election. If many people vote to abstain, then the state will have to make sure that the political leaders express themselves better and also will have to see that a diversity of principles are presented by the leading parties.
Con argued that the registered voters not voting is mainly due to reason that they are “not particularly excited by any candidates, or because they are disenchanted by their favored political Party”. The best way to confirm this will be by asking these voters to show up at the polling stations and pick the option that says they would like to abstain. This practice will help us distinguish between the people who see the political parties of the particular year to be not legit from those who just do not want to make the effort to vote.
There are many other reasons for which one may not like to vote. One, being diversion from the workload and other being laziness. To make sure that these reasons do not rule the low turnout, the proposed mechanism should be adopted. The lazy people will be ousted from the registered voters list and would have to pay a penalty if they want to vote the next time. However, some of these smart lazy people will be able to see that they could save a fine and the time spent on the process of registering by going to the polling station. And if they are just going there, why not have at least some information about the parties. This will increase the effectiveness of a democracy, which will be addressed in Argument 3.
Argument 2: Unfairness abolished
It is important to notice that politicians place a lot of focus on making sure that their supporters go to the polling stations and place their votes, without regards to those who would probably not vote. However, if the proposed mechanism is adopted and voting is made compulsory for all registered voters, politicians will now have to make sure that most of the registered voters vote for them. They will also have to focus on the hard labor workers who could sometimes not make it to the polling stations and those people who did believe that the parties were not any good this election period.
Con argued that “the duties and rights of citizens are importantly different from those of their representatives, because the latter have powers and responsibilities that the former do not...Citizens do not owe their government electoral support or legitimacy.” This claim supports a system where democracy can never work effectively. Not only democracy, any institution cannot work without a mutual share of duties of the powerful and the ruled. The citizens do have a responsibility to vote, which in our system, could also be a vote of abstention. How can citizens expect to take advantage of a democratic institution without fulfilling their own job of placing a vote? Except those who have researched and did not get fascinated by a candidate, all the other citizens have a duty to keep tuned with the political parties and then make a decision.
Secondly, Con emphasized that compulsory voting takes away the right of people to have a choice, which Con suggested was “the point of democracy”. I would like to also emphasize that in the proposed mechanism this choice of the people will be respected. They will be given a choice to vote or not and for whom to vote.
The proposed mechanism will both support the rights of the people and ask them to perform their duties.
Argument 3: Democratic Ideals promoted
This argument will be presented in the next round.
Remaining rebuttals to Con’s case:
Con was worried about the fines that will follow after people will not vote. Con was right to say that this would negatively affect the poor and may increase the number of criminals who owe fine debt. However, the mechanism clearly states that a fine will only have to be paid if one wishes to register again. This will work as an incentive for registered voters to not skip a voting period. And if for some reason they do, they will not have to worry about a fine until the next elections and will only have to worry if they wish to vote next time.
None of the Con’s arguments so far have shown a downfall to the proposed mechanism for the motion at hand. The mechanism works really well to make a distinction between the citizens and find out the weaknesses of the political institutions of a state and also abolishes unfairness on many grounds.
This is why I urge a strong Proposition vote.
RNeezus forfeited this round.
Since Con has not provided any rebuttals, I will provide my third argument:
Democratic Ideals Promoted
Taking on this action of making voting compulsory would be only asking those who take advantage of the democracy to put in their work for the same democracy. We will be asking those citizens who wish not to go to a polling station to complete their duty.
Additionally, the fact that the registered voters would have an incentive to go to vote in the election year, they will be forced to keep up with the parties and the leaders. If they have to go to the polling station, they will think, why not just vote for someone. This thought will increase the number of people who would place a legit vote and would be voting for what they believe.
I would like to extend this argument, but seeing that Con has yet not provided rebuttals to my last two and has not strengthened Con's own arguments, I will delay the extension of this argument.
RNeezus forfeited this round.
Since Con has neither provided any rebuttals nor strengthened his case, I would like to urge for a Proposition vote.
No votes have been placed for this debate.
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This debate has been configured to only allow voters who meet the requirements set by the debaters. This debate either has an Elo score requirement or is to be voted on by a select panel of judges. | <urn:uuid:8b4bde00-74dd-4bc2-b032-b6a6ba1d5591> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.debate.org/debates/In-a-democracy-voting-ought-to-be-compulsory/1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970677 | 2,466 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Diabetes-related amputations can be cut in half
The research was carried out by orthotic researchers at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, who have been studying diabetic foot complications since 2008, focusing on protecting the foot from overloading the foot sole in order to minimise the risk of ulcers .
For their latest study, the team assessed 114 Swedish diabetic patients at risk of developing such ulcers who had lived with diabetes for an average of 12 years.
Each participant wore one of three different types of shoe inserts, and after one year only 0.9 per cent developed new foot ulcers during the first year, compared to the figure of 3-8 per cent that has been reported for similar diabetic populations.
Doctoral student Ulla Tang said: "We found that good shoes and inserts can reduce pressure on the foot by 50 per cent compared with going barefoot.
"Our conclusion at the end of one year is that all three types of inserts effectively distribute pressure under the sole in order to minimize the risk of ulcers ."
The study also revealed that only 67 per cent of the patients had been offered podiatry care despite the fact that 83 per cent had calluses.
The authors concluded that shoe inserts, podiatry, information and regular checkups can prevent ulcers and thus significantly reduce the number of diabetes-related amputations.
The findings are due to be presented next month at the International Conference on Prosthetics and Orthotics in Hyderabad, India .
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Race a factor in diabetes amputation | <urn:uuid:7300d3ef-1224-443c-a3e6-7788761662b7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.diabetes.co.uk/news/2013/Jan/diabetes-related-amputations-can-be-cut-in-half-93972395.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92571 | 508 | 2.90625 | 3 |
|Roscoe L. Koontz|
|Roscoe L Koontz designed a pinhole gamma ray camera called the collimator, and helped to design and fabricate automatic air and water radiation activity measuring devices.|
Roscoe L. Koontz was born in St. Louis, Missouri in 1922. He graduated from Vashon High School in St. Louis. His college education at Stowes Teachers College was interrupted by a three-year hitch in the U.S. Army during World War II. While in the army, he received technical training through a special pre-engineering army training program at West Virginia State College. Upon discharge from the army in 1946, he returned to Tennessee State University and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.
Roscoe L. Koontz was among the first formally trained health physicists through his participation in the first Atomic Energy Health Physics Fellowship Training Program, sponsored at the University of Rochester in 1948. He designed a pinhole gamma ray camera and collimator and helped to design and fabricate automatic air and water sampling equipment and radiation activity measuring devices.
Health physics became a recognized profession around 1942. When Roscoe L. Koontz entered the field, there were few rules and guidelines and procedures for health physicists to follow. Together with their instructors, the early students, like Koontz, originated many of today's practices, instrumentation and techniques to protect people from the hazards of ionizing radiation. | <urn:uuid:434e8cfa-58f6-4aef-9d06-837ab7fc0d55> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blkoontz.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967589 | 298 | 3.25 | 3 |
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)’s 211 (Standard for Chimneys, Fireplaces, Vents and Solid Fuel Burning Appliances) is the standard that now classifies chimney and venting system inspections into three levels—Level I, Level II or Level III. Each level of inspection has a specific scope of work and specific criteria.
This inspection is recommended when the chimney and venting system is easily accessible and when the homeowner is planning to maintain its current use. In general, this the level of inspection performed in most homes. In a Level I inspection a certified chimney sweep verifies that the chimney structure is sound and that the chimney is free of obstructions and combustible deposits, such as creosote.
The addition of a new home heating appliance or a change in the type of fuel a homeowner is burning requires a Level II inspection. This inspection level is also required upon the sale or transfer of a property or after an operating malfunction or external event that is likely to have caused damage to the chimney. The scope of a Level II inspection includes that of the Level I inspection plus the inspection of accessible portions of the attics, crawl spaces and basements. It may also include a performance test such as a smoke test or a pressure test and possibly an interior chimney video inspection if recommended by the certified chimney sweep.
When a Level I or Level II inspection suggests a hidden hazard and the evaluation cannot be performed without access to concealed areas, a Level III inspection is recommended. This type of inspection confirms the proper construction and condition of concealed portions of the chimney structure and the flue. Level III inspections are generally necessary when investigating an incident that has caused damage to a chimney or building, or where a hazard is detected and suspected.
Both the Consumer Product Safety Commision and the National Fire Protection Association recommend yearly chimney inspections to help prevent fire and carbon monoxide poisonings. | <urn:uuid:af46c8c5-ef97-43a6-9248-f9a030984315> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unitedchimney.net/resources/three-levels-of-inspection.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903386 | 393 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Winters could be as much as 12 degrees warmer in the Great Lakes region by the end of the century, according to a report issued yesterday by a Midwestern team of climate researchers.
And that would accelerate the evaporation rate of the Earth's largest supply of fresh surface water. It also would cripple cold-weather businesses, such as skiing and ice-fishing, the researchers said.
Ohio, one of the top agricultural states, could end up with drier soils and more droughts. Yields of some crops, such as soybeans, corn, and wheat, could be improved by a longer growing season.
Yet the frequency of severe rainstorms and flooding could make production more difficult. It could even lead to expensive irrigation in some areas of the state, the report said.
“Overall, extreme heat will be more common,” according to the report, which predicts end-of-the-century temperatures will be 7 to 12 degrees warmer in the winter and 6 to 14 degrees hotter in the summer.
Lead author George Kling, of the University of Michigan, said a summer in Illinois could feel like a summer in Oklahoma within three decades. “Climate change will alter the character of the Great Lakes region, presenting challenges to the environment, economy, and the people who live there,” Dr. Kling, a UM biology professor, said.
The report was based on a two-year study by Dr. Kling and two other researchers from UM, plus scientists from the University of Illinois, University of Minnesota, University of Wisconsin, and University of Toronto. It was published by the Union of Concerned Scientists, based in Cambridge, Mass., and the Ecological Society of America, based in Washington.
A growing consensus of experts view climate change as inevitable, although they may disagree on the cause and the magnitude of the problem.
Similar predictions were made in October, 2000 by a team of 35 Midwestern scientists, the first of its kind for the White House.
In that report, officials said global warming could cause a 2-to-5-foot drop in the Great Lakes by the end of the century, potentially costing the shipping industry - and ultimately the consumer - billions of dollars. Fishing and recreational boating, two of the strongest elements of the region's economy, also were expected to take big hits.
The new report reaffirms that climate change is inevitable, based on the burning of fossil fuels which have released tons of carbon dioxide and other so-called “greenhouse gases” into the atmosphere for decades.
The report calls for cutbacks in emissions of those heat-trapping gases. For Ohio, that would mean more efficient coal plants.
For the automotive industry, that would mean developing more efficient automobiles, including a new breed that operates on hydrogen-powered fuel cells. In their most efficient form, the latter would emit only water vapor - but they are not expected to be produced for years.
David Friedman, senior vehicles engineer for the Union of Concerned Scientists, predicted that consumers would embrace those cars as much as they did airbags.
“I think the public is ready to make these choices. The problem is they don't have them now,” he said.
The group hopes the latest global warming forecast helps spur President Bush to become more aggressive about reducing emissions. Although the President said in his State of the Union address that he supports funding for fuel cells, his administration has been widely criticized by environmentalists for its air pollution policies.
In November, the Bush administration announced a relaxation of clean air rules that will benefit coal-fired electric utilities, chemical factories, and oil refineries. And shortly after Mr. Bush took office in 2001, he rejected the Kyoto Protocol signed by 178 nations.
That act would have committed the United States to work with other industrialized countries in reducing emissions.
“Obviously, there hasn't been much happening at the national level,” Rich Hayes, Union of Concerned Scientists spokesman, said. | <urn:uuid:1a8bf8e5-79cf-47d0-80c2-485560cbecbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.toledoblade.com/frontpage/2003/04/09/Winters-could-get-much-warmer.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971717 | 818 | 3.4375 | 3 |
full title · The Crucible
author · Arthur Miller
type of work · Play
genre · Tragedy, allegory
language · English
time and place written · America, early 1950s
date of first publication · 1953
publisher · Viking Press
narrator · The play is occasionally interrupted by an omniscient, third-person narrator who fills in the background for the characters.
climax · John Proctor tells the Salem court that he committed adultery with Abigail Williams.
protagonist · John Proctor
antagonist · Abigail Williams
setting (time) · 1692
setting (place) · Salem, a small town in colonial Massachusetts
point of view · The Crucible is a play, so the audience and reader are entirely outside the action.
falling action · The events from John Proctor’s attempt to expose Abigail in Act IV to his decision to die rather than confess at the end of Act IV.
tense · Present
foreshadowing · The time frame of the play is extremely compressed, and the action proceeds so quickly that there is little time for foreshadowing.
tone · Serious and tragic—the language is almost biblical.
themes · Intolerance; hysteria; reputation
motifs · Empowerment; accusation, confession, legal proceedings in general
symbols · Though the play itself has very few examples of symbolism beyond typical witchcraft symbols (rats, toads, and bats), the entire play is meant to be symbolic, with its witch trials standing in for the anti-Communist “witch-hunts” of the 1950s.
Read this to get a better mark on the spot.
30 out of 111 people found this helpful
you forgot sarah good and sarah osborn as characters in this story, even if they dont have a line, they are still part of the story and still information
I wish it would say how many people actually died according to the play and how many people was put into prison... | <urn:uuid:8874257c-b884-472a-9700-d7e49fad4011> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/crucible/facts.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912032 | 421 | 3 | 3 |
Cocktail bitters reside in a class by themselves. Essentially, cocktail bitters are aromatics and flavoring extracts that have been macerated in neutral spirits. Cocktail bitters are so intensely concentrated as not to be considered potable on their own—or, as the official phrasing has it, “Not for singular consumption.”
Most cocktail bitters are botanicals in a neutral spirit base, although, while uncommon, it is possible to produce bitters with a glycerin base. In the United States, cocktail bitters are considered “food extracts” and are therefore regulated by the Food and Drug Administration rather than by the Alcohol and Tobacco Trade and Tax Bureau (TTB) or other alcohol-regulating agencies. Thus, they have wider distribution than wines and spirits, including in most food and grocery stores.
Cocktail bitters began, much like many other spirit groups, as medicinal and restorative tonics created by infusing botanicals in alcohol in order to extract their (presumed or actual) health benefits. One of the most prevalent forms of bittering agents used was Peruvian cinchona bark, also called quinine, which became popular as part of the potions used to treat malaria and tropical fevers. Other common bittering botanicals were used as well, and many are still in use today, such as caffeine, hops, gentian, and burdock root, as well as many other forms of herbs, roots, leaves, barks, and spices.
Some of these medicinal elixirs were favored as refreshing beverages, while others remained in highly concentrated form as tonics. In many cases, the tonics came to be used to flavor other beverages, as in the gin and tonic, pink gins, and other such drinks, where a dash of bittering agents was called for to liven the drink. Bitters were so much a part of beverage culture that the earliest definition of a cocktail included a bittering agent. To be exact, the definition, formulated in 1806, listed “spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitter.”
Outside of FDA regulations regarding use of certain approved foodstuffs, there is no limit or regulation on what may constitute a recipe for cocktail bitters; thus, much is left up to the discretion and whim of the creator. Cocktail bitters have found a new popularity, and there are many unique, creative products on the market today. Two of the most “classic” brands are Angostura Bitters and Peychaud’s Bitters:
Angostura Bitters: The most well-known of the cocktail bitters began with the House of Angostura. Angostura Bitters were created as a medical concoction in 1824 by Dr. Johann Siegert, a doctor in Simón Bolivar’s Venezuelan army. It was named after the town of Angostura (later, Ciudad Bolivar), although, oddly enough, the recipe did not contain the local angostura bark as an ingredient, even though other bitters did. The House of Angostura later relocated to Port of Spain
in Trinidad, where it resides today. The company also owns and operates rum distilleries on the island, both for the Angostura brand and by general contract for several others. Readily recognizable with its bright yellow cap and oversize paper label, Angostura is easily the world’s dominant brand of bitters.
Peychaud’s Bitters: Peychaud’s Bitters were invented by the Haitian Creole Antoine Amédée
Peychaud in his apothecary shop in New Orleans, circa 1830. The concoction was originally designed to go in his powerful spirit libations said to be served in dainty eggcups known by the French term coquetiers (a possible explanation for the origin of our term “cocktail”). This is a savory, exotic style of bitters with highly lifted aromatics. Peychaud’s Bitters are an integral part of the original recipe for the Sazerac cocktail.
As a pleasant side effect of the current cocktail renaissance, the bitters market is exploding with
artisan and local versions of cocktail bitters, with more entering the market each day. Fee Brothers, Regan’s #6 Orange Bitters, Bittermen’s, the Bitter Truth, Bittercube, Basement Bitters, and Bar Keep Bitters are among the many artisan-produced bitters available today. A plethora of flavors are also being produced; one can find bitters based on fennel, lavender, grapefruit, rhubarb, dandelion, molé, pineapple, apple, curry, and Jamaican jerk seasoning.
The creativity for bitters, it seems, knows no bounds.
Cocktail bitters, bittered spirits, vermouth, quinquinas, and Americanos are all topics that receive new and expanded coverage in our 2015 edition of the Certified Specialist of Spirits Study Guide…due out by January! | <urn:uuid:4426f1ab-945c-45fa-bd1f-5350f82af348> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://winewitandwisdomswe.com/tag/swe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960877 | 1,050 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Before we discuss exactly what a limit is, let's take a moment to become familiarized with the SageMath Notebook, which you will be using throughout these lessons. Assuming that you have the Notebook open, go ahead and create a new worksheet. Our work for each section will be kept in its own separate worksheet, which will make it easier to find and review past exercises. Click on File... Rename, and in the dialog box that pops up, call the worksheet 01-Limits.
A limit, to be concise, is the value that a function approaches as a variable (such as x) approaches a certain value. Most of the time, this is fairly straightforward. For a function f(x) = 2*x, for example, the limit of f(x) as x approaches 4 would simply be 8, since 2 times 4 is 8. The notation for this, as you will surely see in a calculus book, in a calculus classroom or on a calculus test, looks like:
Where limits will come in handy, though, is in situations where there is some ambiguity as to the value of a function at a point. As an example of this ambiguity, let's look at the graph of f(x) = (x2 - 1)/(x - 1). In the first cell of your worksheet, copy the following code, then press SHIFT-ENTER or click on "evaluate".
p = plot((x^2 - 1)/(x - 1), x, -1, 3) pt = point((1, 2), rgbcolor='white', pointsize=30, faceted=True) g = p+pt g.show(xmin=0, xmax=3, ymin=0, ymax=4)Toggle Explanation Toggle Line Numbers
Here is a breakdown of what the code does:
1) Create a plot of our function using variable 'x' on the domain -1 < x < 3.
2) Create an open (faceted) point at (1, 2), with a 'white' interior and the given point size.
3) Combine the plot and the point (the plus sign indicates 'combine these elements').
4) Show the combined plot and the point, using the given x and y bounds (similar to a graphing calculator).
The graph that appears should look something like this:
Looking at f(x), one can see that setting x equal to 1 would make both the numerator and the denominator equal to zero, which is why there is a circle at that point on the graph. Even though f(1) is undefined, however, we can still analyze, by way of limits, what f(1) would equal if it did exist. The notation for this would be:
Just by looking at the graph, one can see that as x approaches 1, the y-value for f(x) approaches 2. To find this value algebraically, we can remove the discontinuity by factoring the numerator, then dividing both the top and the bottom by (x - 1) to obtain:
Thus, both graphically and analytically, we can see that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 is equal to 2. To verify this result, we can actually use the following code to have SageMath compute the limit for us:
limit((x^2 - 1)/(x - 1), x=1)Toggle Explanation Toggle Line Numbers
1) Evaluate the limit of (x2 - 1)/(x - 1) as x approaches 1 (designated by 'x=1').
Copying the code into an empty cell of your worksheet and evaluating it will verify the result. You can use the limit function to check your answers to the following practice problems, as well.
On your own, now, try evaluating the following three limits first graphically, then by algebraic simplification. To aid this pursuit, I have included SageMath code to plot the first two functions, though it won't circle the discontinuities for you this time. Simply copy the code for each into a new cell on your worksheet and evaluate it. For the last three, see if you can manipulate the code from one of the other examples to graph the function. On a sidenote, use "pi" without the quotes to reference π from SageMath. | <urn:uuid:6d0ccc43-4b35-4cf0-afe1-4b47983e62ae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sagemath.org/calctut/limits.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919999 | 916 | 4.71875 | 5 |
The Ben Ish Chai (in Torah Lishmah) says that there are two reasons why we pray for someone ben his mother:
- Women have less sins (they don't have the commandment to learn Torah constantly, which is a sin that everyone violates to some degree every single day.)
- We know for a fact who is the mother, while not 100% for sure who is the father.
According to the first reason, we could say a mishebeirach after either (the 7 commandments are not time-related, and obligatory on both men and women equally). According to the second reason, even by a non-jew one should say a mishebeirach after the mother.
R' Zevin (A Treasury of Chassidic Tales) wrote that when Count Dravski went to the grave of R' Menachem Mendel of Rimanov he wrote a Pidyon Nefesh and he signed it as "Miechislav Dravski the son of Victoria".
Though hodofhod pointed out that chabad.org says a non-jew should use the father's name when writing a Pidyon Nefesh by the grave of a tzaddik. | <urn:uuid:1ee943d4-7061-482a-b3c8-2ac491b6b4d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://judaism.stackexchange.com/questions/6097/phrasing-of-refuah-prayer-when-praying-for-a-non-jew/12746 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978316 | 255 | 2.53125 | 3 |
In its third edition, Economic Literacy: Basic Economics with An Attitude, explains the logic, language, and worldview of economic theory, in a continuation of the engaging style that made earlier editions so accessible to the reader. While covering the fundamentals of the discipline, the author also includes a wide range of new material focusing on the structure, causes and results of the 'Great Recession'. From microeconomics and macroeconomics to the composition of international and domestic economies, Economic Literacy also makes the key distinction between economics as an academic discipline and the economy as a practical reality. Never grim, often witty, and frequently insightful into our turbulent financial times, Economic Literacy's third edition is a must for students of economics everywhere.
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Rent Economic Literacy 3rd edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Frederick Stirton Weaver. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Incorporated.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our Economics tutors now. | <urn:uuid:cf492006-a6ec-4e1e-aeba-f998516ae37b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/economic-literacy-3rd-edition-9781442204225-1442204222 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922234 | 228 | 2.796875 | 3 |
We are delighted to announce the theme for year 2 of our Maternal Health Collection, a partnership between PLOS and the Maternal Health Task Force.
We invite papers (both research and commentary) on the theme of “maternal health is women’s health,” which recognizes the vital importance to the MNCH agenda of the health of women over the whole of their lives:
While pregnancy is limited to women of reproductive age, maternal health is influenced by the health of women and girls before pregnancy, and it also influences women’s health broadly during and after the reproductive years. Inability to access quality health care and family planning resources, low educational attainment, low socioeconomic status, restrictive gender roles, poor nutrition, and a host of other social and biological factors combine to put girls and women at risk for not being able to attain and sustain the health status they deserve throughout their lives.
Papers submitted by 1 April 2013 stand the best chance of being included in this Collection. Our call for papers is broad, but specific priorities for this year’s Collection are:
- Maternal health as part of sexual and reproductive health issues (e.g., family planning, gender-based violence, STIs)
- Maternal health and non-communicable diseases (e.g., cardiovascular disease, mental health)
- Maternal health and communicable diseases (e.g., malaria, HIV/AIDS)
- Implications of child and adolescent health for maternal health
- Consequences of poor maternal health in later stages of women’s lives (e.g., prolapse and other chronic morbidities)
Our partner in this Collection, the Maternal Health Task Force, is based at the Harvard School of Public Health.
