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Viewpoint: Optical rogue waves on demand
Among the myriad of nonlinear optical effects, supercontinuum generation is perhaps the most visually stunning and useful in applications ranging from tomography to frequency metrology. When a high-intensity optical pulse propagates through a nonlinear dielectric medium, its spectrum broadens, with the degree of broadening depending on the strength of the interaction. If the interaction is strong enough (i.e., the interaction length is long or the intensity is high enough), then this spectral broadening can be dramatic, resulting in a supercontinuum (SC) whose width can include the entire visible spectrum. While SC can be produced in many different ways, the most common way today is to use a photonic crystal fiber, which has a small core to confine the light, resulting in a high intensity and low loss, allowing for long interaction lengths . Despite the ease of generating SC, the dynamics behind it are extremely complicated, involving a cascade of different nonlinear effects. In a paper appearing in Physical Review Letters , Daniel Solli and Bahram Jalali from the University of California, Los Angeles, with Claus Ropers from the University of Göttingen in Germany have gone a long way towards clarifying the role that various nonlinear effects play. More importantly, they have shown that it is possible to control the relative importance of different nonlinear interactions, giving researchers control over the bandwidth and coherence properties of the supercontinuum, effectively allowing it to be used in ever more sophisticated ways.
In order to appreciate Solli’s work, it is worth placing it in context. In 2000, Ranka et al. showed that photonic crystal fibers with small core and high effective nonlinearity could be used to generate a visible supercontinuum using the output from an ordinary titanium:sapphire laser. Photonic crystal fibers were key to this as they allowed long interaction lengths while confining light to a small core. Following this demonstration, detailed studies by many researchers (see the recent review by Dudley et al. for more details) led to an understanding of the basic physics involved. It then became clear that the broadest supercontinuum was generated by the interaction of optical solitons (nondispersing nonlinear solitary waves that propagate stably for long distances), with the fiber mediated through the Raman effect. Once the basic physics was understood, work soon turned to an examination of the coherence properties of the SC, since a stable, coherent SC is necessary for many applications. It was then discovered that the coherence properties depended on the initial pulse width, with shorter input pulses typically producing more coherent output. The reason for this is that in the short pulse supercontinuum, the interacting solitons are produced via soliton fission from the initial pulse, whereas in the long pulse regime, the interacting solitons grow from noise due to parametric gain and modulational instability. Understanding the growth and noise properties of the long pulse supercontinuum has been an active area of research for Solli’s group in recent years and this current paper represents their latest efforts.
In an earlier work, Solli and co-workers showed that the amplitude noise of the optical supercontinuum had non-Gaussian statistics . While this fact is perhaps not surprising, since almost any nonlinear process will transform a Gaussian distribution into a non-Gaussian one, this demonstration led to much activity in the field of optical rogue waves and succeeded in creating wide-spread interest in the physics of the supercontinuum process. Furthermore, it was shown both experimentally and theoretically that the broadest supercontinua were associated with the more extreme events (typing “optical rogue wave” into YouTube shows some interesting simulations of this). Thus in order to control the supercontinuum it was necessary to control these extreme events, and in their current paper, Solli and co-workers have found a particularly elegant way to do this.
Behind Solli’s work lies the realization that the optical rogue waves observed initially grow from noise and so one could hope to influence this process by injecting into the fiber a small seed pulse with the appropriate wavelength, along with the pump pulse that creates the supercontinuum. The seed pulse would then be amplified through nonlinear interactions with the pump pulse and in turn would create appropriate dispersive radiation leading to the broadest possible SC. This was first suggested by Dudley et al. in 2008 , who looked at a similar idea of introducing a small frequency modulation upon the pump pulse to control the SC. In order to test this idea it is necessary to have two short optical pulses at different frequencies launched simultaneously into a length of optical fiber. This was achieved by using an optical parametric oscillator that produced two pulses, a pump pulse at and a seed pulse at . The pump pulse was then amplified before being launched into the optical fiber, while the seed pulse was temporally stretched and then passed through a variable time delay generator before being launched into the fiber.
The importance of the temporal stretching is that afterwards, the pulse is chirped and so the different frequency components are separated in time. This fact, combined with the variable time delay, means that it is possible to control the seeding frequency for the generation of the rogue waves. This in turn makes it possible to control both the spectral extent and, most importantly, the noise in the supercontinuum, as the experimental results presented in Solli et al. paper make extremely clear . They obtain a reduction in noise by almost compared to the unseeded case, while at particular frequencies on the long wavelength edge, the spectral density can be increased by almost . These experimental results can also be modeled accurately using a generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation, showing that the physical understanding behind the experiment can be reproduced numerically.
Importantly, their work provides a roadmap for future work on SC generation, and perhaps provides clues towards rogue wave generation in other domains. Applications like optical coherence tomography rely on short pulses with a well-defined degree of coherence to create images from the interior of a scattering medium; being able to control the degree of coherence could have important applications in this field. In addition, being able to control the bandwidth of the SC would translate into an ability to control the resolution of the OCT system. Many researchers are keen to explore whether an optical SC could be compressed into an ultrashort pulse; again, a key factor will be the coherence of the SC, both pulse-to-pulse coherence as well as intrapulse coherence. Seeding the SC should ensure a better pulse-to-pulse coherence, making it easier to compress the SC. A drawback to the current procedure is the requirement for an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) to produce the two pulses. Such OPOs are bulky, typically have a low repetition rate, and are more expensive than mode-locked fiber lasers that can be used to produce SC in the femtosecond regime.
More speculatively, it is worth exploring what this work can tell us about wave dynamics in other systems. An attractive feature of the nonlinear Schrödinger equation is that it describes waves in many different material systems, from Bose-Einstein condensates to ocean waves. While the existence of oceanic rogue waves is well established, questions remain as to their formation and growth dynamics, hence an understanding of extreme events in the optical domain could translate into an understanding of oceanic waves, although, of course, there are a number of important differences (there is no direct optical equivalence between the forcing wind terms for water waves, nor an oceanic equivalent of the Raman terms that drive much of the optical rogue wave dynamics). While most sailors would want to inhibit the growth of rogue waves, perhaps it is not too farfetched to think of using “seed pulses” along with the current trend of artificial reefs to create the “perfect wave” for surfers (see Fig. 1). In this way the work of Solli et al. might find applications far removed from optical labs.
- Theodore Hansch described such fibers as “magical” in his Nobel Lecture in 2005 - probably the only time any physical device has been described as such by a Nobel laureate
- D. R. Solli, B. Jalali, and C. Ropers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 105, 233902 (2010)
- J. K. Ranka, R. S. Windeler, and A. J. Stentz, Opt. Lett. 25, No. 1, 25 (2000)
- J. M. Dudley, G. Genty, and S. Coen, Rev. Mod. Phys. 78, 1135 (2006)
- D. R. Solli, C. Ropers, P. Koonath, and B. Jalali, Nature 450, 1054 (2007)
- J. M. Dudley, G. Genty, and B. J. Eggleton, Opt. Express 16, No. 6, 3644 (2008) | <urn:uuid:baf02501-ccb9-4aca-9a43-b13262d0e04b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://physics.aps.org/articles/v3/101 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937333 | 1,881 | 2.875 | 3 |
It has been sixty years since Dwight D. Eisenhower became president of the United States. Eisenhower presided over a period of American innocence and optimism. Considered one of the last great presidents, he often makes it onto lists of best presidents in America. Cast in the mold of George Washington, Eisenhower was the great war general turned president who never told a lie–or, in Eisenhower’s case, only ever told one lie, which he later called his greatest regret. Even later Democrat presidents would consult Eisenhower.
But not everything Eisenhower did was innocent and open. He used nuclear weapons and covert action to deter and roll back the Soviet Union. During his two terms, Eisenhower presided over the launch of one hundred and seventy major covert CIA operations in forty-eight different countries. Sixty years later, some of the operations he launched are still stirring up the waters of the White House. As Obama gets sworn in for his second term as president, some of the most troubled regions and the most troubling decisions he will face are, at least in part, the resultant wake of the actions launched by the president who was sworn in sixty years before.
In January of 2013, the biggest issue confronting Obama is Iran. That issue was created sixty years earlier, in 1953, by Eisenhower in his first year in office.
The story of Iran begins, not in America, but in Britain. Through its Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), Britain totally controlled Iranian oil in the first half of the twentieth century. The AIOC held exclusive rights to extract, refine, ship and sell Iranian oil. And though they did pay Iran a small amount for these rights, the AIOC made ten times what it paid Iran while also systematically cheating the Iranians out of additional billions.
So in 1951, Mohammad Mosaddeq surged to power in Iran, propelled by a wave of Iranian nationalism determined to recapture their oil so that the profits could be used for the benefit, not of the British people, but of the Iranian people. Mosaddeq was enormously popular, a genuine democrat and nationalist and the first democratically elected leader of Iran.
But democracy meant losing control of Iran’s oil. Mosaddeq immediately started trying to nationalize Iran’s oil, and, in April 1951, the Iranian parliament nationalized the oil industry. In May, Mosaddeq was elected Prime Minister and signed the bill into law. Britain responded by clamping a crushing embargo on Iran. The AIOC led an international boycott of the new Iranian oil industry. Then Britain began diplomatic and covert actions against Mosaddeq. But Mosaddeq was wildly popular and the people supported his moves. According to the U.S. State Department, he had the support of a full 95-98% of Iranians. He easily won a huge referendum victory.
So Britain tried to overthrow him. She failed. Miserably. Mosaddeq responded by shutting down the British embassy in Iran, and when all the diplomats were purged, all the spies were flushed out with them. England had no one in Iran to overthrow the Prime Minister.
So Britain turned to America. But then President Harry Truman was not willing to use the newly created CIA to overthrow a foreign government. But when Eisenhower came to power, everything changed. Initially, Eisenhower was reluctant too and briefly considered stabilizing Mosaddeq instead of toppling him. But he decided instead to pursue a more aggressive covert path than his predecessor had been willing to walk. Eisenhower was willing, and he agreed to do Britain’s dirty work. On either July 11 or August 8 of 1953, depending on the source, Eisenhower gave the CIA the presidential approval it had been waiting for. And in an incredible story of intrigue, Kermit Roosevelt, the grandson of Theodore Roosevelt, would take the helm of Operation Ajax, and in August of 1953, in the very first CIA coup, the American advised Iranian military, completed the CIA and M16 inspired and organized coup and overthrew Mohammad Mosaddeq.
With that America ended a flowering and promising period of Iranian democracy because it threatened her interests and reinstalled the Shah of Iran who would carry out his many years of savage and repressive dictatorship. The Shah would repress opposition media, political parties, unions and other groups. He would bring in SAVAK, that most notorious and murderous secret police and their hellish torture chambers. This decision of Eisenhower’s set in motion historical tides that would carry Iran through a revolution, an American Embassy hostage taking and, eventually, to the international showdown that Obama faces sixty years later.
Back on this side of the ocean, in what would notoriously become America’s backyard, as Eisenhower had delivered the first CIA coup in Iran, so he delivered the first in a long line of CIA coups in South and Central America. Eisenhower’s removal of Jacobo Arbenz from power in Guatemala in 1954 would set off a series of American coups in Latin America that would stretched through virtually every administration. In the next administration, Kennedy would remove Goulart from power in Brazil while undertaking a political action to encourage the removal of Cheddi Jagan from power in Guyana. Most famously, Kennedy would commit all of his energy to bringing “the terrors of the earth” to Cuba in an attempt to remove Castro from power. After Kennedy, Nixon would brutalize Chile with the coup against Salvador Allende, and Reagan would take out Panama’s Manuel Noriega amongst his other Latin American activities. The Latin American coups would continue through Bush’s unpopular and short lived 2002 removal of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela, right up to the Obama administrations interference and coup cooperation in Haiti, Honduras, Venezuela and Paraguay.
This history of American interference in the domestic affairs of Latin American and of American opposition to democracy and support for brutal dictatorships has led to Obama’s current struggle to regain influence over a Latin American backyard that is newly and energetically independent. This independence is, perhaps, best witnessed in the formation of the new thirty-two Latin American nation strong organization that excludes The United States and Canada and that balances out the US dominated Organization of American States.
The first modern link in the chain that led to Obama’s struggle with Latin America was forged by Eisenhower in Guatemala in 1954. A few years earlier, in November of 1950, a majority of Guatemalans had elected Jacobo Arbenz president. Arbenz set out to transform Guatemala from a dependent, semi-colonial country into a genuinely independent one. He took on United Fruit, who owned about 20% of the land in his country and redistributed it. He also regulated major U.S. companies in Guatemala, including United Fruit. Like Mosaddeq, he was a nationalist who wanted his own people to benefit from their own country’s wealth. So, in 1954, as in Iran, Eisenhower ordered the CIA to overthrow Arbenz. And in late June that year, blaming “a cruel war” undertaken by “The United Fruit Company, in collaboration with the governing circles of the United States”, Arbenz gave up the power that his people had democratically bestowed upon him.
But initiating the chain of coups in Latin America was not Eisenhower’s only contribution to current US policy in that region. As the embargo on Cuba goes cruelly on, responsibility for the Cuban crises is usually credited to Kennedy, and his Cuban struggles are usually at the center of the telling of his story. But history often neglects to report that it was much earlier, in December of 1959, that Allen Dulles, head of Eisenhower’s CIA, first gave the go ahead for the “removal from Cuba” of Castro. In January of 1960, Dulles ordered the creation of a special force to overthrow Fidel Castro. And on May 2, 1960, Eisenhower’s vice president, Richard Nixon, was briefed by Dulles on what the CIA was doing in Cuba, including economic warfare, sabotage, propaganda and more. Two weeks after that briefing, Eisenhower approved covert action on Castro. CIA expert John Prados has also shown that it was Eisenhower, and not Kennedy, who first approved and started the plan for the invasion of Cuba.
So in many ways, as with Iran, the seeds for the contemporary struggle in Latin America were sown by decisions Eisenhower made sixty years ago. But not only two of today’s most turbulent physical hot spots roil in the wake of Eisenhower’s actions, so too for America’s psyche. The scar on the American psyche left by the ugly nature of, and by the shocking defeat in, the quagmire of Vietnam has partly contributed to the determination to remain in Iraq and Afghanistan seemingly indefinitely in order to avoid slinking away with yet another defeat and continuing the humiliating blow to American confidence of the Vietnam Syndrome. And this too was born in the decisions of Eisenhower six decades ago.
When Eisenhower took office in 1953, the war of independence in Vietnam had reached its climax, and, exhausted by years of war, France was finally ready to relinquish her colonial grip on that country. So 1954 found the willingness for negotiation. France pulled out and Vietnam was temporarily divided into two halves: the communists would get the northern half. The division was meant to be temporary. It was to be ended in two years when, in July of 1956, a nationwide election would be held, the country would pick one leader, and the north and south would be reunited.
But the promised reunification of Vietnam presented a problem for America. The communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, was by far the most popular leader in Vietnam. A free election would see the people of Vietnam choosing a communist government. Eisenhower knew this. He said that “possibly eighty percent of the population” would vote for Ho Chi Minh. So, determined to avoid a Vietnam unified under a communist government, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and the CIA set out to destroy the negotiated agreement and make the temporary division permanent, preserving half of Vietnam as a noncommunist haven. Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles then encouraged Ngo Dinh Diem, the U.S. appointed leader of South Vietnam not to hold the promised unifying election. To avoid communism in North Vietnam, Eisenhower treacherously created two nations in Vietnam. A partition negotiated temporarily to avoid conflict was wrenched into a permanent partition that assured one. So, not unlike Cuba, Vietnam was, at least causally in part, Eisenhower’s war and not Kennedy’s. Eisenhower’s actions would plant the causes for the Vietnam War, and the effects of the Vietnam War would come to influence the decisions about the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that Obama would inherit six decades later.
Cuba and South America, Iran and Vietnam: three actions launched by Eisenhower in his first term that would send turbulent eddies well into Obama’s second term. But there was one more decision made by Eisenhower at the end of his second term that has contributed to one of the hugest, yet least discussed, disasters of today: the Congo.
Patrice Lumumba was elected as leader of the Congo in the first free democratic elections that country had ever held. That democracy had come to the Congo should have made America happy. But, as with Vietnam, the problem with democracy is that the people get to choose who they want and not who America wants. Lumumba was a nationalist. The Belgian colonial power had been plundering Congo’s vast natural wealth for herself. Congo’s diamonds and gold, ivory, rubber, timber, palm oil, copper and other minerals had been flowing into Belgium and not into the coffers of the Congo. Lumumba, like Mosaddeq and Arbenz before him wanted the resources of the land to benefit the people of the land. So, like Mosaddeq and Arbenz, he had to go. And, like Ho Chi Minh, Lumumba also had to go because, according to the Americans, he was a communist.
So, on what would turn out to be a very busy day for Eisenhower, only hours after he gave the final go ahead on the removal of Castro from Cuba, Eisenhower gave the order to remove Lumumba from the Congo. According to the senate testimony of National Security Council note taker Robert Johnston, Eisenhower flatly told Allen Dulles to eliminate Lumumba. Dulles sent a cable to Larry Devlin, the CIA station chief in Congo, telling him that “In high quarters here it is clear-cut conclusion . . . that his removal must be an urgent and prime objective”. In secret testimony, Devlin would later say, “I asked on whose orders these instructions were issued”. He said the answer was “the President”.
So, in 1960, Project Wizard, the plan to eliminate the democratically elected Patrice Lumumba went into effect. Along with Belgium, who contributed six million to the effort, the U.S. funded and armed the anti-Lumumba resistance, and CIA surveillance reports helped in his capture by Joseph Mobutu, the man the CIA had selected as the new ruler of Congo. Mobutu delivered Lumumba into the hands of, what Larry Devlin calls, his “sworn enemy”. Lumumba was beaten and killed on January 17, 1961. Belgian officers participated in his murder. The Congolese official who signed his arrest warrant was on the payroll of the CIA.
Lumumba’s assassination led to three decades of dictatorship under Joseph Mobutu that left a disintegrated and divided wreck from which the Congo has still not recovered. John Prados has said that “Exorcising [Lumumba’s] ghost in the Congo required years of fighting, never to be fully accomplished”. Since the 1990’s alone, an incomprehensible six to ten million Congolese have died. Underlying the war in the Congo are minerals like coltan, which is used in laptops and cell phones, and the thirty percent of the world’s diamonds that lay under her ground. The rapacious competition for those minerals has taken a country with perhaps more mineral wealth than any other nation on the planet, and returned the lowest per capita gross domestic product of any nation in the world. And that was precisely the inequity that Patrice Lumumba was attempting to resolve when Eisenhower had him killed.
Sixty years after the inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower in January 1953, many of the most troubled regions on earth, many of the most turbulent problems of the day–from Iran to America’s relations with Latin America and Cuba to the legacy of Vietnam and the genocidal wars of the Congo–that stir the waters of the Obama White House arrive in the wake of decisions made by Eisenhower all those years ago.
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The first official game of hockey was played in the late 1800s somewhere near Montreal. It began as a stick-and-ball game that British soldiers adapted from a similar sport the First Nations people played.
It quickly blossomed into a team sport – with skates and a puck – where skaters used sticks to shoot a puck into the opposing team's net. Because early variations of the game were played outside, the sport is most popular in areas that have winters cold enough for water to freeze for a long time, such as Canada, Russia, and Sweden – but thanks to the advent of well-cooled stadiums, the game has quickly become a year-round pastime in many climates.
Hockey's most coveted trophy, the Stanley Cup, was first handed out in 1905. It's named after one of Canada's governor generals, Lord Stanley of Preston. It's still handed out annually to the top National Hockey League (NHL) team in North America.
Hockey isn't a cheap sport, though a lot of the equipment can be bought second-hand. First, you'll need skates, and a hockey stick. From there, it's important to invest in protective gear: helmet, shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, gloves, padded shorts, skin pads and neck protector. If you're buying equipment for a guy, an athletic cup should also be worn.
Hockey is an intense physical sport (as is evidenced by the amount of protective gear you should wear during a game). It's a full-contact sport, which means body-checking and "sticking" are common. On top of that, the game is played on a slippery surface, which makes falls or head-hits common.
That said, there are some things you can do to protect yourself from injury while also getting a good workout. For starters, work on your cardiovascular health. Hockey requires lots of short bursts of intense skating. The stronger your lungs, the faster you'll be. You'll also want to improve your flexibility – you need to be agile when skating around players, avoiding body checks, and handling the puck.
Because of the intense nature of the sport, a 150-pound person can burn around 550 calories during a 90-minute game. Hockey also works the legs, glutes and calves from skating; arms and forearms from handling a hockey stick; and back, abs and neck from maintaining balance on skates and maneuvering around players.
To learn more about the sport, visit www.nhl.com.
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For an airplane to fly, it must always engage in a tug of war between the opposing forces of lift versus weight and thrust versus drag.
For a moment, think of an airplane moving from right to left and the flow of air moving from left to right. The weight or force due to gravity pulls down on the plane opposing the lift created by air flowing over the wing. Thrust is generated by the propeller and opposes drag caused by air resistance to the airplane. During take off, thrust must be greater than drag and lift must be greater than weight so that the airplane can become airborne.
For landing thrust must be less than drag, and lift must be less than weight.
An airplane in flight is the center of a continuous tug of war between four forces: lift, gravity force or weight, thrust, and drag. Lift and Drag are considered aerodynamic forces because they exist due to the movement of the aircraft through the air. The weight pulls down on the plane opposing the lift created by air flowing over the wing. Thrust is generated by the propeller and opposes drag caused by air resistance to the frontal area of the airplane. During take off, thrust must overcome drag and lift must overcome the weight before the airplane can become airborne. In level flight at constant speed, thrust exactly equals drag and lift exactly equals the weight or gravity force. For landings thrust must be reduced below the level of drag and lift below the level of the gravity force or weight.
Lift is produced by a lower pressure created on the upper surface of an airplane's wing compared to the pressure on the wing's lower surface, causing the wing to be "lifted" upward. The special shape of the airplane wing (airfoil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater distance faster, resulting in a lower pressure area (see illustration) thus lifting the wing upward. Lift is that force which opposes the force of gravity (or weight).
Many believe that this explanation is incorrect because flat wings (such as seen on balsa wood airplanes, paper planes and others) also have managed to create lift. Please read How planes fly: the physical description of flight as well to get a fuller understanding of the creation of lift. It is more advanced, though.
Press to see Animation on how lift is produced
Thrust is a force created by a power source which gives an airplane forward motion. It can either "pull" or "push" an airplane forward. Thrust is that force which overcomes drag. Conventional airplanes utilize engines as well as propellers to obtain thrust.
Drag is the force which delays or slows the forward movement of an airplane through the air when the airflow direction is opposite to the direction of motion of the airplane. It is the friction of the air as it meets and passes over and about an airplane and its components. The more surface area exposed to rushing air, the greater the drag. An airplane's streamlined shape helps it pass through the air more easily.