Stay tuned for exciting news about the official Launch of our Year 1 Collection on “quality of maternal health care.” | <urn:uuid:b950d96e-16ca-455b-80d6-a225217759b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.plos.org/speakingofmedicine/2012/11/28/maternal-health-is-womens-health-new-call-for-papers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951086 | 385 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Appendicitis is a common medical condition which affects around eight percent of the American population. Signs and symptoms associated with the disease are often misunderstood as simple bouts of stomach aches. Appendicitis is easily treated by surgical removal of the appendix. Appendectomy is the only cure for this medical condition and no amount of medications can reverse the process. Education and information is vital in making a quick and accurate assessment. Life-threatening complications only arise when medical help is delayed.
The appendix is a worm-like appendage that is attached to the cecum or the first part of the large intestines. It is not associated with any known body functions and its purpose remains unclear. The appendix is not an essential organ and removing it does not harm the patient’s health. Contents secreted by the appendix are passed through a small opening called the appendiceal lumen. Because of the relatively small size of this opening, the appendix is prone to becoming obstructed.
Appendicitis requires immediate medical attention. Its symptoms are similar to normal stomach aches and if left untreated, it can result in a life-threatening complication.
Appendicitis is simply the inflammation of the appendix. The appendix is located at the first part of the intestine and materials called fecalith can obstruct the small opening causing decreased blood circulation and trapping secretions inside. Inflammation is mainly due to infection and accumulation of fluids inside the appendix. Sudden pain in the abdomen is the most common sign of appendicitis. Pain felt is similar to regular stomach aches but could be narrowed down based on the pain’s location. Appendicitis is an emergency medical condition and immediate surgery is needed.
Signs and Symptoms of Appendicitis
Signs and symptoms for appendicitis include sudden pain and loss of appetite. Patients suffering from appendicitis also manifest fevers and body weakness. Pain associated with appendicitis can be similar to regular stomach aches. The pain, however, unlike stomach ache pains, moves from one area to another area. Pain usually starts from the belly and ends in the lower right of the stomach area.
Early signs of Appendicits
Pain in the abdominal area is the earliest sign of possible appendicitis, here are some characteristics which can give you a better idea if a person is suffering from appendicitis:
- Sudden and acute pain
- Severe pain
- Pains moves around (belly area to lower right abdominal area)
- Pain that grows within hours
- Pain that suddenly stops after hours of severe stomach aches
Dangerous Stage of Appendicitis
The most dangerous stage of appendicitis is when the pain suddenly stops. This means that the appendix has ruptured and spilled its contents into the abdominal cavity. The person suffering from appendicitis suddenly feels warm inside and all pain stops. It is important that people be educated about the classical signs of pain. Sudden relief of pain may be misunderstood that the worst of the disease is over, when it is actually a sign of a significantly deteriorating condition.
The taking of pain relievers for persons believed to be suffering from appendicitis is strongly discouraged. Pain relievers mask the symptoms of the disease and may lead to a wrong diagnosis.
Other signs and symptoms that accompany appendicitis are the following:
- Nausea and vomiting
- Loss of appetite
- Abdominal swelling
Inflammation of the appendix is caused by infections. Pus builds up inside the appendix causing it to push against the walls of the appendix. Fever is another tell-tale sign that a person might be suffering from appendicitis.
Assessment and Diagnostic methods for Appendicitis
When a patient, suspected of suffering from appendicitis is brought to a clinic or hospital, he is put through a series of physical examinations. The pain’s location and severity is assessed. A quick medical history is also taken to determine if the patient is susceptible to factors which may cause the disease. The patient is also assessed for fever; a high temperature means the patient is suffering from an infection.
Pain can be observed in several different ways:
- Rebound tenderness. A doctor gently applies pressure to the patient’s abdomen and pain is felt upon release of pressure.
- Psoas Sign. This is pain felt when a weight is applied on the right knee and patient is instructed to lift the right thigh.
- Rovsing’s Sign. This is determined by applying pressure to the lower left of the abdomen and pain is reflected on the lower right of the abdomen.
- Obturator Sign. Positive results from this test show pain felt from moving the bent knee from left to right while a patient is lying down.
Laboratory Tests given for Appendicitis
Blood tests are ordered by the doctor to determine possible blood infection when the appendix has ruptured. Pregnancy tests are also ordered for women as the developing fetus may cause pressure to the abdomen and display similar symptoms to appendicitis.
Treatment and Medication for Appendicitis
Immediate removal of the appendix (appendectomy) is required for people found to be suffering from appendicitis. No amount of medications can reverse the infection and inflammation. The appendix is not an essential organ and removing the infected organ is the only way to decrease major life-threatening complications. Analgesics, which were strongly discouraged before the diagnosis of appendicitis, may now be introduced to decrease pain.
Complications of Appendicitis
The most severe complication associated with appendicitis is perforation. This is dangerous since contents of the ruptured appendix are introduced directly into the abdominal cavity exposing the different organs to infection. Emergency surgery is indicated and removal of all toxic contents is done. Perforation usually occurs 24 hours after onset of pain. A major indicator that the appendix has ruptured is when the severe pains suddenly cease.
Living after appendectomy
Patients who undergo appendectomy usually recover quickly. No major diet or lifestyle changes are required after removal of the appendix. The appendix is a non-essential organ and is not needed for normal body functions. Attachment of the appendix is through the large intestine, but it does not perform any digestive functions. Although changes in lifestyle are not required, maintaining optimum health through a balanced diet and regular exercise is necessary for preventing other diseases. Getting to know the classic signs and symptoms of appendicitis is important to give people a chance of preventing life-threatening complications of the disease.
written by, Ronald Uy RN
2009 H.I.C Digestive Health
Appendicitis, Acute. Retrieved October 1, 2009 from emedicine: http://emedicine.medscape.com
Appendectomy. Retrieved October 1, 2009 from SURGERYINFO.OR http://surgeryinfo.orgG: http://surgeryinfo.org
Appendicitis. Retrieved October 1, 2009 from MedlinePlus: http://www.nlm.nih.gov | <urn:uuid:faff18bb-46fd-4e82-98fe-afeb1edc71dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hemorrhoidinformationcenter.com/appendicitis-signs-symptoms-diagnosis-treatments/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931047 | 1,450 | 3.265625 | 3 |
What is in this article?:
Defects can be defined as imperfections that exceed certain limits. Here are some facts about common and not so common forging defects that come from actual forging operations or from post forging operations typical of many forge plants.
When we think of all the ways of making a part from metal, forging stands out as the best way to achieve top quality and performance of vital parts. Forgings sometimes cost more than parts produced by other means, e.g. casting, powder metal, weldments, etc. But forging quality is worth it to the designer if he continues to experience high reliability from forged products. As a commercial says, he “expects more and he gets more.”
Or does he? Sometimes forgings are made improperly and fail in service. The customer becomes unhappy with not only the forging supplier, but also with his choice of forging as the production process. When a product fails, there not only is the loss of customer confidence in selecting forging for the next critical part, but there is also the specter of product liability.
The forging company’s quality system may have failed or someone may have failed to practice good workmanship. It has been proven time and again that systems do fail no matter how elaborate the inspection procedures.
To make matters worse, if one forge shop fails to consistently meet good quality standards, it can blemish the reputation that all forgings have for reliability.
A good quality program begins with an attitude — an attitude of making it right the first time, of asking “what can I do to help?” This is pride of workmanship.
Most employees sincerely want to display workmanship and they do a better job if they know and understand why they are doing what they are doing. Quality conscious operators stop and ask when they see something unusual happening during forging, especially when then feel encouraged to ask an “informed question.” Untrained employees may not show the desired interest.
This discussion deals with the kinds of defects that form during the forging process. They sometimes are traceable to the starting material but more often to the forging process itself. The discussion that accompanies each description of a defect provides possible cures for that type of defect. In some cases, there is more than one cause. Options are discussed for each type of material or forging process. | <urn:uuid:5d827a89-4049-4d4f-9f8b-bdd52db1be48> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://forgingmagazine.com/feature/defects-hot-forgings | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966125 | 479 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Could Too Much Salt Harm MS Patients?
By Steven Reinberg
THURSDAY, Aug. 28, 2014 (HealthDay News) -- Too much salt in the diet may worsen symptoms of multiple sclerosis (MS), a new study from Argentina suggests.
"Many environmental factors affect MS, such as vitamin D, smoking and Epstein Barr virus infection. Our study shows that high salt intake may be another environmental factor affecting MS patients," said lead researcher Dr. Mauricio Farez, of the Raul Carrea Institute for Neurological Research in Buenos Aires.
Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the nervous system that causes weakness, visual disturbances, trouble with balance, numbness and thinking and memory problems. The most common form is called relapsing-remitting MS, meaning symptoms subside and then become worsen.
Earlier research found that salt may alter autoimmune response, which is involved in the development of MS.
Farez cautioned that this study does not show that salt causes MS to worsen, but there does seem to be an association.
"This is a small observational study showing a relationship between salt intake and MS disease activity, and these data need to be further validated in larger studies, including different populations," he said.
For the study, Farez's team measured the levels of sodium (the main component of salt), creatinine and vitamin D in the blood and urine of 70 patients with the relapsing-remitting form of MS. Creatinine is a marker of inflammation, and low levels of vitamin D have been associated with MS.
Sodium intake was divided into three levels: less than 2 grams daily, between 2 and 4.8 grams a day, and more than 4.8 grams daily. Current guidelines for heart disease prevention recommend a maximum sodium intake of 1.5 grams to 2.4 grams per day. At the upper end, that's just under half a teaspoon of table salt a day.
Farez's group found that people with daily sodium intake of between 2 and 4.8 grams and those who consume more than 4.8 grams -- a little less than a teaspoon of salt -- were up to four times more likely to have more episodes of worsening MS symptoms as those who consumed the least salt.
To check the progression of the disease in patients' brains, the researchers analyzed X-rays and scans. They found that patients who had the highest salt intake were about 3.4 times more likely to have their disease worsen, compared with those with the lowest salt intake.
Similar results were found in a second group of 52 MS patients, the researchers added.
"It is too soon to say that MS patients should cut their salt intake," Farez said. "Our findings could serve as a basis for clinical trials with salt restriction in MS patients," he said.
The report was published Aug. 28 in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry.
Salt's influence on MS is a subject of increasing interest, said Nicholas LaRocca, vice president of health care delivery and policy research at the National Multiple Sclerosis Society.
"At this stage you really can't assign cause and effect, but it's beginning to look like there is a significant role of salt in MS disease activity and progression," he said.
The mechanism for this association isn't known, LaRocca said. Salt may make the immune system more prone to the disease, he suggested.
He agreed that there isn't enough evidence to recommend that MS patients reduce salt in their diet.
"However, in a more general sense, we should all be watching our salt intake. We should all be careful about consuming excessive amounts of salt," he said.
For the study, salt intake was estimated from sodium excreted in urine samples the participants provided three times over nine months. In addition, the researchers tracked the course of the patients' MS from 2010 to 2012.
After accounting for factors such as smoking, age, gender, length of time after diagnosis, weight, treatment and vitamin D, the link between more salt and worsening MS remained, the researchers said.
For more on MS, visit the National Multiple Sclerosis Society.
Copyright © 2014 HealthDay. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:0b49c17e-6954-4cbe-bdef-3f047bcc8374> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ecommunity.com/news/healthStory.aspx?id=691219 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962176 | 862 | 2.640625 | 3 |
For a circular aperture of 20-nm diameter with a fill factor of 50%, the disk diameter is 10 nm, 7 nm, and 5 nm for two, five, and eight disks respectively; for sub-20-nm apertures these numbers will scale.
Compared with a cross-section view, the plan view in figure 10 of a conceptual 20-nm-diameter device with 5 nm oxide disks gives a better idea of the shape of the electrode surface. Cross section views of S-A devices can lead to the misleading conclusion that S-A devices are a series of—and can be treated as—small, isolated devices, which the plan view quickly refutes. Only if the packing arrangement results in all the disks touching can the surface be considered as a set of discrete devices.
Figure 10: Plan view of core device (green), electrodes (grey), and oxide disks (yellow) during the growth of the molten region during reset for self-assembled device shows how the initiating molten hotspot forms (a) and starts to expand (b) to encompass the central core annual region (c). It then further expands along all exposed electrode surfaces (d), expanding into oxide surface (e) to completion.
The side elevation as shown in the original paper gives a false impression. In reality, the electrodes shown in figure 10 consist of the spaces between the oxide disks. The resulting structure can be considered as a large number of overlapping annular electrode devices or a device with a single electrode formed as an interconnected hexagonal network. Although figure 10 is a plan view of a seven-oxide-disk PCM device, much of what follows will be applicable to larger devices that extend in two dimensions. In this small device, the white colored areas will also be electrode surface and in an extended device will be part of the adjacent overlapping annulus pattern.
The electrode surface colored green is the core device. Based on the initiating molten hotspot (IMH) model, the sequence of events would be as follows. First, the IMH forms at some point on the green electrode surface at the mid-point between three oxide disks, it then expands to cover the surface of the core annulus electrode. Next, quite rapidly, the molten material extends to cover all the exposed electrode surface, with fill-in over the oxide in the central region. That expansion will also be 3-D, occurring in a direction normal to the plane of the electrode. The growth of the molten region then proceeds to completion with extension over the oxide and exposed electrode surface, as shown in figure 10. As described in the IMH model, a twofold role for the reset pulse is required. In the early part of the reset pulse, the current density must be sufficient to raise the temperature of a substantial volume of the crystallized active material to a temperature of (Tm
) and the hotspot to Tm
, the melting temperature.
It is interesting to compare these results with a PCM device using an annular electrode and to understand why the reset current and current density will be different. For a 20-nm aperture, a 3-nm-wide annular electrode can be considered as a fill factor of approximately 50%. That is, in effect, the equivalent to a single oxide disk with a diameter of approximately 14 nm.
The two center diagrams of figure 11 compare a simple annular electrode structure with the equivalent eight-disk solution for a 50% fill factor. With the same fill factor, the electrode surface area is the same and the Jc
ratio will be the same. Recall, though, that both simulations and experimental results showed lower current density Jb
from the self-assembled device than could be explained by dimensions alone. The question that must be answered is why there might be a difference in current densities Jc
and the reset current for the S-A device and a similar diameter annular electrode PCM device when the volume of active material above the electrode is the same.
Figure 11: Comparison of 50% fill factor of eight balls (middle top) with equivalent-fill-factor simple annular electrode. | <urn:uuid:5ff38ef1-770e-42fe-8dcf-b1703b4d4e82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1280848&page_number=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913726 | 838 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Baylor University Joins Small Town in Uncovering Black HistoryJan. 25, 2010
Follow us on Twitter:@BaylorUMediaCom
When Paula Gerstenblatt married Thomas Davis in 1980, she heard countless tales of his youth in Mart, Texas.
So Gerstenblatt, a visual artist, was excited when they traveled from their home in the San Francisco Bay area to attend a family reunion in Mart in 2003.
A weed-covered lot was all that remained of the Davis family's home, destroyed by fire in 1969.
"At family reunions, we would just shoot a photo in front of the overgrown lot," Gerstenblatt said. And when she and her nieces viewed 15 display cases at Mart's library, they found no trace of the city's African-American heritage.
Today, thanks to a partnership with Baylor University and a $4,000 grant from Humanities Texas, her dream of chronicling the city's black history and turning the family's land into a memory-themed art installation is becoming a reality.
Faculty from Baylor University's Institute for Oral History have trained Mart residents how to do interviews to collect stories from the days when Mart thrived along the railroad route as an agricultural and commercial community.
A Baylor faculty member, Baylor students and Mart volunteers cleaned up an overgrown historic black cemetery.
Mart's library boasts a permanent black history collection, with two ceiling-high glass cases filled with items from yesteryear.
The Davis family used found objects to transform their land. Working with neighbors, they cleared brush, built a fence and archway and uncovered the home's original brick walkway. They displayed family mementoes and added lawn chairs for visitors.
With the oral history project, "What's neat is the opportunity to fill a silence," said Dr. Stephen Sloan, an assistant professor of history at Baylor and director of Baylor's Institute for Oral History.
"It's not just a race issue but a class issue," he said. "The poorest of the poor leave less of a historical footprint. Other people often controlled the narrative, and some groups were overlooked. Oral history isn't a record of what we thought about people; it's their own words and perception."
With the grant from Humanities Texas -- the state affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities -- he trained eight Mart residents in interviewing and recording oral histories.
One of those history "sleuths" is Mart native Janet Bridgewater, Gerstenblatt's niece-in-law.
"I learned to talk to the people before I turn the tape recorder on, give them a chance to get comfortable," she said. "I make sure nobody else is in the room because if you have too many people, someone else might be butting into the conversation, and you just don't get a good interview.
"My daddy was born in 1927, and the family was here before that, so I know a whole lot of stories from back in the day," she said.
Hobos hopped on and off trains until the final train ran through Mart in 1967, and "some kind of way, they ended up in my grandmother's house," Bridgewater said. "She fed them and made them welcome. We were scared, but she said they were just regular people."
While Sloan helps residents with oral history, Carol Macaulay -- a Baylor lecturer in archeology, anthropology and forensic science -- led the cleanup of Evergreen Cemetery, a historic black cemetery, in March 2009. Baylor students mapped it and made a videotape.
Residents donated keepsakes for the black history exhibition in Mart's Nancy Nail Memorial Library, unveiled in June 2009.
Thomas Davis' naval uniform, which he wore aboard the ship USS Dixie in the 1950s, is among the memorabilia; so is a photo of former Mart resident Frankie Lee, nicknamed "the Texas Son" and "Frank Sinatra of the Blues," which ran in the Los Angeles Times.
The library cases also hold a1963 girls' basketball trophy and a program from Anderson High School's homecoming game in 1949. The school was segregated until fall of 1967.
On a somber note, newspaper clippings from 1921 tell of Ku Klux Klan threats posted around town. Black people who loitered outside stores after 8 p.m. were to "Heed the warning -- or suffer at the hands of the Klan."
Some Mart residents responded by posting notices of their own.
"We will not permit lawlessness in the name of the Ku Klux Klan," one said. "We do not stand for the oppression of any individual or class, but we do stand for law and order, and this applies to both black and white."
The history project isn't over. Participants have obtained a second Humanities Texas grant -- this one for $3,500 -- to aid teachers in bringing cross-cultural, inter-generational projects into their classes, Sloan said.
"We're recovering the pride," Bridgewater said.
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Acer negundo L.
Aceraceae -- Maple family
Ronald P. Overton
Boxelder (Acer negundo) is one of the most widespread and best known of the maples. Its other common names include ashleaf maple, boxelder maple, Manitoba maple, California boxelder, and western boxelder. Best development of the species is in the bottom-land hardwood stands in the lower Ohio and Mississippi River valleys, although it is of limited commercial importance there. Its greatest value may be in shelterbelt and street plantings in the Great Plains and the West, where it is used because of its drought and cold tolerance.
Boxelder is the most widely distributed of all the North American maples, ranging from coast to coast and from Canada to Guatemala. In the United States, it is found from New York to central Florida; west to southern Texas; and northwest through the Plains region to eastern Alberta, central Saskatchewan and Manitoba; and east in southern Ontario. Further west, it is found along watercourses in the middle and southern Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau. In California, boxelder grows in the Central Valley along the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, in the interior valleys of the Coast Range, and on the western slopes of the San Bernardino Mountains. In Mexico and Guatemala, a variety is found in the mountains. Boxelder has been naturalized in New England, southern Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island; and in the Pacific Northwest in southeastern Washington and eastern Oregon.
- Native range of boxelder
Boxelder's wide range shows that it grows under a variety of climatic conditions. Its northward limits are in the extremely cold areas of the United States and Canada, and planted specimens have been reported as far north as Fort Simpson in the Canadian Northwest Territories (2). Although boxelder is most commonly found on moist soil, it is drought tolerant and is frequently used in windbreaks and around homesteads throughout the Plains (21). It has also been known to survive inundation for as long as 30 days (15).
Boxelder has been found on virtually all types of soils, from heavy clays to pure sands of the orders Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Ultisols, and Mollisols. It is most common on deep alluvial soils near streams, but it also appears on upland sites and occasionally on poor, dry sites (11,13). Through most of its range it grows in areas of little topographic relief, except for those features associated with stream valleys. In southern and central Arizona and New Mexico the species is found up to 2440 m (8,000 ft) (23) and in Mexico up to 2680 m (8,800 ft) (18), but even at these elevations it is confined to stream bottoms and wet draws.
Boxelder is most commonly found in association with bottomland hardwoods. It is an associate species in the following cover types (Society of American Foresters) (8):
42 Bur Oak
61 River Birch-Sycamore
62 Silver Maple-American Elm
93 Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash
94 Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm
95 Black willow
236 Bur Oak
Other associates in the eastern United States include red maple (Acer rubrum), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), black walnut (Juglans nigra), basswood (Tilia americana), black cherry (Prunus serotina), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), pecan (Carya illinoensis), Nuttall, water, willow, and overcup oak (Quercus nuttallii, Q. nigra, Q. phellos, and Q. lyrata), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and baldcypress (Taxodium distichum). In the Plains region, boxelder appears with green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. occidentalis), willow (Salix spp.), and hackberry. In the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau, associates include several species of willow and cottonwood, netleaf hackberry (Celtis reticulata), and Arizona sycamore (Platanus wrightii).
Flowering and Fruiting- Boxelder is dioecious with imperfect flowers, although perfect flowers that appeared to be functional have been reported (12). The staminate flowers are fascicled, the pistillate flowers are drooping racemes and are wind pollinated (21,23). Flowers appear with or before the leaves from March to May, depending on the geographic location (13,28).
Seed Production and Dissemination- Seed crops are produced each year on individual boxelder trees beginning at 8 to 11 years of age. The samaras are borne on drooping racemes and average 29 500/kg (13,400/lb) (26). Ripening takes place from August to October and seeds are wind distributed continuously until spring. This extended period provides a variety of germination sites, moisture, and temperature combinations and may account for the prolific reproduction from seed that is common for the species (11).
Seedling Development- Boxelder is capable of establishing itself on a variety of seedbeds. On southern Illinois bottom lands, it is among the most abundant species seeding in under cottonwood-willow and "soft" hardwood stands and invading old fields. On these sites, overstory density is apparently not a factor in early germination and survival, but seedlings begin to die off after 1 or 2 years unless openings are provided. The 1- and 2-year-old boxelder seedlings are also abundant in areas of ground vegetation ranging from light to heavy and in hardwood litter as much as 5 cm (2 in) deep (16).
Methods of collecting, handling, storing, and testing boxelder seeds have been described (3,4,26). Germination is epigeal.
Vegetative Reproduction- Reproduction by stump and root sprouts is common in boxelder from young, vigorous trees (8,18). Reports on propagation by cuttings indicate that best results are obtained from cuttings taken during the period of transition from softwood to greenwood and treated with an 8,000 ppm IBA-talc mixture (7). European nurserymen propagate some ornamental cultivars of boxelder using side grafts, whip and tongue grafts, or chip budding (7).
Growth and Yield- Boxelder is a small to medium-size tree reaching 15 to 23 m (50 to 75 ft) in height and 60 to 120 cm (24 to 48 in) in d.b.h. The species is short-lived, attaining an average age of 60 years but rarely 100 years. Growth during the first 15 to 20 years is very rapid and may be as much as 2.5 cm (1 in) a year in d.b.h. (11). Poor sites bring a corresponding reduction in growth. In western Minnesota windbreaks, diameter growth averaged less than 5 mm (0.2 in) per year and height growth averaged less than 0.37 m (1.2 ft) per year during the first 13 years after planting (25). Boxelder typically forms a short, tapering bole and bushy, spreading crown.
Because boxelder usually appears in mixed stands and has limited commercial value, no information is available about its potential yield. Equations are available, however, to predict volume of boxelder stems, and green and dry weights of stems, limbs, and leaves (24). After trees reach 15 cm (5.9 in) in d.b.h., the proportion of aboveground green components is relatively constant, with bole wood, 63 percent; bole bark, 8 percent; limbs, 22 percent; and leaves, 7 percent.
Rooting Habit- Boxelder usually develops a shallow, fibrous root system. On deep soils it may form a short taproot with strong laterals (11).
Reaction to Competition- In the area of its best development, the lower Ohio and Mississippi River valleys, boxelder usually follows the pioneer species of cottonwood and willow in colonizing new ground in alluvial bottoms. In some instances it is a pioneer species in the invasion of old fields (16). Boxelder may persist into the oak-hickory type but then begins to be eliminated, probably due to shading (18). The species is generally classed as tolerant of shade, although less so than the other soft maples (13).
Damaging Agents- The chief rot-causing fungi attacking boxelder are Fomitopsis fraxinus, Perrenniporia fraxinophilus, Fomes geotropus, Fomitopsis scutellata, Inonotus glomeratus, and Ustulina vulgaris. Root rots caused by Rhizoctonia crocorum and Phymatotrichum omnivorum have been identified on boxelder, but Armillaria mellea has not been reported on the species, although it is common on other maples (14).
Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum) is the only notable killing disease of boxelder. The species is also susceptible to a stem canker caused by Eutypella parasitica.
A red stain in the wood of living trees caused by Fusarium reticulatum var. negundinis apparently is specific to boxelder. The stain regularly is associated with Cerambycid beetles and the galleries of other insects, but itself does no damage to the wood (14).
Insect damage to boxelder is relatively unimportant, but a number of leaf-feeding and scale insects and borers attack it (1). The boxelder bug, Leptocoris trivittatus is a common associate of boxelder throughout most of its range. The nymphs feed mainly on pistillate trees in leaves, fruits, and soft seeds. Although the trees are not greatly damaged, the insect's habits of invading houses in large numbers with the onset of cold weather makes it an important pest. The boxelder aphid, Periphyllus negundinis, and the boxelder gall midge, Contarinia negundifolia, are also common. Other leaf feeders include the Asiatic garden beetle, Maladera castanea, the greenstriped mapleworm, Anisota rubicunda, a leaf-roller, Archips negundana, and the boxelder leafroller, Caloptilia negundella. The scale insects include cottony maple scale, Pulvinaria innumerabilis, and terrapin scale, Mesolecanium nigrofasciatum. Borers include the boxelder twig borer, Proteoteras willingana, and the flatheaded apple tree borer, Chrysobothris femorata.
Ice and wind damage is common in older trees (11) and boxelder is quite susceptible to fire and mechanical damage due to its thin bark.
Boxelder is highly sensitive to 2,4-D. In the northern Great Plains, drift from agricultural spraying operations produced distorted, blighted foliage up to 16 km (10 mi) from the source (20).
Because of its drought and cold resistance, boxelder has been widely planted in the Great Plains and at lower elevations in the West as a street tree and in windbreaks. Although the species is not an ideal ornamental, being "trashy," poorly formed, and short-lived, numerous ornamental cultivars of boxelder are propagated in Europe (7). Its fibrous root system and prolific seeding habit have led to its use in erosion control in some parts of the world (32).
Seeds and other portions of boxelder are utilized by many species of birds and mammals as food (19). Because of the species delayed seeding habit, some seeds are available throughout most of the winter. The sap of boxelder has been used to a limited extent for syrup (9).
Population differences in boxelder have been noted in response to photoperiod (6,28), in seed germination and stratification requirements (29), seed weight (30), tracheid length (31), frost tolerance (5), and in chlorophyll levels (10).
Some 8 to 14 varieties and forms have been described for boxelder, several relating to variegated patterns of the foliage or some other morphological character (2,17,21,23,28). At least two varieties appear to be confined to a definite geographic range: var. arizonicum Sarg. to central and southern Arizona and New Mexico and var. californicum (Torr. and Gray) Sarg. to the Central Valley, Coast Range, and San Bernardino Mountains of California (23). | <urn:uuid:09a1ec32-bdef-4e78-ba37-52b19a9904d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/acer/negundo.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916817 | 2,770 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Gerry Almond (4 Nov 2011)
"New Moon versus New
There is a difference in the new moon and the first sliver of the
new moon. In Noah's day, there was no requirement to set the
first of the month by the sighting of the first sliver of the new
moon. That only came in Moses time with the establishment of
the Sacred Feasts. Noah's world was perfect, no rain, no
storms, no aberrations in weather at all. Why? Because
the earth was in a perfect 360 degree orbit around the sun and the
tilt of the poles was nearly as great as now. While there
appears to have been seasons, they were not as severe as our
summer's heat and winter's cold. Noah's moons told him when
the months began. On the new moon WAS WHEN THE MOON WAS
TOTALLY DARK, NO SIGHTING POSSIBLE. This condition lasted
for at least 2 days each month and on about the 3rd day, the first
small sliver of the waxing moon appeared.
Later, in the time of Moses, the lunar calendar began with the
FIRST SLIVER OF THE NEW MOON, which is, as already said, at least
2 days later then the new moon.
Why is this important? Because I believe that it establishes
the new moon to have been 10/26/11 as the anniversary of Noah's
new moon and thus Chesvan 17 to be 11/11/11, not 11/14/11. | <urn:uuid:a2fb6434-4e2a-4002-9e5b-45e8c5da6838> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fivedoves.com/letters/nov2011/gerrya114.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963028 | 326 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Moderator: Mahavihara moderator
tlichy wrote:After listening some audio samples from links posted -- thank you very much for posting this stuff -- on this thread, I gather that pronunciation of 'a' differs depending on it's place within a word. E.g. in pañha the first occurence of 'a' seems to be pronunced like 'u' in "but" and the second occurence at the end of pañha it sounds more like 'a' in "another". Is this really so or do I just hear it plain wrong?
The audio samples I'm referring to are at http://www.aimwell.org/Help/Pali/pali.html which has been posted on this thread previously.
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The Victoria Institute
(Selected Articles) - www.creationism.org/victoria/
ON THE ANTIQUITY OF CIVILIZATION
By the Rev. J. H. Titcomb, M.A., M.V.I.
(Journal of 1870-71 -- pages 3 to 25)
THE early history of civilization is so completely pre-historic, that our only pathway of research into it is through the somewhat entangled mazes of archeological remains, of language, and of mythology. The evidences supplied out of these materials are, it must be frankly owned, somewhat indirect ; as, however, they are only to be drawn from such materials, we must make the best of them.
To the purely Christian student there is, no doubt, another source of authority, furnishing him with more direct and positive evidence; for it seems scarcely possible to read the Word of God in faith, without coming to the conclusion that a knowledge of musical instruments, and of all kinds of workmanship in brass and iron, was perfectly common in the world before the days of Noah.* Indeed, how could the ark have been built according to its recorded dimensions, without an extended knowledge of the arts which belong to civilization? Again, how could Cain have "tilled the earth," or Adam have "dressed the garden and kept it," without mechanical contrivances of some kind? The horticultural and agricultural operations indicated by these terms are without any specific meaning, if Adam or Cain had nothing to dig up the soil with, but their fingers or the branches of trees. This, however, is not the main line of evidence which I propose to take up in the present paper; for although the resting on that ground alone may be very satisfactory and grateful to the devout student of Scripture, yet it lacks that basis of scientific and philosophic thought, which it is now necessary to stand upon in view of free inquiry, and to reconcile which with Scripture, is, I believe, one of the first as well as wisest objects of our Institute.
Let us look around upon the earth, therefore, apart from any records of divine revelation, and examine the conditions of mankind, in regard to moral and intellectual culture. On the one side we behold races both ancient and modern, possessed of refinement and civilization; on the other side, races, both ancient and modern, marked by manifest barbarism. The question is, which condition of things is entitled to priority? Have primeval barbarous races worked up their way to civilization by successive stages of progress? Or, have races which were primevally civilized and refined, dropped, through successive stages of degradation, into a state of barbarism? A solution of this difficult problem is one of the most interesting and important topics that can be presented to us. So much so, that anything which tends to throw light upon it becomes valuable.
For my own part, I think I see evidence of a scientific character in favour of the second of these theories. Let me introduce it without further preface, by pointing out to you existing races, amongst whom a higher level of civilization than that which they now possess was once undoubtedly apparent ; races which, though they may not have dropped into actual savageness, have nevertheless,--even within the historical period--greatly deteriorated, and degenerated. We may instance some of the Dutch colonists in the South of Africa, Take for example the Vee-boers, or Graziers, the most uncivilized of the European settlers in the Cape districts ;--often individually possessing as many as 5,000 acres, yet living in hovels fit only for savages. Of these huts, or hovels, the leading features are, "a clay floor" (in the pits of which are splashes of sour milk, or mud)--" a roof open to the thatch," -" a square hole or two in the wall for windows,"--" and an old rug or blanket separating the sleeping apartment." As for furniture, its inventory is--"a large chest, which serves as a table at home or a seat in a waggon,"--" a few rickety stools with bottoms of the thongs of sheepskins,"--" a bedstead or two of the same fashion,"--" an iron pot and a few dishes." Meanwhile the children of these people run wild among the Hottentots; and outside their wretched dwellings lie heaped up accumulations of cattle-dung, which they seldom, if ever, care to remove.*
Our argument, in this case, is from the less to the greater. We say, if the representatives of a civilized and refined people in Europe, by thus being cut off from contact with civilization in a strange land, can thus deteriorate and degenerate; and if this degradation can take place within the history of our own times;--how much more likely were similar and far more exaggerated results to take place in earlier periods of the world's history, when civilized races were separated from their parent stocks, and left to struggle on in isolated seclusion among difficulties of climate and nature, without any incentives to self-respect, and without any external aids to the recovery of their forfeited inheritance?
Other causes have produced similar effects, such as long and devastating wars, and chronic periods of civil discord. This has been the case with Abyssinia, the present state of which is savage compared with its condition in ancient times, when Axum, its capital city, was filled with obelisks having Greek inscriptions, and bore evident marks of a fair civilization. Gibbon tells us that, in the sixth century, the vessels of Abyssima traded to the island of Ceylon, while seven kingdoms obeyed its king. And that, when the Roman emperor Justinian sought an alliance with the Abyssinian monarch, his ambassador was received by him in all the trappings of state, being covered with gold chains, collars, and bracelets, richly adorned with pearls and precious stones. Contrast this with the modern condition of the country. The accounts given of it by Bruce show the rudest barbarism. He describes murders and executions as frequent. He seldom went out without seeing dead bodies in the street, left to be devoured by dogs and hyænas. While raw flesh was the favourite food of the inhabitants, which they ate with the blood still warm in the veins. Nor is the state of the country under the modern Emperor Theodore one whit better; if possible, rather worse. "His troops," to use an expression of Dr. Krapf's, "are like an immense band of tinkers." His towns are a mere collection of reed and mud cabins.
Here, then, is the existence of a race which has visibly degenerated within the historic period. I say a race; for, although the ancient Ethiopic and the subsequent Amharic kingdoms were in some respects distinct, their ethnological unity is sufficiently traced, both by the affinities existing in their languages, and by the fact that both of these are far more Semitic than African.*
Our argument, therefore, is once more from the less to the greater. We say--if a nation can thus be shown to have fallen in its civilization, and to have become so deteriorated and degraded that it has lost all order of government, and every mark of morality and self-respect--although, throughout this process of disintegration, it has been sufficiently near to countries in a high state of civilization for all purposes of self-improvement; how much more is it likely that tribes which, in pre-historic times were civilized, should have gradually dropped down into barbarism, when they fell into fierce and bloody conflicts among themselves, and occupied positions in which they may have had no close contact with other tribes superior to themselves.
This argument is the more forcible because it is impossible to state the converse. Our opponents cannot show that any savage races have now risen up towards real civilization within the historic period; unless, indeed, they have been instru-
* Many other minor instances might be enumerated. Some of the Snake Indians of North America have become degraded into far deeper barbarism than they displayed a hundred years ago, by the tyranny of the Blackfeet tribe, who, obtaining guns from the Hudson's Bay Company, shot numbers of them down, took away their hunting-grounds, and have driven them to live among the hills, without huts or houses, where they now subsist on roots of the earth, under the name of Digger Indians. Then there are the Bakalahari tribe in South Africa, mentioned by Dr. Living-stone, who are degenerated Bechuanas; once having possessed large herds of cattle, but now reduced to a struggle for bare existence. mentally renovated by means of colonization, or missionary effort, like the Sandwich Islanders and New Zealanders. The issue has often been raised on the one side, and has never been fairly met on the other.
Our preliminary position, therefore, in this controversy stands thus. As far as any testimony is to be gamed from the facts which have been recorded, either by our own experience or by authentic history, races once civilized have a natural tendency to deterioration and barbarism, whenever they are separated from the rest of mankind, and are left to the debasing influence of their own evil passions; while races, once thoroughly degraded and rendered savage, have a natural tendency when left to themselves to remain so; seldom, if ever, showing symptoms of self-culture, or advancing to civilization.
Hence, simply reasoning upon the condition of pre-historic times, from facts which come within the range of actual experience and history, it seems far more logical to conclude that primeval man was first civilized, and afterwards became degraded, than that he should have been originally savage, and have subsequently become self-elevated. We are quite willing to allow that this reasoning is only in the direction of what is probable. It is not positive and decisive. In a complex question of this sort, however, where all the evidences under review are necessarily imperfect, we must be content with a general balance of probabilities. Let us now see how these arguments from probability run, when we leave the course of authentic history, and get among antiquarian remains, and mythological or traditional beliefs.
We are sometimes pointed to the discovery of flint implements fashioned by man, which have been found lying with the bones of extinct animals in gravel beds and caverns, as well as to other evidences of human antiquity; all of which, it is alleged, stand in immediate connection with primeval barbarism.
But this conclusion is by no means necessary. For, putting aside the question of excessive antiquity, which it is not my purpose in this place to discuss, the mere fact of our discovering such extremely pre-historic remnants of barbarism carries along with it no necessary negation of a contemporaneous epoch of civilization. Have we not a stone age still existing in this the 19th century of our Christian era? Are not flint implements and stone weapons now synchronous in Polynesia and other parts of the world, with the highest forms of civilization in Europe and elsewhere? Have we not therefore, a perfect right to argue that, inasmuch as the present co-existence of civilization and barbarism furnishes us with no positive evidence touching which of the two was primeval, so the past co-existence of these in any age, however remote, can just as little settle the question?
That civilized races lived upon the earth long before the dawn of authentic secular history, no one can doubt. Lepsius found hieroglyphic signs of the stylus and inkstand on Egyptian monuments of the 4th dynasty of Manetho,* which, though it can scarcely be reckoned as coming within the range of authentic history, represents a period in Egypt coëval with the time of Abraham. It may be quite true that this old Egyptian empire, the, mere existence of which (apart from Scripture) we only know through monuments, and lists of royal names preserved in fragments of lost literature, together with traditions handed down to us from the Greeks, was preceded by a lower state of civilization. We are quite willing to believe, on the authority of Herodotus, that Menes, who stands first in Manetho's list of dynasties, founded the empire by a consolidation of inferior sovereignties, when the Delta and Thebaid were independent provinces, and the state of society was much more imperfect than it became afterwards. This, however, is no proof that the previous inhabitants of Egypt were uncivilized. If we are to judge of that by the late discoveries of enterprising travellers in Chaldea, Bashan, and Nineveh, we have no reason for believing that the nearer we draw to a remote antiquity, the further we are removed from civilization. On the contrary, the recent excavations at Mugheir, conducted by Mr. Loftus and Mr. Taylor, have brought to light the name of Urukh, king of Ur, of the Chaldees, whose temples were gigantic in size, with their angles facing the cardinal points, indicating science as well as civilization; and whose reign is placed by Rawlinson before the time of Abraham. How singular that modern research should thus be in harmony with ancient Greek tradition; which, so far from placing inferior races of men at the beginning of the world's history, traces back chronology from an iron age to a brazen one, from brazen to silver, and from silver to golden! (Hesiod.) Granting that this is both poetry and mythology; yet how strongly does it confirm our own conclusions ! If the original races of mankind had raised themselves up from a state of barbarism and misery to one of luxury and civilization, is it not likely that a tradition of this kind would have been preserved ? Human nature is much more prone to self-exaltation than self-depression. The fact, therefore, that not only has no such tradition been handed down to us, but that one of the wisest and most polished nations of antiquity has given us a tradition of the very opposite character, ought not to be without its weight, when we consider the modern theories of an uncivilized origin of man.
Before quitting this part of the subject I may be allowed, perhaps, to refer to certain archæological remains still existing in certain places. Those of Egypt and the giant cities of Bashan have been already alluded to. To these might be added the splendid remains found in Ceylon, Central America, and even the islands of Polynesia. I am fully aware that as a mere question of antiquity these latter ruins bear little comparison with the former. They show, however, that there is a tendency in the human family, under certain conditions of existence, to fall from civilization. The great tanks of Ceylon, for example, and the ruined city of Anarájapura belonged to an age when its native princes were enabled to lavish untold wealth upon edifices of religion, to subsidize mercenary armies, and to fit out expeditions for foreign conquest--not improbably in the times of Solomon. Excepting the lake Maris, in Egypt, no similar constructions formed by any race, whether ancient or modern, exceed in colossal magnitude the Tanks of Ceylon.* The architectural remains of Central America are no less suggestive of the fact that many of our earliest records of past epochs stand connected with civilization rather than the opposite, as may easily be seen by consulting Mr. Stephens's Travels in Yucatan. Polynesia, too, would tell the same tale; as Mr. Ellis shows in his Polynesian Researches. To give only one instance : Easter Island abounds in the remains of once magnificent structures, erected of stones cut and laid together with the greatest precision. The summits are often crowned with colossal statues, some not far from 30 feet high and 9 feet in diameter.
But let us proceed to another branch of evidence. I spoke just now of the Greek tradition of a Golden Age. It reminds me of a vast field of mythological inquiry, the details of which are in every respect most interesting, particularly that department of it which shows the manner in which monotheism underlies every system of idolatry.
This is very striking, and affords one of the strongest presumptive arguments, that the nearer we draw to the primitive condition of man, the clearer and more highly intellectual were his conceptions of Deity. Aristotle, in one place, draws this contrast between the dark polytheism of his own day and the purer knowledge of older races. He observes :--
It has been handed down to us from very ancient times that the stars are gods, besides that Supreme Deity which contains the whole nature. But all other things were fabulously added, for the better persuasion of the multitude, and for the utility of human life and political ends, to keep men in obedience to civil laws--as, for example, that these gods are of human form or like to animals.*
When Plato, therefore, called the Deity " the Architect of the World," the "Creator of nature," "The first God ;"-- when Pythagoras spoke of Him as "All in All," "Light of all powers," " The beginning of all things ";--and when Thales declared, "God is the oldest of all things, because He is Himself unmade," - we are not to regard these sayings as sudden flashes of genius, or as gradual developments of truth unknown to preceding ages. On the contrary, they cropped up among the perversions of later heathenism, just like granite peaks among the ranges of more modern rocks, testifying of an underlying basis of truth, which savoured much more of primeval civilization than barbarism.
The same great fact may be traced in the mythology of ancient Egypt. The nature of the idolatry which marked the monumental era of that country is too well known to be noted. They worshipped monkeys, beetles, and crocodiles. Yet Plutarch, in his book upon Isis and Osiris, alludes more plainly to an underlying and earlier national belief in one Supreme God. He says, " The end of all the religious rites and mysteries of the goddess Isis was the knowledge of that First God who is the Lord of all things." Speaking also of the worship of the crocodile, he shows that at first it was merely meant to be symbolical of this one Supreme and Invisible God; because the Egyptians believed the crocodile to be the only animal living in the water, which, by having its eyes covered with a thin transparent membrane, could lie still beneath the surface, capable of seeing, yet itself invisible,--" a faculty," says he, "which belongs only to the first God--to see all things, Himself not being seen." This is extremely interesting, and shows how the purer and more refined faith preceded the later and more degraded.
Pass from Egypt to India, the idolatry of which is extravagrant to the last degree, and whose ritual is a complete subversion of common sense. Retire, however, for a few moments behind the comparatively modern forms of Hindoo mythology, and enter into some of its more primitive recesses. Look for example, into the ancient Vedas; and observe in how much more pure and refined an atmosphere of thought you at once begin to stand. Everywhere throughout these sacred books there is a distinct acknowledgment of one Supreme God, whom they style Brahm; describing Him and invoking Him in terms of almost inspired wisdom. Take one description of Him as a specimen of many,--
Perfect truth, perfect happiness, without equal, immortal, absolute unity, whom neither speech can describe nor mind comprehend, all-pervading, all-transcending, delighted with His own boundless intelligence, not limited to space or time ; without feet, moving swiftly ; without hands, grasping all worlds ; without ears, understanding all; without cause, the first of all causes.*
After this quotation I need say nothing more. Sounding out like a voice of holy protest against the grotesque and hideous idolatry of more modern Brahminism, does it not speak to us, from the remote ages of the past, of primitive truth and primeval civilization, rather than of rude and savage barbarism?
The same conclusion is forced upon us, whether we will or not, in reference to the ancient empire of China. We have every reason to believe that before the introduction of Buddhism into China, that country was comparatively free from idolatry There exists for instance, a very ancient Chinese work entitled Pokootoo, which extends to sixteen large Chinese volumes, containing several hundred pictures (copies of many of which I have seen myself)_pictures of vases, jugs, bottles, of the Shang, Chow, and Han dynasties, comprehending a period of 1784 years B.C. Now, it is very remarkable that out of nine hundred illustrations of such vessels, no small portion of which were expressly intended to be used upon the temple altars, there is not found one which contains any idolatrous mark. This fact is in beautiful harmony with the testimony of Martinius who wrote a learned history of China and who tells us that during that long period "they used neither images nor figures to excite the devotion of the people; because, as the deity was everywhere present, it was impossible by any external image, properly to represent Him to man's senses." Bellamy, too, in his History of all Religions, tells us that the ancient Chinese divided their sacred book, Shuking, into five parts; in one of which God is described as "Independent, Almighty, a Being who knows all things, the secrets of the hearts not being hidden from Him." (p. 134.) It is plain, therefore, that in China, no less than in India, Egypt, and Greece, the earliest forms of heathen mythology and philosophy were the purest. Thus we have a cumulative proof going on among the oldest of the known nations, that the nearer we draw to the fountains of primeval life, the closer we come to times of mental culture; and that, so far from arriving at an aboriginal state of savageness, the probability is increased of our approaching step by step towards a state of primitive civilization.