If you want a more advanced analysis of what makes an airplane fly, look in Level 2 and Level 3 for more information.
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What Does It Mean to Be Holy?
What Does It Mean to Be Holy?
In the democratic society of Israel, we with struggle the concept of what it means to be am chofshi b’artzeinu, “a free people in our land.” We ask, “What does the responsibility of freedom require from us?” Every year, it seems the answers are less obvious and the search to find them becomes more demanding.
Maybe our parashah can help by guiding us to approach freedom from the perspective of holiness. This week, we read two parashiyot, Acharei Mot and K’doshim. K’doshim starts with God’s call: “You shall be holy, for I, the Eternal your God, am holy” (Leviticus 19:2). This difficult demand is directed to “the whole Israelite community” (19:2). It is addressed not only to the priests, elders, and respected ones, but also to all men, women, and children; young and old; and leaders as well as average people.
What does the commandment “to be holy” mean? How can you demand that a person or a nation be holy? Interpreters in all generations have tried to answer this question. But in Parashat K’doshim, we can find simple, direct answers in a long list that details what “You shall be holy” means. The commandments here have deep meanings, and the most prominent ones are those that include both man-to-man and person-to-Maker directives. Consider these examples: “You shall each revere your mother and your father, and keep My sabbaths: I the Eternal am your God” (19:3); “You shall not steal; you shall not deal deceitfully or falsely with one another. You shall not swear falsely by My name, profaning the name of your God: I am the Eternal” (19:11‒12).
Parashat K’doshim teaches us that we cannot separate decent relations between humans from the commandments between a person and his (or her) Maker. Harming or insulting a person is the same as harming or insulting the image of God in that person; therefore, it is harming or insulting to God. Embezzling public money is not different from embezzling that which is holy to God. The reason to “be holy” is because “I, the Eternal your God, am holy.” The holiness of God requires that we lead a holy life.
The commandments that explain the requirement to be holy repeat some of the directives of the Ten Commandments, for example, to honor parents (19:3), keep Shabbat (19:3), and abstain from idol worship (19:4). Some have considered this repetition a reflection of problems in the editing of the Torah, but in my opinion there is deep meaning in it. The Ten Commandments are comprised of “do’s and don’ts,” but Parashat K’doshim tells us why we should keep the commandments and what we should look toward when we keep a mitzvah: we have to keep it so our lives will be holier. This is the purpose we should aim toward when we keep the mitzvot.
Israel’s Independence Day, Yom HaAtzmaut, which we celebrated this week, brings to mind several questions: Is Israel is a nation like any other or is there something that makes Israel different? Is the State comprised of the “Chosen People,” and if so, what does that mean? Our parashah answers those who claim that Jews are unique and that something in our genes makes us different, better than other people. In Leviticus 19:2, God says that there is nothing inherently holy about us: rather, God instructs us to “be holy.” And how can we be holy? We need to raise ourselves up through our deeds, by our way of living: only then can we be holy and a free people in our country.
In our haftarah portion this week, the prophet Amos says something similar: “Are you not to me, O people of Israel, like the Cushites? Did I not bring you up from the land of Egypt, and the Philistines from Crete, and the Arameans from Kir?” (Amos 9:7). These words that we will read this Shabbat teach us not to be haughty; we are only one of the pieces in God’s world. God tells the people of Israel that we are not different from other peoples that God brought up to new places, just as He brought us up from Egypt. Instead, we are all parts in His enormous patchwork. Nevertheless, we learn there is a special bond between God and the people of Israel, and in the future: “On that day will I raise up David’s fallen shelter, I will rebuild the breaches in its walls and raise up its ruins and build it up as in the days of old” (Amos 9:11).
Another way to look at the “chosenness” issue is in a historical context: when the people were in trouble, chased and defenseless, they were comforted by thoughts of being unique and chosen by God. In his essay “Half Consolation,”1 Achad Ha’am explains that when our ancestors simply believed that they were the Chosen People, they did not focus on the abuse they experienced from others because they knew their value. This belief helped them keep their pride when they were vulnerable and helpless.
Today, when Jews can choose to live freely in the modern State of Israel, and many may choose to visit it, there is danger that the Chosen People concept may be misused to support arrogance, complacency, and even racism. We need to remember the instruction, “You shall be holy to me, for I the Eternal am holy, and I have set you apart from other peoples to be mine” (Leviticus 20:26). This means that God will “set you apart” only if you become holy through your deeds—only then will you be unique.
We shall finish with these hopeful words of the haftarah (Amos 9:13–15): may they come to pass soon for all who dwell in the State of Israel:
The time is coming—says the Eternal One—
when the one who plows the field
will overtake the one who reaps it,
and the treader of grapes [will overtake] the one who sows seeds,
when the mountains shall drip sweet wine,
and all the hills shall overflow.
I will restore the fortunes of My people Israel:
They shall rebuild the desolate cities, and dwell [in them];
they shall plant vineyards, and drink their wine;
make gardens, and eat their fruit.
I will plant them on their soil,
never again to be uprooted from the soil that I have given them
—says the Eternal One your God.
Rabbi Dalia Marx is an associate professor of liturgy and Midrash at the Jerusalem campus of HUC-JIR. Her new book is Tractates Tamid, Middot and Qinnim: A Feminist Commentary, published by Mohr Siebeck.
“Holy” is a word we use often but are never quite sure how to define. When I ask, many define “holy” by using other synonyms like “consecrate,” “sacred,” “sanctify,” and “hallowed.” Even with these synonyms, we are not quite sure what we mean. The concept is complex, but the definition is actually quite simple.
To be “holy” is only to be “different” or “separate.” Think of what we call holy: Shabbat is holy; separate or different from the rest of the week because it is a day of rest. Yom Kippur is separate from every other day of the year as we spend an entire day, in synagogue, looking inward, accounting for our actions and how we might better make the mark in the coming year. When we participate in any life-cycle event, we know that nothing in our daily lives feels like the separate (holy) nature of a b’rit milah, a wedding, a bar or bat mitzvah, a conversion, and even a funeral. All of these are called holy because they feel absolutely different from anything else we do in life.
As Professor Marx points out above, all of these holy acts are only such because they resemble what is most holy, and thus most different from us (human beings), and that is of course, God. Indeed, “You shall be holy, for I, the Eternal you God, am holy” (Leviticus 19:2). We humans resemble God, the most beautiful and distinct part of ourselves, when we act differently from the way we do ordinarily. That does not mean that there is something inherently wrong about how we act most of the time. It merely means that when we reach a bit higher in our actions, when we stop to do right, when we are intentional in acknowledging the depth of beauty around us, we connect to and maybe even act like the God that resides within every one of us.
Perhaps the greatest paradox of our existence is this: the potential for holiness within us, which is so distinct from our other aspects, is the exact piece that binds us with one another. Moreover, when we connect to that part of ourselves we stop being finite beings and, instead, connect to the infinite nature of the world. When we connect to the infinite and binding energy we might call God, we are then living the definition of what it means to be kadosh ...what it means to be holy.
Matthew D. Gewirtz is the senior rabbi of Congregation B’nai Jeshurun in Short Hills, New Jersey.
Acharei Mot, Leviticus 16:1–18:30
The Torah: A Modern Commentary, pp. 858–888; Revised Edition, pp. 769–794;
The Torah: A Women's Commentary, pp. 679–700 | <urn:uuid:0c0d4cab-e88f-415f-b139-b3e9efa93a06> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.reformjudaism.org/what-does-it-mean-be-holy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956337 | 2,207 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Is there any evolutionary reason (or background for) having the urinary duct and reproductive organs right next to each other (in both humans and many other vertebrates)?
Because it works.
Evolution doesn't grow things or remove things because they might be funky or useful, Evolution is dictated by the survivability of organisms. If a change helps an organism survive to pass on its genes, it's kept. If it doesn't, it's eliminated from the gene pool over time. As long as a change doesn't significantly help or harm, it can be kept for hundreds, thousands, even millions of generations.
Evolutionarily speaking they are where they are because we're mammals that were formally quadripeds that became bipeds. The stereotypical quadripedal design has the reproductive organs located near the pelvis. Probably because they're best protected there. Powerful hind limbs for kicking, and nasty teeth and claws up front. It also gives easy access for mating, which is pretty important if you want to continue the species. On quadripeds it could be pretty darn awkward if the genitalia were located near the ribcage
Really, you could come up with a lot of reasons why the organs are located where they are. There are a lot of advantages, and a lot of disadvantages, but in the end the simplest explanation is going to be "Because we can survive with them there." The advantages have outweighed the disadvantages for our species' history thus far, and until that changes they'll probably just stay where they are. | <urn:uuid:11e4d69c-2d92-4aba-85f6-8fc8ce02ae96> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5740/what-evolutionary-reason-is-there-for-having-the-urinary-duct-and-reproductive-o/5742 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977984 | 310 | 2.875 | 3 |
Boys and Girls Learn Differently!
The Difference Between Boys’ and Girls’ Brains
The different learning styles between boys and girls have been well-documented over the past decade, with brain-based research and behavioural case studies from leading educationists invariably reaching similar conclusions. Whilst gender differentiation may be only a starting point for understanding how to provide the best learning environment for children (from birth onwards), it is important that we are aware of these differences, understanding how and why they occur, in order to manage our expectations of children’s development and behaviour.
Research reveals that there are significant structural and functional distinctions in the brains of boys and girls. What are the main differences and what does this mean in terms of learning and behaviour?
How do these differences in the brains of boys and girls affect their development?
Boys engage in rough and tumble play in the school playground because their sense of spatial awareness requires them to move as they learn. This assists the development of their gross motor skills. The urge to explore physically is what pushes boys to want to rush off and explore; to run, cycle, jump, roll and leap as much as they can. Conversely, during early childhood, girls tend to be ahead with fine motor development. Happy to sit for longer periods of time, girls develop strong skills in drawing, colouring, threading, painting and writing.
If you watch a class of boys and girls rush outside for free-play, you’ll notice that girls often spend most of the session discussing what they will do beforehand: who will be the Mummy, the Daddy, and other social aspects of the dramatic play, often leaving little or no time for the actual game itself! Boys on the other hand will tear around the playground immediately, as if the aim of their play is to cover as much ground as possible, as fast as possible.
Although boys may have an advantage over girls in terms of spatial-mechanical learning and girls may excel in language rich situations, this does not relate to any difference in intelligence. However, because traditionally we treat boys and girls differently from birth and often fail to provide them with the most suitable learning environment for their gender needs, this can lead to a disparity in academic results.
Ideal Learning Environment
The ideal learning environment for young children is one which recognises the different learning styles of boys and girls, ideally considering the spatial, emotional, social and cognitive needs of each gender. Ensuring equal opportunities for both sexes does not necessarily mean providing the same opportunities. For example, a young boy who finds himself in a crowded social setting may behave aggressively compared to a young girl, who will adapt more easily. Often, during the first few months of Nursery One, it is not uncommon for a little boy to hit, push or even bite as he struggles to feel comfortable in an unfamiliar setting.
Boys benefit from the opportunity to learn through outdoor projects, constructing, field trips and games. Because of this leaning towards hands-on-learning, boys more easily verbalise what they are doing than what they are feeling. When talking to boys while they are actively engaged in an activity, their language will be richer and more expansive.
How to Motivate Boys and Girls
From birth, babies are born with a huge amount of intrinsic motivation. When they see the results of their actions they are motivated to continue. This starts with understanding that crying will bring Mummy and milk. There are a number of ways that parents can help their children remain motivated:
- Provide an environment which allows them to explore freely.
- Do not jump in to help the child too soon. Provide ample time to allow for persistence to develop, vital to enable children to remain motivated.
- Set clearly defined limits that allow your child to be as independent as possible.
- Provide opportunities for you and your child to play to together. By exploring and interacting together, you provide a model for your child to learn from and you will get to know your child’s current interests and strengths.
- Praise and rewards should always be based on the child’s efforts rather than accomplishments. This can encourage the child to take on greater challenges rather than stick to a comfort zone.
It is important to understand that each child has individual interests and strengths and to get to know what these are. We all tend to be more involved with an activity if we enjoy it. This is especially true for young children. By understanding the differences between boys and girls we can plan activities which are more likely to appeal to them and lead to success. However, don’t forget that regardless of whether they are boys or girls, all children are best motivated by feelings of success, empowerment and by your encouragement, nurturing and love.
• Strong neural connectors in the temporal lobes make girls good listeners, with a sensually detailed memory.
• The hippocampus (storage area) is larger than that in boys, leading to an advantage in the language arts.
• Higher levels of serotonin in the bloodstream and hence the brain, mean girls are biochemically less impulsive than boys. Girls can sit calmly for long periods; take time to gather facts before reaching conclusions; happy to sit and chat.
• Large expanses of the brain used for verbal and emotive functioning. Girls are better able to multitask, with fewer attention span problems.
• Large areas dedicated to spatial and mechanical functioning. Boys, on average, use only half the space that girls use for verbal and emotive functioning. Boys adopt whole body approach to learning; can switch off if too much verbal explanation or when upset.
• Lower levels of serotonin and oxytocin (the chemical which promotes human bonding) leads to physical impulsiveness.
• Male brain is structured for compartmentalised learning.
• Male brain analyses symbols, abstractions, diagrams and objects moving through space. Hence boys tend to be good at maths, reading maps and logical thinking. | <urn:uuid:8b4b5cae-10c5-4d67-90a8-cd29584ac2b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ezyhealth.com/magazine/boys-and-girls-learn-differently/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950981 | 1,213 | 3.71875 | 4 |
The Next Generation of Biodiesel Coproduct Research
In the early days, the quality of crude glycerin produced at biodiesel plants was of little concern to biodiesel producers. “U.S. biodiesel producers were mainly interested only in the fuel aspect of the business and paid little attention to the byproducts they produced, even though crude glycerin production is 10 percent of the final product,” says Darol Brown, president of Portland, Ore.-based Sego International Inc. “Most did not pay attention to whether they could find a market for the glycerin, or what level of purity the market required. It was generally considered that a market for the crude would develop without their involvement, so they put no time or effort into understanding the total end result of the process.” Brown says in the 1990s, he was the largest importer of refined glycerin in the U.S. “What they needed to consider, and what they have now learned, is that the price they get for their byproducts helps offset their cost of production and profits,” he says. “Those who did not understand this have generally been bought out, or they have gone out of business.”
There are many grades of glycerin beyond crude, including technical- and pharmaceutical-grade (USP). USP Glycerin is 99 percent minimum with very tight limits on a multitude of potential contaminants, Brown says, and each shipment of USP requires a certificate of analysis. The applications for USP glycerin are endless. It’s used in an almost unlimited number of products. USP-grade glycerin is found in pharmaceuticals, food materials, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and personal care items. Some are less known applications, such as its use on raisins to keep them chewy, or as a cleanser for dairy cow udders to ward off infection.
There really is no set specification for crude glycerin, Brown says. “But each potential buyer has his own limits,” he explains. “Crude sellers must supply a lab test showing the assay of glycerin, the amount of methanol, ash, salts, and water and, in some cases, the amount of fatty acids. In general, unless you have changed the raw materials used, the plant will produce a consistent product and, if you know the producer, you can have some surety that the product will not vary, although most still require the test results to come with the shipment.” Some of the more common applications for crude glycerin include propylene glycol (anti-freeze), dust control and use an animal feed ingredient. “Crude glycerin is a cheap source of carbon and can be used in place of corn, grains or molasses in cattle feed, but it’s the lowest price and gives the least return to the producer,” Brown says. “Dust control is a major user of crude glycerin, but it is formulated with many other additives and is a rather cheap net back to the producer of the glycerin.” Brown says other applications are somewhat small and dependent on low-cost product.
“In the long term,” he says, “most glycerin should be refined to USP and sold into the high-end markets, and these refiners are starting to produce more refined product every day, but it does require a better quality of crude to make it feasible.” In the early days, biodiesel producers were producing low-quality crude with 35 to 60 percent glycerin content with high ash, methanol and fatty acid content, and while some producers today still produce similar low-value material, many plants have installed means to recover excess methanol and neutralize the caustic glycerin solution with acid to float out the fatty acids, which are suspended by the high pH of the reaction, and subsequently remove the ash and salts from the neutralization process. Water removal is also necessary to lower shipping costs.
Sego International’s crude glycerin spec calls for a minimum of 80 percent glycerin, less than 1 percent methanol, and no more than 3 percent inorganic salts, 18 percent water, 1 percent ash, 0.5 percent free fatty acids, 1 percent matter organic not glycerin (MONG), and a pH between 6 and 8.
The uses of glycerin—crude, USP-grade or otherwise—and other byproducts from biodiesel production are virtually limitless. Profiled here is the glycerin and coproduct research of three Next Generation Scientists for Biodiesel.
Karthik Gopalakrishnan is a doctoral student at the biosystems engineering department at Clemson University. Gopalakrishnan has been researching the use of crude glycerin as a carbon substrate to increase biomass and lipid production in the algae strain Chlorella protothecoides. “Glycerin is a three-carbon sugar alcohol that can be consumed by algae as a carbon source to produce oils,” he says. “The algae I grow in the lab produce about 60 percent oleic acid, which is an Omega-9 fatty acid.”
Gopalakrishnan says in autotrophy mode, carbon dioxide is a carbon source when coupled with sunlight or artificial light, and oxygen is produced in the process. “In the heterotrophy mode, organic carbon sources like glycerol and glucose can be used,” he says. “The presence of glycerin accelerates the growth of this algal species when compared to carbon dioxide alone.” In addition to crude glycerin, Gopalakrishnan provides other nutrients like yeast extract (a nitrogen source), some phosphate salts (a phosphorous source), vitamins and micronutrients. He says 1 gram of glycerol yields about 0.5 grams of algae containing 50 to 60 percent lipids.
“From my research, methanol has proven to decelerate the growth of the microalgae Chlorella protothecoides,” Gopalakrishnan says. “Other researchers have proved that Chlorella protothecoides has high salt tolerance, as high as 35 grams per liter, which can be equivalent to sea water.”
The goal of his research has been to increase biomass and lipid productivities, an important requisite for commercialization, and to do that, Gopalakrishnan built on previous research on the effect of the carbon/nitrogen ratio, which is “very important for lipid accumulation,” he says. “This was identified [by Yen-Hui Chen and Terry H. Walker at Clemson University] and I have used that in my research for improved biomass and lipid productivities.”
Gopalakrishnan has yet to work with commercial partners on his research, but says, “I would love to work with someone, to see my research into commercial production. Algae is the future of our lives, and I do envision algae biodiesel a reality in the future.” For this to happen, he says, focus must be put on furthering research and receiving government help in the form of grants.
Derek Pickett began as an undergraduate at University of Kansas in 2007 in the mechanical engineering program. Pickett recently earned his master’s degree with honors and is currently working at the university as a research scientist to improve a rig developed to gasify glycerin for combustion in a Chevrolet 350 V8 engine coupled with an electric generator. Pickett says the project was first developed by Bill Ayres from R3 Sciences LLC as a way to produce power from glycerin. The project was initially manufactured by the Biomass Energy Co. of Golden, Colo., and components of the initial rig were then donated to the University of Kansas in 2008 to get the system working repeatedly.
“The glycerin is converted to syngas through partial oxidation over a nickel catalyst on 22 millimeter aluminum oxide support spheres,” Pickett says. “The reformer catalytic material is first preheated with propane and once the appropriate temperature is reached, the glycerin is supplied.” At this point, the propane is shut off and the reaction continues without additional heat. “During both preheating with propane and the exothermic reaction of glycerin conversion, air is also supplied to control the temperature,” he says. The glycerin is broken down into hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, carbon dioxide and a few other trace species. Once the glycerin is converted to syngas in the reformer, Pickett says it is cooled in a heat exchanger, cooled again in an intercooler and then sent directly to the engine, which required only a few minor modifications to combust glycerin-derived syngas. “An aftermarket Woodward air-fuel valve and throttle valve were put on to allow for both pure propane and syngas combustion,” Pickett says. The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system was also disabled because the carbon dioxide and water vapor in the syngas act as EGR already.
The generator is a Mecc Alte ECO32-2L/4 alternator. “The power generation we were able to test was a function of our loading system, which was just simply two heavy-duty electric heaters drawing power from the generator,” Pickett says. They completed three loading tests: one with no heaters applied, then one heater (3.6 kW) and then two heaters (6.5 kW). With additional loading capabilities such as more, or larger, heaters, Pickett says the generator is capable of producing 50 kW.
They were able to run the engine at 1,800 RPMs and no load using about four gallons of glycerin per hour. “By increasing the flow rate of glycerin to approximately 4.8 gallons per hour, we can achieve 3.6 kW,” Pickett says, “and at 5.5 gallons per hour we achieve 6.5 kW.” He says the glycerin flow and power output trend is very linear, and to achieve the 50 kW max output of the generator, Pickett estimates it would require glycerin at a flow rate around 15 gallons per hour.
So far, two different types of glycerin have been tested, according to Pickett—food-grade, and refined glycerin from Renewable Energy Group Inc. “The only effect the purity has is on required flow rates of glycerin,” Pickett says. “When using the lower-quality glycerin, a higher flow rate to the reformer was required in order to produce the appropriate syngas.” He says future work will include trying to achieve syngas production from crude glycerin. A significant amount of heat loss, mostly from the engine, leaves room for future work on heat recovery and reuse for feedstock processing, distillation or use in an Organic Rankine cycle. “Using this technique, the heat could be used to produce useful work that could then be used to produce more power for the system,” he says.
The main goal of the system is to couple the rig with the initial production of biodiesel. Once more research is completed with the system and upgrades are made, the rig could potentially use the glycerin byproduct from the initial production of biodiesel for power generation. He says the most important finding is that the overall system is possible. “As far as I know, this is a very unique setup that no other university or company has attempted. Using glycerin for hydrogen-rich syngas production has been completed but utilizing the syngas for combustion and power generation has not been done. Additionally, once the rig is capable of operating directly with the initial production of biodiesel, there will be many commercial applications for the process.”
Scaling up the system will increase the efficiency of the entire rig, Pickett says. “The Chevy 350 V8 is probably too large for the reformer we have in place, because a significant portion of the glycerin is just used to run the engine at idle.” The Kansas Soybean Commission and Renewable Solutions LLC provided significant funding for this project.
Michael Morgan, an undergraduate at Utah State University, began working as a research assistant, in 2009, with the USU team on biofuels projects under the mechanical engineering program, but after becoming deeply interested in lipid technologies he switched his major to biochemistry. Now he is based in the biochemistry lab of professor Lance Seefeldt.