If we pass from the old world to the American continent, we find exactly the same state of things. Pure primitive monotheism underlies all its mythological creeds. Even in, ancient Mexico, where thirteen principal and two hundred inferior gods were worshipped, under images of the most fantastic shape, and with a ritual of superstitious cruelty, the Spaniards found a Being recognized, named Teotl, who was regarded as " invisible, incorporeal, one God, of perfection and purity, from whom springs life and thought."* In Peru the same divine unity was worshipped under the name of Varichocha, "the soul of the universe,"--whose assigned attributes were no less lofty than those given to the Indian Brahm, or Egyptian Kneph. He was called " Supreme." They seldom mentioned his name, and then with the greatest reverence; they built him no temples, and offered him no sacrifices, for they worshipped him in their hearts, and regarded him as the unknown God. In Central America and Yucatan, the same supreme deity existed under the name of Stunah Ku, or Hunab Ku, " God of Gods"--" the incorporeal origin of all things ." It would also seem that this abstract idea of a supreme unity existed among the totally savage, as well as semi-civilized nations of America. Thus, among the Auricanians, he was called Pillan, a word derived from Pilli, the soul. He was termed "the Great Being," "the Soul of Creation," "the Omnipotent, Eternal, Infinite."§ The Californians worshipped him under the name of Niparaya, "the Creator and Sustainer of all things." I might easily enlarge the enumeration if it were necessary; but this form of my argument has been sufficiently maintained. I therefore now pass on to another line of evidence; viz., Language. I will not insist upon the fact that all our present European languages, with the exception of a few, are cognate with the ancient Sanscrit, the richest and most polished of all languages : a fact which proves that the farther we go back chronologically in that direction, the more scholarly and scientific were the modes of speech then in use. I say, I will not insist upon this; for, in the first place, it is too well known to need comment ; and, in the next place, it does not recede far enough chronologically to meet the full conditions of the problem to be solved. Europe appears to have been covered by a race, preceding the invasion of it by the Kelts; a race, which finds one of its clearest exponents in the Biscayans of the north of Spain. It will be more to the point, therefore, if we examine the Basque language, with a view to test ethnologically the condition of, perhaps, the earliest inhabitants of Europe. This language, says M. de Ponceau,-- stands single and alone of its kind, surrounded by idioms whose modem construction bears no kind of analogy to it. Like the bones of the mammoth, and the relics of unknown races which have perished, it remains a monument of the destruction produced by a succession of ages.
What, then, is its character? There are some languages like the Greek, and its sister Sanskrit, which bear internal evidences of having been perfected, if not originated, among races in a high state of civilization;--languages, I mean which are not only rich in their vocabulary, but flexible powerful, and scientific in their grammatical constructions.
How different those just named, for example, when compared with the Tartar family of languages, which evidently originated in a low state of civilization; being simple in structure, deficient in inflexions, scanty in conjunctions and conjugations, and without auxiliary verbs.*
Not such was the old Iberian, as represented to us now by the modern Basque. Of this language, M. de Ponceau says, "It is highly artificial in its forms, and so compounded as to express many ideas at the same time." The two auxiliary verbs "I am" and "I have," are thrown into such a profusion of forms that every relative idea connected with a verb can be expressed together. It abounds also in inflexions of infinite variety.
Reverting then to the metaphor before used, we put together these linguistic bones of an extinct age, and discovering in them strength combined with grace - and simplicity united to complex variety,--we infer that they belong to a race which was marked, at some time or other, by a high state of mental culture. So far we enter upon prehistoric ground. But, instead of approximating towards barbarism, we see in it far greater evidences of primeval civilization.
This conclusion may, at first sight, appear to be invalidated by the fact, that races, at present savage, speak languages of the same complex character. It may be urged, that if barbarous tribes now use these forms of speech, the fact of their having been used in pre-historic times can in no way prove that such pre-historic races were not equally savage. But such a conclusion is wholly gratuitous; for we may just as easily, and far more fairly, urge this circumstance in favour of the view that savage races which employ complex and scientifically constructed languages, prove themselves thereby to be degenerate descendants of civilized ancestors from whom these languages originated.
Take, for example, those extremely complicated and artificial forms of grammatical construction which prevail more or less throughout all the American languages, from the Esquimaux to the Patagonians, but of which that spoken by the Delaware, or Lenni-Lenappe Indians, presents the most remarkable proofs. The synthetic form is familiar to us both in the Latin and the English; as "nolo" which is put for "non volo," or "never" for "not ever." But these languages are polysynthetic; containing a variety of compounds which are made up of small fragments of single words; such compounds being again mutilated or contracted in order to form other aggregate words. Prichard says, "The extent to which this method of agglutination is carried in their idioms is much greater than is known in any language of the old continent, unless the Iberian be excepted." Take a specimen of it. The Lenni-Lenappe Indians express by one word, the phrase, " Come with the canoe, and take us across the river." This word is " nadholineen " ; which may be thus analyzed. Nad from the word naten, " to fetch" ; hol is put for a mochol, " a canoe "; ineen is the verbal termination meaning "us." The simple ideas expressed by these fragments of words are fetch--in canoe--us; but its usual acceptation is " come and fetch us across the river in a canoe." Thus a whole sentence is first thrown by agglutination into this polysynthetic form ; but this complication is not enough, for after thus being coined into a verb, it is then subjected to further changes by being conjugated through all the moods and tenses, which are very numerous : for example, nad-hol-a-wall is the third person, singular number indi-cative mood; present tense, passive voice, "he is fetched over the river in a canoe."*
Other specimens of complicated inflexions might be adduced from the Greenland language, in which the multiplicity of the governed by the verb produces twenty-seven forms for every tense of the indicative mood. Matarpa, he takes it away; mattarpet, thou takest it away ; mattarpattit, he takes it away from thee; mattarpagit, I take it away from thee. In the preterite of the same verb, mattara, he has taken it away; mattaratit, he has taken it away from thee. "Almost everywhere in the New World," says Baron Humboldt, "we recognize a multiplicity of forms and tenses in the verb, an ingenious method of indicating beforehand, either by the inflexion of the personal pronouns which form the terminations of the verb, or by an intercalated suffix, the nature and the relations of its object and its subject, and of distinguishing whether the object be animate or inanimate, of the masculine or feminine gender, simple or in complex number." It has been well observed that languages of this kind are more like those formed by philosophers in their closets than by savages. How, indeed, is it possible for us to assign even the most remote probability to the theory, that such refined and super-complicated tongues originated among wild and barbarous tribes ? Is it agreeable with common sense? Would any man capable of analyzing language scientifically arrive at a conclusion like this, if he were left to an unbiassed judgment? It is not that I wish to press my own conclusions beyond the proper limits of self-assurance ; but I venture to say that if these facts were placed before any jury of twelve unbiassed men, their unanimous verdict would be, that language of this kind spoken by savages remains among them only as a bequest and relic of ancestral superiority.
This conclusion is worth more than it seems; for although, at first sight, there does not appear to be much connection between primeval man and even the most remote ancestors of the present American races ; yet, upon the principle that, in successive migrations of mankind from an original centre that wave of population which went forth first would be pushed furthest, this people may not unlikely be among the best surviving specimens of the very earliest period of the world, That period we believe to have been an epoch of primary civilization; by which term, however--let it be understood --I do not mean an epoch of refined and perfected knowledge like our own, in which art and science are laying all nature under tribute to promote the happiness and serve the interests of mankind. This high state of knowledge has been only reached by a long course of gradual development, and is, no doubt, much in advance of anything that ever belonged to primeval man. But that is no reason why man's original condition should have been savage. On the contrary, the whole balance of probability (apart from Scripture testimony) lies on the side of its having been one of considerable culture;--of culture, at all events, sufficient as a starting-point for civilization, because capable of providing for the necessary wants of nature, and of transmitting to posterity a primary knowledge of the arts which regulate the laws of human progress.
Yet, while man's possession of civilization was in this way capable of development, we hold it to have been equally liable to deterioration--of deterioration, moreover, which, when it fell beyond a certain point, left him without any power of self-recovery. In this respect I would compare the civilization of man to the physical constitution of his body. For as the human body, when exhausted beyond a certain limit of weakness can never rally without some external means of renovation, so when the civilization of a race falls beyond a certain limit of mental and moral debasement, it is left without any recuperative power; and unless aided by some foreign nation superior to itself, will continue degraded in barbarism to the end of time. We see in some of the most debased races, trifling relics of this past civilization; as in the iron-smelting in Sumatra, the manufacture of pottery in the Fiji Islands, and the boomerang in Australia. Yet, in spite of such reminiscences of better days, these barbarians are in themselves hopelessly degraded.
But I must add no more. Many fresh thoughts flash like rays of light upon the picture, and tempt us to go wandering forward. But the limits of my paper have been reached. I will detain you no longer, I have offered you these observations as a small contribution towards the solution of a most important problem. I trust they will not be without their due share of weight and influence among our opponents. I desire no less that they may have been interesting and profitable to ourselves.
Captain fishbourne.--As a sailor, it may be thought I ought to make some remarks on the Ark ; though the allusion to it in the Paper is but cursory, there is still sufficient to indicate that very extraordinary knowledge and intelligence was displayed in its production, since no large vessels were built at that time and her dimensions remain the greatest of any ship ever built; that is, taking, as I doubt not correctly, the scriptural cubit at 25 inches. It is impossible to believe that either the form, the size, or mode of construction of the ark could have been arrived at by any tentative process. It is equally difficult to conceive that without special instruments and special teaching, especially if they had not possessed iron, and the knowledge of working it, Noah could have selected, and have fashioned and put together effectively such masses of timber as were indispensable ; nor without special teaching have provided for the carrying safely its peculiar cargo. The author of the paper has mentioned the interesting fact in reference to the oldest monuments of China and India, that they are without idolatrous emblems; this is also true of the oldest of the Pyramids; the argument from which is, that the builders possessed the knowledge of the patriarchs, and, therefore, a revelation of, and true estimate of the character of the living God. It is an interesting fact, hardly sufficiently remarked on, that in all these nations, however degraded, there are sacrifices, with traditions of the Fall and of the Flood, and that it is only as civilization progressed, that these truths, partially obscured, were eliminated. A singular fact mentioned by Mr. Titcomb, is found in the high estimate which the Hindoos form of Brahm. You will find from written publications and in conversation, that a great proportion of men in the present day have not half so high or correct an idea of God as that which those Indians possess.
Rev. C. A. Row.--Although I think the general reasoning of Mr. Titcomb's paper is exceedingly plausible, and although the conclusions seem to be fairly drawn, I must confess I feel considerable difficulty in accepting them, so far as regards the use of a very complicated language by a very barbarous people. We know that when a civilized people become degraded, the language which they use suffers a degradation with the degradation of the people. Let us take Latin, for example. The Latin of the fourth century is very much degraded as compared with that of the Augustan age, the minds of the people having no doubt undergone a great deterioration since that time. In the case of the Greek language you find the same thing. The modern Greeks are much degraded, as compared with their ancestors, and their language also has degenerated. The difficulty, then, which arises in my mind is this : Suppose the American Indians originally had the language and the condition of a high state of civilization, and in the course of ages they got to their present state of savagedom ; it seems to me that their language must bear within it very strong marks of the gradual progress to savagedom. That seems to me to be a very strong point. These American languages, it seems, are highly complicated in form, and such as one would suppose could only have been evolved in a high state of civilization ; but I want to know whether they do not bear some traces in their structure of the gradual degradation which we find accompanies the gradual degradation of a people. I quite agree with Mr. Titcomb, that all ancient history bears testimony to the very high origin of civilization. I do not see a trace in ancient history of a gradual advance from barbarism, and it seems to me that the theory which would elevate man from an original condition of barbarism, would involve an immense number of miracles especially as the progress of civilization was manifested at a very early period. But supposing man to have started from a high state of civilization, how are we to account for his subsequent degradation in so many instances? Suppose he was created with very high and exalted views of religion, and so on ; I want to know under what law of human nature the degradation we find manifested in history has been distinctly brought about.
The Egyptians have been referred to, and there can be no doubt that Egyptian civilization reached a very high standard at an early period, and it would be impossible to suppose that it sprung from original barbarism. But when I loot at Egyptian theology, I find an extensively complicated system, which, if we suppose it arose from savagedom, or the want of civilization, must have taken an immense number of years to have evolved from, such a condition. On the other hand, if it arose from a corrupt or degraded civilization, it must have taken a considerable period of time to have produced such a degradation. I admit that the degradation of religion and morality follows a much more rapid law of progress than anything else, but I am fully persuaded by history, that it does take a long period to effect so very great a change. The case of India has been referred to, and we are introduced to the writings of the Hindoos. But I want to know at what period the Pantheism of India originated. The religion of India, and all the oriental religions, were based on Pantheism. Now, Pantheism is a very great degradation from any pure form of religion, and must have taken a very long period to have arrived ; for I am satisfied that the religions of the historical period have undergone a very slow process of change. Take the state of religion and morality in the age of the Homeric poems, and again in the time of Pericles, and I do not think it had undergone any process of improvement in the interval. The progress of change is exceedingly slow in the course of history, until you come to the history of Christianity, which, being supernatural, is removed from the catalogue. Take Judaism : I apprehend it took from the Mosaic period to the Captivity to raise up a proper conception of monarchy. The elaboration of a religious system is a slow process, and that being so, and admitting the early date of civilization, we are led into this difficulty, that it requires a very considerable interval of time during which the various religious systems were elaborating.
Rev. Mr. White.--I would merely ask, is it not a fallacy to suppose that a complicated language implies a high degree of civilization? Where you find a language with many inflexions, and a complicated grammar, is it not rather a mark of defectiveness in, instead of excess of, civilization? If it is true that a complicated grammar and numerous inflexions prove a high degree of civilization, then our own language is a very great anomaly, because no language that has yet arisen has more completely thrown away its inflexions and diminished the number of its grammatical forms.
Rev. A. de la Mare.--Reference has been made to the deterioration both of the Latin and Greek languages within a definite period of time--say three or four centuries. But while we have means of testing that deteriora-tion, I do not think we have any means of testing what Mr. Titcomb has brought before us, for we have no literature extant of the languages he has referred to and which might enable us to trace their improvement or deteri-oration To call upon him to explain that more fully, therefore, is asking for that which the circumstances of the case will not admit of. With regard to the complexity of a barbarous language, it does not seem to me that it is to be argued that therefore the people who use it have not had civilized ancestors. The argument might turn the other way, and, could we trace it, we might find that the language had been even more complex originally than it is in the state in which we now find it. With regard to the question of moral deterioration, I quite grant what has been said with respect to it, that it does take a considerable time to effect such deterioration ; but I think there is an element which ought to be considered in relation to that point, which has not been mentioned at all in the discussion of the question. We have, as a starting-point, the fall of man; and taking that into consideration, I think it disposes of all the rest that has been urged. (Cheers.)
Rev. C. A. Row.--What I meant on that point was, that I should like to see it accurately traced according to the laws of history, and not upon any theory.
Mr. Newton.--With regard to the archaeological remains which have been spoken of as existing in Central America, I should like to mention that they are all, so far as we know, the production of slaves. Although they were the production of slaves, it is very likely that there was a very superior race who had the slaves under their control, and that would indicate early civilization and early barbarism concurrently. This is a difficulty which must be disposed of; and then there is another, that at a very early period it was as much as a man could do to raise his food and provide his own clothing ; and unless a certain number were kept on very short allowance, there would be no extra labour that could be applied to those enormous works of which we now see the remains. We live under a very different state of things now, when we can make a machine produce as much work as a thousand men. In ancient civilization I think we are bound to conclude that all the gigantic works of ancient history were the result of slave labour.
Rev. C. A. Row.--I am informed by a friend that at the Paris Exhibition, among a quantity of ancient remains, is shown a painting, or something of the sort, dating from pre-historic times. I do not know whether it is a painting or not, but it contains figures - the figures of several pre-historic animals. I should like to hear somebody explain what is the historical value of such a painting or representation
The CHAIRMAN.--I heard that there was such a thing in the Exhibition, but I think its authenticity is rather doubtful; at least it ought to have a careful inquiry and investigation. Since Sir Charles Lyell has been converted by Darwin, we find one school of geologists -- the Anti-cataclysmal School -- desirous of producing all the evidence they can of the antiquity of man. Man's contemporaneousness with the extinct animals, which has been rejected by geologists for so many years, has now been generally accepted and received. I think the sketch or sketches which have been shown in the Paris Exhibition, require considerable confirmation; but I believe there have been discovered in America the remains of some extinct animal--the mastodon, I understand--and underneath those remains were found cinders, together with arrow-heads and other instruments of human, manufacture. At the time of the discovery, however, and owing to the opinions which then prevailed among geologists, the evidence of this, to use a vulgar phrase, was "burked" and laid aside. I think the whole tendency of modern discovery goes to prove that many animals, which were considered to have existed long before the creation of man, really did exist within the human period. I believe the tendency of modern discovery has been to carry back the history of man into geological periods, in which the existence of man was never previously dreamed of. But whether these things are to carry us up to the enormous periods which geologists are now maintaining, is altogether a different matter--
Rev. C. A. Row.--My friend mentioned that in the objects I have referred to in the Paris Exhibition there were several small figures of pre-Adamite animals. He had them in his hands, and his own opinion is that they were genuine. His opinion is worth something, for he is an authority upon such matters.
The Chairman .--I think there is strong evidence of probability in favour of those figures, but the whole thing requires sifting. By itself it would have very little weight; but it is combined with a vast number of other facts which go to prove that man has lived contemporaneously with the mammoth and the mastodon, and many other animals which have been considered as long anterior to the creation of man. Returning now to the subject immediately before us, I think that nothing I have heard has controverted the main position taken up in this paper, viz., that man did not rise from a savage state by long and slow and almost imperceptible degrees, into a state of civilization ; but that there was in the beginning a high state of civilization, from which all history and tradition points out man to have originated. "We have "been asked, no doubt pertinently, how then we are to account for the rapid degeneration from civilization, which must have happened to certain races. I think, however, that that point was fully accounted for by what was pointed out by Mr. De La Mare--that it is only the revelation of Holy Scripture which throws the slightest amount of light upon a very important historical fact. The fall of man, and consequent deterioration of man's spiritual nature, is the only thing which will account for the very rapid demoralization into which man can fall. To discover how rapid that process may be, we have no need to go among the tribes of India, the barbarians of America, or the low state of barbarism existing in Australia ; we need go no farther than our own highly civilized and Christian lands, where those men and women who have been allowed for a short time to follow the natural tendencies of the human mind, and the natural tendency to degeneration existing in the human heart, have sunk, when without the influence of Revelation, into the lowest type of humanity In order to see how rapid human degeneration may be, we have only to go into our own prisons to find people existing in the depths of a barbarism quite equal to that which you find in any other part of the world. This degeneration is not merely a historical thing ; it is a fact within our own experience. On the other hand, we find without the existence of a spiritual religion -without the existence of a highly spiritual form of the Christian religion-how difficult it is to raise those people who are in a state of degradation, up to a high point of civilization ; but when those same men, barbarians of our own country, are brought under such an influence, we see how rapidly even the most degraded and degenerate of our race may be raised to a pitch of intellectual superiority, I may say ; for we may go into the poorest cottage, inhabited by men or women exceedingly unlearned in everything but their Bible, and yet find them able to teach us certain things which we knew not before-far higher truths than were taught by the sages of Greece and Rome, and rising to a far higher appreciation of the Deity than you find in ancient documents or in the books of the Vedas.
It is all very well for Max Muller and others to pick out certain gems from the old oriental literature; but they are but a few seeds of grain winnowed from an extensive amount of chaff. I was recently speaking to an eminent professor of Cambridge, well acquainted with modern Hebrew literature, the literature of the Talmud, the more recent, the post-Christian literature of the Jews. We were speaking of that recent article on the Talmud, in the Quarterly Review, which is extremely popular just now, and contains a number of magnificent passages from Jewish writings, collected together for the purpose of showing us that the Jews before our Saviour had as high an appreciation of morality as the writers of the New Testament. But most of the gems there given us are from a literature written many years after the promulgation of Christianity, and after the Jews had had the advantage of the teaching of the New Testament ; and yet it is taken as a proof that all we have in the New Testament was derived from ancient Jewish tradition ! I said to my friend, that I did not pretend to be a Hebrew scholar, and that my knowledge of Jewish literature had been altogether derived from translations, but I have waded through translations of the Talmud and other specimens of Jewish writing, and I found it the most uninteresting and absurd stuff imaginable. I asked my friend's opinion as to the article upon the Talmud, and he said it consisted of a very little wheat taken out of a vast quantity of chaff, but when winnowed and collected together in that way, it appears very wonderful indeed. One of the main things upon which we pride ourselves in the present day, is the great and rapid advance we have made in science and civilization. But so far as metaphysics and the knowledge of mental philosophy are concerned, I think the ancient Greeks were quite equal as sophists and reasoners to any of the men of the present generation. Since the days of Bacon, however, we have had a new mode of investigating science. We have investigated the facts of nature, and paid attention to them, rather than to the theories to be deduced from them.
Take an instance in point. Without knowing anything of electricity or magnetism --in point of fact our most skilful scientific men know very little about either as yet--you have only to discover that a current of electricity sent along a wire will turn a magnetic needle in one direction, and that another current, sent in an opposite direction, will turn it in another way ; these facts being known, you can construct an electric telegraph. Why, an Indian, a Chinese or a Japanese, who knows these things, is quite as capable of making-telegraphic instruments as we are ourselves. We think we are so trans-cendantly superior to the men of the past in our civilization, but in all the true essentials of civilization, in all its highest fruits, go where you will into the Biblical record--take Abraham, and his wife and children, for instance--and you will find them as highly civilized as any people among ourselves. We find them far superior in their state of civilization even to the inhabitants of what is called the unchanging East. Although the East is called unchanging, its inhabitants have degenerated in civilization wherever Mahommedanism has obtained the ascendancy. We not only find that, but we find that, under the same circumstances, other portions of the human race would remain very much in the same condition. I was recently reading an account of China, written by a medical man, who describes the Tartar tribes coming into China from the steppes ; and as you read the description, the scene is one so familiar, that you can almost fancy you are reading an account of Abraham coming up into Egypt with all his camels. In Atkinson's works you will find barbarism and civilization combined together; nomadic races, possessing a high degree of civilization, and possessing a great deal of material wealth, but still living in that nomadic state in which Abraham lived when he went up into Egypt. -- I do not think the difficulties which have been raised in this discussion with regard to language are so strong as might be supposed. Supposing we admit them to be objections, I think they still tend to favour the main argument of Mr. Titcomb's paper. We are taught that our own language in its present state has been derived from the Sanskrit and other cognate languages. If we were to enter into modern theories as to the formation of language, we must admit that our language, powerful and useful as it is, capable of expressing the highest spiritual truths, capable of discussing all the philosophy of the past in the strongest and clearest terms and all the achievements of modern science--instead of being improved has degenerated. We have lost all our inflexions: all the verbs have got into an antediluvian state, if I may so call it; we have dropped all the suffixes of our verbs : we have not even approached the state of agglutination! It may be that language has a tendency to pass through revolutions : I can hardly understand how any savage race, being in a state of barbarism, and supposing that race always was in a state of barbarism--for that is the point I want to fix your attention upon--I can hardly understand how any such race could evolve such a system of language as many barbarous races possess-- a system such as we, with all our modern notions of the history ana structure of language, could hardly elaborate in the study. The same sort of thing has been pointed out with regard to the Chinese language. Archbishop Wilkins proposed a universal language, not phonetic, but ideographic --an idea suggested by the analogy of the mathematical, chemical, and astronomical symbols ; we know that the most complicated problems connected with the integral and differential calculus, for instance, can be read by the people of all nations. He conceived the idea, then, of inventing an ideographic language ; but, had he been acquainted with the Chinese language, he would have found one which had been in use for many generations, probably the oldest of the languages we have.
All these things tend to prove that man has not originated from a state of barbarism, and then risen to civilization; but that, wherever man has been found in a state of barbarism, it is barbarism arising from, degenerated civilization. This is confirmed by the fact that we find no traces of any people possessing a literature and having any knowledge of their past history who have not some tradition amongst them of their having been raised from barbarism by a people more civilized than themselves. The Greeks admitted that they were taught by the Egyptians and Indians, and you find the same thing among the Mexicans. There is another curious thing which ought to be pointed out. Many of what we would suppose to have been the most extraordinary inventions of modern times have an antiquity which goes beyond all historical knowledge. For instance, the discovery of the compass goes beyond all historical recollection in China, The use of a needle suspended by a thread for guiding men across the steppes of Tartary has been known to be in existence in China beyond the date of all historical testimony. A great deal has been said with regard to the stone age, the bronze age, and the iron age, as havincr been successive stages in the progress of civilization. But, as Mr. Titcomb has pointed out, we have the same things contemporaneously now, and because they are found, it is not at all a proof that one was anterior to the other. The art of obtaining iron from the ore -- requiring a considerable knowledge of chemistry and metallurgy -- dates back beyond all historical knowledge. It has existed time out of mind. In the interior of Africa, only a few hundred miles from Cape, men have been found doing in miniature all our most complex metallurgical processes for the production of iron, to obtain iron from the ore. Again, the art of converting iron into steel has been known time out of mind. This is one of the most recondite things in the whole range of chemistry, scarcely understood yet -- The art of submitting two substances to an intense heat, and incorporating them in order to produce another substance diffferent from either of the other two -- this has been known in India time out of mind. It may be asked, How, then, do you account for the fact that while all this has been known throughout Asia and Africa, it should never have penetrated into America? In answer just suppose this case for a moment:-- Suppose fifty or sixty English sailors, born and brought up in a purely agricultural district, were shipwrecked on a desert island. How many of them would have the most remote idea, in the first place, that the ore which they might find contained iron, or if they knew that, how many of them would know how to extract the iron from the ore? Consider this case and you will see how rapidly knowledge once acquired may be lost and never recovered by a people. Another remarkable thing is the universal acquaintance of all the races of the old world with the cereals and the mode of cultivating them. This is a most remarkable thing. Where will you find wild wheat or rice capable of being cultivated into the grain we now possess? Where do you find the great staple food of the whole world growing indigenous? Botanists admit you cannot find them anywhere, or, if instances are given, they are extremely doubtful and nowhere abundant, and we feel almost certain that unless man cultivated these cereals with the care with which he does, our "staff of life " would soon go out of his hand. All these things point back to a remote period of civilization, when man was already acquainted with several things which we now conceive to be the products of human thought, human science, and human invention. (Cheers.)
Rev. J. H. Titcomb.--From the discussion which has taken place, I find that there are three principal objections to my paper. The first consists mainly in the length of time which we must postulate in order to attain to that state of moral and religious degradation to which certain races have arrived. With regard to religious degradation, I think the objection cannot have much weight when we bear in mind the short space of time which has sufficed for the rise and spread of Mormonism, than which it is impossible for the human mind to conceive anything more outrageous, absurd, and degraded. The rapidity with which men have been found to embrace Mormonism presents a fair type of what one may conceive might have happened in the earlier periods of the world's history, when various races were more entirely cut off from each other than are even the Mormons at Salt Lake from all connection with their fellow-men. I might mention another instance to bear out my view, in the case of the origin of a certain sect in Germany at the break-up of the Papacy at the period of the Reformation, and again in France at the time of the Revolution, when the mind of man ran into the wildest extravagances, and when a certain sect arose known by the name of Adamites, the very fundamental theory of their association being that everybody should go about in a state of nature ! Such a notion indicates a total and utter degradation of religious feeling and sentiment, and shows, I think, that such degradation does not require any great lapse of time for its completion at all. But if the objection requires a still further answer, I would say, take the state of society in a part of England, in the county of Cornwall, in that period of the eighteenth century before Wesley arose, whose ministry was so purifying and elevating to the miners and wreckers of the coast of Cornwall. I would undertake to say that if we had the evidence of a committee of the House of Commons upon the moral degradation which existed amongst that race of men previous to their elevation through the sanctifying influence of religion, we should have a record of facts which would make our hair stand on end, and of a nature impossible to speak of in the presence of ladies. Conceiving that to be possibly true for the moment--and I believe it could be thoroughly substantiated
We have in the present historical period the picture of a body of miners existing deep in the bowels of the earth, without the blessings of Revelation, and closely approaching the condition of the utter seclusion of the savage races of man from their parent stocks. You have in the one case, then, almost as large an amount of moral degradation traceable as in the other. It is hardly necessary, therefore, to postulate long periods of time for that degradation. Another objection made to my paper has been on the score of language. The gentleman who made the objection says that language degenerates with races. I quite admit that there is no use in attempting to bolster up an argument if it will not stand, and I should be the last person to make such an attempt. I only wish my arguments to be tried on their merits, with the sole object of eliciting that which is true. American languages have been referred to. Now, it should be borne in mind that American languages are distinguished by two main features : the one is their tendency to agglutination, and the other their complicated grammatical construction. My friend asks, seeing that Latin in process of time degenerated with the decay of people, and became unworthy of its ancestry, how was it that the native American languages could be preserved by savage races, and should not be rather degraded languages than cultivated and refined? I am quite willing to admit that there has been deterioration, and that that deterioration is found existing in agglutination of words; but I think the traces of the civilization which belonged to the older languages have been faithfully preserved in their grammatical construction. You must be extremely careful to distinguish between these two branches--agglutination and grammatical construction. Max Muller himself says that agglutination indicates a low rather than a high state of language ; but that is nothing to the purpose. You can easily conceive the American languages not being agglutinated before in their earlier history, but still having the same complicated grammatical construction. The agglutination exhibited in the American languages, then, shall represent your part of the argument; the complicated grammatical construction represents mine ; and therefore, while your view may be a true one--and I do not at all deny it--I may be equally correct in maintaining mine--
The Chairman.--I can give you an instance of the truth of both these views in our own country. When I was in Yorkshire, in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, I found the process of agglutination going on with great force, as in such a phrase as "on t'road," for "on the road." At the same time that this agglutination goes on, a complicated grammatical construction may be retained. Among those very people, old Saxon verbs with the old Saxon terminations are still retained; as in the verb "to lig," for "to lie;" "liggin on a bank," for instance, instead of "lying on a bank." That I think is a very good example of the argument.
Rev. J. H. Titcomb.--It is also contended against my paper, that because English and Greek, and all the Indo-European family of languages, have a tendency to become simplified rather than to get complicated by time, as compared with the older Sanskrit, that therefore the refining and purifying influences of civilization in America should have made the American languages more simple rather than complicated. I answer, Max Muller has so devoted himself to the Aryan branch of philology, that I do not think he has sufficiently grasped the thought, that it must be with languages as it is with habits and customs and other things--you must allow for different races different kinds of genius. In the whole of the Aryan languages, stretching from India to Iceland, you have a tendency to simplify--that is the genius of race. But that is no reason why the Mongolian family should not have a different genius, and their genius, even in civilization, may have a complicating tendency. That is quite conceivable, and is as much in accordance with the rules of common sense as any other theory. The objection raised by Mr. Newton is urged on another ground. He finds a difficulty in the existence of slavery in these primitive times. He says, with reference to certain archeological remains in Central Africa, We know they were made by slaves, ergo, there must have been barbarism side by side with civilization. That proves that barbarism is as old as civilization ; ergo, your paper is wrong. But I contend that slavery has no kind of connection of necessity with barbarism. The Greek slaves were not barbarians, neither were the Israelites in Egypt. The opinion of those who have studied the monuments of Egypt, and who are competent to speak on the point, is that most of those monuments were the work of Israelitish slaves. In the monuments dating as far back as the fourth century, there are figures of slaves at work, and they are represented, not as of the black or negro race, but with regular Jewish faces and features.
Slaves may exist side by side with civilization, but not necessarily as barbarians. They are degraded, it is true, because conquered ; and I can conceive the Mexicans taking hold of a conquered race and reducing them to a state of bondage, without their being in a state of savagedom. If that is true of the Egyptians and the Israelites, it may be true of the Mexicans, and of old races contemporaneous with the Aztecs. --I have now disposed of all the objections which have been raised against my paper, but I have been rather disappointed that there should be so few. I anticipated more, and, with your permission, if I have not already wearied you, I will raise a few myself, and endeavour to answer them. Nothing has been said to-night with respect to the argument deduced from Monotheism. I expected some one would have said it is in vain to appeal to any underlying substratum of religious belief on the side of Monotheism, as that would prove nothing, because it is only a natural instinct of the human mind to worship a pure spirit, and that it is only, à priori, to be expected in all parts of the world side by side with idolatry. But we have evidence to the contrary. For instance, the Kaffirs stand out exceptionally in Africa as being without idols, and as worshipping a pure spirit. You cannot show of the Bushmen and the Hottentots that they have any notion of a pure spirit. Another objection has also struck me. Granting that races now savage have fallen from a state of civilization, that does not prove they were aboriginally civilized, but only that they have fallen back into their original state of barbarism. It may be that in their present state they have only fallen back to that from which they originated, like domesticated plants and animals, which, when left without cultivation, revert to their original types of wildness. This argument may do very well for wild animals "because all their improvement is confessedly ab extra. As they never raised themselves, so, when their artificial supports are withdrawn, they naturally drop back again to their original level. Indeed, they often drop lower than their original level.
For example: the European swine, first carried by the Spaniards, in 1509, to the island of Cubagua, at that time celebrated for its pearl fishery, degenerated into a monstrous race, with toes which were half a span in length. Our analogy is of the latter kind. Just as the domesticated swine of Europe did, in this instance, fall below the natural level of the wild hog of America, so our present savage races represent a lower level of mankind than that which was originally their standpoint. One analogy is as fair and good as another. But the truth is that neither is compatible with the facts of the case, for wild beasts do not become raised by their own unaided powers--it is not by development, but by the tuition of a superior order of beings ; whereas man rises in civilization by the cultivation of his own natural powers, both mental and moral. Granting this, then all true analogy between the cases must fail. When man raised himself up to the civilization of ancient Greece and Rome, it was only by a progressive cultivation of his physical, mental, and moral nature. Correspondingly, when man fell to the level of the Digger Indians in America (supposing them, to have had a civilization previously, which is our present platform of argument) it must have been by a progressive deterioration of his physical, mental and moral nature. The question we have to decide is this--Whether the starting-point of man's development toward 19th century civilization was like the condition of Digger Indians in America, so that he may be considered to have raised himself from the extreme lowest point to the extreme highest ; or was it somewhere intermediate between the two, from which central point some races have risen higher and others fallen lower, merely by the cultivation or non-cultivation of their natural resources ? In contending for the latter point, we have by far the larger induction of facts in our favour, drawn from the analogy of contemporaneous history. These facts and analogies are so plain and perspicuous, that I honestly confess, if there were no Bible in existence, I should still hold my own opinions as the result of simple scientific inquiry. I will conclude, if you will allow me, by reading a passage from Max Muller :--" More and more the image of man, in whatever clime we meet him, rises before us noble and pure from the very beginning. ... As far as we can trace back the footsteps of man, even on the lowest strata of history, we see that the divine gift of a sound and sober intellect belonged to him from the very first, and the idea of a humanity emerging slowly from the depths of an animal brutality can never be maintained again." (Cheers.)
The Meeting was then adjourned. | <urn:uuid:e705dfe3-0c05-4b51-99f8-1bd4fec7cdb7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.creationism.org/victoria/VictoriaInst1870_pg001.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97197 | 14,683 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Mouse over the plugs for pinouts and voltages
(Allow time for image to load on slow links)
Keep in mind that power is measured in WATTS and that an increase in power consumption implies there has been an increase in WATTAGE.
If a resistor is used to add a load to a circuit, the power consumed will result in heat in the resistor and heat dissipation can become a problem.
If the power level becomes too high (resistors are manufactured with a stated resistance (OHMs) and WATTAGE capacity), it may result in an alteration of the
internal resistance or, in the worst case, the resistor burning out.
Power (watts) is calculated as P = V2 / R. Thus, increases in the power level
may be accomplished by increasing the voltage or by reducing the resistance. Higher voltage levels certainly would seem intuitively reasonable, but REDUCING THE RESISTANCE
to raise power comsumption??!!
AAAARRRRRRRGGGGGHHHHH -- This is too much like school, just tell me what to do!!!
If I wanted to increase the load in a circuit, wouldn't it seem more feasible to increase the resistance? This seeming paradox may be better explained by looking at the extremes.
By definition, a resistor restricts the electron flow through the circuit. If we can reduce the electron flow, we can also reduce the amount of work being performed over a period of time.
A high level of resistance allows only a small number of electrons to migrate -- materials with extremely high resistance levels are known simply as insulators -- glass, air, rubber, plastic, etc.
If I inserted a piece of glass into my circuit and attached the battery leads to each end, nothing would happen -- high resistance, no electron movement, no load and no heat. On the other hand, materials with very low resistance
are known as conductors; the lower the resistance, the better the conductor -- silver, copper, gold, aluminum. Placing a thin silver wire across my battery leads might result in the
wire beginning to glow or burning completely in two, depending of course on the battery capacity. Hence, low resistance leads to high electron flow, high load and possibly high heat generation.
The physics of heat generation is enmeshed in free electron flow, valence shell electrons and other factors that will remain outside this discussion.
It is suffice to say that using a resistor with a lower resistance rating will add a greater load to the circuit and produce increasingly higher levels of heat, either within the resistor itself
or in other parts of the circuit.
Many within the R/C community have been converting power supplies to drive their field chargers, but have not been satisfied with
the measured voltage on the +12 V output -- in several cases, the voltage levels have been lower than expected leading to long charge times, power supply shutdowns or charger
malfunctions. Relying on a little help from Mr. Ohm, Watt and Kirchhoff, we may be able to increase the amount of work expected from our PC power supply, and in turn, get it to step
up to the plate with an increased voltage level. The ATX switching mode power supplies require a static load to function and for many, a 10 ohm 10 watt resistor on the +5 V output
is sufficient, but voltage levels on the +12 V line may fall in the range of 11.5 to 11.75 volts, adequate for logic labs, but below desired levels for chargers. Five volt output generally
holds around 5.09 to 5.15 volts.
Returning to our power calculation, a 10 ohm load across 5.15 volts consumes about 2.65 watts of energy. P = V2 / R = 5.152 / 10 ~ 2.65 watts. By
virtue of being a regulated power supply, we cannot easily change the voltage levels -- the ATX power supply design guide specifies a +/- 5% variation for the 3.3, 5 and 12 volt outputs
and the internal circuitry is designed to maintain output within those specifications.
Consequently, to increase the perceived load, the most easily controlled variable is resistance. If we replace the 10 ohm resistor with a 2 ohm resistor, what change can we expect
in the load? As before, P = V2 / R = 5.152 / 2 ~ 13.26 watts. This substitution has certainly increased the load, but it has also introduced another
potentially destructive situation. The load resistor must now dissipate this increased energy and it does so in the form of heat. We can deal with heat to some extent, but when the load
exceeds the rating of the resistor, our best efforts may not save a 10 watt resistor carrying a continuous 13 watt load. My options are to find a whopper of a resistor with a high load rating or come up
with a workable solution using easily obtainable components.
Four laws will help us ramp up the perceived load and use off-the-shelf parts to successfully implement them.
1. The total resistance in a SERIES circuit equals the sum of the individual resistances: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
2. The sum of voltage drops in a series circuit will equal the voltage source: Vs = Vd1 + Vd2 + ... + Vdn
3. The voltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit is directly proportional to the size (Ohm rating) of the resistor: Vd1 = Vs x R1 / Rtotal
4. The total power consumed in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual powers used by each circuit component: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + ... + Pn
Using (1) above, I can connect two 1 Ohm resistors in a series to get a total resistance of 2 Ohms. Using (2) and (3), I know the total voltage drop across both resistors will equal 5.15 volts
and since each resistor comprises half the total resistance, each will drop 2.575 volts. Using (4) and applying my power formula, each resistor will dissipate 6.63 watts of power, i.e.
P1 = V2 / R1 = 2.5752 / 1 ~ 6.63 watts. Total power = 6.63 + 6.63 = 13.26 watts.
By using two easily obtained 1 Ohm 10 Watt resistors (Radio Shack), we can wire them in series across the +5 volt (red/black) output and increase the load on our power supply with an attendant increase in
output voltage on the 12 volt line. Both resistors will be running at about 65% of their rated wattage and will not be damaged by overload. However, they will get very hot -- the single 10 Ohm
resistor was dumping about 2.65 watts while each of the 1 Ohm resistors will generate nearly 2.5 times that. To keep them cooled down, it is strongly suggested that both be attached
to the PS case with heatsink compound to help reduce heat buildup.
On the power supplies I have tested, all produced higher voltage levels, with increases of .15 to .2 volts and total output of 11.85 to 12.06 volts.
If you are converting your PC power supply with the intention of driving a field charger, you might consider the substitution indicated above to get a little more voltage. Be mindful that
the conversion comes with a tradeoff in the form of more heat. However, a little care in heatsinking your resistors should provide a reliable and long lasting source for regulated DC power.
Unexpected Shutdown -- I've made the recommended changes, but when I connect my charger, the PS still shuts down. Now what?? The usage of a PC powersupply as
a substitute for a field charger power source falls far outside the intent of the original design specifications. Once the PS is running and stable, the overload circuitry is tuned to
detect high current sinks and shut the PS down -- under normal usage, these sinks would be indicative of an internal short in the PC. When a microcomputer is running, powersupply
demands change, but these are minimal and are usually associated with optical, hard or floppy drive usage or USB devices being attached.
Some field chargers produce a high current sink when first attached and generate a latch into the overload state -- as designed. The specifications state that the PS will remain latched
until the load is removed from the rail -- the PS will either automatically reset or may require at least one PS_ON cycle. Even though your PS may have sufficient wattage to
effectively drive the charger, the load change is the problem. One method that has been effective is to attach the charger before powering up -- to the PS, the charger
now appears as a high draw motherboard and not as a potential short occurring after the PS is stable.
Doesn't work!!! -- When I tested my PS before making the conversion, it worked fine, but now it won't power up at all. What should I try??
If the power supply were functioning before being modified, there are two prime suspects to check out. A failure to correctly reconnect the remote
sense wires can keep some PS from latching on. See the Design Guide Update for remote sensing information. The
other likely culprit is a short causing the overload circuitry to capture. Occasionally, this will cause a fan bump -- the fan will attempt to spin up, then stop
and there will be no voltage on the output rails. Cycling the ON/OFF switch produces the same result: a bump, then Latch_Off. Check your internal
wiring to ensure none of the clipped ends are shorted to the case or another rail. A second potential source for shorting is binding posts. The majority
of binding posts have either a plastic bushing that passes thru the case or a shoulder on the post and retaining washer that keeps the post centered.
Occasionally, the second style will not be correctly centered and the bare threaded post will come into contact with the PS case.
With the PS unplugged and using your VOM or DMM, test each post in turn for a short to the case -- none of the DC rails, including GROUND, should
have case contact. The case is grounded on the AC side; the DC side is isolated. If one appears grounded to the case, realign the post and test again.
Should none of modifications prove workable, your only remaining solution may be to purchase a standard
benchtop powersupply from a retail vendor or one of the on-line auction sites -- perhaps not as satisfying as a DIY project, but it will get you back into the air.
Updated: March 13, 2009 | <urn:uuid:087ac490-04f3-44db-ab85-559f00065edf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://web2.murraystate.edu/andy.batts/ps/TheFIX_java_table.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925029 | 2,233 | 3.359375 | 3 |
BROOKLYN - Music, dancing, theater and cooking are all part of a unique lesson for students at P.S. 971 in Sunset Park.
The program is part of LEAP, which stands for Learning through an Expanded Arts Program. Students at the school learn to understand words and their meanings through various art forms.
"You build vocabulary while the children are actually experiencing what the words mean," says Ila Lane Gross, of LEAP.
READ MORE: Education Stories
Gross says there are simple things all parents can do to increase the curiosity of learning in children. She says building vocabulary can even be done in a grocery store by having children read the names of cereals or ingredients on the back of the boxes. | <urn:uuid:1a8be1a6-0f2a-46cb-b172-31a4d8fd5c09> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/students-at-p-s-971-in-sunset-park-learn-vocabulary-through-art-as-part-of-leap-1.7940395 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958121 | 151 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Electrons obey the right hand rule when a magnetic field bends their path. According to the right-hand rule, will positrons bend in the same direction?
A nice bubble chamber picture:
"Electrons and positrons produced simultaneously from individual gamma rays curl in opposite directions in the magnetic field of a bubble chamber. In the above example the gamma ray has lost some energy to an atomic electron, which leaves the long track, curling left. The gamma rays do not leave tracks in the chamber, as they have no electric charge"
The magnetic force is $$ \vec F = q \vec v \times \vec B $$ so with a constant $\vec B, \vec v$, it's clear that the opposite sign of $q$ leads to the opposite force. So antiparticles surely bend in the opposite direction than the original particles.
Concerning your "right hand rule", I think that whichever you meant, it was misintetrpreted. Right hand rules aren't satisfied by individual particle species. They're general for all charged particles etc. At any rate, if you have a version of the right-hand rule that applies to electron's acceleration, the rule for positrons is the other one. | <urn:uuid:9b6e2f0e-18d1-48d5-a806-39fb30df7c8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/18363/do-positrons-bend-the-same-direction-as-electrons-in-a-magnetic-field/22715 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920283 | 248 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Realist (or realism) is an international politics term which is used to describe an actor whose foreign policy methods focus on political power, rather than institutions and international law. A realist prefers policies which keep, increase, or demonstrate their power. In a bipolar power organization (only two main world powers), this can lead to a security dilemma.
Realists pay attention to the national security needs of a nation and especially to its economic advantages. Thus realists called for diplomatic recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933 because they predicted (incorrectly) it would increase trade and help the US escape the Great Depression.
Realism is opposed to idealism and utopianism, and specifically to Wilsonianism.
According to realist George Kennan, moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self-defeating and will lead to the erosion of power, to America's detriment.
Conservative foreign policies can include either realism or idealism. Idealism appears in the case of George W. Bush bringing democracy to the Middle East, or Barry Goldwater, calling for a crusade to destroy Communism. Realism appears among opponents of needless "foreign adventures," such as Pat Buchanan, or when Richard Nixon opened the door to China (1971), or Ronald Reagan came to terms with the Soviet Union in 1987.
American foreign policy was realist from 1776 to 1914, then shifted to idealistic or Wilsonian modes. For realists, security is based on the principle of a balance of economic and military power, and control of strategic assets (such as the Panama Canal). Realists say reliance on morality as the main determining factor in statecraft is impractical. According to the Wilsonians, on the other hand, the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is key and morals are universally valid.
During the Clinton and Bush presidencies, American diplomacy reflected the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those in favor of the realist approach likened the policies to "foreign policy social work."
- Reinhold Niebuhr, theologian
- George Kennan, diplomat and writer
- Henry Kissinger, diplomat and writer
- Walter Lippmann, commentator
- Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., historian
- Hans Morgenthau, poltical scientist
- Cold War
- Berman, William C. William Fulbright and the Vietnam War: The Dissent of a Political Realist. (1988). 235 pp.
- Bucklin, Steven J. Realism and American Foreign Policy: Wilsonians and the Kennan-Morgenthau Thesis (2000) excerpt and text search
- Gilbert, Alan. Must Global Politics Constrain Democracy? Great-Power Realism, Democratic Peace and Democratic Internationalism. (1999). 316 pp.
- Graebner, Norman A. Foundations of American Foreign Policy: A Realist Appraisal from Franklin to McKinley. (1985). 336pp.
- Graebner, Norman A. America as a World Power: A Realist Appraisal from Wilson to Reagan. (1984). 307pp.
- Haig, Alexander M., Jr. Caveat: Realism, Reagan, and Foreign Policy. (1984). 367 pp.
- Nincic, Miroslav. Democracy and Foreign Policy: The Fallacy of Political Realism. (1992). 200 pp.
- Rosenthal, Joel H. Righteous Realists: Political Realism, Responsible Power, and American Culture in the Nuclear Age. (1991). 191 pp.
- Russell, Richard L. George F. Kennan's Strategic Thought: The Making of an American Political Realist. (1999). 178 pp.
- Smith, Michael Joseph. Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger. (1986). 256 pp.
- Steigerwald, David. Wilsonian Idealism in America (1994) excerpt and text search
- Warren, Heather A. Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920-1948. (1997). 199 pp.
- Weigel, George. Idealism without Illusions: U.S. Foreign Policy in the 1990s. (1994). 253 pp. by a leading conservative | <urn:uuid:36e1f30a-651b-44a0-9654-1d0f9e192b94> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/Realist | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.861191 | 869 | 3.15625 | 3 |
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What is a Résumé?