USU began researching algae production in 2007. “In 2011, we began working with other oleaginous, or lipid-producing, microbes including yeast and bacteria, and we have been able to grow these organisms on carbon-rich, low-value effluent to create higher-value compounds such as biodiesel,” Morgan says. The team successfully created and patented a direct in-situ transesterification biomass conversion, which allows conversion of all available lipids from the biomass without doing an initial neutral lipid extraction from the microbial sources. He and the microbial products team successfully created biodiesel from yeast, microalgae and bacteria to do engine testing for performance and exhaust emission characteristics, the results from which have been published in Energy & Fuels.
Morgan set up a dynamometer and emissions station for testing the performance and emissions characteristics of each of the three microbial biodiesel types, for comparison to soybean biodiesel and No. 2 petroleum diesel. The team also built a diesel streamliner fueled by biodiesel from algae, bacteria and yeast and raced it on the Bonneville Salt Flats three times, setting one record and beating two current records. Morgan was lucky enough to drive the racecar during one of those timed events and produce the yeast and algae biodiesel used at the famed race spot in 2012 and 2013.
“For our yeast and bacterial growths we utilize 10-liter and 100-liter fermenters, and will soon be utilizing a 500-liter fermenter,” Morgan says. “We are interested in producing high-value coproducts as part of our biodiesel production program in order to help the cost-effectiveness of biodiesel production,” which could open new funding opportunities and collaborations. “We are looking at the different biomass profiles of each of the yeast strains used in our lab,” Morgan says. “Each organism has a unique profile for proteins and lipids especially,” he says. “As biochemists, we are working to understand the sequestration pathways and the profiles of the final products so that we can best determine optimal usage for each organism in the creation of bioproducts. We are in the process of working with an industry partner to optimize protein production from a few of our yeast strains and are also using genetics to produce specific desired products that have higher value.” He says the USU-created techniques used for extraction/conversion for biodiesel creation also allow them to maintain the yeast proteins for processing into coproducts. “This allows us the benefit of having multiple end products, which increases our ability to become economically viable in creating biodiesel using microbial sources,” Morgan tells Biodiesel Magazine. “For the production of lubricants, we are partnering with other outside entities that have unique chemical processes that create or eliminate compounds that cause biodiesel to have lower energy content and reduced long-term storage ability,” specifically the removal of carbonyl groups, he says. “Each of the coproducts that we are working toward have the goal of creating valuable compounds and reducing necessary processing in an effort to create an economically sustainable microbial biodiesel and bioproducts model that can be taken to industry.”
The USU team began looking into coproducts once the ability to produce sufficient quantities of biomass and FAME that analysis could be conducted on the value of the final products versus production costs. “It became apparent, especially in the case of microalgae, that we were not yet close to being economically sustainable,” Morgan says. Most of the coproduct work at USU has focused on yeast. “I believe without strong coproduct utilization and research into improving the value of the derived coproducts, the advanced biodiesel production initiatives will struggle to be funded and become or remain profitable,” Morgan says. Due to USU’s use of microbial sources for all of the university’s biodiesel production, the team has been involved only on a limited basis so far into biodiesel coproduct determination. “For the most part, our look at coproducts have mainly come through results in the lab and finding the value of the products that are naturally occurring in the strains we have selected over the past seven years, and utilizing our technologies that we have developed,” Morgan says. “The methods that we use for our conversion have helped lead us to the breakthroughs that we’ve had here in the lab and approach companies that may be interested in our results. This is why we have been working mainly with proteins and recently some lubricants. We are blazing new frontiers here in our lab due to our choice of microbial strains for biodiesel and bioproduct creation and, as such, are helping to develop new markets or enter existing markets with an alternative product source.”
Author: Ron Kotrba
Editor, Biodiesel Magazine | <urn:uuid:750dcca6-289b-44fd-82dd-8fa5cb2e94fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/articles/17970/the-next-generation-of-biodiesel-coproduct-research | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954875 | 3,678 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Finding the right flowering shrubs for any garden can be a challenge, but getting the right plant in the right spot is a triumph for any home gardener. There are lots of hybrid flowering shrubs developed specifically to endure Florida's humid summers. When planting shrubs in Florida, it is important to review water and light requirements, as the humid summers may mean that plants that usually like full sun will do better in partial sun, or may need additional water.
Among the most fragrant plants in the south, the gardenia (Gardenia augusta) is a medium-size shrub with glossy, leathery leaves and white flowers that bloom in spring. Gardenias are compact, but they spread, so they should be planted with room to expand. These plants do well in partial shade, with moderate water and in slightly acidic soil. The Gardenia jasminoides x Gardenia thunbergia is resistant to nematode damage. and the Gardenia nitida hybrid thrives in humid climates where temperatures do not drop below 60 degrees F.
Kurume Hybrid Azalea
The Kurume Hybrid Azalea (rhododendrum) are hardy, small, colorful azaleas that flourish in Florida's hot climate. These plants are twiggy with dense foliage, and blooms are a profusion of small flowers in spring. They thrive in partial shade with regular water, and should be planted in slightly acidic soil. Among the most well-known varieties are the pink coral Bells, white snow and deep red Ward's Ruby.
Hibiscuses are found throughout Florida and thrive in the tropical climate. Known for large, colorful blooms and rich green foliage, hibiscuses may be planted or grown in pots, and some varieties may grow to 30 feet. They bloom most prolifically in cool weather, particularly in early spring and fall. Bloom buds may drop in humid weather. The Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa x sinensis), which is popular in Florida gardens, is the national flower of Malaysia and is known for its large bloom. The bloom may be single- or double-petaled. The Nightfire cultivar has stunning purple blooms with red blotches, and the Kinchen's Yellow cultivar has a 10-inch bright yellow bloom with a white center. Hibiscuses generally thrive in full sun with moderate water. | <urn:uuid:3ed0a52d-d912-4eaa-a995-6d607a42708e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/103131-hybrid-flowering-shrubs-florida.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922421 | 493 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Public health disasters don’t just affect the environment — they impact mental and emotional health, too. In observance of National Mental Health Awareness Month, the Get Ready Report podcast team spoke with Robert Motta, director of the Child and Family Trauma Institute at Hofstra University about mental health preparedness.
Motta and his students were involved in mental health response following Hurricane Sandy, which damaged communities in the Northeast U.S. in October, killed more than 100 people and left thousands of people homeless. Such emergencies can “have a dramatic impact on mental and emotional health,” Motta says.
After traumatic events, people may experience feelings of anger, guilt, grief and helplessness as well as dramatic mood swings. Such feelings can continue long after the disaster is over, developing into post traumatic stress disorder that can last for months or years.
And it’s not just adults that are affected. To help children cope with emergencies, Motta says parents should stay calm and optimistic and provide assurance that unpredictable things can happen.
“Parents can prepare themselves by realizing that children can be more influenced by their reactions than the actual event,” Motta told the Get Ready campaign.
Knowing you are prepared before an emergency happens can lessen stress during an emergency, says Motta. Instead of struggling to find out where to get help during an emergency, communities and residents can be ready ahead of time by organizing support groups and determining where emergency services such as shelters, food banks and call centers are available.
For more tips on mental health preparedness, listen to the podcast with Motta and read the transcript. For more information, download the Get Ready campaign’s mental health and disaster fact sheet. | <urn:uuid:2d485524-5b15-4adf-90d4-524cd5b553aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://getreadyforflu.blogspot.com/2013/05/mental-health-and-emergencies-being.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950655 | 350 | 3.078125 | 3 |
International teams of astronomers using the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization’s (CSIRO) Australia Telescope Compact Array have detected the gas fueling the creation of the first stars in some of the most distant star-forming galaxies known — ones that were assembling when the universe was a quarter of its current age.
The raw material for making stars is cold molecular hydrogen gas, H2. It can’t be detected directly, but its presence is revealed by a ‘tracer’ gas, carbon monoxide (CO), which emits radio waves of several different wavelengths.
“The Australia Telescope Compact Array complements ALMA [the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile],” said Ron Ekers from CSIRO. “ALMA targets the higher frequencies from carbon monoxide, which trace warm, dense gas. The Compact Array studies the lowest frequencies from CO, which reveal the cooler, less dense gas and so give the best measure of how much gas there is in total.”
In one project, Bjorn Emonts from CSIRO and his colleagues used the Australia Telescope Compact Array to study a massive distant conglomerate of star-forming clumps, or protogalaxies, that are in the process of coming together as a single massive galaxy. This structure, called the Spiderweb, lies more than 10 thousand million light-years away at a redshift of 2.16.
Emonts’ team found that the Spiderweb contains at least 60 thousand million times the mass of the Sun in molecular hydrogen gas spread over a distance of almost a quarter of a million light-years. This must be the fuel for the star formation that has been seen across the Spiderweb. “Indeed, it is enough to keep stars forming for at least another 40 million years,” said Emonts.
In a second set of studies, Manuel Aravena from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and colleagues measured CO, and therefore H2, in two very distant galaxies at a redshift of 2.7.
The faint radio waves from these galaxies were magnified by the gravitational potential of other galaxies — one that lies between us and the distant galaxies. This process, called gravitational lensing, “acts like a magnifying lens and allows us to see even more distant objects than the Spiderweb,” said Aravena.
Aravena’s team was able to measure the amount of H2 in both galaxies they studied. For one called SPT-S 053816-5030.8, they could also use the radio emission to make an estimate of how rapidly the galaxy is forming stars — an estimate independent of the other ways astronomers measure this rate.
The Australia Telescope Compact Array’s ability to detect CO is due to an upgrade that has boosted the telescope’s bandwidth — the amount of radio spectrum it can see at any one time — sixteenfold, from 256 MHz to 4 GHz, and made it far more sensitive, cutting the time needed for these observations by a factor of 20. | <urn:uuid:9314de94-d384-4644-974c-b9365a835ec1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astronomy.com/news/2013/06/astronomers-spy-on-galaxies-in-the-raw | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935714 | 632 | 4.0625 | 4 |
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A tongue twister is a series of words or a longer piece, like a poem, constructed to be very difficult to pronounce properly. Tongue twisters are used to create humor by challenging someone to repeat them very fast and listening to the funny results, as well as by public speakers and speech language students to increase verbal agility. Tongue twisters are also useful in understanding how we process language: they have been used in scientific research to substantiate the claim that silent reading involves articulation. It turns out that there are certain sound sequences that are difficult to alternate because of the changing positions in the mouth and/or the aural feedback of the sound similarities, and tongue twisters focus on these. Sometimes the visual appearance of the words is an added factor.
Shifting from a single sound to a blend or digraph. Shifting between /s/ and /sh/ is quite tricky, so you will find many tongue twisters that play on this sound combination: She sells seashells by the seashore. and The sixth sheik's sixth sheep's sick. In the following tongue twister, we see a shift between /k/ and two blends: /kr/ and /kl/: How can a clam cram in a clean cream can?
Changed order. Another difficult shift occurs when two words present the same sounds in the opposite order. Juxtaposing these words in a tongue twister means that we're still hearing the aural feedback and experiencing the muscle memory of saying the first sound when reading the second, and this causes confusion. Here is an example: A quick-witted cricket critic. Both words have the blend /kr/ and the single consonant sounds /k/ and /t/, but in cricket they appear /kr/, /k/, then /t/; whereas in critic, they appear /kr/, /t/, then /k/.
Similar but different. Another tricky pronunciation situation is alternating between words that are perfect rhymes -- that is, only the initial sound is different -- or words in which only the final sound is different. Perhaps it is distinguishing the differences in spite of the similarities that causes the complications in these tongue twisters. This tongue twister demonstrates both situations:
Denise sees the fleece,
Denise sees the fleas.
At least Denise could sneeze
and feed and freeze the fleas.
Homophones. Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently, and the recognition of a word that looks different but sounds the same as a word we've already said seems to increase the complexity of pronunciation. The following tongue twister is attributed to Bill Waterson in an "Calvin and Hobbes" cartoon and demonstrates both homophones and perfect rhymes:
How many boards
Could the Mongols hoard
If the Mongol hoards got bored?
Various combinations. The following tongue twister employs words that are homophones; shifting initial blends /st/, /sh/, and /ch/; and perfect rhymes all in eleven words: If Stu chews shoes, should Stu choose the shoes he chews?
@angelBraids - Congratulations on the job, you're going to love living and teaching in another country.
I spent three years in Asia and now am back home working with immigrant youngsters in grade school. Both then and now I used tongue twisters and poems to teach particular sounds. They're also great for practice activities.
Depending on which country you are going to you'll find there are issues for all age groups with particular sounds. The most common include subbing /sh/ and /s/ or /b/ for /v/. Often this is because their alphabet doesn't have equivalant sounds to English, so they go for something similar.
I'm going to start teaching English in Asia next month and have been looking for information on suitable material.
When I did a short training course the tutor mentioned that using tongue twisters for kids'classes would be a good idea. I would like to try it but am not convinced that I'll do more than confuse the poor children.
It's great to read that they helped Bakersdozen, but it sounds like he or she is a native speaker of English. Can I expect the same results when English is the second language?
As a teenager I developed a speech impediment and my mother swiftly whisked me off to see a therapist.
My heart sank when she produced a card with that 'pickled peppers' tongue twister! I really couldn't see how a whole string of nonsense could be any use, and resisted listening every step of the way.
Once I calmed down I realized that rather than reading it as you usually do, I was to practice each word individually. Slowly I was able to add more words until the day came when I could say it properly.
I had no idea that kids tongue twisters could help with this kind of thing. It still makes no sense to me but I'm happy it worked so well.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:8292d182-5688-4919-a229-2f85eeb40240> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-tongue-twister.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95513 | 1,088 | 3.625 | 4 |
Did you have chicken pox as a child? If so - and especially if you’re a Fibromyalgia or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome patient with immune vulnerabilities - you are at risk for the pain of a shingles attack. FM/CFS specialist Richard Podell, MD,* a clinical professor at New Jersey’s Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, explains:
n Acute shingles, chronic shingles pain, and heightened pain sensitivity (allodynia),
n Why it’s important to seek treatment immediately,
n The wide range of possible treatments, depending on pain severity and duration – from antivirals to nutrients that may encourage nerve repair.
Shingles and Chronic Shingles Pain – The Right Treatment Can Help
Shingles pain is a delayed complication of childhood infection with the chicken pox virus, varicella zoster, a form of herpes virus. After childhood chicken pox, varicella virus remains within nerve cells in the spinal cord in a kind of long-term hibernation. However, among about half of us the hibernating virus can wake up and become active. This is the disease we know as shingles.
Shingles pain begins when the varicella virus “wakes,” becomes infectious, and migrates from the spinal cord down through the long filament or axon of a nerve. In addition to shingles pain, we usually see a line of tender vesicles or blebs [blisters] on the skin over the path of the infected nerve.
Shingles treatments can reduce shingles pain if we start an anti herpes virus drug within the first two or three days of symptoms. Such shingles treatment medicines include FamvirR, ValtrexR and acyclovir. With or without shingles treatment, most cases of shingles heal within a few weeks or months.
However, if we don’t obtain prompt shingles treatments, some 5% to 15% of shingles victims will go on to suffer from long-lasting chronic pain. This post-shingles pain is called postherpetic neuralgia (also spelled: post herpetic neuralgia). ‘Neuralgia’ means nerve pain. Another term for postherpetic neuralgia is PHN. Postherpetic neuralgia pain can last for many months, years, or decades.
Shingles treatments within the first few days substantially reduce the chances of developing late stage PHN. Indeed, even without anti-viral medicines, prompt shingles treatment with pain medicines or nerve stabilizing tricyclic antidepressant medicine can also reduce the risk of postherpetic neuralgia. However, for reasons we don’t understand, one can still develop PHN, even when one obtains prompt, early shingles treatment. [More on treatments later. Note also that a shingles vaccine that the FDA recommends for adults age 60 and older who have an intact immune system is available in the U.S. as a means of boosting immunity to the reactivated virus. See the CDC's publication "Shingles Vaccine - What you need to know"]
PHN starts with inflammation and damage within the shingles-infected nerve. But this is not all. The effects of shingles pain and nerve damage can also “flow” backward through the infected nerve into the spinal cord itself. In this way PHN can disrupt the pain-conducting pathways within the spine, and from the spine, on into the brain. We call this nerve-damage induced pain neuropathic pain. At this late stage of postherpetic neuralgia there is no longer an active viral infection. Anti-viral treatments for PHN usually don’t help. (Although there may be rare exceptions where antivirals might help.)
n For some postherpetic neuralgia victims the pain is relatively modest – an annoying background ache, irritation, or burning.
n Others with pain suffer shooting-pain paroxysms down the affected nerve.
n A third group with PHN has an even more disturbing postherpetic neuralgia pain problem. This is called allodynia – a diffusely increased sensitivity to pain of all kinds and also to other stimuli that normally would not be painful, such as light pressure and even touch.
To understand allodynia’s increased sensitivity to pain, think of your nervous system’s pain transmission pathways as a series of radios broadcasting sound signals - from the peripheral nerve up through station stops within the spine, and finally up into the brain. Imagine that most or all these radio relays have their volume knobs turned up to “very loud.” That’s what allodynia means to our pain broadcasting system.
Increased postherpetic neuralgia pain sensitivity can be fairly local, just around the originally damaged nerve. In contrast, for others postherpetic neuralgia increased pain sensitivity can spread both up and down the spine, causing increased sensitivity to pain throughout the entire body. Fibromyalgia with diffusely sore, sensitive muscles can be one result of post herpetic neuralgia pain-causing allodynia.
Treatments for Acute Shingles and Early Postherpetic Neuralgia
If started within 72 hours, antiviral antibiotics such as FamvirR (famciclovir), ValtrexR (valcyclovir) and ZoviraxR (acyclovir) markedly shorten the duration of the initial shingles infection. Antivirals also reduce the later risk of developing post herpetic neuralgia (or PHN). However, after 72 hours the success rate drops off very rapidly. Therefore, if you suspect shingles, you should see your doctor promptly.
Suspect shingles if you develop an itching or painful rash. A Herpes rash typically has small blebs or vesicles, like tiny balloons out-pouching from the skin. Most often the shingles rash tends to form a straight line over the path of the infected nerve.
Strong pain medicine taken early, for example codeine or morphine, also reduces post herpetic neuralgia complications. Nerve stabilizing medicines such as the tricyclic antidepressants (such as ElavilR, PamelorR) also reduce the risk of developing PHN.
Neither pain medicines nor the tricyclics have anti-viral effects. That they help prevent postherpetic neuralgia suggests that severe pain causes damage to the nerve, which then feeds back into the spinal cord, causing changes there that create increased pain sensitivity. This mechanism may be similar to the neural sensitization process that is believed to cause Fibromyalgia.
High doses of cortisone-type medicines, and also electrical stimulation along the involved nerve might also reduce the risk of chronic shingles complications. However, the evidence for these treatments isn’t conclusive.
Chronic Stage Treatments for Postherpetic Neuralgia (PHN)
The pain of PHN probably reflects damage at multiple points along the damaged nerve and in the spinal cord and perhaps also the brain. Therefore, the best treatment needs to address multiple points of vulnerability.
Optimal care also requires holistic attention to the body’s natural healing systems, creating a metabolic environment that minimizes further damage and encourages repair.
Our goal is to both relieve current symptoms while also taking steps to heal the increased sensitivity to pain that typically occurs with this illness. (No, it’s not psychological or “all in your head”.) See our discussion of this holistic approach: “Reversing Eight Vicious Cycles That Block Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Healing”.
Topical Pain Relief Medicines for PHN
Many (but not all) persons with PHN improve by using topical medicines applied to skin over the path of the nerve that was damaged by the acute bout with shingles. These topical medicines include:
n Capsaicin cream (e.g., one brand name is ZostrixR). Capsaicin derives from jalapeno pepper. Applied four or five times daily over several weeks, capsaicin gradually depletes the damaged nerve of an inflammatory substance called substance P. Reducing substance P gradually reduces pain. However, capsaicin, during its first days of use, can itself irritate and increase pain. Obviously, avoid getting capsaicin anywhere near the eye.
n Geranium oil may have local anesthetic-like effects, reducing nerve pain within an hour, and lasting for 12 hours. One useful technique may be to first calm the nerve with Geranium or Lidocaine (see below), and then add on Capsaicin....
n Lidocaine (xylocaine) patch, an effective local anesthetic, can reduce both pain and allodynia in a large proportion of PHN patients. One can apply up to four large patches around the affected nerve. But one usually may not keep the patches on for longer than 12 hours out of 24.
n Ketamine ointment is an anesthetic that also blocks an additional stop along the pain amplification pathways. This is called the NMDA receptor. Ketamine (which in oral form can be a substance of abuse) is generally safe to use topically. With a physician’s prescription, a compounding pharmacist can make it at various strengths.
n NeurontinR, aspirin-like medicines, tricyclic anti-depressants and other medicines that we usually use orally are sometimes as or even more effective applied topically over the nerve. With a physician’s prescription a compounding pharmacist can make up many useful combinations of topical medicines.
Note: Specialized compounding pharmacists can make up many topical and oral medicines that are not carried by “chain” pharmacies. Most fill orders by mail, if you are not located near them. The International Academy of Compounding Pharmacists can help you identify nearby compounding pharmacists.
Natural Oral Treatments for PHN
None of the following natural products has had double-blind studies specifically for use with PHN. However, most have been used with some success for various kinds of nerve pain-related problems. For example: diabetic neuropathy, migraine headache or Fibromyalgia.
These natural treatments typically take weeks to a month to work. They may have their effects by improving nerve healing overall. There is no way to tell in advance which ones will be tolerated or effective for whom. And since we are doing multiple treatments at the same time, even with [one] patient we might not be sure which are working. However, as a group they are very safe, so they are often worth a try.
n Magnesium – is known to block the NMDA receptor pain amplification system. Magnesium also acts to improve multiple biochemical metabolic pathways.
n Carnitine and acetyl carnitine – may improving mitochondrial energy metabolism. Note: Carnitine is also available as an FDA approved drug, brand name Carnitor.
n Anti-oxidant vitamins and minerals – may reduce oxidative stress damage to nerves, e.g. vitamin E, vitamin C, selenium, zinc, N-acetyl cysteine (which helps make glutathione)
n Alpha lipoic acid – an important anti-oxidant, has substantial evidence in short term studies for improving diabetes-caused nerve damage (diabetic neuropathy).
n Evening primrose oil – an important natural oil, has one excellent study showing improvement in diabetic neuropathy. Sadly, since that study was published in 1993, no one has bothered to repeat it. You’d like to see a replication or two before accepting a proof as true. But, the best evidence we have right now is that primrose oil is probably very good for diabetic neuropathy, so it’s probably worth trying for other nerve damage syndromes also.
n Omega-3 essential fatty acid sources – including fish oil, algae, and flaxseed oil, are critical for making and repairing nerve cells within the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
n B vitamins – including thiamine, folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6, are essential for nerve health.
n The amino acid lysine – may help suppress herpes virus infections. However, there’s no firm information about whether it helps healing once PHN is established.