A résumé is a professional introduction of yourself (to prospective employers or graduate schools) that clearly and concisely describes your skills and qualifications as they relate to the position you are trying to obtain. You may customize your résumé to appeal to a particular employer, but in each case be sure to place the most significant information on the first page. A résumé will not get you a job, but a well-written résumé is key in securing an interview. Remember: a résumé is a tool to market and promote yourself!
Sections of a Résumé
The type of information included on a résumé varies from student to student based on the academic, co-curricular, and work experience of each student. Potential sections include:
- Contact information
- Objective (often not included)
- Education (including study abroad)
- Certification/ Licensure or specialized training - can be included with education
- Research/Senior Project
- Experience - you may have more than one experience section on your résumé (Internships, Exhibitions, Work Experience, Additional Experience). These sections should emphasize all paid and unpaid experiences, especially those related to your field of interest.
- Skills - includes foreign languages spoken, computer skills, art skills, technical knowledge, specialized equipment
- Additional Sections: extracurricular involvement (athletics, clubs, organizations); volunteer work/community service; honors and awards; publications; professional memberships
Preparing to Write Your Résumé
KNOW YOUR DIRECTION: Identify one or more career path (Career Services staff can help you do this). A generic resume will not get you a job. It is easier to write a résumé when you have knowledge of the needs of employers in your fields of interest. Know the skills and qualifications required to be successful in these fields and emphasize those on your resume.
KNOW YOURSELF: Identify your skills, strengths, interests, and accomplishments as they relate to a job search. To write a résumé you must think about past experiences, skills you gained and accomplishments. Then articulate how these are transferable to the job or internship you want to obtain.
KNOW THE LANGUAGE: Analyze job descriptions/advertisements. Identify the professional language of your career field and use these keywords to describe skills, abilities, and experiences on your resume.
KNOW IT TAKES TIME: Take time to create a well-written, concise résumé. Remember this requires writing a draft, editing the draft and having your resume reviewed.
- Avoid using online templates. They generally do not allow for flexibility in highlighting your unique experiences and accomplishments.
- Put relevant experience first. Whether your resume is one or two pages, the key is for the most important and significant information to be found on the first page.
- Choose Words Wisely. Use keywords and language appropriate to your industry. Not only does is show you have knowledge of the career field, it is essential when your resume is first reviewed by a computer based screening system. Without the right keywords you will not get by the initial screening.
- Don't Be Too Fancy. If an employer (or computer program) cannot view your resume because of fancy fonts, borders, etc., you will never get an interview. Use a standard font in a size no smaller than 10-11 pt and do not incorporate graphics, borders or clip art. Exception: Graphic Design and Art fields.
- Emphasize Accomplishments. Use action verbs to highlight achievements, accomplishments and abilities, giving specific measurable results when possible (ex: "increased membership by 50%").
- Make the résumé highly skimmable. - On average, en employer spends 10 seconds deciding whether or not you are a potential candidate. Use short paragraphs / bullet points, crisp descriptions, and use of bold, underline, and italics to emphasize important information.
- Proofread, Proofread, Proofread. Check spelling, punctuation, grammar, word usage, dates, etc. One mistake can make the difference in receiving an invitation for an interview! Don't forget: have Career Services review your résumé.
Chronological (reverse chronological): This résumé format is the one most preferred by employers. It lists experiences in reverse chronological order - from present to past.
Functional: This résumé format is organized by skills categories including leadership, communication, administrative, project management, and other categories unique to you and the job for which you are applying. Functional résumés do not focus on employers and job titles, but may contain a brief job history at the end of the résumé.
Résumé Worksheet (pdf)
Visit the Online Resources web page to see Sample Résumés. | <urn:uuid:d4d5acca-6bfe-402e-802a-ae47ad265742> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wheelock.edu/academics/career-services/students-and-alumni/resume-help | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881879 | 1,028 | 2.640625 | 3 |
La ventana. Revista de estudios de género
versión impresa ISSN 1405-9436
Between 1932 and 1933, Guillermo Kahlo penned dozen long letters to his daughter Frida, who was in the United States accompanying her husband, muralist Diego Rivera. These letters reveal an affectionate father, concerned about his daughter's welfare and intent on sparing her some of the effects of the personality traits which they shared. They also show a grieving and lonely Guillermo, having suffered the loss of his wife, Frida's mother. In addition, the letters reflect Frida's attempts to engage her father in activities that would distract him from his self-absorption. Guillermo's wicked sense of humor is manifested in his writing, as is his use of epistolary barbs to underscore his point of view.
Palabras llave : Frida Kahlo; Guillermo Kahlo; letters; father-daughter relationship. | <urn:uuid:08d847f7-d0e5-4ae2-b0d4-9937bf64ce08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1405-94362010000200009&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966095 | 202 | 2.9375 | 3 |
In Persian mythology, a sacred mountain, the first mountain, around which the sun and the moon revolved. Light shone out of it and light was absorbed by it, but on the mountain itself it was never dark. The dwelling of Mithra was located upon it, and from here he watched the world.
According to Zoroastrianism legend, all the other mountains grew from the root of Alburz. The hero Tahmūrath was overcome there, because of fear only, by Angra Mainyu. | <urn:uuid:c0e1aa6d-b40f-4f86-b8fc-d8f3d5f26456> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/alburz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98188 | 106 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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Experiment 10: Ceramics
The primary drawback of using ceramic materials in structural applications is their inherent brittleness which results from strong bonding coupled with electrical balancing restrictions due to the metallic plus non-metallic nature of ceramic compounds. The Modulus of Rupture (MOR) test is the standard for determining the mechanical properties of ceramics (Flexural Strength and Flexural Modulus). Variations in Flexural Strength as a function of firing temperature and specimen size will be examined experimentally (MOR) and evaluated using the statistical t-test; large ceramic parts generally have lower strengths due to their higher probability of containing critical flaws.
Return back to Materials of Engineering Laboratory (node/1061) | <urn:uuid:25cbb716-0972-44fd-af22-82d53d848eac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://imechanica.org/node/1163 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893328 | 151 | 3.625 | 4 |
French Riviera Sets Up Jellyfish "Sting" Operation
The French Riviera is seeing increasing numbers of the mauve stinger jellyfish, despite such precautions as jellyfish nets, making it to the beaches. As many as 500 bathers a day are getting stung by the tentacled menace, and scientists are warning that this year could be worse than ever as the jellyfish population explodes. A sort of jellyfish early warning system will now allow tourists to avoid them.
The over-population of jellyfish along Mediterranean coastal waters (among others worldwide) is being blamed on a combination of global warming and over-fishing. The warmer waters have given way to a rise in the levels of the plankton on which they feed, and over-fishing has reduced the numbers of their natural predators, like tuna and sea turtles. The rising numbers of jellyfish in the oceans worldwide has created concerns over "jellification" of the seas.
Researchers have discovered a link between wind and water currents and the beaching of jellyfish. They normally live in the open sea, but they rise to the surface at night when changes in water and air currents can carry them into the shallows to be washed up onto the beaches. Understanding these conditions has helped predict the likelihood of a "smack" of jellyfish causing a problem for tourists along the Riviera. The forecasts are made up to 48 hours in advance. The alert consists of a five point scale, ranging from one, or minimal risk, to five, or maximum risk.
The sting of the mauve stinger jellyfish comes from contact with one of its hair-like tentacles that can grow up to three feet in length. The nettle-like burns can be extremely painful and take three days to heal. The stings can also trigger anaphylactic reactions such as asthma and other allergic attacks. In some rare cases a sting can lead to death due to cardiac arrest.
The mauve stinger jellyfish is found in most tropical and temperate ocean waters of the world, including along some coastal areas of the U.S. While many treatments for jellyfish stings abound, from urine to baking soda, scientists say that many of the studies that have suggested these methods were done in places like Australia and Indonesia. For stings along the coasts of North America, the best treatment is hot water and topical pain relievers.
Laurie Kay Olson
Animal News Blogger | <urn:uuid:048eeebc-89b8-42c3-a9b8-550289cbc8bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://petslady.com/articles/french_riviera_sets_jellyfish_sting_operation_57386 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956452 | 503 | 2.84375 | 3 |
High resolution Satellite Images show the devastating floods of the Mississippi River in the Midwest hitting Arkansas to Tennessee, and Mississippi to Louisiana. Swollen by weeks of heavy rain and snow melt, the Mississippi River has been breaking high water records that have stood since the 1920s and ’30s. It is projected to crest at Vicksburg on May 19 and shatter the mark set there during the catastrophic flood in 1927. The river is expected to crest at 57.5 feet on May 19, about 1.5 feet above the 1927 record, according to the U.S. Corps of Engineers.
The City of Natchez is expected to flood on May 21 with New Orleans to follow on May 23. Damage in Baton Rouge and New Orleans could be lessened if the U.S. Corps of Engineers opens the Morganza spillway to relieve pressure on levees but it would flood thousands of acres of farmland and thousands of homes.
WorldView-2 (Natural Color) Satellite Image of Flooding in the Midwest, Cairo, Illinois
(Image credit: DigitalGlobe)
WorldView-2 (False Color) Satellite Image of Flooding in the Midwest, Cairo, Illinois
(Image credit: DigitalGlobe)
The WorldView-2 Satellite sensor provides Multiband (8MS + 1PAN) Satellite Image data to support spectral analysis for various applications. The WorldView-2 Multispectral Band combination of 8-7-4 is providing a 2m resolution Satellite Image where the color blue is water and bright yellow healthy vegetation and darker yellow is vegetation affected by the flooding.
For a White Paper on the benefits of the 8 Spectral Bands of WorldView-2, please click here.
Remote Sensing gives State and Government agencies the ability to view the damage from multiple vantage points. The spatial resolution of an image determines the ability to view individual features such as buildings and bridges. It also affects the ability to monitor and assess damage conditions, and depends on the nature of the hazard itself.
To view more WorldView-2 Satellite Images, visit here.
Boat Tour on Flooding.
All Eyes on Mississippi River Levees, Spillways as Flood Tensions Continue Video.
About Satellite Imaging Corporation:
Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC), a privately held technology company that provides high resolution satellite imagery from satellite sensors such as GeoEye-1, WorldView-2 WorldView-1, QuickBird and IKONOS, RapidEye and other remote sensing products for analysis and mapping applications such as Geographic Information System (GIS).
The company specializes in mono and stereo satellite imaging technology producing seamless orthorectified satellite imaging mosaics DEM’s and 3D terrain models for many industries using CAD and GIS applications including engineering and construction, homeland security, defense, intelligence and disaster response using high, medium resolution mono and stereo satellite image data. | <urn:uuid:aa753a9f-6dcb-4f96-a9d7-ea6bf0f7df58> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.satimagingcorp.com/2011/05/satellite_images_show_mississippi_river_flooding_disaster.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.890931 | 591 | 3.328125 | 3 |
What Is an Online Community?
An online community is a community that forms on the internet. A community is a group of people interacting, sharing, and working toward a common goal. Whereas neighbors may converse in their yards, in an online community, members interact via social networks, such as Twitter, Facebook, and Google+. They also share in forums, e-mail groups, and even in the comments sections of blog posts and news articles.
Members of online communities talk about the same things with their online friends as they do their offline neighbors, but they also rally around a specific topic, product, or cause to share ideas, offer tips, or act as mentors. Many times, they join communities because people at home in the offline world don’t share similar passions. So they come online to talk at length with the folks who get it.
Online communities are no longer primitive forums where hobbyists discuss their crafts. Now marketing teams for household brands are creating Facebook pages and YouTube accounts specifically to sell products. And it’s working.
While members still visit online communities to talk about their passion, thanks to social media and conversational marketing, online communities are now also seen as places to discuss products, receive feedback, and begin word-of-mouth marketing campaigns.
Online communities are best explained by exploring offline real life neighborhood communities. Close-knit neighbors not only socialize, but they also help each other. They borrow tools and bring in the mail. They make dinner for sick parents and trade off watching kids. They also maintain common interests — for example, working together to keep common areas attractive and productive. | <urn:uuid:1b6b9e87-41cc-4971-89d5-49cef55cfb8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-is-an-online-community.navId-811376.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96671 | 330 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Earth Hour takes place from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. on March 23rd. Can you imagine looking at a vision of lights going out through each time zone across the world one hour at a time? That’s what happens when we join together to power down. So far, in our efforts to power down and save energy through our relationship with Earth Hour, we’ve saved over 50,433,069 kWh of energy and eliminated 77,666,926 pounds of CO2. That’s like removing almost 7,000 cars from our busy roads! By turning off your lights for just 60 minutes on March 23 you can take positive action for the environment and inspire others to do the same!
Earth Hour is an invitation to change the world. By carrying out additional ways to conserve and save energy, you can make the symbolism of Earth Hour come alive throughout the year and create significant positive environmental impact.
Girl Scouts in all parts of the world are leading efforts to go beyond the hour while doing activities in It’sYour Planet—Love It! Leadership Journeys. They have found additional ways to take further action. Check out Get Moving! Girl Scouts’ National Leadership Journey for Juniors that’s all about saving energy. Adult volunteers can use the Get Moving! with Girl Scouts Forever Green.
Take a look at this video from Girl Scouts of Southern Arizona which aims to show how easy it can be to save a half million dollars in energy.
Got great Earth Hour photos or YouTube video links? Send them to firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:91036904-1546-4426-ae54-6754b5814c38> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.girlscouts.org/2013/03/its-all-about-power.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910774 | 337 | 2.65625 | 3 |
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Günter Krumme, Department of Geography, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195.
Internet: email@example.com. Building Learning Webs for Economic Geography.
Economic, organizational and technological changes mandate reconsideration of learning environments. A user-friendly Internet questions educational conventions: Do we still need inflexible semesters, classrooms, class-periods or textbooks? Does the new technology provide discipline-specific opportunities for enhanced learning?
A few broad principles govern my evolving learning webs:
(1) The boundary-spanning Internet provides endless opportunities for enhanced learning. We move seamlessly from courses to programs, to community-based and lifelong learning; from textbook to online resources; from single prof to second opinions. Ideas lose their protection and are checked against competing ideas and evidence.
(2) Information technologies themselves become important class content through their impact on telecommunications, telework and service employment. Students' jobs, remote-learning experiences and daily logistic challenges provide valuable cases for discussion.
(3) Students' own learning initiatives and self-management closely relate to entrepreneurship and professional creativity. Students start hypothetical, technology-supported businesses or become "consultants" with opportunities to volunteer their diverse backgrounds and computer skills in class.
(4) Collaboration, enabled by Internet-based classroom extensions, supersedes hierarchical task organization and allows two-way discussions, constructive feedback and multi-channel learning mechanisms favored by modern activities.
(5) Active-learning "projects" mirror increased project-orientation of businesses. Source materials want to be found, while students acquire research and project management skills. Timelines, "deliverables" and "billable hours" demand efficient structure, support and communication of projects via the Web.
Flow charts, Web documents and student responses illustrate the pervasive Internet presence in my classes.
Keyword: Internet, learning webs, economic geography
Learning Web: An integrated system of Internet-based, hypertextually organized course or program materials, resources, links to resources and communication opportunities designed to facilitate learning environments and processes in the classroom and beyond.
Links & Literature:
Return to Econ & Bus Geography ||
1999 [ firstname.lastname@example.org] | <urn:uuid:dce5afe1-4cbc-4307-bbe6-16029585d0b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/projects/learning_webs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868828 | 489 | 2.578125 | 3 |
- "This holiday is yours, but we all share with you the hope that this day brings us closer to freedom, and to harmony, and to peace. No matter how different we appear, we're all the same in our struggle against the powers of evil and darkness. I hope that this day will always be a day of joy in which we can reconfirm our dedication and our courage. And more than anything else, our love for one another. This is the promise of the Tree of Life."
- ―Princess Leia Organa
Life Day was a Wookiee holiday celebrated by the inhabitants of Kashyyyk every three years. It was a celebration of the planet's diverse ecosystem and the many forms of life it encompassed. It also was a time to remember family members who had died, and the young ones who continued to bring new life to a family. Life Day was a sacred holiday, and many Wookiees considered it their duty to return to Kashyyyk in order to celebrate it. Life Day was held once every three local years for many generations, but during the Galactic Civil War, its importance to the Wookiees became more pronounced. Wookiees were spread across the galaxy, either because they had been enslaved by the Galactic Empire or for personal reasons, and they began celebrating Life Day each year as a way to remain in touch with their history. Over time, the holiday found its way into various other cultures. "Life day" was also used as a term to describe the anniversary of one's birth.
- "This disgraceful menace of a "holiday", during which time you are expected to comply fully with this edict, will last approximately two weeks on the Galactic Standard Calendar."
- ―Extract from the Imperial Edict GR-1NC4
The origins of Life Day lay in the culture of the Wookiees, the sentient mammals who hailed from the arboreal world of Kashyyyk, with evidence that the holiday was celebrated as early as 1,500,000 BBY. Originally a triennial event, it later evolved into an annual celebration. However, the tradition of exchanging gifts and decorating the houses during Life Day had already spread to other parts of the wider galaxy by the end of the Cold War around 3640 BBY. At that time, holographic Life Day trees could even be found on Coruscant, capital city of the Galactic Republic. A mysterious merchant calling himself the "Master of Ceremonies" showed up at both the Republic's Carrick Station and the Empire's Vaiken Spacedock, along with an entourage of Life Day Revelers—made of Humans and Wookiees. While the Republic welcomed the Master and his followers without issue, Imperial Edict GR-1NC4 heavily discouraged Imperial citizens from participation in Life Day. The edict also noted that the Revelers' presence coincided with the reappearance of the Gray Secant, an ancient Gree starship, over the planet Ilum—which marked the return of the once powerful Gree Enclave to known space. At any rate, the anti-Life Day edict was widely ignored, and some Imperial citizens indulged in snowball fights.
From the Clone Wars onEdit
- "Bah, humbug!"
- ―Emperor Palpatine on Life Day
Thousands of years later, at the time of Clone Wars, Life Day was celebrated at the main Jedi Temple on Coruscant at least once. The hallowed halls of the temple were decorated with garlands and colored Life Day orbs hanging from the ceiling. A Life Day tree had been place, service droids bore festive paintings and even some of the clone troopers patrolling the premises donned fancy armors—such as the nutcracker armor.
By 1 ABY the celebration of Life Day had become fairly consistent in major non-Kashyyykian population centers like Theed and Coronet, capital cities of Naboo and Corellia respectively. That year, the Alliance to Restore the Republic had embraced Life Day as an opportunity for anti-Imperial propaganda. Spacers affiliated with the Alliance would decorate large numbers of trees throughout cities across the known universe. The Empire, through nominally independent intermediaries, recruited loyal citizens to destroy presents placed around the very same cities, believing the gifts to be contraband smuggled by the Alliance. The competition between Imperial and Rebel-aligned spacers would sometimes escalate to acts of public violence, but residents of the three main target cities of Dearic, Wayfar, and Doaba Guerfel seemed completely unfazed by these events. Emperor Palpatine himself, the very leader of the Empire, harbored disgust for the holiday, which he considered "humbug."
- "A big part of their Life Day celebration is a spiritual passage to the Life Tree... where Wookiee culture began! Orga root helps them make the journey!"
- ―Han Solo about the role of orga roots
In its deepest meaning, that holiday comemorated the renewal of life on Kashyyyk, a planet that supported a rich biodiversity. An important part of the celebration consisted in a spiritual passage; by chewing roots of the orga plant, the Wookiees would journey in spirit form and join the essence of the Tree of Life. According to the legends, that most ancient tree had been the starting point of the Wookiee civilization. Were the orga roots lacking, the Wookiee Elders were entitled to cancel the holiday.
At the same time, Life Day was also a time to remember the departed and spend quality time with one's family in its broader, Wookiee sense—the honor family comprised a Wookiee's boon companions and best friends, all of them pledging a life debt for one another.
Beyond its more serious aspects, Life Day was also a day of revelry and merry-making. Such joyous activities included trimming a special tree, launching fireworks, consuming treats like Wookiee-ookiees and Hoth chocolate, and listening to festive music. The exchange of presents was central ritual and a symbol of love. At night, Wookiee households would gather around their table while holding hands before pausing for a moment of silent prayer.
Singing was another important part of the Life Day customs. Traditional Life Day songs included "Christmas Green," "Here We Come A-Wassailing," "Jolly Old Saint Nicholas," "Joyful and Triumphant," and "Swingalong Santa." In 1 ABY, the famous Bith band Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes gave a special Life Day concert beneath the branches of the Tree of Life. More importantly, Life Day had its emblematic song, known in Basic as "Tree of Life," which put emphasis on peace, harmony and freedom.
Behind the scenesEdit
Wookiee Life Day made its first appearance in the 1978 television film The Star Wars Holiday Special. In the special, Chewbacca's wife Mallatobuck prepares a feast of Bantha rump, gifts are exchanged between acquaintances, candles are burned ritualistically, and Wookiees don red robes and join into groups to observe the day. Singing is also involved. The red robes the Wookiees were wearing at the end of the special were to cover up the lack of Wookiee costumes beyond the masks (which were Don Post brand) due to the special by that point going massively overbudget.
In the 1979 Russ Manning newspaper comic strip The Kashyyyk Depths, the regular cast of A New Hope once again returned to Kashyyyk for another Life Day celebration.
In the video game Star Wars Galaxies, players are given the opportunity to explore the Wookiee holiday. Its customs are more thoroughly explored, and the player is encouraged to celebrate the holiday around the Human month of December. The creators of the game first officially recognized the holiday as an in-game holiday in December 2003. The official site for Star Wars Galaxies devotes an entire page to explaining this unique feature of the game.Life Day Gifts are given to players, one to keep, and another to give to a friend. In preparation for the game's 2008 Life Day celebrations, some of the developers watched The Star Wars Holiday Special in its entirety, as much of the Life Day content is directly inspired by the special.
The term was mentioned again in X-Wing: Starfighters of Adumar by Wedge Antilles. In that context, it was not capitalized, and the term seemed to be implied as a "Star Wars-ism" for birthday. It is also used in this capacity in Galaxy of Fear: The Doomsday Ship. (See: Bobringi Mafusa.)
Note that Life Day most likely was originally intended as a stand-in for the American holiday of Thanksgiving, as The Holiday Special was originally aired on November 17, the Friday before Thanksgiving that year. However, over time the term "holiday special" has caused most fans to misinterpret Life Day as a stand-in for Christmas instead, leading to games like Star Wars Galaxies and Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron to place Life Day on December 25. This is partly because after the initial U.S. airing in November, The Holiday Special aired in December in other countries, where Thanksgiving is not observed and Christmas is the closest equivalent.
The confusion has reached the point where George Lucas himself has referred to The Star Wars Holiday Special as the "Christmas special", and many who have not seen the special incorrectly remember Life Day as having Star Wars versions of Christmas carols (conflating The Holiday Special with Christmas in the Stars), Christmas decorations, and so on. Such elements have, in fact, been introduced after the special, mostly by Star Wars Galaxies, with wroshyr trees decorated to resemble Christmas trees, and Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes playing tunes to Christmas carols. Perhaps in response to this, stomptokyo.com created a false rumor about a sequel to The Holiday Special specifically designed to be a Christmas special, taking place on the snowy planet Hoth with Darth Tyranus dressed as Santa Claus.
The canonical date for the observance of Life Day has, nevertheless, been established in what sources there are as December 25, or the equivalent thereof in the Wookiee calendar. Whether this means that Life Day actually is intended to be understood as a solstice festival akin to Christmas as opposed to a harvest festival akin to Thanksgiving is unknown. Neither concept seems to hold much relevance on Kashyyyk, which appears to have temperate weather throughout the year (including on the Life Day we see in The Holiday Special) and where agriculture seems to be little practiced.