Oral Medicines for PHN
A surprisingly large number of different classes of medicines each seems to help a fair proportion of persons with nerve pain and allodynia (increased sensitivity to pain). However, none works for everyone and difficulty with side effects is also quite common.
Note: Many persons with PHN are not only more sensitive to pain, but are often also more sensitive to the side effects of medicines. Fortunately, for the most part, these are not dangerous drugs. So it often makes sense to go through the list on a “trial and error” basis until you find one that’s good for you. However, it’s also often wise to start with a dose that’s lower than the dose that other people usually start at.
Each of the following medicines seems to help some persons with nerve related pain syndromes, although only a few have been systematically studied for postherpetic neuralgia:
n Tricyclic antidepressant medicines. We use these for PHN at much lower does than we normally use for depression. Tricyclics can help PHN, whether or not you are depressed. For example: ElavilR (amitryptiline), SinequanR (doxepin), PamelorR (nortriptyline). Also related to the tricyclics: FlexerilR (cyclobenzaprine)
Caution: The tricylics can sometimes increase vulnerability to heart rhythm abnormalities. An EKG to check the heart’s “QT interval” should be considered especially if you use higher doses or have a history of heart rhythm abnormalities or other heart problems.
n Nerve stabilizing/anti-seizures medicines. Many medicines that we currently use to treat epileptic seizures also have value for a some persons with nerve-related pain syndromes.
NeurontinR (gabapentin) has good data showing benefit specifically for PHN. GabitrilR (tiagabine) is similar to Neurontin. Pregabalin [brand name LyricaR, is another drug prescribed for postherpetic neuralgia that recently gained FDA approval for prescription to treat Fibromyalgia.]
TrileptalR (oxcarbazepine) is useful for trigeminal neuralgia nerve pain, but has not been tested specifically for PHN. Trileptal is a safer version of TegretolR (carbamazepine), a long-established medicine used for nerve-related pain.
LamictalR (lamotrigine) and TopamaxR (topiramate) are additional nerve stabilizing/anti-seizures medicines that might potentially be helpful.
n Muscle relaxant/anti-muscle spasm medicines. ZanaflexR (tizanidine), an alpha adrenergic blocking agent, and BaclofenR, a GABA receptor stimulating medicine, are both used for muscle spasm in multiple sclerosis. Both are sometimes useful for nerve-related pain.
The benzodiazepine tranquilizers such as ValiumR, KlonopinR, AtivanR, and XanexR have muscle relaxing effects. In some persons this helps reduce pain. Caution: benziodiazepines are potentially habit-forming if used frequently.
n Narcotic-related pain medicines. If pain is too severe for aspirin/advil type anti-inflammatory agents or acetaminophen (TylenolR) often UltramR (tramadol) is a relatively good and relatively non-addictive pain medicine choice.
n Strong narcotic medicines can also be considered. Attitudes are changing toward a more positive view of these opium-related pain medicines. Recent research suggests that persons who have no personal or family history of drug or alcohol abuse are not likely to abuse prescription narcotic drugs. Of course, for some, narcotics do pose a risk of drug abuse. The choice of whether to use narcotic pain medicines has to be individualized for each patient.
Many different narcotic pain medicines are available including codeine, hydrocodeine, and morphine. All are constipating and may be sedating. While narcotic pain medicines can be taken intermittently, for those who require continuous treatment pain specialists prefer combining longer acting agents such as the 3 day DuragesicR (fentanyl) patch, with occasional “break-through” use of shorter acting agents such as PercocetR or codeine.
Recently, pain specialists have taken a second look at Methadone, because of several advantages. Methadone is inexpensive compared to the others, and does not cause a euphoric “high” as other narcotic pain medicines might. Methadone, may also work at pain receptor sites in addition to those of other narcotic medicines, such as the NMDA receptor. All narcotic pain medicines can cause addiction, sedation, prostate problems and constipation.
Other Medicine Approaches for PHN include:
n ZofranR, usually used for nausea – for some persons also helps nerve-related pain. However, Zofran can cause major problems with constipation.
n NamendaR (memantine) - was recently approved by the FDA for treating moderate and advanced Alzheimer’s disease. However, Namenda is also is the safest and most potent medicine we have that acts to calm down the NMDA class of pain receptors in the spine and brain. It has not yet be tested for PHN, Fibromyalgia, or other pain syndromes. However, in theory, it is likely to be helpful for some persons with these conditions.
Other Non-Medicine Potential Approaches for PHN
n Anesthesiologist pain specialists claim some success injecting anesthetics or corticosteroids into areas in or near where the affected PHN nerve enters the spine.
n Acupuncture may be helpful for some, but certainly not for all.
n A few individuals benefit by cutting the tiny nerve branches under the skin that connect to the damaged PHN nerve. A few individuals have been reported to benefit by cutting out that area of skin entirely.
n Electrical stimulation techniques can be helpful. A portable TENS (transcutaneal electrical stimulation unit) can reduce chronic pain.
n We have been doing research with a low dose electrical technique called frequency specific stimulation. This technique for healing nerves and nerve pains was developed by Carolyn McMakin, DC, a Portland Oregon pain specialist. [See for example “Relief of Fibromyalgia Through Microcurrent Therapy” and “Interview with Dr. Carolyn McMakin, pioneer of unique Fibromyalgia (FM) treatment”]
* This information is reproduced with kind permission from the website of Richard Podell, MD. Dr. Podell is a clinical professor at New Jersey's Robert Wood Johnson Medical School. He has special interests in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Fibromyalgia, stress related disorders, and clinical nutrition. Dr. Podell has offices in Springfield and Somerset New Jersey. For more information please see http://www.DrPodell.org.
Note: This information has not been evaluated by the FDA. It is generic and is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any illness, condition or disease. It is very important that you make no change in your healthcare plan or regimen without researching and discussing it in collaboration with your professional healthcare team. | <urn:uuid:e72e15ea-c475-4b74-8958-bbb6f9f81753> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.prohealth.com/library/showArticle.cfm?libid=13009 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931328 | 4,159 | 2.71875 | 3 |
a "Gene" ?
occurs over a particular physical region (locus) of a double-stranded dsDNA molecule. It
includes an RNA-coding
region, where transcription occurs from the DNA template strand so as to synthesize
an RNA transcript in
the 5'3' direction, running between the initiation
and termination sites.
In scientific papers and databases, a gene sequence is
typically shown as that of the single-stranded sense (non-template,
partner) strand, in the 5'3' direction, between the first base
corresponding to the
beginning of the start codon
and the last base corresponding to the end of the stop codon. Control
regions for transcription (promoters and terminators) occur immediately outside the
coding sequence. By convention, the gene is written "left to right" in the 5'3'
direction of the sense strand: the
region to the 'left'
of the gene is called 'upstream'
and the region to the 'right'
Note again that "left
/ right' and "top
/ bottom" are arbitrary, whereas 5'3' is a physical property of the
molecule. The coding region of eukaryotic genes typically
consists of a series of expressed exons with
intervening introns. Other
promoters and control elements may occur well outside the
region shown here, both upstream and downstream. | <urn:uuid:8dd0a7aa-436d-471f-a3f5-63220f9b1b86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/iGen3_05-03.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.861469 | 309 | 4.15625 | 4 |
How Are Family Trustees and Independent Trustees Similar and Different?
Every trust must have a fiduciary, in this case, a trustee, to administer the trust assets. The two major types of trustees are independent trustees and family trustees. In general, both independent trustees and family trustees assume responsibility to invest the trust’s assets. Both kinds of trustees must also balance the desires of the trust’s creator—the grantor or settlor—with the needs of the beneficiary, the one who receives the income from the trust’s assets.
In addition, the trustee should consider the wants of the remainderman, the one who receives what’s left of the trust’s assets after the trust period ends. Administering a trust may sound daunting, but when done properly, everyone should go home happy.
Grantor and settlor are both terms that refer to the creator of the trust.
Because balancing people’s competing interests can be complicated, many grantors choose two or more individuals and/or corporations to act together as co-trustees. Often, the grantor will assign general powers to all trustees and sometimes specific additional powers to certain trustees.
Independent trustees: objective decision-makers for the trust
Independent trustees, or fiduciaries who aren’t named in the trust as either grantor, beneficiary, or remaindermen, can be important for a trust to run smoothly. Whether they’re trusted friends of the grantor or are banks, trust companies, lawyers, or accountants, independent trustees owe their primary allegiance to the grantor. The grantor relies on independent trustees to make decisions that best serve the interest of the trust, rather than that of any beneficiary or remainderman.
Frequently, grantors direct an independent trustee to make all decisions regarding discretionary distributions to beneficiaries, especially if one of the trust beneficiaries is also a trustee.
No independent trustee assumes the responsibilities lightly. As a result, expect to pay for their services, unless the independent trustee is a close friend of the grantor, who may be willing to perform this service out of long friendship and the goodness of her heart.
Trusts that mandate an independent trustee typically also include a line of succession so that if one trustee is no longer able to act, another is in line to take his or her place. If the trust requires an independent trustee, make sure that any vacancies are filled promptly, because it’s next to impossible for the trust to function efficiently without one in place.
Family trustees: decision-makers who know beneficiaries and remaindermen well
Trust grantors often feel that using only professional trustees may not account for special family circumstances. In these cases, the grantor may choose to also have a family trustee, or a trusted member of his or her family, who knows the beneficiaries and the remaindermen well and has no difficulty making decisions based on the grantor’s wishes.
Family trustees usually have most of the same powers as independent trustees. For example, family trustees usually have investment powers and the authority to prepare and sign income tax returns. They can also usually make scheduled distributions to income beneficiaries, except that their powers over discretionary distributions are often limited if they have any vested interest in the trust as a beneficiary or remainderman.
It’s possible for trusts to exist with only a family trustee. However, wherever money is concerned, perceptions of appropriate behavior on all sides tend to skew. Therefore, it’s wise to never allow a family trustee to serve alone. With the addition of an independent trustee, everyone concerned — from the grantor to the trust beneficiary to the trust remaindermen — can be confident that all the competing interests were considered throughout administration and that the trustees made appropriate and fair decisions. | <urn:uuid:a7dc2bd2-6738-460f-a778-ad3c76c1de0b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-are-family-trustees-and-independent-trustees-s.navId-323701.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9527 | 768 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The recent Republican Senate primary in Mississippi no doubt turned on many factors such as the character of the candidates. But the victory by Thad Cochran, the establishment Republican Senator, also underscores an unfortunate consequence of our system of government. The Constitution itself creates a structure that favors senators who promise to direct federal dollars to the state rather than to limit government spending. This structure facilitated the central premise of Senator Cochran’s campaign: with his seniority he could bring home the bacon.
The Constitution requires that Senators be elected from each state and thus Senators are more responsive to state rather than national constituencies. As a result, each Senator (and member of the House of Representatives for that matter) has an incentive to secure pork barrel legislation for his state despite any economic losses to the nation. And his constituents will generally not object, because almost all of the money to pay for in-state benefits comes from other states.
In short, the Framers’ decision to make representation wholly local rather than to have legislators elected from a national list, as is the case in some other democracies, creates a tragedy of the commons. Each representative will overgraze the federal budget at the expense of the nation’s prosperity. Sadly, the infamous Bridge to Nowhere was a feature, not a bug of our constitutional republic. The feature also explains why Congress as whole remains unpopular, but yet most individual members of Congress are reelected.
This inherent defect in our constitutional structure has three policy implications. First, collective decisions by members of Congress to limit the ability to bring back benefits to their state are to be welcomed. The anti-earmarking rules enacted by recent Congresses, largely at the behest of Tea Party Republicans helped correct this constitutional defect. Nobel prize-winning economist Elinor Ostrom showed that the tragedy of the commons can be overcome when participants set rules or establish norms that limit wasteful behavior. Earmarking prohibitions provide an example of this potential in the context of the federal government.
Second, while many complain about campaign contributions and spending originating outside the state, such funds can help correct the tendency for overspending. Outsiders are more likely to focus on the national benefits provided by limited government. To be sure, some outsiders may urge bigger government for ideological reasons, but the net effect of outside influence is likely to dilute the local influence, which will be relentless in favor local spending.
Third, this structure of the Constitution underscores the importance of the President in limiting spending. The President is the single elected federal representative accountable to a national constituency. In fact, it may be rational for voters to elect a President who favors lower spending than they themselves do in order to counteract an inherently free spending Congress. | <urn:uuid:7c2087b9-c579-410b-ad6f-e9ebc5c96ad8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.libertylawsite.org/2014/06/30/cochrans-victory-and-the-tragedy-of-the-budget-commons/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952792 | 549 | 2.890625 | 3 |
November 15, 2012
Great Whites Didn't Evolve from 'Megasharks'
Nick Crumpton, BBC News
A new fossil discovery has helped quell 150 years of debate over the origin of great white sharks.
Carcharodon hubbelli, which has been described by US scientists, shows intermediate features between the present-day predators and smaller, prehistoric mako sharks.
TAGGED: Fossils, Sharks, Megalodon, Great White Sharks | <urn:uuid:dad21278-9619-4c90-ab61-d1258ad6c14e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realclearscience.com/2012/11/15/great_whites_didn039t_evolve_from_039megasharks039_250049.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908015 | 97 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Nova Scotia's pre-Jurasic park
The Canadian province is home to a surprising number of famous fossil discoveries that track Earth's history back hundreds of millions of years.
Parrsboro, Nova Scotia — When you visit certain parts of Canada's Maritime Provinces, you can easily imagine yourself stepping back in time. The towns seem like towns from the 1950s preserved in amber; lifestyles are deeply rooted in the land or sea; and people move in a casual, unhurried way.
Within a short distance of Parrsboro, Nova Scotia, you can find places that go so far back in time that they predate even the world of Jurassic Park. Take West Bay, for example. A local named Eldon George told me that its cliffs are "an excellent drag site." He did not mean that these cliffs were popular for racing cars. Rather, he was referring to the fossilized drag marks and prints of prehistoric creatures preserved in the rock.
As if to prove his point, Mr. George, a dedicated amateur fossil collector, showed me the prints of a horseshoe crab. The drag mark of its spiky tail swiveled behind these prints like a miniature S.
"Maybe 250 million years ago, these little [creatures] were walking around on the sea bottom here – imagine!" he exclaimed. Indeed, little creatures were once the dominant form of life in this part of Nova Scotia. (See Fossils of Nova Scotia at http://museum.gov.ns.ca/fossils/index.htm.)
In 1984 at nearby Wasson's Bluff, George discovered a rock crisscrossed by tiny trackways, which turned out to have been made by the smallest dinosaur ever found, an animal scarcely bigger than a house sparrow.
George was more exhilarated by his discovery, an early Jurassic ancestor of Stephen Spielberg's charismatic megareptiles, than if he had found the jawbone of a T. rex. For him, size matters, but in reverse.
So there the two of us were, studying the cliff face at West Bay for evidence of Parrsboro's prehistoric past. George's 75-year-old eyes were much better at this than my somewhat younger eyes. At one point he showed me some small depressions in the rock and told me that they'd been made by pellets of ancient hail.
As we moved along the base of the cliff, we saw dozens of ancient mussel shells embedded in the rock. He also pointed out what he said might be the drag mark from the tail of a Batrachopus, a primitive crocodilian so small that a mere toddler probably could have wrestled it into submission.
We could have searched all day, but the tide was coming in, and as this was the Bay of Fundy (actually, Minas Basin), it was coming in quite dramatically. So we headed back to George's house, and he showed me one of his favorite finds – a chunk of rock that had the tracks of two mating horseshoe crabs embedded in it.
The Bay of Fundy reveals at least as much as it swallows up. Its 40- to 50-foot tides – the highest in the world – sweep against cliffs, abrading and eroding them. This activity constantly exposes fresh outcrops of rocks, each with its own potential gallery of fossils. Thus you can find new fossils on an almost daily basis ... twice daily, in fact. The idea of "new" fossils coming into the world may seem like a paradox, but on Fundy's shores it's a reality.
After leaving Parrsboro, I decided to go even further back in time, so I headed for Joggins (Micmac for "Place of Fish Weirs").
The town reminded me of the half-derelict town in Larry McMurtry's novel "The Last Picture Show," with Fundy fog replacing West Texas dust. But appearances can be deceptive. For Joggins – described by 19th century geologist Abraham Gesner as "the place where the delicate herbage of a former world is now transmuted into stone" – has recently been named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
At the Joggins Fossil Centre, I met Don Reid, another dedicated amateur who'd been collecting fossils for more than 70 years. He showed me a fossil tree trunk and asked me to sniff it. I smelled charcoal from (imagine!) a 300-million-year-old fire probably sparked by the superabundance of oxygen in the air.
"Welcome to the Carboniferous Period," he said, and went on to tell me that local cliffs preserved the most complete record of life at the time of this fire of anywhere in the world.
With fossils, it's not always easy to tell the players without a program, so I was fortunate that John Calder, a geologist specializing in the Carboniferous, was visiting Joggins. Soon he and I – joined by a couple of local people – were going for a leisurely stroll into prehistory on the rocky beach just below town. Right away, he pointed to part of a fossilized tree trunk in the cliff face. It was nearly two feet in diameter, which made it seem more robust than delicate. Vaguely bamboolike, it also seemed somewhat familiar.
"It's a calamites," Dr. Calder said, "an ancestor of the present-day horsetail."
As it happened, a bunch of horsetails were growing nearby. They were two feet high, whereas the calamites would have been 50 feet tall or more. This prompted one of the folks who'd joined us to say: "Honey, I shrunk the horsetail."
What shrank the horsetail, in fact, was climate change. It prospered in the hot, humid climate of the Carboniferous, but did not fare well with the arrival of global cooling. Yet if the current warming trend continues, perhaps horsetails will again rise to stately heights.
Calder then showed us a diamond-shaped pattern in the rock, saying that it was from the stump of a lepidendron, an arboreal ancestor of the club moss. Once again, the ancestor would have dwarfed its descendent 20 or 30 times over.
It was inside a stump like this one, he observed, that bones from the world's oldest known reptile were found in the 1850s. He added that Hylonomus lyelli, named for Charles Darwin's mentor Sir Charles Lyell, is Nova Scotia's provincial fossil.
Fossils seem to inspire a competitive urge, so after we heard about the tree stump reptile, we began trying to find fossils new to science. At one point I noticed a strange meandering trail on an algae-covered boulder. "Look, the trackway of an ancient worm!" I exclaimed.
"Actually, it's a periwinkle's trackway from a couple of hours ago," Calder said, adding: "But many geologists have made that same mistake."
Later he showed us a trackway that resembled the tread of a Caterpillar tractor. It had been made by a prehistoric arthropod called an arthropleura. Probably similar to a millipede, the arthropleura was the largest land creature in Joggins 300 million years ago or so.
The following day, I went to hunt for fossils by myself and found myself engulfed by a dense Fundy fog. Suddenly, I heard a voice in the fog, and then a ghostlike figure seemed to materialize out of nowhere. It turned out to be a man talking loudly into his cellphone. So intent was he on his conversation that he didn't notice me. A moment later, he disappeared, although I could still hear his disembodied voice shouting in the fog.
Welcome to the present age, I said to myself. | <urn:uuid:055b1c13-5ec1-4ede-8f5d-8793506fc2f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/The-Home-Forum/2008/1007/p17s01-hfgn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975661 | 1,629 | 3.203125 | 3 |
If effective therapies for Alzheimer's are developed, the biomarker profile may allow treatment to start at the earliest stages of disease, when it would likely be most beneficial, according to Kaj Blennow, MD, of the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, and colleagues.
Additionally, the biomarkers "might be helpful to give patients with [mild cognitive impairment] a prognosis," the researchers wrote in the July issue of The Lancet Neurology.
Biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease pathology are common in patients with the amnestic form of mild cognitive impairment, characterized mainly by memory problems, the researchers said.
However, scientists did not know how prevalent these biomarkers are in patients whose nonamnestic impairment includes deficits in cognitive domains other than memory, and in those with subjective cognitive impairment that can't be verified with neuropsychological testing.
A characteristic of Alzheimer's disease is a decreased concentration of beta-amyloid42 and an elevated concentration of tau in the cerebrospinal fluid, the researchers said.
The Alzheimer's disease profile used in the current study was defined as an abnormal ratio of beta-amyloid42 to tau.
Looking at 168 patients from the prospective cohort study DESCRIPA, the researchers found that the Alzheimer's biomarker profile was more prevalent in patients with subjective cognitive impairment (52%), nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment (68%), and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (79%) than among neurologically healthy controls (31%).
Through three years of follow-up, the biomarker profile was associated with declines in scores on the Mini-Mental State Examination and in daily function among patients with both types of mild cognitive impairment.
Patients with the nonamnestic type also had reductions in memory.
The profile was not associated with cognitive decline in patients with subjective cognitive impairment.
"Patients with subjective cognitive impairment might be in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, and cognitive decline might become apparent only after longer follow-up," the researchers said.
During follow-up, 35 patients received diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease-type dementia -- all had the Alzheimer's biomarker profile and some form of mild cognitive impairment at baseline.
Patients who had the amnestic type and the biomarker profile at baseline were 27 times more likely to be diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease during follow-up (OR 26.8, 95% CI 1.6 to 456.4).
Dr. Blennow and colleagues said the findings could have implications for selecting patients for Alzheimer's disease trials.
"The design of these trials should, however, take into account the differences in the rate of decline among patients with subjective cognitive impairment, nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment, and amnestic mild cognitive impairment," they said.
In an accompanying editorial, Serge Gauthier, MD, of the McGill Center for Studies in Aging in Montreal, said, "The beta-amyloid42 to tau ratio as a biological signature of Alzheimer's disease pathology might enable early treatment once randomized clinical trials have established the safety and efficacy of disease-modifying drugs in patients with mild [disease]."
If the study's findings are confirmed, he said, they could "eventually change clinical practice in memory clinics where lumbar punctures are not part of routine clinical assessment for cognitive complaints."
The study brings the use of the beta-amyloid42 to tau ratio in a midlife assessment of Alzheimer's risk one step closer, he said.
The study authors acknowledged some limitations, including the relatively short follow-up, selection of controls from a different center than the rest of the patients and without neuropsychological tests, and variability in the time of cerebrospinal fluid collection and in the types of cognitive tests used in different centers.
| The study was funded by the European Commission and the Ana Aslan International Foundation.
- Reviewed by Robert Jasmer, MD Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and Dorothy Caputo, MA, RN, BC-ADM, CDE, Nurse Planner
The Lancet NeurologySource Reference: Visser P, et al "Prevalence and prognostic value of CSF markers of Alzheimer's disease pathology in patients with subjective cognitive impairment or mild cognitive impairment in the DESCRIPA study: a prospective cohort study" Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 619-27.
The Lancet NeurologySource Reference: Gauthier S "Will CSF analysis become routine in people with memory complaints?" Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 595-96. | <urn:uuid:add0b031-1066-46f6-9c88-f92e4d7c4b30> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medpagetoday.com/Neurology/AlzheimersDisease/14801 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927839 | 941 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Something went wrong when a cat named Flipper was born, causing her spinal cord to twist like a telephone cable. Cats like her, who don't have use of their hind legs, are often put to sleep.
But the staff at the Aspen Park Vet Hospital in Colorado wanted to give the feline a chance at all nine lives.
“We just felt so bad for Flipper, who had to drag her legs behind her as she made her way around the clinic,” Dr. Harry Gurney told HLN affiliate KDVR.
So he hooked up with the Blitz Robotic Club at Conifer High School and gave them a challenge: Build a device to help Flipper get around.
They generated 3D images of their creations in CAD and, after three tries, they got it right. Sure, the device may be put together with popsicle sticks and duct tape, but the point is, it works! There’s even an opening in the sling that holds up Flipper’s back end to allow her tail to sway freely as she motors around the office.
The “cat-traption,” as they’re calling it, is not a permanent solution. They’re hoping Flipper will use it to gain strength in her back legs and loosen up her spine so she can one day get around without it. Then, maybe she’ll be ready to be adopted into a loving new home.
Watch Evening Express weeknights from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. ET on HLN. | <urn:uuid:18edc46b-fd2e-43cf-ae3e-ceb3bf036c78> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hlntv.com/article/2013/01/25/robotics-students-help-paralyzed-cat-move | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973592 | 324 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Preliminary test results are good, but implementation costs flagged as "suspiciously low."
photo credit: Tobyotter
N THE WAKE of the recent deadly train derailment in New York, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) revealed that it has been testing a new crash-avoidance system called Slowing Down.
Critics have charged that the new technology, while producing good results in all its preliminary tests, is "riddled with manual complexities," such as "decelerating before hitting curves" and "deciding not to go too fast in the first place."
Other observers point out that the costs to implement Slowing Down are "suspiciously low."
"The price tag of SD is making our red flags wave so furiously that they've gotten all knotted up," one observer said. "That should raise a red flag."
Despite its critics, Slowing Down will be released, according to the NTSB, "on a trial basis" in one of the Northeast corridors "as soon as operator training is complete."
A spokesman for the NTSB confirmed that Slowing Down training would include:
- How to drive under 50 m.p.h., even when you really, really want to drive much faster,
- How to distinguish a curved track from a straight track,
- How to place at least one hand on the wheel or the stick or whatever it is,
- How to look out of the window every so often, and
- How to listen to that little voice inside your head that's trying to tell you something.
"These are only a few examples of what Slowing Down technology and a properly trained operator can do together," the spokesman said.
Depending on the success of the new technology, the NTSB will consider moving forward with upgrades, rumored to include Slowing Way Down and Stopping Altogether.
© 12.4.13 Kate Heidel | <urn:uuid:c354dd78-4f63-43da-9f17-0ccf8d5677e3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wearyourcape.com/news_satire/slowdown.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962314 | 394 | 2.75 | 3 |
When legislation mandating genetically-modified food labels was proposed in California, Oregon and Washington, I wasn't necessarily surprised. But the recent news that GMO labeling is being considered in Missouri was a little bit of a shock.
The bill, Senate Bill 155, was sponsored by a Democratic senator from St. Louis named Jamilah Nasheed. If passed, it would go into effect on Sept. 1, 2015 and would require genetically-modified meat or fish produced and sold in the Show-Me State to bear labels noting that fact.
“While I understand that food production is an integral Missouri industry, I don’t feel the trend of biotechnology and genetically engineered foods is always apparent to the average citizen,” Nasheed said in a news release posted on her Web site. “I am merely asking for clarity in the sale of certain genetically engineered, or GE, foods to Missouri’s consumers.”
In the language of the bill, genetically-modified meat or fish is defined as “any animal or fish whose genetic structure has been altered at the molecular level by means that are not possible under natural conditions or processes, including recombinant DNA and RNA techniques, cell fusion, gene deletion or doubling, introduction of exogenous genetic material, alteration of the position of a gene, or similar procedure.”
GMO labels would also be required on the offspring of genetically-modified animals and fish. Companies knowingly violating the labeling law would face Class C misdemeanors, which in Missouri means up to 15 days in jail and a fine of up to $300.
“I don’t want to hinder any producer of genetically modified goods,” Nasheed said. “However, I strongly feel that people have the right to know what they are putting into their bodies. By requiring a label indicating genetic modification in their meat selection, Missourians will have the choice to purchase the GE foods or not. Citizens have the right to be informed and to make their own decisions based on education and information.”
Opponents of GMO labeling bills -- like food industry giants Monsanto, Kraft and Dow AgroSciences -- have argued that such legislation is unnecessary because they don't believe there's any evidence genetically-modifed food isn't safe. Mike Deering, executive vice president of the Missouri Cattlemen's Association, says Senate Bill 155 will also cost companies astronomical sums of money from the farm to the fork.
"If passed, this legislation will result in costly and extreme food labeling requirements," Deering told me in an e-mail. "If I read this bill correctly, it swings the door wide open for Missouri to require that a lot of common grocery products be repackaged and relabeled if they contain genetically engineered ingredients. This change in Missouri policy would harm farmers, grocers, food companies and small businesses and the customers they serve."
If passed, Senate Bill 155 would fall under the jurisdiction of the Missouri Department of Agriculture, which could extend the law after it goes into effect. | <urn:uuid:4e2b9731-b1b4-4c92-ab24-cd09cdd8cddb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://harvestpublicmedia.org/blog/1597/missouri-next-battleground-state-gmo-labeling/5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956499 | 621 | 2.546875 | 3 |
What is a fork?
A fork is a form of software reuse. I like your software module. It meets some or many of my needs, but I need some additional features.
When I want to reuse existing functionality from another software product, I generally have four choices:
- If your module is nicely designed and extensible, then I might be able to simply use your code as-is and write new code to extend it.
- I can convince you to modify your module so it meets my needs.
- I can work with you in your open source project to make the module (“our” module in this case) meet our mutual needs.
- I can copy the source code of your module and change the code in my copy, and integrate that modified module into my product.
Note that options #1 and #2 are the only options available with most proprietary modules, since these techniques don’t require access to the module’s source code. Options #3 and #4 are the additional options made possible by open source. Option #4 is what we mean by “forking” . Forking is enabled by open source software and is fundamental to open source ecosystems. It is neither good nor bad. It is a tool, part social, part technological, for overcoming an inability or unwillingness to collaborate. The problem is not with forking. The problem is the conditions that lead to forking.
Why do forks come about and how do they end?
Forks can come about for many reasons, including leadership conflicts, ideological differences and other political issues, as well as differences in vision and technical direction of the project.
Generally, a fork ends when the conditions that necessitated the formation of the fork have been resolved. At least that is true for rational participants who are merely trying to optimize outcomes. But intransigent ideological forks can continue indefinitely, and often do.
The technical side of ending a fork is typically a code merge, as different branches of the project are brought back together again. This can be laborious, but it is a one-time task.
Ending the Symphony Fork
With the move of OpenOffice to Apache, this open source project has made the critical move from a corporate-led open source project under asymmetrical licensing terms, to a community-led open source project under a single permissive license. This is a tremendous change and one that should lead all forks of OpenOffice, and all those who wanted to get involved with OpenOffice before but never did, to reexamine their orientation to the project.
John Maynard Keynes, when criticized for reversing his position in a dispute, famously quipped, “When the facts change, I change my opinion. What do you do, sir?” The “facts” of OpenOffice have changed, with the move to Apache, and this change of venue has made a huge impact on the Symphony team, which recently announced that it was ending its fork and committing to contribute their code to Apache and to work with that community going forward.
This does not mean that Symphony enhancements are going away. Far from it. We’re very proud of the UI work and other innovations in performance, accessibility and interoperability we’ve brought to Symphony and we will be offering the source code of these enhancements to Apache, and if accepted, will work within that project to merge these changes into Apache OpenOffice. The DNA of Symphony is not going away. What is going away is Symphony as a fork, as a divided effort. The Symphony DNA, the cool work the Symphony team has worked so hard on, will live on, in Apache OpenOffice, combined with other ongoing contributions from the community, in a larger, stronger development effort.
Now that the Symphony fork is ending, the obvious question is: Who will be next? If we can end a four-year old fork and merge in our work with Apache, then so much easier it should be for forks that have been around for far less time. “When the facts change, I change my opinion. What do you do, sir?”
If you are interested in learning more about the Apache OpenOffice project, I recommend browsing the project’s website and blog. If you want to get involved, you can sign up for the ooo-dev mailing list and post a note to introduce yourself. As we push closer to our 3.4 release candidate we’re in particular need of volunteers to help us test this release, on Windows, Mac or Linux. If you are interested in helping with that, be sure to say so in your note.
(This post has also been translated into Serb-Croatian by Anja Skrba.) | <urn:uuid:d1cc4eb3-3ed0-4275-8aa1-931bc9675a09> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.robweir.com/blog/2012/02/ending-the-symphony-fork.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941639 | 974 | 3.3125 | 3 |
10/11/2013: Understanding Hidden Threats: Rootkits and Botnets
A rootkit is a piece of software that can be installed and hidden on your computer without your knowledge. It may be included in a larger software package or installed by an attacker who has been able to take advantage of a vulnerability on your computer or has convinced you to download it (see Avoiding Social Engineering and Phishing Attacks for more information). Rootkits are not necessarily malicious, but they may hide malicious activities. Attackers may be able to access information, monitor your actions, modify programs, or perform other functions on your computer without being detected.
Botnet is a term derived from the idea of bot networks. In its most basic form, a bot is simply an automated computer program, or robot. In the context of botnets, bots refer to computers that are able to be controlled by one, or many, outside sources. An attacker usually gains control by infecting the computers with a virus or other malicious code that gives the attacker access. Your computer may be part of a botnet even though it appears to be operating normally. Botnets are often used to conduct a range of activities, from distributing spam and viruses to conducting denial-of-service attacks (see Understanding Denial-of-Service Attacks for more information). | <urn:uuid:0ca8f8ba-5aa0-4b02-9f55-827d8cf0bd9b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.senecasavings.com/understanding-hidden-threats-rootkits-and-botnets/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945951 | 267 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Transition to Algebra: A Habits of Mind Approach
This research and development project provides resources for ninth-grade mathematics students and teachers by developing, piloting, and field-testing intervention modules designed as supplementary materials for Algebra 1 classes (e.g., double-period algebra). Rather than developing isolated skills and reviewing particular topics, these materials aim to foster the development of mathematical habits of mind—in particular, the algebraic habit of abstracting from calculations, a key unifying idea in the transition from arithmetic to algebra.
Transition to Algebra, A Habits of Mind Approach, is aimed at very quickly giving students the mathematical knowledge, skill, and confidence to succeed in algebra, and showing them that they can be good at things they believed they couldn't do. The students were all smart and intrepid when they were six. Even now, they are better and more persevering than we are about figuring out their smartphones and video games. Transition to Algebra aims to tap that smart, intrepid, persevering spirit of puzzling things out and making sense of them by presenting mathematics based in common sense, not arbitrary rules.
This project is developing a collection of modules introducing key ideas of algebra in ways that complement the core curriculum when a school is offering double period algebra. The key habit of mind being developed is abstracting from calculation. Modules deal with the transition from arithmetic to algebra, rational numbers, expressions/equations/word problems, graphs and equations, geometry of algebra, and proportional reasoning. The target population is students in urban high poverty schools with a significant ELL sector.
Our hypothesis is that instructional materials focused on developing conceptual understanding and mathematical habits of mind can complement traditional skill-focused algebra instruction in ways that are engaging to students. Furthermore, they argue that using materials with such meta-cognitive aims will actually strengthen the learning of core algebraic concepts and skills.
The supplementary algebra modules are being developed by a form of design research. Concurrent with development and field test of the student and teacher materials, the investigators are addressing four research questions. The first two questions are focused on the effects of the intervention in developing student habits of mind and in improving their competence and confidence in algebra. The other two address the feasibility of implementing the new approach to double-period algebra in a variety of school settings. A small-scale quasi-experimental field test is being used to give preliminary estimates of the effectiveness of the instructional materials and the implementation guidelines. The core purpose of these research activities is to inform development and refinement of the student and teacher instructional materials.
Products of this development effort will be a valuable resource to schools as they devise strategies for helping all students master the essentials of elementary algebra.
|Transition to Algebra PD and Curriculum Orientation||Announcement||08/16/2012 - 4:22pm|
|Transition to Algebra PD and Curriculum Orientation||Event||08/16/2012 - 4:17pm|
|Transition to Algebra: A Habits of Mind Approach||Poster||01/13/2011 - 6:05pm| | <urn:uuid:9bf4ff70-ff07-40ea-bef2-53f5aea13fb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cadrek12.org/projects/transition-algebra-habits-mind-approach-0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928006 | 640 | 3.5 | 4 |
See, Play and Learn
Varicose veins are swollen, twisted veins that you can see just under the skin. They usually occur in the legs, but also can form in other parts of the body. Hemorrhoids are a type of varicose vein.
Your veins have one-way valves that help keep blood flowing toward your heart. If the valves are weak or damaged, blood can back up and pool in your veins. This causes the veins to swell, which can lead to varicose veins.
Varicose veins are very common. You are more at risk if you are older, a female, obese, don't exercise or have a family history. They can also be more common in pregnancy.
Doctors often diagnose varicose veins from a physical exam. Sometimes you may need additional tests.
Exercising, losing weight, elevating your legs when resting, and not crossing them when sitting can help keep varicose veins from getting worse. Wearing loose clothing and avoiding long periods of standing can also help. If varicose veins are painful or you don't like the way they look, your doctor may recommend procedures to remove them.
NIH: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
- What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Varicose Veins? (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute) Available in Spanish
Diagnosis and Tests
- How Are Varicose Veins Diagnosed? (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute) Available in Spanish
- Venography (Radiological Society of North America, American College of Radiology) Available in Spanish
- Venous Ultrasound (Extremities) (Radiological Society of North America, American College of Radiology) Available in Spanish
Treatments and Therapies
- Ambulatory Phlebectomy (American Society for Dermatologic Surgery)
- Bilberry (National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health)
- Horse Chestnut (National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health)
- How Are Varicose Veins Treated? (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute)
- Sclerotherapy of Varicose Veins and Spider Veins (Radiological Society of North America, American College of Radiology) Available in Spanish
- Spider Vein Removal (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research)
- Varicose Vein Treatment (Endovenous Ablation of Varicose Veins) (Radiological Society of North America) Available in Spanish
- Varicose Veins and Venous Insufficiency (Society of Interventional Radiology)
- Spider Veins (American Society for Dermatologic Surgery)
Journal ArticlesReferences and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine)
- Glossary (Vascular Cures)
- Varicocele (Nemours Foundation)
- Why Do Some Pregnant Women Get Varicose Veins? (Nemours Foundation)
- Varicose Veins and Other Vein Disorders (AGS Foundation for Health in Aging) | <urn:uuid:10768e1b-17d1-4408-8257-35e90a981831> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/varicoseveins.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886773 | 644 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Circle line (London Underground)
|Colour on map||Yellow|
|Rolling stock||C stock
|Length||27 km (17 mi)|
|Journeys made||114.6 million (2011/12)[a] passenger journeys|
The Circle line, coloured yellow on the tube map, is the eighth busiest line on the London Underground. It forms a loop line around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames. Platforms are 120 metres long in the south and 130 metres long on the part of the track shared with the Metropolitan line.
Notes[change | change source]
- combined figures for Circle and Hammersmith & City lines
References[change | change source]
- "Performance: LU Performance Data Almanac". Transport for London. 2011/12. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/londonunderground/1592.aspx. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- Line facts. Ridership figures are listed for each line separately. | <urn:uuid:d1e0207d-a77d-448d-9f89-57bbae263d46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_line_(London_Underground) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.768769 | 219 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The Options menu of most programs contains a "Set fonts" command. This brings up a font selection dialogue consisting of some sample text, three option menus to select the font name, family and size, and some check buttons for font styles.
In the above picture, button_font is the currently selected font name. This option menu contains several of the following font types. The exact ones available depends on the program being used.
Next to the font name is the font family selector. The contents of this menu will depend on the fonts available to your system. Some may be inappropriate, or not even in the correct language. Next to the family selector is the size menu. This contains a range of sizes in both pixel and point units. If a font of a particular size is not available, the nearest font or size will be automatically chosen. Specifying fonts to be a fixed number of points states that the font should have a specific physical size, regardless of monitor size or screen resolution. There are 72.27 points to the inch. Underneath these we have Bold, Italic, Overstrike and Underline check buttons.
Whilst choosing the font, the fonts used in the entire program automatically update to show you how things will look. Pressing "Cancel" will reset the fonts back to their original state. Pressing "OK" will keep these chosen fonts, until the program is exited. Pressing "OK Permanent" will keep these fonts, but will also add them to the user's `$HOME/.tk_utilsrc' file. This file is processed when the programs start up, and so your font choice will be permanently chosen. To remove this font choice, manual editing of the `$HOME/.tk_utilsrc' file is required. | <urn:uuid:37d00a07-a678-445e-9dcd-31cd5203b2ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://staden.sourceforge.net/manual/interface_unix_17.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.845617 | 358 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Directions: This Launchpad, adapted from www.WhatSoProudlyWeHail.org, provides background materials and discussion questions to enhance your reading and understanding of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story “The May-pole of Merry Mount.” After reading the background, turn to read the story itself.
To help you understand the story and its wider significance, there are a series of questions for reflection. After discussing or thinking about these questions, click on the videos to hear editors Amy A. Kass and Leon R. Kass converse with guest host Yuval Levin (National Affairs) about the story. These videos are meant to raise additional questions and augment discussion, not replace it.
Thinking about the Story
- Describe the scene of the festival around the May-Pole, including their leader, who is likened to Comus (the Greek god of revelry and merrymaking), son and cup bearer to the god Dionysus (Bacchus, to the Romans), usually depicted as a winged youth or as a child-satyr). How is the leader like Comus? What do the festivities tell you about the people of Merry Mount?
- What is the May-Pole? What does it mean that the Merry-Mounters venerate it?
- How do the Merry-Mounters live day by day? Why have they embraced “a wild philosophy of pleasure”? Can you defend their view of life?
- What is the meaning of the presence of wild animals—and of human beings costumed as half-human/half-animal—at their festival? What is their view of the place of humankind in the natural world?
- Is this a sustainable community? Why or why not?
- Is Hawthorne’s picture of Merry Mount satirical or serious?
WATCH: What are the Merry-Mounters like? What animates them?
- What are the Puritans like?
- What do they revere? What is their implicit view of the place of humankind in the natural world?
- Why do the Puritans attack Merry Mount? Can you defend what they think and do?
- Why the practice of public shaming (the stocks) of wrongdoers? Is shame useful or necessary for communal life?
- Is this a sustainable community? Why or why not?
- Is Hawthorne’s picture of the Puritans satirical or serious? What do we know of the historical Puritans in America? Do they fit Hawthorne’s descriptions?
WATCH: What are the Puritans like? What animates them?
- The Young Couple: Edith and Edgar
- What is the premonition that Edith and Edgar have just before they are to be married? What is “Edith’s mystery”?
- What is their reaction—to each other, and to Endicott—when threatened with punishment?
- Are they typical Merry-Mounters, or do they represent something different? If the latter, what is it?
- What is it about them that moves and softens Endicott, the Puritan of Puritans? What is the meaning of the fact that he throws over their heads a wreath taken from the May-Pole? What is meant when this is called “a deed of prophecy”?
- Why, when they leave Merry Mount, do they leave without regret? Are they now going to become Puritans like the rest?
WATCH: To which community do the young couple–Edgar and Edith–belong?
WATCH: What is the meaning of the wreath that Endicott throws over the heads of Edgar and Edith?
- The Story as “a sort of allegory”
- What does Hawthorne mean when he says that “the facts ... have wrought themselves ... into a sort of allegory”? An allegory of what?
- We are told that the parties of gloom (the Pilgrims) and jollity (the Merry Mounters) were contending for an empire.
- As presented in the story, would you rather live among the Puritans or among the Merry-Mounters?
- Does either party win a clear victory over the other? Or can neither side win unless it incorporates something from the other—or, better, from some third alternative (perhaps represented here by the love of Edith and Edgar)? What should the Puritans learn from the Merry Mounters? And vice versa? What should both groups learn from Edith and Edgar?
Thinking with the Text
From its earliest beginnings, America has held together two ideas and practices that are often thought to be—and sometimes are in fact—in tension with each other: the spirit of liberty and the spirit of religion. In his Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville attributes both of these spirits to the Puritans, whom he takes to provide the point of departure for the American way of life. Every human community reverences or looks up to something. But not every community encourages the exercise of the rights to life, liberty, and the private pursuit of happiness. Conversely, not all pursuits of private happiness are compatible with a sustainable and decent community, especially where there is a lack of reverence that would support private self-restraint and public morals. The story invites us to consider some of the larger questions about the relation, especially in America, among religion, morality, freedom, and human flourishing. It also invites questions about the place of marriage and family among people who are devoted to the pursuit of individual happiness, on the one hand, and to the glory of Heaven, on the other.
- Is there anything distinctly American about the confrontation between the two kinds of communities and views Hawthorne describes? Does the contest continue today?
- Which provides better support for a society of free, self-governing individuals, a biblical religion like that of the Puritans or nature-worship like that of the Merry-Mounters?
WATCH: Is there anything distinctly American about the confrontation between the two kinds of communities and views Hawthorne describes? Does the contest continue today?
- Is there something uniquely American about the marriage of Edgar and Edith?
- What does the story suggest is the proper relationship between marriage/family and community—especially between marriage/family and a community like ours, which is based not on ancient traditions and families but on shared ideals and principles? What is the relationship between the importance of marriage/family and the American celebration of the individual?
- If the Merry-Mounters celebrate the body without regard to the soul, and the Puritans celebrate the (disembodied) soul without regard to earthly life, is there something in marriage and family that can correct each of these partial and utopian visions?
- Does a marriage like that of Edgar and Edith still offer a living answer to a living problem in our time?
WATCH: Is there something uniquely American about the marriage of Edgar and Edith?
- Is there a difference between jollity (or mirth) and genuine happiness (or joy)? If so, what is the difference? Is real happiness compatible with sadness, loss, and suffering? Why or why not?
- Is true love necessary for rich personal happiness? For a fulfilling life?