On a semi-related note, on the Star Wars Galaxies website hosted by Sony, Emperor Palpatine says "Bah, humbug!" with implied disgust for the holiday, a reference to Ebeneezer Scrooge regarding his views on Christmas in Charles Dickens' book A Christmas Carol.
Pop culture referencesEdit
- Life Day was mentioned in The Venture Bros. episode "A Very Venture Christmas".
- In issue #121 of ToyFare magazine, the "Twisted Toyfare Theater" section is devoted exclusively to The Star Wars Holiday Special, with Lumpy questioning Chewbacca about Life Day, and Chewbacca responding that he should look it up on Wookieepedia.
- The ending of the song "Merry Christmas From Cell Block 2" by Matthew Ebel has his robot companion Proto wishing him a "Happy Life Day." This discrepancy was noticed by Ebel and was quickly corrected to "Merry Christmas."
- Near the end of the year—during the holidays—StarWars.com has often wished its readers a happy Life Day.
In Star Wars Galaxies, there were events from 2004-2011 that dealt with Life Day. Life Day-themed paintings were issued each year, with 2004 having the Life Day Kashyyyk, Matriarch, and Patriarch paintings; 2005 having the Memories Past, Pilgrimage, Triumph paintings; 2006 having the Gift giving Wookiees, Kashyyyk at night, Proud Wookiee, Red Robed Wookiee, and Wookiee with pups paintings; 2007 having the Ancient Life Day painting; 2008 having the Family Bonds painting; and 2009 having both a reissuing of Family Bonds and the issuing of the Life Day 2009 Painting.
- Star Wars: The Old Republic
- Star Wars: The Old Republic: Galactic Strongholds (Mentioned only)
- Star Wars: Clone Wars Adventures video game
- Death Troopers (Mentioned only)
- Rebel Dawn (Mentioned only)
- The Star Wars Holiday Special (First appearance)
- The Kashyyyk Depths
- Galaxy of Fear: The Doomsday Ship
- Star Wars Galaxies: An Empire Divided
- Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron (Mentioned only)
- X-Wing: Starfighters of Adumar (Mentioned only)
- The New Jedi Order: Enemy Lines II: Rebel Stand (Mentioned only)
- X-Wing: Mercy Kill (Mentioned only)
- LEGO Star Wars: The Padawan Menace
- Always count your clones before take-off (Mentioned only)
- The Return of Tag & Bink: Special Edition (Mentioned only)
- Menace of the Sith
- Star Wars: Tiny Death Star (Mentioned only) (as L-day)
Notes and referencesEdit
- Life Day on CWA Wiki
- Life Day on SWG Wiki
- "Celebrating Life Day"
- Star Wars Galaxies Celebrates Wookie Life Day [sic] - Article at Gaming Today
- Celebrating Life Day - Article at the official Star Wars Galaxies website. | <urn:uuid:b6f657dc-39e4-45f9-8537-291f733168e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Life_day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949913 | 2,839 | 3.21875 | 3 |
At the mouth of the Aguán river on the Caribbean coast of Honduras, a Garífuna community living in a natural paradise that was devastated 15 years ago by Hurricane Mitch has set an example of adaptation to climate change.
The road to Guanímar, a fishing village on the southern coast of Cuba, is as narrow as the future of its 252 inhabitants, who don’t want to abandon the area despite its vulnerability to hurricanes, storm surges and flooding.
The rise in natural disasters in the Caribbean due to climate change has led to increased suffering for both men and women, much of it as a consequence of socially constructed roles based on gender, experts say.
Diann Black-Layne grew up in a single parent home with nine siblings on the tiny Caribbean island of Antigua. Still, life was easygoing and enjoyable, she recalls. For her, it was paradise.
A centuries-old system for ensuring water security is making a comeback in the Caribbean.
A month after Hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel caused the worst destruction from a natural catastrophe in Mexico in 30 years, another disaster has come to light: hunger in communities that are supposedly served by a rural food supply programme.
The United States government is recommending new preparations aimed at protecting vulnerable communities from climate change-related disasters, a year after a major hurricane devastated swaths of the country’s East Coast.
The Caribbean is in danger of becoming “a region of serial defaulters” with respect to international debt obligations, according to one expert, and this may partly be due to its economies suffering frequent shocks from natural disasters.
Rather than talk about forecasts for hurricanes at the start of this year’s season, Cuban meteorologist José Rubiera prefers to discuss the importance of reducing the country’s vulnerability and improving preparedness.
Houses with sturdy masonry walls and reinforced concrete roofs, looking like they could survive any tropical storm or hurricane, are sprouting up on the outskirts of this city in central Cuba, thanks to the development of local production of construction materials.
The new cyclone season in Cuba is forecast to be highly active, and it announced its arrival with intense rains that caused rivers to burst their banks and flooded extensive areas in the western province of Pinar del Río.
Nicaragua, which is prone to natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes and flooding, is confronting them with prevention measures and community drills and training in high-risk areas.
"Adaptation to climate change is urgent and must be part of development," said Bárbara Pesce-Monteiro, the United Nations resident coordinator in Cuba, assessing the damage done by hurricane Sandy in the eastern region of the country.
You can still see broken plates, toys, books and some photographs among the rubble that was once the homes of Rey Antonio Acosta’s family and other families in Mar Verde, the beach community where Hurricane Sandy made landfall in this eastern Cuban city.
I am aware that my arrival last week helped re-elect U.S. President Barack Obama. Superstorms like me don't play politics, but it should be clear by now that your refusal to tackle global warming has serious consequences. Higher sea levels and amped-up hurricanes like me are just two of them. | <urn:uuid:7b4389c2-6f8b-4ee2-bd69-52eedf313c94> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ipsnews.net/topics/hurricanes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95837 | 672 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Cleantech Market Intelligence
Facing Power Shortage, United Kingdom Looks to Demand Response
Outside the United States, the United Kingdom represents the largest (and arguably most dynamic) market for demand response, as described in Navigant Research’s Demand Response report. In some ways, though, the United Kingdom has surpassed the United States on the demand response front. One of these is a proposed mechanism known as the Electricity Demand Reduction (EDR) program that would create financial incentives for customers to pledge permanent electricity reductions.
In contrast with traditional demand response programs, which pay customers to reduce power demand during peak periods and shift it to other times, EDR creates incentives for customers to invest in energy efficiency measures that result in lower overall peak demand. The U.K. government launched a 2-year pilot in June and will continue to examine the viability and impact such a program would have on the country’s electricity system.
Much of the impetus for demand response programs in the United Kingdom is due to the rise of intermittent renewable energy sources such as offshore wind energy. However, with the country aiming for broader decarbonization of its energy system, demand response is being considered alternatively as a platform for deeper investment in energy efficiency measures that reduce energy consumption in terms of not only kilowatt-hours, but also kilowatts of power demand.
The United Kingdom is headed toward a potential crisis in its energy supply, with a severe shortage of new plants slated for construction to replace those being decommissioned. The country is expecting to shut down more than a dozen baseload power plants by 2025 with a combined capacity of over 20 GW. To put that into perspective, the United Kingdom’s peak demand usually hits 55 GW to 60 GW in the winter, so more than one-third of the country’s current baseload power generation is going offline in the next 11 years. As a result, the government is looking into a wide range of options such as EDR that would make permanent reductions in peak demand to help close the gap with the decline in supply.
In its 2012 Energy Efficiency Strategy, the U.K. government concluded that, “through socially cost-effective investment in energy efficiency we could be saving 196 terawatt-hours in 2020, equivalent to 22 power stations.” The EDR pilot will address the lingering questions about the program’s practicality and cost effectiveness. If it succeeds, it will represent an attractive approach for meeting the country’s long-term decarbonization targets. | <urn:uuid:c01a8b76-00c9-49a2-8657-3ea31037eefd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.navigantresearch.com/blog/facing-power-shortage-united-kingdom-looks-to-demand-response | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946133 | 518 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Chen Shungui, a Chinese amateur inventor, has spent eight years of his life working on two homemade solar-powered cars .
Chen Shungui, from Jingjiang, China’s Jiangsu province, started working on his solar panel cars in 2002, hoping to create a vehicle with no CO2 footprint. The first vehicle was completed in 2008, and despite its unpolished looks, it managed to run at a max speed of 45 km/h on solar power alone. The roof and hood of the car were completely covered with solar panels, but without a battery, it could only be used on sunny days.
Chen went back to the drawing board, hoping to improve its creation in such a way that it could be used on cloudy days and for longer drives. Just a few days ago, he unveiled his second homemade car, with a whole new look, as well as a solar battery that guarantees enough power for a 150 km trip. The new version has a max speed of 60 km/h.
The two innovative solar-powered cars cost Chen Shungui a total of $74,943 and took eight years to complete.
Photo by REUTERS via SPIEGEL | <urn:uuid:db3cb9b0-cd27-4a83-93d7-495049b30a32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.odditycentral.com/news/amateur-inventor-showcases-diy-solar-powered-cars.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981806 | 245 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Pollution from toxic chemicals threatens life on this planet. Every ocean and every continent is contaminated, wildlife everywhere has been seriously affected, and there is growing evidence of harm to humans as well. WWF's Toxic-Free Future site highlights the workof WWF's Global Toxic Chemical Initiative, which explores the effects of toxic chemicals on the planet. Users can learn more about toxic chemicals, their effects on the natural world, and the profound implications for all life on Earth, including humans. The site features a wide range of information and resources for the novice and the expert, focusing on three interrelated areas of WWF's Toxic Chemicals Initiative: endocrine disruptors, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and agricultural pesticides. The extensive information includes a recommended reading list and links of interest, as well as information on the history and development of toxic chemical science, and an overview of WWF's own work in the field of toxic chemicals. The "What Can You Do" section features information about what people can do every day to reduce their reliance on toxic chemicals, and includes WWF's own tips and non-toxic "recipes" available for printing out or onscreen reading. Here, users can learn helpful hints such as how to choose household chemicals that are least harmful, how to safely dispose of household chemicals, and how to make their own nontoxic cleansers and insecticides. With the release of this new site, WWF hopes to spread the word about toxic chemicals and their profound effect on our world, to provide access to information and resources that will enable users to learn more about this complex and important issue, and to help reduce everybody's reliance on toxic chemicals. In short, WWF hopes to let users know that we can have "toxic-free future:" by taking action today, we can leave our children a living planet. | <urn:uuid:ebf75048-ad59-4363-9283-a7605546953a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.envirolink.org/resource.html?itemid=3807&catid=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940707 | 366 | 3.375 | 3 |
Alphonse Lévy (1843-1918) grew up in a rural village in Alsace. Although he moved to Paris at age seventeen and begun studying art, his best-known works are the exaggerated yet affectionate portrayals of the rural Jewish community he knew as a child. He produced his first caricatures of rural Jewish life for Léon Cahun's La Vie Juive published in 1886 (Passover Preparations and Motzoh section). This was followed two years later by Sachor Masoch's Contes Juives. In 1902 Lévy published Scènes familiales juives, focusing solely on his caricatures. It is the most complete collection of his depictions of Alsatian Jews.
Although Lévy appropriated the stereotypical images of Jews that filled anti-Semitic works, he intended such scenes to demonstrate their traditional charm. He sought to infuse stock images with levity, humanity, and humor - the associations he had with his childhood.
|3. Alphonse Lévy (1843-1918). [Shiddukh. (The Engagement.)] Lithograph, ca. 1900.| | <urn:uuid:7a064827-c348-4017-b832-f10ebc935deb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/webexhibits/ImagesOfPrayer/AlphonseLevy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965662 | 237 | 3.25 | 3 |
As South Carolina’s urban populations increase and coastal areas are developed, critical nursery habitats can be impacted by direct human perturbations such as increased fishing pressure or by indirect effects such as runoff and pollution. As stewards of the state’s resources it is the Department of Natural Resources’ responsibility to maintain healthy coastal fishery populations to be enjoyed by current and future generations. This goal requires information about species life history characteristics and a diverse set of management strategies.
Propagation and rearing various life stages of marine organisms, in a controlled environment, and subsequently releasing them into the wild offers opportunities to gain a better understanding of population dynamics and habitat limitations as well as to restore or rebuild declining populations. Release of hatchery products to enhance exiting populations is but one of many management tools. When used, stock enhancement efforts are coupled with strict fishing controls and considered as a means of more rapidly restoring depleted populations than is possible by regulations alone. Under certain conditions, stocking can be considered for restoration of threatened and endangered species. | <urn:uuid:1b8a9256-455c-460e-808b-a332deae6952> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/mrri/aqua/fisheries.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944308 | 206 | 3.5 | 4 |
LANSING - In the dead cold of the Upper Peninsula winter, Robert Heyd leaves his snowmobile and approaches an enormous American beech armed with a slingshot, rope and a saw.
Supported by his snowshoes on four feet of snow, Heyd slings a quarter-pound weight attached to parachute cord 80 feet up into the highest branches of the behemoth and uses the rope to haul the 4-foot saw to the top.
A branch falls harmlessly to the ground next to the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) forest health management program director.
It's a first step in saving the state's majestic beeches.
After eight years of research, the DNR and the U.S. Forest Service are ready to implement a strategy to fight the destructive beech bark disease, said Jennifer Koch, a research biologist with the Forest Service's Northern Research Station in Delaware, Ohio.
Koch said the strategy will plant trees that are naturally resistant to the disease in seedling orchards throughout the state to increase the likelihood of resistant trees multiplying.
The DNR identified nine disease-resistant types of beeches in the Lower Peninsula and 19 in the U.P., Koch said. Still, those trees are too spread out to naturally multiply before the beech population is devastated.
"We're basically just trying to help Mother Nature by putting the resistant trees next to each other," Koch said. "When you plant them all together, they have no choice but to cross with each other."
Koch said the first seedlings for planting in the orchards are being grown and will be planted this fall.
The branches that Heyd collects from a resistant tree are the starting point for creating disease-resistant seedlings. Those branches travel to Koch's laboratory where they are grafted and later produce seeds.
Koch said the seedlings have a 50 percent chance of being disease-resistant, while only 1-5 percent of seedlings in the wild are resistant.
Heyd said it's a good solution to a big problem.
"Once the disease is in the state, it's very difficult to get it out," Heyd said.
Patrick Rusz, the Michigan Wildlife Conservancy's director of wildlife, said the disease is caused by a tiny insect called a beech scale. The scale, which is less than 1/16 of an inch long, feeds on the sap, allowing deadly fungi to invade openings in the bark. The process kills the trees.
The invader species is thought to have come to North America on Asian ornamental trees in the late 19th century. It doesn't work as fast as the better-known emerald ash borer but has been devastating to Michigan's beech population.
For example, beeches in Ludington State Park, where the disease was first discovered in Michigan, have been ravaged.
Dan Flaherty, the park's manager, said the dead trees can be dangerous, especially around campsites. At this point, there is little the park can do other than cut down the dead trees and plant different species.
"You do what you need to do to make those situations safe," Flaherty said. "To replace a hardwood tree that might have been 60-80 years old and put in a 2 1/2 inch tree, you don't have instant gratification."
Flaherty said that reforesting is difficult because saplings often cost $150-$200 each. The park relies heavily on donations to support reforestation because there is little state money for that purpose.
Most of Michigan's infected trees are in the northwest Lower Peninsula and the eastern U.P.
Heyd said it's absolutely necessary to remove all the infested trees, especially where people may be present. Beech snap--when a tree suddenly breaks and falls--is a potential hazard to forest-users and structures, Heyd said.
Heyd said in the forests around Tahquamenon Falls, the DNR removes trees at the first sign of scale infestation. Removal and proper disposal of the diseased trees is the biggest difficulty in managing the disease, according to Heyd.
While the vast majority of beech in the state are falling victim, Koch said the planted orchards will start to replace those that die.
Koch said the resistant trees will eventually proliferate anyway.
"It's a very slow process, but we're able to accelerate that process with a little bit of intervention," Koch said.
Koch stressed that the strategy creates more naturally resistant trees, not genetically-altered specimens.
"We are not doing genetic engineering," Koch said. "This is not genetic manipulation."
Despite the progress, Heyd predicted it will be a long time before the resistant trees become the dominant beech in Michigan.
"It's not short term, it's long term," Heyd said. "But that's what forestry is." | <urn:uuid:7892b31c-fe11-4bbc-a9d2-1916f203412b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.mlive.com/cns/2009/02/researchers_find_promising_pro.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95316 | 1,009 | 2.921875 | 3 |
"Chapter 108." by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall (1876-)
"Let no one think much of a trifling expense;
Who knows what may happen a hundred years hence?
The loss of America what can repay?
New colonies seek for in Botany Bay."
IN the days of King George III. there was a great sailor called Captain Cook. He made many voyages into unknown seas and discovered new lands. Among these lands were the islands of Australia and New Zealand.
It was in April 1770 A.D. that Captain Cook first landed in Australia, in a bay which he called Botany Bay, because there were so many plants of all kinds there. At that time the island was inhabited only by wild, black savages, and Captain Cook took possession of the whole eastern coast in the name of King George, calling it New South Wales.
While America was a British colony, wicked people, instead of being sent to prison for punishment, as they are now, were sent to work on the cotton plantations or farms there. After America was lost, convicts, as these wicked people are called, could no longer be sent there, and British statesmen began to look round for some other country to which they could be sent.
Then it was that Australia was thought of. It was decided to form a convict colony there. It was hoped that free people would go too, and that soon Australia would become as great a colony as America had been.
So there sailed out from England a little fleet of ships, carrying Captain Philip as the Governor of the new colony, and nearly a thousand people, of whom more than seven hundred were prisoners; the rest were officers and marines to guard the prisoners. They took with them food and clothes enough to last two years, also tools for building houses, and ploughs and everything needed for farm work.
As the ships passed the Cape of Good Hope, they stopped there to take in more food, and also animals with which to stock the farms which the British hoped to make in Australia. They took so many animals on board that the ships looked more like Noah's arks than anything else.
When the ships reached Australia, Captain Philip landed, a flagstaff was planted, and soon the Union Jack floated out to the sound of British cheers. The health of the King was drunk, and then Captain Philip made a speech to the convicts. He told them that now, in this new country, they had another chance to forget their wicked ways, and to become again good British subjects. It was the first speech which had ever been made in the English language in that far land, and, when he had finished, the silence of the lonely shore was again broken by the sound of British cheers. So the town of Sydney was founded.
Governor Philip and his strange company of rough, bad men soon set to work. Everything had to be done. Trees had to be felled, and stones quarried and broken for the building of houses, and the making of roads and harbors. There was so much to do that little time was left for farm work, and the settlers in this new colony nearly starved. It seemed as if the people at home had forgotten them, for the food which they had promised to send never came.
Day by day eager eyes looked out vainly over the blue sea, straining for the sight of a white sail. But no ship came. Prisoners and warders alike grew gaunt and pale. Nearly all their food was gone. The Governor even gave up some sacks of flour which were his own. "I do not wish," he said, "to have anything which others cannot have. If any convict complains, he may come and see that at Government House we are no better off than he is."
Still no help came. Little work could be done by men who were starving, and the weary days dragged slowly past for the handful of white people who, utterly cut off from all others, were ignorant of what was happening in the great world, which lay beyond the blue waves.
But even in the darkest hour, they never forgot that they were Britons. "Our distress did not make us forget that this was the birthday of our beloved King," wrote one. "In the morning flags were displayed, and at noon three volleys of musketry were fired as an acknowledgment that we were Britons, who, however distant and distressed, revered their King, and loved their country."
At last, after three years, a sail was seen. Oh, what joy! Help at last, and news at last from home! But alas! the new ship brought little food, and many more convicts. It brought, however, the assurance that the little colony was not forgotten. Other ships had been sent with food, but they had been wrecked on the way.
A fortnight later another ship arrived, then another and another. The colony was saved for the time at least, although famine threatened them again more than once. At one time things were so bad that when anyone was asked to dine at Government House, he was requested to bring his own bread with him.
In a few years, free settlers began to come to Australia. They were farmers, and soon corn was grown in such quantities that the colony was freed from all fear of famine. Later still, a gentleman brought wool-bearing sheep to Australia, that is, sheep which have fine fleeces, and now the rearing of sheep for their wool is one of the chief industries of Australia.
As the free settlers increased in number, they objected to having convicts sent among them, for, because of these wild, bad men, the colony began to have an evil name. When gold was discovered in Australia, many more people flocked there. Then Queen Victoria and her government decided at last that it was not a good thing to send convicts to the colonies, and so in 1867 A.D. the last convict ship set out for Australia. After that the British shut up those who did wrong in strong prisons at home.
Australia has grown quickly into a great and wealthy country. I cannot tell you the history of it here, but although it is now called the Commonwealth of Australia, and has a Parliament of its own, it is still part of the Empire of Greater Britain.
Australia lies quite at the other side of the world from Britain, and when it is day in the one it is night in the other. And when Australians look up to the sky at night they see the stars of the Southern Cross, instead of the Pole Star and the Plough which the British see. Yet the people in the two islands are friends and brothers, and ties of love draw them together across the ocean waves.
This book has been put on-line as part of the
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Initial text entry and proof-reading of this book were the work of volunteers at | <urn:uuid:3e183e02-39d3-4079-8be9-6088bd141d5e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/marshall/england/england-108.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.991681 | 1,427 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Biologics—a new class of drugs derived from living organisms—have great potential for treating brain and other diseases. They interfere with the way a disease causes damage, rather than treating the disease’s consequences, and can be individually tailored to the person taking the drug. Because biologics are created using DNA technology, rather than a uniform chemical reaction with a predictable outcome as are traditional drugs, their risks are significant and often unpredictable. The economic rewards for the biotechnology companies that develop these drugs are high, but so are the costs. The authors ask how patients, physicians, industry, and government can successfully balance these risks and rewards.
Living organisms, ranging from human cells to bacteria, are being used to produce new kinds of drugs that are providing promising treatments for some frustrating medical conditions. These drugs, called “biologics,” rely on the insertion of a DNA sequence into living cells or organisms; the cells then grow and produce a large, often complex, protein using their own natural machinery. Biologics differ in important ways from the more traditional common forms of drugs, which are smaller, simpler molecules produced from carefully sequenced chemical reactions between inorganic (nonliving) materials.
As scientific “bluebloods,” with their origins in research that earned multiple Nobel Prizes, biologics are particularly exciting to clinical researchers because they hold promise for diseases that have had few effective treatments. Already, they have become significant for several immunological, inflammatory, and neurological diseases, and the market for them has risen into the tens of billions of dollars. Despite their promise, however, the development process has also revealed serious (and unexpected) adverse effects, suggesting that caution is warranted.
Biologics for Multiple Sclerosis
The development of biologics to treat multiple sclerosis is illustrative of both the rewards and the risks of these new drugs. Treatments for disorders affecting the brain represent, so far, only a small portion of biologics developed, but biologics for multiple sclerosis have fundamentally changed clinical treatment of the disease.
Multiple sclerosis is a chronic, recurrent, inflammatory (and presumably autoimmune) disorder that results in injury Biologics are particularly exciting to clinical researchers because they hold promise for diseases that have had few effective treatments. of the myelin coating of nerve cells in the brain and the central nervous system. When myelin is damaged or destroyed, the ability of nerves to conduct impulses to and from the brain is disrupted, resulting in highly variable symptoms that may include cognitive changes, difficulty in walking or balance, vision problems, pain, fatigue, and bladder or bowel dysfunction. Multiple sclerosis affects both men and women, often in the prime of their lives, and is one of the leading causes of disability among young women.
Before the first biologic was developed to treat multiple sclerosis, only symptomatic treatment was available, usually anti-inflammatory medications such as steroids. The development of the biologic interferon beta-1b (Betaseron), which was approved in 1993, opened a new class of “immunomodulatory” treatment that could be taken on a regular basis to prevent relapses, slow disease progression, and potentially alter the course of the disease. Other interferons for multiple sclerosis followed, and the market for biologics for multiple sclerosis is now more than $4 billion per year.