— Back to Top — | <urn:uuid:9e3c2cd4-1899-4010-ba5b-1ada2799003a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://edsitement.neh.gov/launchpad-may-pole-merry-mount-nathaniel-hawthorne | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950734 | 1,518 | 3.40625 | 3 |
|Anthem: Kyrgyz Respublikasynyn Mamlekettik Gimni
National Anthem of the Kyrgyz Republic
(and largest city)
|Official languages||Kyrgyz (Official)
|Ethnic groups||68.9% Kyrgyz
|-||Prime Minister-designate||Bakyt Beshimov|
|Independence||from the Soviet Union|
|-||Established||14 October 1924|
|-||Kirghiz SSR||5 December 1936|
|-||Declared||31 August 1991|
|-||Recognized||25 December 1991|
|-||Total||199,900 km² (86th)
77,181 sq mi
|-||2009 estimate||5,482,000 (110th)|
|GDP (PPP)||2010 estimate|
|GDP (nominal)||2010 estimate|
|Gini (2003)||30.3 (medium)|
|Time zone||KGT (UTC+6)|
Kyrgyzstan (also “Kyrgyz,” “Kirgizia,” or “Kirghizia”), officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked and mountainous country in Central Asia. It borders Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and the People's Republic of China to the southeast.
The name "Kyrgyz," both for the people and for the nation itself, is said to mean "40 girls," a reference to the Manas of folklore unifying 40 tribes against the Mongols.
With a population composed of Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Tatars, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Ukrainians, and Russians, and arbitrarily drawn borders intended to play ethnic groups off against each other, Kyrgyzstan lives with ethnic tension that has erupted into violence. Under foreign domination for many centuries (the most recent being the Soviet Union), the beginning of the twenty-first century sees Kyrgyzstan struggling to recover and gain a foothold in the modern world.
The smallest of the newly independent Central Asian states, Kyrgyzstan is about the same size as the state of the U.S. state of Nebraska, with a total area of about of 77,181 square miles (199,900 square kilometers). The national territory extends about 900 kilometers from east to west and 410 kilometers from north to south.
The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80 percent of the country. Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as "the Switzerland of Central Asia" as a result. The remainder is made up of valleys and basins.
The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming the Chinese border. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 24,400 feet (7439 meters), is the highest point. Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring floods that often cause serious damage downstream. The run-off from the mountains is used for hydro-electricity.
The climate varies regionally. The south-western Fergana Valley is subtropical and extremely hot in summer, with temperatures reaching 104°F (40°C). The northern foothills are temperate and the Tian Shan varies from dry continental to polar climate, depending on elevation. In the coldest areas, temperatures are sub-zero for around 40 days in winter, and even some desert areas experience constant snowfall in this period.
Lake Issyk-Kul in the north-western Tian Shan is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca.
The principal river is the Naryn, flowing west through the Fergana Valley into Uzbekistan, where it meets another of Kyrgyzstan's major rivers, the Kara Darya, forming the Syr Darya which eventually flows into the Aral Sea. The massive extraction of water for irrigating Uzbekistan's cotton fields now causes the river to dry up long before reaching the Sea. The Chu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.
Kyrgyzstan has significant deposits of metals including gold and rare earth metals. Due to the country's mountainous terrain, less than eight percent of the land is cultivated, and this is concentrated in the northern lowlands and the fringes of the Fergana Valley.
Natural hazards include earthquakes, and major flooding during the snow melt.
Although Kyrgyzstan has abundant water running through it, its water supply is determined by a post-Soviet sharing agreement among the five Central Asian republics. As in the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan has the right to 25 percent of the water that originates in its territory, but the new agreement allows Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan unlimited use of the water that flows into them from Kyrgyzstan, with no compensation for the nation at the source. Kyrgyzstan uses the entire amount to which the agreement entitles it. Utilization is skewed heavily in favor of agricultural irrigation.
Environmental issues include: Nuclear waste, left behind by the Soviet Union in many open-air pits in hazardous locations; water pollution, since many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells; water-borne diseases; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices; and illegal hunting of rare species, such as the snow leopard and the Marco Polo sheep.
Bishkek in the north is the capital and largest city, with 900,000 inhabitants in 2005. The second city is the ancient town of Osh, located in the Fergana Valley near the border with Uzbekistan.
Stone implements found in the Tian Shan mountains indicate the presence of human society in what is now Kyrgyzstan from 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first written records of a civilization in the area appear in Chinese chronicles beginning about 2000 B.C.E.
Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 B.C.E. The early Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley in central Siberia. The discovery of the Pazyryk and Tashtyk cultures show them as a blend of Turkic and Iranian nomadic tribes. Chinese and Muslim sources of the seventh through twelfth centuries C.E. describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green-blue eyes.
The first Turks to form a state in Central Asia were Göktürks or Kök-Türks. Known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 tú jué), the Göktürks under the leadership of Bumin Khan (d. 552) and his sons established the first known Turkic state around 552 C.E. in an area that had earlier been occupied by the Xiongnu. They expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in Central Asia. The Göktürks split in two rival Khanates, of which the western one disintegrated in 744 C.E.
The first kingdom to emerge from the Göktürks khanate was the Buddhist Uyghur Empire that flourished in Central Asia from 740 to 840 C.E.
After the Uyghur empire disintegrated a branch of the Uyghurs migrated to oasis settlements in the Tarim Basin and Gansu, and set up a confederation of decentralized Buddhist states called Kara-Khoja. Others, closely related to Uyghurs (Qarluks), occupying the western Tarim Basin, Ferghana Valley, Jungaria and parts of modern Kazakhstan bordering the Muslim Turco-Tajik Khwarazm Sultanate, converted to Islam no later than the tenth century and built a federation with Muslim institutions called Kara-Khanlik, whose princely dynasties are called Karakhanids. Its capital, Balasagun flourished as a cultural and economic center.
The Islamized Qarluk princely clan, the Balasaghunlu Ashinalar (or the Karakhanids) gravitated toward the Persian Islamic cultural zone after their political autonomy in Central Asia was secured during the ninth-to-tenth centuries.
The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the thirteenth century devastated the territory of Kyrgyzstan, costing its people their independence and their written language. The son of Genghis Khan, Juche, conquered the Kyrgyz tribes of the Yenisey region. At that time, the area of present Kyrgyzstan was an important link in the Silk Road.
For the next 200 years, the Kyrgyz remained under the Golden Horde, and the Oriot and Jumgar khanates that succeeded that regime. Freedom was regained in 1510, but Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the seventeenth century by the Kalmyks, in the mid-eighteenth century by the Manchus, and in the early nineteenth century by the Uzbeks.
In the early nineteenth century, the southern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the Khanate of Kokand. The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirgizia," was formally incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts against tsarist authority, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to move to the Pamirs and Afghanistan.
A 1916 rebellion in Central Asia was suppressed, causing many Kyrgyz to migrate to China. Since many ethnic groups in the region were (and still are) split between neighboring states, at a time when borders were less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better.
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1919 and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian SFSR. The term Kara-Kirghiz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kirghiz. On December 5, 1936, the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a full republic of the Soviet Union.
During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life. Literacy was greatly improved, and a standard literary language was introduced. Economic and social development was notable. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite the suppression of nationalist activity under Stalin.
The early years of glasnost (a 1985 Soviet Union policy of openness) had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the Republic's press adopted a more liberal stance and a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers was established. Several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute housing crisis were permitted.
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in the Osh Oblast, where Uzbeks form a majority. Violent confrontations ensued, and a curfew was introduced. Order was not restored until August 1990.
By the early 1990s, the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a significant political force. In an upset victory, Askar Akayev, the liberal President of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, was elected to the presidency in October 1990. The following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new government comprised mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians.
In December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it became the Kyrgyz Republic.) In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name of Bishkek. But economic realities worked against secession from the Soviet Union. In a referendum on the preservation of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7 percent of the voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as a "renewed federation."
On August 19, 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. The coup collapsed the following week. Akayev and Vice President German Kuznetsov resigned from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire bureau and secretariat resigned. A Supreme Soviet vote declared independence from the Soviet Union on August 31, 1991.
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected president of the independent republic. On December 21, 1991, Kyrgyzstan joined the other four Central Asian Republics to formally enter the new Commonwealth of Independent States. In 1992, Kyrgyzstan joined the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
The "Tulip Revolution," after the parliamentary elections in March 2005, forced President Akayev's resignation on April 4, 2005. Opposition leaders formed a coalition and a new government was formed under President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov.
Political stability appears to be elusive, however, as various factions allegedly linked to organized crime are jockeying for power. Three of the 75 members of parliament elected in March 2005 were assassinated, and another member was assassinated on May 10, 2006 shortly after winning his murdered brother's seat in a by-election. All four are reputed to have been directly involved in illegal business ventures.
The politics of Kyrgyzstan take place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president is head of state and the prime minister is head of government, and of multi-party system in development. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
The constitution was adopted in 1993, amended in 2003 to expand the powers of the president, amended again during demonstrations in November 2006, granting greater powers to the parliament, and re-amended, in December 2006, returning some power to the president.
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and is eligible for a second term. An election was last held in July 2005. The prime minister is nominated by the president for approval by parliament.
Under the constitution, the legislature will propose and the president appoint the prime minister, and the prime minister will propose and the president appoint members of the cabinet, except for ministers in charge of defense and security, who are appointed by the president.
A unicameral supreme council or Jorgorku Kenesh comprises 75 members who are elected by popular vote to serve five year terms, although the December 2006 constitution calls for 90 seats. Elections were last held in February-March 2005. Election irregularities caused widespread protests that resulted in the president being forced to flee the country. All aged 18 years of age and over may vote.
The judiciary comprises a supreme court, a constitutional court, a higher court of arbitration and local courts. Judges of both the supreme and constitutional courts are appointed for 10-year terms by the Jorgorku Kenesh on the recommendation of the president. Their age limit is 70 years. Judges for other courts are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the National Council on Legal Affairs for a probationary period of five years, then 10 years. The legal system is based on a civil law system
Corruption problems have plagued the country since its independence from the Soviet Union. Several members of parliament have been murdered.
Current concerns include privatization of state-owned enterprises, expansion of democracy and political freedoms, inter-ethnic relations, and terrorism.
Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven provinces or oblast (plural oblasttar) administered by appointed governors. The capital, Bishkek, is administratively an independent city (shaar) with a status equal to a province.
The provinces, and capital city, are as follows: Bishkek, 1; Batken, 2; Chui-Tokmok, 3; Jalal-Abad, 4; Naryn, 5; Osh, 6; Talas, 7; Issyk Kul, 8.
Each province comprises a number of districts (rayon'), administered by government-appointed officials (akim). Rural communities (ayıl ökmötü), consisting of up to 20 small settlements, have their own elected mayors and councils.
An “enclave” is a country or part of a country mostly surrounded by the territory of another country or wholly lying within the boundaries of another country, and an “exclave” is one that is geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory.
There is one exclave, the tiny village of Barak, (population 627) in the Fergana valley. The village is surrounded by Uzbek territory and located between the towns of Margilan and Fergana.
There are four Uzbek enclaves within Kyrgyzstan. The town of Sokh has an area of 125 square miles and a population of 42,800 in 1993. A total 99 percent are Tajiks, and the remainder Uzbeks. Shakhrimardan has an area 35 square miles (90km²) and a population of 5100 in 1993. A total of 91 percent are Uzbeks, the remainder Kyrgyz. The tiny territory of Chuy-Kara is roughly two miles by 0.6 miles (3km long by 1 km wide), and Dzhangail (a dot of land barely 2 or 3 km across).
There are two enclaves belonging to Tajikistan. Vorukh has an area of between 37 and 50 miles (95 and 130km²) and a population estimated between 23,000 and 29,000 people. A total of 95 percent are Tajiks and five percent are Kyrgyz. They are distributed among 17 villages), located 28 miles (45km) south of Isfara. There is a small settlement near the Kyrgyz railway station of Kairagach.
The army of Kyrgyzstan includes brigades at Osh and Koi-tash, in the Bishkek area, a special forces brigade, and other units. Air Defense includes a regiment of MiG-21s and Aero L-39s, four Antonov transports, and a helicopter squadron. There are security forces and border troops. Military expenditures total $19.2-million a year, or 1.4 percent of GDP.
A United States Air Force installation has operated at Manas International Airport near Bishkek since December 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. US close air support aircraft deployed there included US Air Force F-15Es and US Marine Corp F-18s.
The Kyrgyz Republic's economy was severely affected by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the resulting loss of its vast market. In 1990, some 98 percent of Kyrgyz exports went to other parts of the Soviet Union. Thus, the nation's economic performance in the early 1990s was worse than any other former Soviet republic except war-torn Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Tajikistan, as factories and state farms collapsed with the disappearance of their traditional markets in the former Soviet Union. While economic performance has improved considerably in the last few years, and particularly since 1998, difficulties remain in securing adequate fiscal revenues and providing an adequate social safety net.
The government has reduced expenditures, ended most price subsidies, and introduced a value-added tax. Overall, the government appears committed to the transition to a market economy. Through economic stabilization and reform, the government seeks to establish a pattern of long-term consistent growth. Reforms led to the Kyrgyz Republic's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1998.
Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in the Kyrgyz Republic. By the early 1990s, the private agricultural sector provided between one-third and one-half of some harvests. In 2002 agriculture accounted for 35.6 percent of GDP and about half of employment.
The Kyrgyz Republic's terrain is mountainous, which accommodates livestock raising, the largest agricultural activity, so the resulting wool, meat, and dairy products are major commodities. Main crops include wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and fruit. As the prices of imported agrichemicals and petroleum are so high, much farming is being done by hand and by horse, as it was generations ago. Agricultural processing is a key component of the industrial economy, as well as one of the most attractive sectors for foreign investment.
Farmland cannot be owned by individuals, but land rights may be held for up to 99 years. Uncertain land tenure and overall financial insecurity have caused many private farmers to concentrate their capital in livestock, thus subjecting new land to the overgrazing problem.
The Kyrgyz Republic is rich in mineral resources but has negligible petroleum and natural gas reserves; it imports petroleum and gas. Among its mineral reserves are substantial deposits of coal, gold, uranium, antimony, and other rare-earth metals. Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment in this field. The government has actively encouraged foreign involvement in extracting and processing gold. The Kyrgyz Republic's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy.
A large amount of local commerce occurs at bazaars and small village kiosks. Commodities such as gas (petrol) are often sold on the road-side in gallon jugs. A significant amount of trade is unregulated. There is also a scarcity of common everyday consumer items in remote villages. Thus a large number of homes are quite self-sufficient with respect to food production. There is a distinct differentiation between urban and rural economies.
With an unemployment rate of 18 percent in 2004, and with 40 percent of the population living below the poverty line, progress in fighting corruption, further restructuring of domestic industry, and success in attracting foreign investment are keys to future growth.
Exports totalled $701.8-million in 2006. Export commodities included cotton, wool, meat, tobacco, gold, mercury, uranium, natural gas, hydropower, machinery, and shoes. Export partners were United Arab Emirates 35.6 percent, Russia 18.6 percent, China 13.4 percent, and Kazakhstan 13 percent.
Imports totalled $1.177-billion in 2006. Import commodities included oil and gas, machinery and equipment, chemicals, and foodstuffs. Import partners were China 43 percent, Russia 19.7 percent, Kazakhstan 12.1 percent, Turkey 4.4 percent.
Per capita GDP was $2088 in 2005, a rank of 140 on a list of 194 nations.
According to July 2005 estimates, the population was 5,264,000. Of those, 34.4 percent are under the age of 15 and 6.2 percent are over the age of 65. The country is rural; only about one-third (33.9 percent) of Kyrgyzstan's population live in urban areas. The average population density is 69 people per square mile (29 people per square kilometer). Life expectancy for the whole population was 68.49 years in 2007.
The Kyrgyz, a Turkic peoples, comprise 69.5 percent of the population. They have historically been semi-nomadic herders, living in round tents called yurts and tending sheep, horses and yaks. This nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally as herding families return to the high mountain pasture (or jailoo) in the summer. The retention of this nomadic heritage and the freedoms that it assumes continue to have an impact on the political atmosphere in the country.
Other ethnic groups include Russians (9.0 percent) concentrated in the north and Uzbeks (14.5 percent) living in the south. Small but noticeable minorities include Tatars (1.9 percent), Uyghurs (1.1 percent), Kazakhs (0.7 percent) and Ukrainians (0.5 percent). A sizable Volga German community exiled there by Soviet president Josef Stalin from the Volga German Republic, have mostly returned to Germany. There are some Soviet Koreans, descendents of the Korean residents of Vladivostok, whom Stalin had exiled to Central Asia during World War II.
Stalin intentionally drew borders inconsistent with the traditional locations of ethnic populations, leaving large numbers of ethnic Uzbeks and Turkmen within Kyrgyzstan's borders. This was to maintain a level of ethnic tension, in order to avert an uprising.
Ethnic diversity leads to tension between and among groups. Russians claim there is discrimination by Kyrgyz people, as do the Uyghurs and the Muslim Dungans (also known as Hui. The tension is between the Uzbeks and the Kyrgyz, particularly in the southern region of Osh. In 1990 riots and fighting broke out between these groups over competition for housing and jobs. An estimated 200 to 1000 people were killed.
Kyrgyzstan is a secular state. During Soviet times, atheism was encouraged. About 76.1 percent of the population are mostly Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school. Islam in Kyrgyzstan is more of a cultural background than a devout daily practice for most. The main Christian churches are Russian Orthodox and Ukrainian Orthodox. A small minority of Germans are Protestant Christians, mostly Lutherans or Baptists.
Animistic traditions survive. Professional shamans, called bakshe, persist, and usually there are elders who practice shamanistic rituals for families and friends. Buddhist influences, such as the tying of prayer flags onto sacred trees, remain. A small number of Bukharian Jews had lived in Kyrgyzstan, but during the collapse of the Soviet Union most fled to other countries, mainly the United States and Israel.
Graves and natural springs are holy places. Cemeteries stand on hilltops, and graves are marked with elaborate buildings made of mud, brick, or wrought iron. Burials are done in Islamic fashion, but, contrary to Islamic law, the body will remain on display for two or three days. A traditional boz-ui round, domed tent made of wool felt is erected, and the body is laid out inside. The Kyrgyz believe that the spirits of the dead can help or hinder living relatives.
The Kyrgyz language became an official language in 1991. Kyrgyz is a member of the Turkic group of languages and was written in the Arabic alphabet until the twentieth century. Latin script was introduced and adopted in 1928, and was subsequently replaced by Cyrillic in 1941. Until recently, Kyrgyz remained a language spoken at home, rarely during meetings or other events. However, most parliamentary meetings are conducted in Kyrgyz, with simultaneous interpretation available for those not speaking Kyrgyz.
Kyrgyzstan is one of two of the five former Soviet republics in Central Asia to retain Russian as an official language (Kazakhistan is the other). Russian is widely spoken, except for some remote mountain areas. Russian is mother tongue to the majority of Bishkek dwellers, and most business and political affairs are carried out in this language.
Soviet policies maintained a tradition of equality between men and women, and provided women with jobs outside the home and a role in politics. Women continue work mainly in education and agriculture, and are responsible for all work inside the home, where they make decisions on running the household. Men dominate business and politics.
Arranged marriages are no longer common. Couples, who are expected to marry in their early twenties, choose each other, marry after a few months, and have children quickly. The bride is required to have a dowry, comprising clothing, sleeping mats, pillows, and a hand-made tush kyiz rug. The groom is required to pay a bride price in the form of cash and several animals—some cash may go toward the dowry, and the animals may become part of the wedding feast.
A wedding lasts three days. On day one, the bride and groom go to the city with friends to have the marriage license signed. On day two, the bride and groom celebrate separately with their friends and family. On the third day, the bride and her family go to the groom's family's house, where there are celebrations and games. Gifts are exchanged. At the end of the night, a bed is made from the bride's dowry. Two female relatives of the groom ensure the marriage is consummated and that the bride was a virgin. The couple will live with his family until they can afford a house.
Illegal but still practiced is the tradition of wife-stealing. A man may kidnap any unmarried girl 15 years of age and over. The girl spends a night alone with the man. The next day she is taken to meet her mother-in-law, who ties a scarf around the girl's head show she is married. The kidnapped girl may run away, and may sue, but it is shameful to do so. A lesser bride price is paid, but a dowry is not provided.
A family often consists of grandparents, parents, and children. Individuals live with their parents until they marry. Three or more children are common, with larger families in rural areas.
The youngest son lives with and cares for his parents until they die, when he inherits the house and the livestock. He may or may not share this inheritance with his brothers. Daughters do not inherit from their parents since they belong to their husbands' families.
Mothers care for their babies. An infant cannot be taken outside the home or be seen by anyone but the immediate family for the first 40 days. Infants are strapped into their cradles much of the time. Children are expected to be quiet. Girls take on household duties from age six, and by the time she is 16, the eldest daughter may be running the household. Boys are rowdy and active and have fewer household chores. Respect is most important.
It is generally considered that there are 40 Kyrgyz clans. This is symbolized by the 40-rayed yellow sun in the center of the flag of Kyrgyzstan. The lines inside the sun are said to represent a yurt (dwelling).
Education is compulsory for nine years for both boys and girls. Public schools are found in all towns and villages, and they offer schooling from first to eleventh grade. There are four years of primary education, starting at the age of six. This is followed by five years of lower secondary education.
Further studies are possible in specialist secondary schools, technical and vocational schools. Higher education is valued but expensive, and there is little financial aid.
In 2000–2001 459,721 pupils attended primary schools and 683,832 pupils attended secondary schools. In that period, 209,245 students were enrolled tertiary institutes.
The 33 tertiary institutes include the Kyrgyz State National University, the country’s largest university, the Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University, the American University of Central Asia, and the Bishkek Humanities University.
Kyrgyzstan has a high literacy rate of 99 percent. However, its ambitious program to restructure the Soviet educational system is hampered by low funding and loss of teachers. The Kyrgyz language is increasingly used for instruction. The transition from Russian to Kyrgyz has been hampered by lack of textbooks.
Kyrgyzstan has a small upper class and a large lower class. Ethnic Kyrgyz may be in either class, but it is rare to find other ethnic groups in the upper class. Using the Russian language, dressing in a Western clothes, having a two-story house, a Mercedes, or a BMW are all signs of wealth.
Government and urban architecture is in the Soviet style. Urban housing consists of large apartment blocks, where families live in two- or three-room apartments. Most rural houses are single story, with open-ended peaked roofs used as storage space. Families live in fenced compounds that include the main house, an outdoor kitchen, barns for animals, sheds for storage, gardens, and fruit trees. The traditional portable collapsible boz-ui dwellings, made of wool felt on a wooden frame, are still used during summer pasturing. The floors and walls of dwellings throughout the country are lined with carpets and fabric hangings. Furniture usually is placed along the walls, leaving most of a room empty.
Mutton is the favorite meat, although it is not always affordable. Beef, chicken, turkey, and goat are also eaten. A noodle dish, laghman (hand-rolled noodles in a broth of meat and vegetables) is popular, as is manti (dumplings filled with either onion and meat, or pumpkin), pelmeni, (a Russian dish of small meat-filled dumplings in broth), ashlam-foo (cold noodles topped with vegetables in spicy broth and pieces of congealed corn starch), samsa (meat or pumpkin-filled pastries), and fried meat and potatoes, and the rice dish pulau or plov, (rice fried with carrots and topped with meat). The most well-known drink is fermented mare's milk, kumis.
Each day most people eat one large meal, and three or four small meals mostly consisting of tea, bread, snacks, and condiments. These include vareynya (jam), kaimak, (similar to clotted cream), sara-mai (a form of butter), and various salads. Bread is considered sacred, and must never be placed on the ground or thrown away. A meal is ended with a quick prayer from the Qur'an. The hands are held out, palms up, and then everyone covers their face while saying "omen."
Kyrgyz women produce a wide range of textiles, mostly from the felt of their sheep. Ancient patterns are adapted to the tourist and export market, but it is still a living tradition, in that all yurts and most houses contain hand-made carpets or rugs called shirdaks. Tush kyiz are large, elaborately embroidered wall hangings, traditionally made in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by elder women to commemorate the marriage of a son or daughter. The tush kyiz is hung in the yurt over the marriage bed of the couple.
Flowers, plants, animals, stylized horns, national designs and emblems of Kyrgyz life are often found in these ornate and colorful embroideries. Designs are sometimes dated and signed by the artist upon completion of the work, which may take years to finish.
Manas is a traditional epic poem of the Kyrgyz people and the name of the epic's eponymous hero. The poem, with close to half a million lines, is 20 times longer than Homer's Odyssey and one of the longest epics in the world, is a patriotic work recounting the exploits of Manas and his descendants and followers, who fought against the Chinese and Kalmyks in the ninth century to preserve Kyrgyz independence.
Kyrgyz was not written until the twentieth century, when novel-writing in the historical and romance genres developed. Kyrgyz novelist Chingiz Aitmatov is known for his critical novels about life in Soviet Central Asia.
Kyrgyz folk singing and music lessons are taught at school, and there are several Kyrgyz children's performance groups. Instruments include the komuz (a three-stringed lute), oz-komuz (mouth harp), the chopo choor (clay wind instrument), and the kuiak (a four-stringed instrument played with a bow). Popular television shows feature Kyrgyz pop and folk singers and musicians. There is a small but active film industry.
The traditional national sports reflect the importance of horse riding. Very popular, as in all of Central Asia, is buzkashi (meaning "blue wolf"), a cross between polo and rugby football on horseback, in which the two teams attempt to deliver the headless carcass of a goat across the opposition's goal line or, in today's somewhat more regulated version, into the opposition's goal, a big tub or a circle marked on the ground. During a match the players seek to wrestle the goat from their opponents.
Other popular games on horseback are tyiyn or tenghe enish (picking up a coin from the ground at full gallop), kyz kuumai (chasing a girl in order to win a kiss from her, while she gallops away and may lash the pursuer with her horse whip), Oodarysh (wrestling on horseback), long-distance horse races over 15, 20 or even 50 and 100 kilometers, and others.
All links retrieved June 28, 2014.
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Fungal nail infections typically get worse, or progress, very slowly. The rate at which a fungal infection progresses depends on:
- Your overall health and susceptibility to the infection.
- The levels of humidity and heat in your environment.
- The type of nail infected. Fungal nail infections of the toenail have more time to grow and spread, because toenails grow more slowly than fingernails.
You may first notice a fungal nail infection when a nail or skin under the nail (nail bed) becomes discolored, damaged, thickened, or broken. If not treated, a fungal infection is likely to get worse and spread to other parts of the nail, the nail bed, and possibly the surrounding skin. Over time, the whole nail may become infected and damaged and may eventually fall out.
Fungal nail infections can be treated successfully. But some types are easier to treat than others. The most common type, distal subungual onychomycosis, can be a lifelong infection and hard to treat. Another type, white superficial onychomycosis, is easy to treat. Even after treatment, your nails may still look irregular in shape and appearance. It can take a year or longer before they return to normal.
Fungal nail infections often return. Of people successfully treated with antifungal pills, 15% to 20% get another infection in the next year.1
Bacterial infection can be a complication of a fungal nail infection. A common bacterial infection, acute paronychia, causes inflammation and swelling of the skin and tissues near a fingernail or toenail. | <urn:uuid:a8c1e8b0-508e-4b35-9358-24a5c86575b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/tc/fungal-nail-infections-what-happens | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932808 | 345 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Corrective Eye Surgery for Refractive Errors
Surgery for correcting or improving refractive errors
Clear vision depends on how well the cornea and lens permit light rays to fall onto the retina. Light rays must be refracted (bent) to focus on the retina. The retina is the light-sensitive nerve layer that lines the back of the eye, which creates impulses from the light rays that are sent through the optic nerve to the brain.
If the cornea or eye shape is abnormal, vision can become blurry because light does not fall properly on the retina. Called a refractive error, an abnormal cornea shape can often be corrected by refractive eye surgery, which, in turn, corrects the vision problem. Refractive errors can include myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), astigmatism (an irregularly shaped cornea which causes blurring), and presbyopia, a condition which causes the lens to harden, impairing near and reading vision.
The goal of most refractive eye surgeries is to reduce or eliminate a person's dependency on eyeglasses or contact lenses. Refractive eye surgery is not for everyone. One type of surgery may be more suitable for one person than another. Always see your doctor for a diagnosis and to discuss which type of surgery, if any, may be right for you.
There are several types of corrective surgical procedures for refractive errors, including:
Laser in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) surgery/wavefront-guided LASIK
Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK)
Radial keratotomy (RK)
Astigmatic keratotomy (AK)
Automated lamellar keratoplasty (ALK)
Laser thermal keratoplasty (LTK)
Conductive keratoplasty (CK)
Intracorneal ring (Intacs)
What is LASIK surgery?
LASIK, or laser in-situ keratomileusis, surgery is used to correct nearsightedness, farsightedness and astigmatism. An example is when a person is nearsighted (myopic), his or her eye is too long or the cornea is too steep, resulting in too much focusing power. The light rays entering the eye come in focus before hitting the retina, resulting in blurry vision when looking in the distance. The procedure, which should be done by a skilled eye surgeon, involves reshaping the cornea using an excimer laser. LASIK is replacing many of the other refractive eye surgery techniques.
A promising new technology, called wavefront-guided LASIK, provides an advanced method for measuring optical distortions in the eye. The Eye Surgery Education Council states that doctors can now use this technology as a roadmap to evaluate the eye by measuring how light is distorted as it passes into the eye and then is reflected back. This creates an optical map of the eye, highlighting individual imperfections. In addition, the wavefront technology allows the surgeon to tailor the laser beam settings for a more precise procedure. This provides sharper, better quality vision as well as a reduction in nighttime vision difficulties.
How is LASIK surgery performed?
Although each procedure varies slightly, in general, LASIK surgery involves using a computer-controlled excimer laser (a cold, ultraviolet laser) and a microkeratome (a surgical instrument). With these instruments, the surgeon cuts a flap in the center of the cornea to remove a thin layer of tissue. By removing the tissue, the cornea flattens, reducing the myopia. The flap, which is replaced without using sutures, adheres back to the cornea within minutes.
Recovery after LASIK surgery
In most cases, recovery from LASIK surgery is fast and involves minimal discomfort. Mild pain relievers may be recommended by your surgeon to relieve discomfort during the first day after surgery. People often take eyedrops for a week after the procedure.
Possible side effects of LASIK surgery
Generally, LASIK has a high success rate. However, side effects do occur. The following are the most common side effects and complications:
Dry eyes (during the healing process)
Eye discomfort (mostly during the first 24 hours following surgery)
Irregular astigmatism, which can decrease the corrected vision (astigmatism means blurring caused by an irregularly shaped cornea)
Corneal haze or glare, sensitivity to light
Overcorrected or undercorrected vision
Inability to wear contact lenses in the future
Loss of the corneal flap, requiring a corneal graft
Inflammation or infection
Blurry vision or vision loss
Benefits of LASIK surgery
For most people, LASIK surgery usually involves little pain and fast recovery. Other benefits may include:
LASIK can correct a wide range of myopia, up to 15 diopters (unit of measurement of the refractive power of a lens).
LASIK can be repeated to correct the vision further.
The eyes stabilize between 3 and 6 months after LASIK surgery.
The eye is not weakened, because only one flap is cut into the cornea.
LASIK usually causes little or no scarring of the cornea.
Post-operative care is usually limited to using eye drops for a week after surgery.
What is photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) surgery?
Photorefractive keratectomy, or PRK, uses the same excimer laser used in LASIK surgery and is done to reshape the cornea in an attempt to correct mild to moderate myopia (nearsightedness). According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), PRK has a 95% success rate. Only about 15% of peope need glasses, occasionally, following surgery.
How is PRK surgery done?
Although each procedure varies slightly, in general, PRK surgery involves an excimer laser beam reshaping the cornea by removing microscopic amounts of tissue from the outer surface. The procedure, which generally only takes a few minutes, uses a computer which maps the eye's surface and calculates the required corneal change.
Possible side effects of PRK surgery
Generally, PRK surgery has a high success rate. However, side effects do occur. Because the corneal surface is cut, it takes several weeks to heal. In addition, there is some eye discomfort after the surgery that may last for several weeks. The following are the most common side effects and complications:
Who is a potential candidate for LASIK or PRK eye surgery?
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), potential candidates for corrective laser eye surgery must meet the following criteria. However, it is advised that potential candidates consult their doctor before undergoing any type of corrective eye surgery. The criteria include:
The candidate must be at least 21 years old if being treated with the Summit laser (one brand of excimer lasers), or 18 years old if being treated with the VISX laser (another brand of excimer lasers). This age requirement is necessary to ensure the eyes have finished growing.
The candidate must have mild to moderate nearsightedness (myopia).
The candidate must be free of eye disease, problems with the retina, or scarring of the cornea.
The candidate must have the financial ability to pay for this costly surgery, since insurance may not cover the procedure.
The candidate must be aware of all the side effects, risks, and benefits of the surgery. Candidates should also be aware of the alternative treatment options available.
What is radial keratotomy (RK) surgery?
Radial keratotomy surgery, or RK, is a procedure also used to correct myopia (nearsightedness). The procedure involves making microscopic, radial incisions (keratotomies) in the cornea to alter the curvature of the cornea, thus, correcting light refraction. Hundreds of thousands of people who qualified for this type of surgery have undergone the procedure successfully since its introduction to the U.S. in 1978. While the procedure has been popular in the past, it has been almost completely replaced by the LASIK procedure.
How is RK surgery performed?
Although each procedure varies slightly, in general, RK surgery involves an eye surgeon cutting (with a calibrated diamond scalpel) radial or spoke-like incisions into the cornea outside of the center of the cornea (also called the optical zone, which is the area where a person sees through). Due to pressure inside the eye, the incisions cause the center, or optical zone, of the cornea to flatten, reducing refraction.
Possible side effects of RK surgery
One main side effect of RK surgery is the excessive amount of time it takes for the cornea to heal. In some cases, healing may take weeks. The following are the most common side effects and complications:
A weakened cornea that can rupture
Increased risk of infection
Difficulty in fitting contact lenses, if needed
Glare around lights
Fluctuating vision during the first few months
Cataracts (a change in the structure of the crystalline lens that causes blurred vision)
Loss of vision
Benefits of RK surgery
In most cases, RK has proven to be safe and effective for mild degrees of myopia.
What is astigmatic keratotomy (AK) surgery?
Astigmatic keratotomy (AK) is a surgical procedure, similar to radial keratotomy (RK), which is used to correct astigmatism (an irregularly shaped cornea which causes blurring). Instead of using a radial pattern of incisions, the surgeon makes the incisions in a curved pattern when performing AK surgery.
What is automated lamellar keratoplasty (ALK) surgery?
Automated lamellar keratoplasty, or ALK, is a surgical procedure that is used for hyperopia (farsightedness) and severe cases of myopia (nearsightedness). A person with hyperopia has shorter-than-normal eyes or has a corneal that is too flat, causing objects up close to look blurry.
How is ALK surgery performed?
Although each procedure varies slightly, in general, ALK surgery for myopia involves the surgeon cutting a flap across the front of the cornea with a microkeratome (surgical instrument). The flap is folded to the side and a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the cornea. The removal of tissue flattens the central cornea, or optical zone, reducing refraction. The flap is then put back in place, where it adheres without sutures.
During ALK surgery for hyperopia, the surgeon makes a deeper incision into the cornea with the microkeratome (a surgical instrument) to create a flap. The internal pressure in the eye causes the corneal surface to stretch and bulge. The bulging cornea improves the optical power, correcting the hyperopia. The flap is then put back in place, where it adheres without sutures.
Possible side effects of ALK surgery
The following are the most common side effects and complications:
Astigmatism (blurring caused by an irregularly shaped cornea)
Overcorrection or undercorrection
Inability to wear contact lenses after the procedure
Loss of the corneal flap, requiring a corneal graft
What is laser thermal keratoplasty (LTK)?
Laser thermal keratoplasty, or LTK, applies heat from a laser to the periphery of the cornea to shrink the collagen fibers, and reshapes the cornea. When the tissue is treated thermally, it contracts the tissue and causes the central cornea to steepen. You must be age 40 or older to qualify for this procedure.
What is conductive keratoplasty (CK)?
Conductive keratoplasty, or CK, uses heat from low-level, radio frequency waves, rather than laser or scalpel, to shrink the collagen and change the shape of the cornea. A probe that is smaller than a strand of hair is used to apply the radio waves around the outer cornea. This creates a constrictive band that that increases the curve of the cornea and improves vision. CK is used to correct mild to moderate farsightedness in people over age 40
What is an intracorneal ring (Intacs)?
Intracorneal rings, or Intacs, is a micro-thin intracorneal ring that is implanted into the cornea. Intacs produces a reshaping of the curvature of the cornea, thus improving vision. Intacs are only available in the US for low degrees of myopia.
How to prepare for refractive eye surgery
Most refractive eye surgeries are performed on an outpatient basis, with most procedures lasting less than one hour in duration. In preparation for surgery, you may be asked to:
Arrange for someone to drop you off and pick you up again after surgery.
Not wear your contact lenses for a period of time before surgery, to prevent corneal warpage.
Not wear eye make-up for a couple of days before surgery.
What to expect during surgery
Although each procedure varies slightly, in general, refractive eye surgery involves minimal discomfort. The eye is usually numbed with eye drops prior to surgery. While in surgery, you may also:
Specific events that occur during surgery vary depending on the type of surgery performed.
Recovering from surgery
Recovery times vary depending on the surgery, but can last anywhere from a couple of days to a couple of months. The following are some common symptoms following surgery:
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If you’re a Whole Foods shopper who occasionally peruses the market’s free pamphlets and brochures, you might know a thing or two about the dangers of irradiated food–at least, that’s where I learned about it. We hear a lot of talk about harmful ingredients: dyes, preservatives, trans fats, and HFCS, for instance, but little is mentioned about this equally harmful process that can alter the molecular composition of the food you eat, damaging valuable vitamins, minerals, and enzymes, all in the name of making said food safer.
During irradiation, food is exposed to ionizing radiation in an effort to destroy microorganisms, viruses, bacteria, or insects that could be dangerous if consumed by people. In addition to sanitizing our food, irradiation can also be used to prevent sprouting, delay ripening, or increase juice yield–in other words, messing with a fruit or vegetable’s natural life process or progression. How exactly does irradiation achieve all these things? By damaging the DNA of the food in question, basically stunting any growth.
Considering how much time and effort is spent attempting to halt or reverse DNA damage to our own cells, it’s ironic that more attention isn’t paid to the process of food irradiation. We’re constantly told to eat more fruits and vegetables because they contain antioxidants, the things that fight free radicals (which are responsible for oxidation and thus, cell damage!) However, the vast majority of produce in this country is irradiated, therefore containing the very stuff we try so desperately to avoid!
Behind the jump, there’s a bunch more reasons why you should avoid irradiated food.
- In their natural state, raw fruits and vegetables contain valuable enzymes that aid digestion. Once these foods are irradiated, the enzymes are destroyed. Basically, its like cooking the food–though by looking at it you’d never know this, because it still looks like a raw piece of produce.
- Irradiating a food can cause it to lose a large percentage of its vitamin content.
- The long-term effects of irradiation are unknown, because the longest study on human consumption of irradiated food lasted only 15 weeks.
- Irradiation puts a band-aid on contamination issues in large-scale food production. For instance, conventional farmers and meat producers don’t need to worry about fecal matter getting on their food, because it will just be irradiated anyway.
- Irradiation creates super bacteria. Just like antibacterial soaps, the irradiation process can never kill 100% of the microorganisms living on our food. The ones that do survive will become resistant to irradiation, and therefore, of greater potential danger to us.
Green Options Media is a network of environmentally-focused blogs providing users with the information needed to make sustainable choices. Written by experienced professionals, Green Options Media’s blogs engage visitors with authoritative content, compelling discussions, and actionable advice. We invite anyone with questions, or simply curiosity, to add their voices to the community, and share their approaches to achieving abundance.
By Marygrace Stergakos, Green Options | <urn:uuid:ebd11d1b-080d-4a25-906b-9ae2d86bc4b1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.care2.com/greenliving/what-is-irradiated-food-and-why-should-i-avoid-it.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936543 | 661 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Scribes taught their own sons, and sometimes larger groups. Temples and palaces ran and taught their own classes – they were making the scribes of the future.
The Egyptian word for temple is 'hut-netcher', which means 'god's house'. Temples were built for the gods and used for daily rituals and festivals. Ordinary people were not allowed into the temple. Instead they had their own gods at home. | <urn:uuid:0f3e3a49-1b8c-4e5a-b73a-32569376075e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/kids/games-quizzes/nile-file/10.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.990503 | 93 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Where in the World is Weiss?
If you are looking for Dr. Jesse Weiss around campus during the month of May, you might not have much luck. You could even find yourself thinking "Where in the world is Weiss???"
Follow Dr. Jesse Weiss and the 10 students enrolled in his National Parks course (ENS 4783) as they journey across the western United States to visit Badlands, Yellowstone, Arches, Bryce Canyon, and Grand Canyon National Parks from May 18-30, 2013.
STATUS: Wednesday, June 29, 2016 - Back at Ozarks! The group has traveled more than 4000 miles to experience some of the most majestic places in the western United States. Be sure to read about their experiences on facebook!
Meet the National Parks - Ozarks Travelers!
ENS 4783: National Parks
The National Parks class, taught by Dr. Jesse Weiss, associate professor of sociology and environmental studies, explores the relationship between human civilization and the physical environment.
Weiss says that humans act toward ecosystems in a way that is consistent with their definition of that ecosystem and according to the value they place on it. The goal of the National Parks course was to attempt to gain an understanding of the way that human societies envision, construct and enact their relationship with the physical environment by examining how humans use that environment.
These students sought to understand this relationship by examining the development of the concept of "wilderness" in the United States and how that conceptualization led to the development of a National Parks program. They studied sociological theories and concepts, philosophical arguments and historical documentation. The class will culminate with a trip out west, planned and implemented by the students.
Follow their journey to see what they can teach us about five amazing National Parks! | <urn:uuid:2dbe181f-d6fd-49e1-8a0e-10a96f521436> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ozarks.edu/newsevents/weiss/default.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955553 | 357 | 2.578125 | 3 |
It has now been a year since the events of Greece captivated the world as students, workers, immigrants and the unemployed took to the streets of the country’s major cities. The Greek December saw widespread examples of working class direct action from strikes and sabotage to the occupation of schools, workplaces and municipal buildings. This article will reflect on key currents that emerged out of the uprising, what the events meant and what they mean for the future.
A 15-year old boy
The Greek uprising was a shock. While we had witnessed recent comparable examples of working class revolt across Europe in France and Italy, the scale and ferocity of the December events took many by surprise. It was the murder of a 15-year-old boy, Alexis Grigoropoulos, by Greek police that sparked the outrage that inflamed Greek society. Police brutality is a daily reality for many Greeks – especially in the inner cities against immigrants and anti-authoritarian youth. Corruption and embezzlement are rife among politicians and civic leaders, such as those in the church, and there is a real crisis of trust in politics amongst large sections of the population. The economic crisis had also meant widespread cuts in pay, job losses and greater insecurity for many. While the initial riots were largely confined to inner city youth, the raw injustice of the murder of an innocent 15-year-old stirred up deeper and more general frustrations with the social and political order. The uprising brought together different sections of Greek society in ways that had not been seen before.
We demand nothing
A central cause of the decline of the uprising was its failure to spread the struggle to other sections of the working class. The popular and neighbourhood assemblies attempted to popularise the struggle, and the occupation of the GSEE trade union offices (one of the most well attended assemblies) also took steps towards this. However, overall much of the activity in the streets, although it gained a great deal of popular support, failed to spread to workplaces. Workers in many key industries did, and continue to, engage in disruptive action (strike action by dockworkers in Piraeus is reported to have cost around 5 million Euros a day) against cuts and job losses, but this never seemed to fully connect with the occupations and riots on the streets.
A positive outcome of the uprising was that, thanks to its radical and totally anti-capitalist message, the best activity of December was never pushed in a reformist direction. Despite the fact that the is now attempting Socialist Party to label itself as “anti-authoritarians in power”, there were no new sets of “leaders” or political alliances emerging out of the events. Many of the popular initiatives eventually ran out of steam, but they still stand as positive and inspirational examples of contemporary working class self-organisation.
The rise of the far-right
In the recent European elections, there was growing support for organisations of the far-right (including in the UK) across the continent. Greece was no different, with LAOS (a right-wing populist party) securing two representatives with 7.14% of the vote. The Greek state has also been keen to pursue new anti-immigration policies. In May the Minister of Public Order pledged to "clean" the centre of Athens of immigrants, attempting to push plans to convert an old NATO base into a holding camp for these displaced people. Throughout December, collaboration between the police and paramilitary fascist groups (such as the neo-Nazi “Golden Dawn”) was well documented. Fascists were photographed assisting in arrests, attacking protesters and even using police equipment against demonstrations. Since December, fascist groups have been targeting what they see as the key elements behind the uprising – largely immigrants and anarchists – including an attack with a hand grenade in February against a popular squat. Anti-fascist and anti-racist activity, however, has remained strong and in spite of the reports of escalating repression, anti-fascists were able to celebrate the world over in March as the news spread that the headquarters of “Golden Dawn” had been torched to the ground.
The traditional Left and the trade unions
The parties of the traditional Left and the trade unions were quick to show their true colours at the outbreak of the events. The Greek Communist Party swiftly denounced the riots as the work of “foreign dark forces” and called for its members to stay away from the riots. Members of its youth wing were also active in attempting to block occupations. The Socialist Party, now in power, has overseen widespread state repression against anarchists, including a mass raid of squats and social centres in the Exarchia district (the district where Alexis was shot). The trade union leadership were also keen to not let their members become infected by the spirit of revolt. During December they cancelled a key demonstration that would have coincided with the uprising, and since then the leadership have continued to restrain the activity of workers.