Therapeutic biological products for multiple sclerosis
| Therapeutic biologic
2006 sales ($ billions)
| Interferon beta-1b (Betaseron®)
|| 1.0 (sales data from 2005)
|| Berlex Laboratories
| Interferon beta-1a (Avonex®)
|| Biogen Idec, Inc.
| Interferon beta-1a (Rebif®)
|| Serono Laboratories, Inc.
| Natalizumab (Tysabri®)
|| < 0.1
|| Biogen Idec and Elan Pharmaceuticals
The newest biologic for multiple sclerosis—natalizumab (Tysabri)—highlights the critical issues facing biologics as a whole. Natalizumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against a protein on the surface of white blood cells (immune lymphocytes). This antibody decreases the lymphocytes’ ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and potentially cause the damaging inflammation of the myelin seen in multiple sclerosis. The biologic held enormous clinical promise in early trials and fueled the rise in the manufacturer’s stock, which nearly doubled in 2004, culminating when natalizumab received initial FDA approval in November of that year.
At that point, the drug’s performance in clinical trials appeared to be fulfilling its potential. An interim analysis of one of the major studies showed promising results, and the final results from that trial demonstrated that natalizumab decreased signs of inflammation in the brain by 80 percent (as seen on MRIs), reduced clinical relapses by almost 70 percent, and slowed disease progression by 40 percent.1 In addition, the medication appeared to be well tolerated, and even before FDA approval, neurology clinics across the country began planning for infusion centers that, it was hoped, would administer the intravenous medication to many of the some 400,000 people in the United States who have multiple sclerosis.
The promise of natalizumab came to a screeching halt, however, with reports of three cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare, often fatal, viral infection in the brain that can occur in people with lowered immune responses. This particular side effect had not been discovered in animal testing, so its appearance was entirely unexpected. While the reported cases occurred in patients who were taking both natalizumab and other immunosuppressant drugs, Biogen Idec quickly (in February 2005) voluntarily suspended the marketing of natalizumab, precipitating a dive in the company’s stock price.
Now, however, natalizumab has begun a slow climb back to acceptance. On the basis of a narrower intended use and a strict patient monitoring system to track any new cases of PML, in June 2006 the FDA gave Biogen Idec approval to reintroduce the drug. Carefully chosen people with multiple sclerosis at selected medical centers are receiving the treatment, and the company’s stock price has recovered a small portion of its previous losses.
The price of natalizumab, like that of many biologics, is high. Patient payments for a single monthly dose of the drug may be $1,000 or more, and health insurance does not always reimburse this. A 2006 report in the Annals of Neurology highlighted the example of a medical student at the University of California at San Francisco who was recently diagnosed with multiple sclerosis and had a poor response to beta interferon. Her physician prescribed natalizumab, but her health care plan had not yet approved the medication for coverage—leaving the student at one of the leading medical centers in the country unable to receive the medication.2
The Genesis of Biologics
The genesis of bioengineered drugs, such as those now available to treat multiple sclerosis, is one of the great success stories in biology and medicine, and in the interplay of those fields with commerce. The speed with which basic scientific discovery was translated into new drugs was remarkably short, less than a decade—about half the time required by most previous new classes of drugs.
Biologics—and the biotechnology companies that create them—have their origins in scientific advances made in the 1970s by researchers who learned how to manipulate genetic material. In 1972, Paul Berg, Ph.D., at Stanford University, first produced recombinant DNA, a form of hybrid DNA created in the laboratory by splicing together segments of DNA from two or more organisms or cells. Soon thereafter, Herbert Boyer, Ph.D., at the University of California, San Francisco, demonstrated the feasibility of inserting foreign DNA into E. coli bacteria. Georges Kohler, Ph.D., and Cesar Milstein, Ph.D., subsequently discovered enzymes (called restriction endonucleases) that are able to chop up DNA at specific locations, further enabling the splicing together of recombinant DNA molecules.
Together, these discoveries made possible the development in 1982 of the first human recombinant protein, recombinant human insulin. Up to that point, people with diabetes who needed supplemental insulin had to rely on insulin obtained from cows and pigs. While that approach was effective for many people, others had allergic reactions to the foreign protein. To make recombinant human insulin, the first step was to isolate the human gene (genes are pieces of DNA) for insulin. Next, using restriction endonucleases, the gene for human insulin is inserted (spliced) into a circular As the field has advanced, so have the technologies employed, and today many commonly prescribed biologics are “chimaeric” proteins derived from spliced DNA from more than one organism (such as humans and mice). piece of DNA from bacteria called a plasmid. The now recombinant plasmid (human insulin gene combined with bacteria genes) is inserted back into bacteria, where it makes many copies of itself as the bacteria divide. The growing numbers of bacteria with the recombinant plasmid produce insulin protein molecules that are gathered and purified into recombinant human insulin.
From this science, the biotechnology industry was born. Herbert Boyer helped found one of the first biotechnology firms, Genentech, in 1976. Other firms soon followed, including Amgen in 1980 and Genzyme in 1981. The recombinant DNA technology led not only to recombinant human insulin but also to recombinant factor VIII for hemophilia and recombinant erythropoietin for anemia. Since the initial production of recombinant proteins from a single human gene, applications of biotechnology have expanded to the formation of monoclonal antibodies, proteins that are directed at a specific target and underlie therapies for breast cancer (for example, trastuzumab, or Herceptin) and rheumatoid arthritis (for example, rituximab, or Rituxan). According to IMS Health (a company that provides information and analysis for the international pharmaceutical market), because of these scientific advances, the biotechnology industry is now valued at more than $50 billion and is projected to grow to $90 billion by 2009.
Rising Risks . . .
As the natalizumab example demonstrates, the industry is confronting challenges of both safety and pricing. The advantage of many of the first biologics, for example human recombinant insulin, is that they are proteins normally found in humans and therefore avoid the allergic reactions that can result from foreign proteins. But as the field has advanced, so have the technologies employed, and today many commonly prescribed biologics are “chimaeric” proteins derived from spliced DNA from more than one organism (such as humans and mice). The future will see the production of more chimaeric proteins and also the use of transgenic animals (laboratory animals with some human cells) for manufacturing new products. These novel therapies carry troublesome risks, especially that of adverse immunological reactions.
Biologics also carry idiosyncratic, sometimes fatal, risks that are impossible to predict. In 2006, six healthy volunteers in the United Kingdom nearly died after taking a particular monoclonal antibody (TGN1412), originally developed for leukemia and rheumatoid arthritis, in a Phase I trial in a small number of people to assess its safety. Despite significant investigation, the cause for the serious immune reaction has not been determined.
Because biologics are based on complex living cells or organisms, they are much more sensitive to changes in the manufacturing process than traditional drugs, which are synthesized through a controlled chemical reaction. Even a slight change in the process can cause a large problem, so biologics receive additional scrutiny from regulatory bodies. Any contaminants from the manufacturing process can produce serious adverse consequences. For example, the subcutaneous administration of a new erythropoietin product (Eprex) to treat anemia was associated with a dangerous fall in the production of oxygen-carrying red blood cells in patients. But the drop in red blood cell production decreased (or completely stopped) after changing from subcutaneous to intravenous administration of the drug.3 According to the manufacturers, the problem occurred after the company started using a different stopper for the syringes used for subcutaneous administration.
Neurologists and psychiatrists are trying to learn from the unanticipated adverse effects of biologics. Many of the immunologically active agents used to treat hepatitis C, cancer, and rheumatoid arthritis, for instance, produce Biologics also offer enormous rewards for patients and companies. Because they interact with the body’s own cellular processes, they interfere with the way a disease causes damage, rather than treating the disease’s consequence. unwanted effects in the brain, ranging from personality change, memory impairment, or mild depression to psychosis, seizures, and movement disorders. Fortunately, these effects are usually only temporary, but their occurrence often limits use of the biologics. Studies to understand the overlap between immunological function and the brain that occurs when these biologics are used may yield important new insights into these brain conditions.
In addition to unanticipated safety risks, producers of patented biologics face commercial risk from the possible introduction of copies. In the United States, the Hatch-Waxman Act of 1984 allows for the introduction of generic drugs for traditional small-molecule chemical products after a patent expires, if the generic can be shown to be equivalent to the original drug. However, the act does not cover most biologics, effectively granting many biotechnology firms monopolies without expiration. But competition for biologics appears to be on the horizon. The European Medicines Agency released a “biosimilar” policy in 2004. The policy would permit the introduction of similar competitor products after the patent has expired on the initial biologic, if certain laboratory and clinical testing studies are performed.3 In the United States, the Access to Life-Saving Medicine Act, introduced by Congressman Henry Waxman (D-Calif.), would create a regulatory process for approval of “follow-on” (sometimes called “generic”) biologics to compete with innovator biologics after patent expiration.
This issue pits the biotechnology industry—which argues that the manufacturing processes of biologics are much more complicated than those for small-molecule products and thus cannot be safely and precisely replicated—against purchasers of health care, who are looking for relief from rising health care expenses. At stake is the approximately $10 billion worth of biopharmaceuticals that are projected to lose patent coverage by 2009.3 Resolution of this tension will tax both manufacturers and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Because of biologics’ unique nature, companies seeking to develop copies will need to conduct more-extensive clinical testing than is typical in developing non-biologic generics. Such trials are costly and will erode the cost/price advantage on which generics depend. Likewise, the FDA, which developed its regulatory requirements for biologics during the first 25 years of their availability, will be confronted by patient groups who champion greater access to medications, and to lower-cost ones.
. . . and Rewards
Biologics also offer enormous rewards for patients and companies. Because they interact with the body’s own cellular processes, they interfere with the way a disease causes damage, rather than treating the disease’s consequence. The effects of biologics vary from patient to patient and they can be highly targeted. As molecular genetics advances, increasing numbers of effective biologics are likely to transform treatment by supplying deficient enzymes in certain disorders, for example, Gaucher’s disease, or augmenting the body’s own limited supply of a protein, such as insulin in diabetes.
While the number of biologics for brain diseases and disorders currently on the market is limited, the pipeline of biologics with applications with neurological applications is robust.
Therefore, many biotechnology firms are attracting the attention of large pharmaceutical companies, which are becoming increasingly dependent on developing, or buying the rights to, and marketing new therapies as their patents on existing products expire. AstraZeneca’s recent agreement to buy the biotechnology firm MedImmune for $15 billion in cash, a premium more than 50 percent of the stock price, indicates how much the biologics business is valued.
As biologics’ share of the pharmaceutical portion of health care expenses grows, these therapies will continue to draw heightened public interest. Safety and manufacturing concerns, and the demand for generic competition, will likely lead to closer post-marketing surveillance. The challenge will be to continue to reward the development of pioneering therapies, such as new biologics to treat previously untreatable diseases, while addressing their high prices. A related challenge is to reward these pioneering innovations while exerting pressure on prices of competing products for treating the same disease. This tension is, of course, not unique to biologics, but its resolution is critical because of their especially high costs.
Issues on the Horizon
Biologics are at the nexus of many of the significant forces at work in medicine: the science, the economics, and the politics. Because no other effective treatments exist for many neurological conditions, patients and their families are outspoken. While many neurological disorders are relatively uncommon, drugs to treat them have proven to be commercially attractive, in part because of the high prices manufacturers have been able to charge for new therapies. Yet there is significant impetus to move faster and to be more productive in discovery and approval of new biologics.
Scientifically, many of the most rapidly advancing areas of neurobiology are likely to create demand for biologics. While the first applications were in immunology and hormone replacement, new target pathways particularly suitable for biologics are likely to be revealed by research in genetics (especially environmental changes to gene expression), structural biology (the chemical skeleton of nerves, synapses, axons, and receptors), and nerve regeneration and repair.
The economics of biologics will grow more challenging, especially as demand increases. The financial model of the industry has been built on aggressive pricing of drugs intended for use in a limited number of patients. Such a model will probably not continue to be viable, as pressure on price from purchasers grows and as indications for biologics extend to more patients. The consequences are likely to include greater incentives for productivity of the industry, allowing the costs of drug discovery, development, and manufacturing to be lowered.
In many ways, the politics are the most salient issue—and the most interesting. The vexing issues that surround the field display all the tensions at work between industry and its regulators, on the one hand, and physicians and patients, on the other. A current example is pressure for early access to new biologics, before FDA approval.
Conventionally, access to any drug that has not yet been approved is restricted to patients who are enrolled in controlled clinical trials. However, many now advocate modifying this restricted access to new treatments that are in Because of its cutting edge science, biologics will be at the leading edge of political discussions about the science that should be funded, the types of therapies that will be developed, and the people that will initially have access to them. development. One particular remedy, urged by patient advocacy groups, is the patient-sponsored trial, one that is paid for by the patients themselves. This idea was borrowed from the field of cancer treatment, where it was first used for the treatment of rare tumors, especially in children. Because of the infrequency of such tumors, the FDA and pharmaceutical companies were generally supportive of this practice and afforded considerable flexibility in obtaining “compassionate use” drugs. Also, insurers were often willing to offset the cost of such therapy, just as they had done historically for experimental cancer chemotherapy. Neurological patients would like to see the same kind of flexibility available to them. Several lawsuits currently in the courts argue for a “right to access”; the rulings in this litigation will no doubt have particular bearing on the future of biologics.
From a therapeutic standpoint, the future of biologics appears robust. Researchers are likely to develop new biologics that address many conditions, often in ways that are tailored to the specific pathology of a disease and to the person taking the drug. But, despite its noble scientific roots, the future of biologics will increasingly be determined by debates in the economic and political spheres. Like health care as a whole, the field of biologics will have to justify its high prices and demonstrate the economic value of its products. Because of its cutting edge science, biologics will be at the leading edge of political discussions about the science that should be funded, the types of therapies that will be developed, and the people that will initially have access to them. Developing innovative resolutions of these debates will require the collective input of patients, physicians, industry, and government. | <urn:uuid:f00cd36c-ed78-43d0-b5e3-1d6bbc83fb93> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dana.org/Cerebrum/2007/Risks_and_Rewards_of_Biologics_for_the_Brain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949162 | 4,374 | 3.5 | 4 |
Edison: His Life and Inventions
The Black Flag
THROUGHOUT the forty-odd years of his creative life, Edison has realized by costly
experience the truth of the cynical proverb that "A patent is merely a title to a lawsuit." It
is not intended, however, by this statement to lead to any inference on the part of the
reader that HE stands peculiarly alone in any such experience, for it has been and still is
the common lot of every successful inventor, sooner or later.
To attribute dishonesty or cupidity as the root of the defence in all patent litigation would
be aiming very wide of the mark, for in no class of suits that come before the courts are
there any that present a greater variety of complex, finely shaded questions, or that
require more delicacy of interpretation, than those that involve the construction of
patents, particularly those relating to electrical devices. Indeed, a careful study of legal
procedure of this character could not be carried far without discovery of the fact that in
numerous instances the differences of opinion between litigants were marked by the
utmost bona fides.
On the other hand, such study would reveal many cases of undoubted fraudulent intent, as
well as many bold attempts to deprive the inventor of the fruits of his endeavors by those
who have sought to evade, through subtle technicalities of the law, the penalty justly due
them for trickery, evasion, or open contempt of the rights of others.
In the history of science and of the arts to which the world has owed its continued
progress from year to year there is disclosed one remarkable fact, and that is, that
whenever any important discovery or invention has been made and announced by one
man, it has almost always been disclosed later that other men --possibly widely separated
and knowing nothing of the other's work--have been following up the same general lines
of investigation, independently, with the same object in mind. Their respective methods
might be dissimilar while tending to the same end, but it does not necessarily follow that
any one of these other experimenters might ever have achieved the result aimed at,
although, after the proclamation of success by one, it is easy to believe that each of the
other independent investigators might readily persuade himself that he would ultimately
have reached the goal in just that same way.
This peculiar coincidence of simultaneous but separate work not only comes to light on
the bringing out of great and important discoveries or inventions, but becomes more
apparent if a new art is disclosed, for then the imagination of previous experimenters is
stimulated through wide dissemination of the tidings, sometimes resulting in more or less
effort to enter the newly opened field with devices or methods that resemble closely the
original and fundamental ones in principle and application. In this and other ways there
arises constantly in the United States Patent Office a large number of contested cases,
called "Interferences," where applications for patents covering the invention of a similar
device have been independently filed by two or even more persons. In such cases only
one patent can be issued, and that to the inventor who on the taking of testimony shows
priority in date of invention. | <urn:uuid:7edf9a0d-13de-4f39-83be-06bac5718347> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.free-ebooks.net/ebook/Edison-His-Life-and-Inventions/html/327 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959287 | 671 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The tree-dwelling Milne-Edwards’ sifaka lives in groups of 3 to 9 individuals, with each group containing mature members of each sex. These groups, in which females are the dominant sex, occupy large home ranges covering 45 to 55 hectares (2). Both male and female sifakas regularly mark their territory with scent, a behaviour that also communicates information about the scent-marker to other members of the group (2).
Milne-Edwards’ sifaka infants are generally born in June and July, after a gestation period of 180 days, resulting in lactation coinciding with the peak fruiting season. The infant, which weighs just 150 grams at birth, spends the first month of life clinging to its mother’s belly, after which it will ride on her back when moving through the forest (2). Females breed every other year, although the loss of an infant causes the female to breed again the following year. Unfortunately this is a frequent occurrence; 40 percent of infants die within their first year and 65 percent do not survive to sexual maturity. These high mortality rates are due to predation by the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), large raptors, and occasional infanticide by males and females entering a new group (2).
If they survive infancy, females reach sexual maturity at four years of age, and males at five years. Females may either remain in the group into which they were born or move to a nearby group, while males move out of their birth group to join another group between five and ten years of age (2). Milne-Edwards’ sifaka lives for up to 35 years (5).
The diet of Milne-Edwards’ sifaka contains a variety of seeds and new leaves, from which it obtains most of the necessary fat and protein (5), as well as fruits and flowers (2). Milne-Edwards’ sifaka moves through the forest canopy to forage for this varied diet (up to 25 species are consumed in just one day), and occasionally, it will descend to the ground to feed on soil. This rather bizarre food item is thought to provide the sifaka with important nutrients, or help neutralise poisons that accumulate from its regular diet (2). The upper parts of the forest are also preferred for sleeping; typically a branch situated eight to ten metres off the ground is selected, probably to avoid any nocturnal predators stalking the ground (2). | <urn:uuid:18a6e6a9-4391-4ab8-a438-22f603b8a9f7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.arkive.org/milne-edwards-sifaka/propithecus-edwardsi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953981 | 515 | 3.765625 | 4 |
8 Healthy Foods and How to Use Them
Learn health information about some of our favorite ingredients then put them to use in eight delicious recipes.
BAY SCALLOPS are a nice way to get protein, and they’re low in saturated fat and carbohydrates. The scallops are a good source of calcium and magnesium, which help maintain healthy bones.
Use them in: Linguine with Bay Scallops, Fennel, and Tomatoes
CHERRY TOMATOES contain lycopene, a powerful antioxidant that studies indicate may help prevent several types of cancer.
Use them in: Spice-Rubbed Steak with White Beans and Cherry Tomatoes
. RED CABBAGE is rich in vitamin C, a famed antioxidant and immune-system booster. It’s also full of anthocyanins, plant compounds that may help brain function, heart health, and metabolism.
Use it in: Caraway Chicken Breasts with Sweet-and-Sour Red Cabbage
KIDNEY BEANS are a good source of low-fat protein. They’re rich in heart-healthy dietary fiber, as well as folate, which may help prevent heart disease and birth defects.
Use them in: Red Bean and Sausage Cakes with Poached Eggs and Cilantro Salsa
SALMON‘s omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to increase good cholesterol and lower triglyceride levels. Omega-3s may also help lower blood pressure. Studies have linked them to a lowered risk of Alzheimer’s disease, too.
Use it in: Balsamic Glazed Salmon with Spinach, Olives, and Golden Raisins
SPINACH has been shown to contain at least 13 cancer-fighting compounds. It’s rich in vitamin K, which helps maintain healthy bones.
Use it in: Asian Spinach Salad with Orange and Avocado
WHITE BEANS are an excellent source of dietary fiber, magnesium, and folate, all of which have been shown to help fight heart disease. For pregnant women, a diet rich in folate has also been shown to lower the incidence of birth defects.
Use them in: White Bean and Pasta Soup
8. An ounce of
ALMONDS provides half the daily recommended dose of vitamin E, an antioxidant that boosts healthy skin and circulation.
Use them in: Chocolate, Almond, and Banana Parfaits (hey, sometimes you gotta have a treat) | <urn:uuid:db13720c-59b3-4639-8419-926aa338ae8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bonappetit.com/recipes/healthy/article/8-healthy-foods-and-how-to-use-them | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869624 | 513 | 2.828125 | 3 |
- The definition of a hostel is an inn with some common areas and few or no amenities.
An example of a hostel is a popular place for young people to stay in Europe.
- Hostel is defined as to stay at inexpensive inns that usually have common living areas and little or no amenities.
An example of hostel is to take a trip through Europe staying at such inns.
Origin of hostelMiddle English ; from Old French ; from Late Latin hospitale: see hospital
- A supervised, inexpensive lodging place for travelers, especially young travelers.
- An inn; a hotel.
intransitive verbhos·teled, hos·tel·ing, hos·tels
Origin of hostelMiddle English, lodging, from Old French, from Medieval Latin hospitale, hospice, inn; see hospital.
Middle English, from Old English reinforced by Old French (h)ostel, from Late Latin hospitale (“hospice”), from Classical Latin hospitalis (“hospitable”) itself from hospes (“host”) + -alis (“-al”). | <urn:uuid:42210e60-148a-4748-87e7-4ac5d51c51cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.yourdictionary.com/hostel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90581 | 247 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Plant found growing between the base of a wall and the asphalt path.
White Dead Nettle in Hertfordshire, England, April 1988
White Dead Nettle in Yorkshire, England, September 1998
Cresswell, Northumberland April 26 2008
Growing by the Pilgrims Way near Hollingbourne, Kent
A clump in flower in April, SE England: compare with next picture, the very similar looking Urtica dioica (lower right corner a Stinging Nettle can also be seen)
Not deadnettle; stinging nettle, Urtica dioica, the two are easily confused as they look so similar; Urtica has larger leaves, stings(!) and flowers later (from June)
The white flowers | <urn:uuid:8ce90502-4e02-4363-8c91-fdb4d27a2d4a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/showimage/305155/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930883 | 158 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Purpose of review: This review will contest the idea that the adaptive immune system of mammals represents an evolutionary advance which superseded the less evolved, innate immune system of invertebrates. General conclusions about the evolution of immune systems will be applied to current infectious diseases of humans common in conditions of poverty.
Recent findings: Many invertebrates have mechanisms for diversifying the repertoire of receptors specific for pathogen-associated molecules. The lamprey uses true genetic rearrangement to produce a repertoire comparable to that of our antibody-based system. Both adaptive immune systems may have evolved independently from an efficient, pre-existing, lymphocyte-based, innate immune system, the importance of which has only recently been described in mammals.
Genetic variation in human populations is associated with susceptibility and resistance to infectious diseases. Specifically, human leucocyte antigen and natural killer receptor alleles are associated with susceptibility or resistance to HIV. However, the extent to which these will exert long-term selective pressure is unclear.
Summary: Human pathogens do to exert selective pressures on the immune system, but these are unlikely to do more than change allele frequencies in the short term. In the long term, pathogen-driven evolution seems to promote expansion of recognition repertoire in adaptive and innate immune systems. | <urn:uuid:2ace80bb-467a-4da4-acff-7e2d17eeada9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journals.lww.com/co-hivandaids/Abstract/2012/05000/Evolution_of_the_immune_system_at_geological_and.3.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924128 | 256 | 2.96875 | 3 |
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