The fate of a tree
The image of the burning Christmas tree in Syntagma Square came to be a powerful symbol of the rebellion. So strong, in fact, that in later demonstrations the police showed a far greater interest in protecting the replacement tree than the surrounding banks and luxury shops! The holiday season, however, was not friendly to the uprising. Traditional celebrations like Christmas have a strong hold over communities and many initiatives failed to get back on their feet after the break. The frenzied consumerism that is the modern “Christmas spirit” also became a real barrier between the demands of the uprising and the experience of the general public.
The return of armed struggle?
Armed groups have always been a feature of the Greek left. The Marxist “17 November” group orchestrated a sustained assassination and bombing campaign against Greek police and public officials for 29 years before disbanding in 2002. The December events saw 17 November's successors, “Revolutionary Struggle”, claim responsibility for the shooting of a police guard at the Culture ministry. However the 17 November group never really had any mass appeal. The December events prompted the emergence of other groups that appear to be gathering some sympathy. These include “Popular Action” and the “Nuclei of Fire Conspiracy” (NFC) which have both claimed responsibility for detonating small-scale explosive devices and are yet to cause a fatality. The NFC communiqué, which has been widely reported in the mainstream media, has become particularly popular amongst the new wave of high school occupations. Of course, all of this has served as a pretext for the authorities to seize and detain anarchists and other activists who have been involved in the uprising. Heavy raids in the Exarchia district are justified by referring to the guerillas' activity, while three 20-year-old men were jailed under anti-terrorist laws for their alleged involvement in the NFC (this was despite the fact that the prosecution’s case quickly collapsed and they had to be held “in expectation” of evidence against them). The mainstream media has also been keen to highlight the guerilla groups' activity as a way to discredit the uprising in general.
One, two, many Decembers
While December 2008 may have been the high point, the struggle very much continues throughout Greece. There is still widespread unrest throughout major industries and 2009 has already seen some highly militant expressions of workplace action. Many activists also continue to struggle against the backlash to the events, whether that is the state’s turn to racist social policies, increasing repression against activists, or even targeted state violence. As this article is written, it is a week before the official start of the “unrest season”, the 30 days between the anniversary of the 1973 Polytechnic Uprising (November 17), the anniversary of the assassination of Alexandros Grigoropoulos and the start of the 2008 December Uprising (December 6) and the trial of Grigoropoulos murderers (December 15), and things are looking tense. Workers of the Social Security Organisation of Self-Employed (AOEE) have occupied the two buildings of the organisation to demand the renewal of temporary contracts. Even the union of basketball players has announced a two day strike demanding a series of labour conditions reforms! At the moment, it's not clear whether we’ll see an eruption of the kind of scenes we saw a year ago. One thing is for sure: that we can continue to look to the Greek working class as an inspiration for the ongoing struggle of our class, even in the toughest of social and economic climates.
Originally published in Resistance, Anarchist Federation paper, issue 118, December 2009 - Jan 2010 | <urn:uuid:3e4b12a8-7202-424a-88d9-53bc5222b14a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://libcom.org/library/greek-december-%E2%80%93-one-year | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978136 | 1,752 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Want to eat to beat disease? Then whole grains should be part of your diet. Whole grains are a surprisingly rich source of antioxidants, compounds that help protect against heart disease, cancer and diabetes, according to research. In fact, one study found that gram per gram, whole grains contained the same level of polyphenols, a particular source of antioxidants, as fruits, vegetables and wine. Plus, they’re a great source of fiber, which can help blunt sharp rises in blood sugar.
Despite all these perks, only 12 percent of the grain consumed in the United States is whole grain. If you’re looking to pump up your intake of whole grains, try these delicious recipes: | <urn:uuid:c41b8988-04d1-4ee9-a80e-fd65439f244e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thebestlife.com/recipe-roundup-whole-grain-goodness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91537 | 141 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Pelvic ultrasound is a procedure in which high-frequency sound waves create images of the pelvic organs. The sound waves are projected into the pelvis, and measure how they reflect—or echo—back from the different tissues.
Ultrasound is a preferred method of examining the pelvis, and functions as an extension of a physical examination , particularly for obese patients. It is a common initial step after physical examination when a patient complains of pelvic pain or abnormal vaginal bleeding. The procedure is performed routinely during pregnancy and examinations to determine the cause of infertility. Ultrasound has the ability to detect the size and shape of pelvic organs, such as the bladder, and is useful in evaluating the cause of bladder dysfunction. In women, pelvic ultrasound is used to examine the uterus, ovaries, cervix, and vagina. In general, ultrasound can detect inflammation, free fluid, cysts (abnormal fluid-filled spaces), and tumors in the pelvic region.
A primary use of pelvic ultrasound is during pregnancy. In early pregnancy (about five to seven weeks), ultrasound may determine the size of the fetus to confirm the suspected due date, detect multiple fetuses, or confirm that the fetus is alive (viable). Ultrasound is particularly useful in distinguishing between intrauterine (within the uterus) and ectopic (outside the uterus) pregnancies. Toward the middle of the pregnancy (about 16–20 weeks), the procedure can confirm fetal growth, reveal defects in the anatomy of the fetus, and check the placenta and amniotic fluid. Toward the end of pregnancy, it may be used to evaluate fetal size, position, growth, or to check the placenta.
Doctors may use ultrasound to guide the biopsy needle during amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. The imaging allows precise placement of the long needle that is inserted into the patient's uterus to collect cells from the placenta or amniotic fluid.
Depending on the goal of the procedure, a pelvic ultrasound can also be called a bladder ultrasound, pelvic gynecologic sonogram, or obstetric sonogram. Ultrasound examinations are usually done in a doctor's office, clinic, or hospital setting. Typically, the patient will lie on an examination table with the pelvis exposed. Special gel is applied to the area to make sure that there is no air between the hand-held transducer and the skin, and to facilitate transducer movement. The physician or technologist guides the transducer over the abdomen. The transducer both creates and receives the echoes of the high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range of 3.5–10.0 megahertz). An ultrasound scan reveals the shape and densities of organs and tissues. By performing repeated scans over time, much like the frames of a movie, ultrasound can also reveal movement, such as the motions of a fetus. This technique is called real-time ultrasound.
Using a computerized tool, called a caliper, the ultrasound technologist can measure various structures shown in the image. For example, the length of the upper thigh bone (femur) or the distance between the two sides of the skull can indicate the age of the fetus.
Ultrasound technology has been safely used in medical settings for over 30 years, and several significant extensions to the procedure have made it even more useful. A specially designed transducer probe can be placed in the vagina to provide better ultrasound images. This transvaginal or endovaginal scan is particularly useful in early pregnancy or in cases where ectopic pregnancy is suspected. It is also routinely used to provide better anatomic delineation of the endometrium and pelvic masses. In men, transrectal scans, where the probe is placed in the rectum, are done to check the prostate. Doppler ultrasound has the ability to follow the flow of blood through veins and arteries, and can be useful in detecting disorders such as abnormal blood flow associated with ovarian torsion (a twisted blood supply that causes pelvic pain). Color enhancement is particularly useful in Doppler imaging, where shades of red signify flow away from the transducer and shades of blue signify flow toward it.
Hysterosonography is another variant ultrasound procedure. It involves the injection of saline solution into the uterus during an endovaginal scan. The saline distends the uterine cavity (or endometrium) and simplifies the identification of polyps, fibroids, and tumors. The saline outlines the lesion, making it easier to find and evaluate. Hysterosonography can also be used in the testing of patency (openness) of the fallopian tubes during infertility evaluations.
Before undergoing a pelvic ultrasound, the patient may be asked to drink several glasses of water and to avoid urinating for about one hour prior to exam time. When the bladder is full, it forms a convenient path, called an acoustic window, for the ultrasonic waves. A full bladder is not necessary for an endovaginal examination, sometimes making it a preferred choice in emergency situations. Women usually empty their bladders completely before an endovaginal exam.
For a diagnostic ultrasound, the lubricating gel applied to the abdomen is wiped off at the end of the procedure and the patient can immediately resume normal activities.
Ultrasound carries with it almost no risk for complications.
A normal scan reveals no abnormalities in the size, shape, or density of the organs scanned. During pregnancy, a normal scan reveals a viable fetus of expected size and developmental stage. Although ultrasound is an extremely useful tool, it cannot detect all problems in the pelvic region. If a tumor or other lesion is very small or if it is masked by another structure, it may not be detected. When used during pregnancy, patients should be advised that ultrasound does not reveal all fetal abnormalities. Additionally, the reliability of ultrasound readings can depend on the skill of the technologist or physician performing the scan.
An abnormal scan may show the presence of inflammation, cysts, tumors, or abnormal blood flow patterns. These results may suggest further diagnostic procedures, or surgical or pharmacological treatment. Obstetrical ultrasound examinations may alter the anticipated due date or detect abnormalities or defects in the fetus. This information may reveal that the fetus cannot survive on its own after birth, or that it will require extensive treatment or care. The technologist performing the ultrasound should consult with a radiologist or other physician if any questionable results appear.
Sanders, Roger C. Clinical Sonography: A Practical Guide. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1998.
Galen, Barbara A. "Diagnostic Imaging: An Overview." Primary Care Practice 3 (September/October 1999).
Jorizzo, J. "Sonohysterography: The Next Step in the Evaluation of the Abnormal Endometrium." Radiographics 117 (Oct. 1999).
Kaakagi, Y. "Sonography of Obstetric and Gynecologic Emergencies: Part II, Gynecologic Emergencies." American Journal of Roetgenology 661 (Mar. 2000).
Wooldridge, Leslie. "Ultrasound Technology and Bladder Dysfunction." American Journal of Nursing Supplement 100 (June 2000).
American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. 14750 Sweiter Lane, Suite 100, Laurel, MD 20707-5906. (301) 498-4100 or (800) 638-5352. http://www.aium.org .
American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS). 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 360, Rockville, MD 20852-1150. (301) 738-8401 or (800) 541-9754. http://www.ardms.org .
Valley, Verna T. "Ultrasonography, Pelvic." Emedicine. January 17, 2001. [cited May 6, 2001] http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic622.htm .
Michelle L. Johnson, M.S., J.D. Lee A. Shratter, M.D. | <urn:uuid:957dce87-eb7e-49ed-8cc7-87b528a5bab7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.surgeryencyclopedia.com/Pa-St/Pelvic-Ultrasound.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.897791 | 1,677 | 3.53125 | 4 |
During the ten years between 2000 and 2010, Jalisco’s population increased by over a million from 6,322,002 to 7,350,355. Suburbs around Guadalajara dominated demographic change increasing by 887,301 (43.2%) to 2,940,118 (see Population change in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Area). The greatest growth was in the southern suburb of Tlajomulco which grew 237% from 123,619 to 416,552. Interestingly, the population of the central city of Guadalajara decreased by 152,185 to 1,494,134.
In this post, we look at the pattern of population change for the other municipalities in the state of Jalisco. The map shows the average annual percentage change in population for the period 2000-2010. It is worth noting that the population of a place with an annual growth rate of 3% will double in about 24 years.
What other areas of Jalisco are growing fastest?
Puerto Vallarta, the other major urban area in the state, grew by 38% to 255,725. The northern suburbs of Puerto Vallarta in the state of Nayarit grew even faster. The other major ex-pat area around Lake Chapala grew more slowly. Chapala grew by 12.4% to 48,812, Jocotepec by 18.0% to 42,142, while Poncitlan increased by 18.6% to 48,407.
Jalisco grew by 16.3% during the decade or an average increase of about 1.5% per year. But rates of population growth varied greatly from one area to another.
As indicated in the map, many of the isolated rural municipalities in the state actually declined in population (yellow-green and yellow areas). While births in these rural communities generally exceeded deaths, they experienced significant out migration.
In addition, many other rural communities in western Jalisco grew slowly at less than 1% per year (light pink on the map). Most of the communities in eastern Jalisco grew 1 – 2% about the same rate as the state as a whole.
Surprisingly, three of the most isolated municipalities in far northern Jalisco grew rapidly at over 3% per year. These municipalities are home to many indigenous Huichol Indians. Only relatively low numbers of Huichol Indians have migrated away from their ancestral homelands, so out-migration from these municipalities is much lower than from other remote parts of the state. In recent years, mining activity which was the mainstay of the economy of this area in colonial times, has made something of a comeback, thereby increasing local economic activity and opportunities.
Methodological note: The map depicts the municipal boundaries as they existed in the year 2000. Since that time, the municipality of Arandas has been split into two, reducing its territorial extent, and creating the new municipality of San Ignacio Cerro Gordo. | <urn:uuid:733a6b1b-0cee-4f1a-a80c-3d73b7933937> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://geo-mexico.com/?p=3597 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948684 | 606 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Carpenter bees are some of the largest and most spectacular of the native Australian bees. Their name comes from their habit of nesting in soft wood, like dead banksia trees, in which they cut entrance holes with their strong jaws.
I tie dead tree trunks to the trees for the Carpenter bees to make their home. They are very beautiful like huge Bumblebees. There is one ready to come out.
Ants use the leaves of a Golden Penda to make their nest. Do not disturb it or they are quickly all over you!
Third of plants and animals 'at risk of extinction'
One third of plant and animal species are now at risk of extinction, a UN report is expected to conclude this week.
By Matthew Moore
The world's biodiversity is threatened by the economic growth of countries like China, India and Brazil, the study will say.
While Western countries are increasingly aware of the need to protect endangered species, the developing world's appetite for raw materials is destroying vulnerable ecosystems, the report's authors will warn.
Population growth, pollution and the spread of Western-style consumption are also blamed for hitting plant and animal populations.
Species at risk include the fishing cat, as its wetland habitats in India, Pakistan and southeast Asia are converted for agriculture. Maritime ecosystems are under particular threat, with the south Asian river dolphin among the species whose numbers have plummeted due to damming and overfishing.
The latest report – the third edition of the UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook – is based on data obtained from studies in more than 120 countries across the world.
It builds on recent work for the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) which showed that 21 per cent of all known mammals, 30 per cent of amphibians and 35 per cent of invertebrates are threatened with extinction.
Speaking in advance of the report, Ahmed Djoghlaf, who heads the Convention on Biological Diversity, said that countries had failed to honour pledges to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss.
He said: “The magnitude of the damage [to ecosystems] is much bigger than previously thought. The rate of extinction is currently running at 1,000 times the natural historical background rate of extinction.”
He added: “It’s a problem if we continue this unsustainable pattern of production and consumption. If the 9 billion people predicted to be with us by 2050 were to have the same lifestyle as Americans, we would need five planets.” | <urn:uuid:9d9689a7-e72e-4283-a419-5ff67915af68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://titania-yesterdaytodayandtomorrow.blogspot.com/2010/05/nature-in-peril.html?showComment=1274219014108 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955107 | 510 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Hypersomnia / Excessive Sleepiness Disorder / Idiopathic Hypersomnia
a. Sleep latency: The amount of time it takes for a person to fall asleep
b. Sleep apnea: Periodic cessation of breathing during sleep causing arousals from sleep.
c. Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders: Sleep disorders that are caused due to disturbance in the normal 24 hour sleep wake cycle.
d. Periodic Limb Movement Disorder:Abnormal and repeated leg movements in sleep which causes considerable sleep disturbance.
e. Restless Legs Syndrome: A disorder characterized by aching or burning sensations in the lower limbs that occur in sleep and that may awaken the patient from sleep.
f. Narcolepsy: A disorder that manifests with repeated episodes of daytime sleepiness, accompanied by any or all of these conditions - sleep paralysis, cataplexy and hallucinations.
g. Menstruation: The normal cyclical discharge through the vagina of blood and mucosal tissues from the nonpregnant uterus.
h. Idiopathic: Unknown, a specific cause is not known.
i. Nor epinephrine: A neurotransmitter found in the sympathetic nervous system.
j. Dopamine: A neurotransmitter found in the extra pyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement
k. Hypocretin: Hypocretin, a key neurotransmitter kindles the arousal centers in the brain to cause wakefulness. It also helps maintain wakefulness without falling asleep unexpectedly.
l. REM Sleep: It is so called because of the Rapid Eye Movements that occur during this phase of sleep
m. Sleep drunkenness: Movements or behaviors associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals (awakenings) from sleep that may impair sleep maintenance.
n. Hallucinations: Experiencing sensations in the absence of an appropriate stimulus, but which the individual regards as real.
n. Delusion: Experiencing abnormal sensations in the presence of an appropriate stimulus.
o. Schizophrenia: A severe emotional disorder characterized by delusion formation, hallucinations, emotional disharmony, and regressive behavior.
p. Theta Waves: A waveform recorded on an Electroencephalogram (EEG). It’s frequency range is normally between 5 and 8 cycles a second. It indicates a drowsy or idealing state of the mind. A person who has taken time off from a task and begins to daydream is often in a theta brainwave state. | <urn:uuid:cb4cba99-45f3-451a-b225-77cb7b50e174> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medindia.net/patients/patientinfo/sleep/sleep_disorder_hypersomnia_glossary.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.87902 | 520 | 3.03125 | 3 |
The Industrial Revolution
- Article by: Matthew White
Early industryEarly 18th century British industries were generally small scale and relatively unsophisticated. Most textile production, for example, was centred on small workshops or in the homes of spinners, weavers and dyers: a literal ‘cottage industry’ that involved thousands of individual manufacturers. Such small-scale production was also a feature of most other industries, with different regions specialising in different products: metal production in the Midlands, for example, and coal mining in the North-East.
Steam and coalBecause there were limited sources of power, industrial development during the early 1700s was initially slow. Textile mills, heavy machinery and the pumping of coal mines all depended heavily on old technologies of power: waterwheels, windmills and horsepower were usually the only sources available.
Changes in steam technology, however, began to change the situation dramatically. As early as 1712 Thomas Newcomen first unveiled his steam-driven piston engine, which allowed the more efficient pumping of deep mines. Steam engines improved rapidly as the century advanced, and were put to greater and greater use. More efficient and powerful engines were employed in coalmines, textile mills and dozens of other heavy industries. By 1800 perhaps 2,000 steam engines were eventually at work in Britain.
Early 18th century depiction of a steam engineView images from this item (1)
FactoriesThe spinning of cotton into threads for weaving into cloth had traditionally taken place in the homes of textile workers. In 1769, however, Richard Arkwright patented his ‘water frame’, that allowed large-scale spinning to take place on just a single machine. This was followed shortly afterwards by James Hargreaves’ ‘spinning jenny’, which further revolutionised the process of cotton spinning.
New ‘manufactories’ (an early word for 'factory') were the result of all these new technologies. Large industrial buildings usually employed one central source of power to drive a whole network of machines. Richard Arkwright’s cotton factories in Nottingham and Cromford, for example, employed nearly 600 people by the 1770s, including many small children, whose nimble hands made light-work of spinning. Other industries flourished under the factory system. In Birmingham, James Watt and Matthew Boulton established their huge foundry and metal works in Soho, where nearly 1,000 people were employed in the 1770s making buckles, boxes and buttons, as well as the parts for new steam engines.
TransportThe growing demand for coal after 1750 revealed serious problems with Britain’s transport system. Though many mines stood close to rivers or the sea, the shipping of coal was slowed down by unpredictable tides and weather. Because of the growing demand for this essential raw material, many mine owners and industrial speculators began financing new networks of canals, in order to link their mines more effectively with the growing centres of population and industry.
The early canals were small but highly beneficial. In 1761, for example, the Duke of Bridgewater opened a canal between his colliery at Worsley and the rapidly growing town of Manchester. Within weeks of the canal’s opening the price of coal in Manchester halved. Other canal building schemes were quickly authorised by Acts of Parliament, in order to link up an expanding network of rivers and waterways. By 1815, over 2,000 miles of canals were in use in Britain, carrying thousands of tonnes of raw materials and manufactured goods by horse-drawn barge.
Extract from an 'essay on the present state of our publick roads'View images from this item (4)
The improvements achieved by 18th century road builders were breathtaking. By the 1830s the stagecoach journey from London to Edinburgh took just two days, compared to nearly two weeks only half a century before.
The text in this article is available under the Creative Commons License. | <urn:uuid:a6b13cf0-3675-46ad-a2b2-b221ed669d48> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-industrial-revolution | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970337 | 817 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Published on August 27th, 2008 | by Andrew Williams16
U.S. Could Cut Fuel Use 50% by 2035
[social_buttons] A new report by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Energy Initiative predicts that a 30-50% reduction in fuel consumption is possible in the US over the next 25-30 years. Initially, this will be achieved through improved gasoline and diesel engines and transmissions, gasoline hybrids and reductions in vehicle weight and drag. In the longer term, the study concludes that plug-in hybrids and, later, hydrogen fuel cells may begin to have a significant impact on fuel use and emissions.
The report, ‘On the Road in 2035: Reducing Transportation’s Petroleum Consumption and GHG Emissions,’ summarizes the results of an MIT research project that assessed the technology of vehicles and fuels that could be developed and commercialized during the next 25 years.
The research team assessed the effect of new vehicle and fuel technologies on the performance, cost and lifecycle emissions of individual vehicles. It then assessed the effects on the total on-the-road fleet of introducing these technologies using “plausible assumptions about how rapidly they could be developed, manufactured and sold to buyers to replace existing vehicles and fuels or to add to the existing fleet.”
Other key findings include:
- Alternative fuels simpy seeking to replace petroleum are unlikely to lead to a significant change in GHG emissions. In fact, major near-term alternatives like the Candian oil-sands and coal will actually increase emissions;
- Although some biofuels may prove beneficial, the U.S. emphasis on corn-based ethanol is “not obviously justifiable,” since it has “high economic costs, questionable GHG advantages, and other unfavorable environmental impacts.”
- No single alternative fuel or technological development is likely to solve the problems of increased GHG emissions. Instead, progress must come from from a “comprehensive, coordinated effort to develop and market more efficient vehicles and benign fuels, and to find more sustainable ways to satisfy transportation demands.”
Other Posts on Fuel Economy:
- EcoDriving: The Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers Gift to the Masses
- GM Determined to Think Big With Better Fuel Economy
- Have Your Saturn Converted to an All-Electric Car
- Every Drop Counts: Nissan to Equip Cars With Fuel Efficient ECO Pedals
- Like GM, Ford Decides They’d Better Start Producing Smaller, More Fuel-Efficient Cars
Image Credit – futureatlas.com on Flickr via a Creative Commons License | <urn:uuid:68c9ecdf-4210-4a7e-be3b-8f450012eaca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gas2.org/2008/08/27/us-could-cut-fuel-use-50-by-2035/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910831 | 542 | 3.25 | 3 |
DURHAM, N.H. – Before commercial whaling was outlawed in the 1980s, diplomats, scientists, bureaucrats, environmentalists, and sometimes even whalers themselves attempted to create an international regulatory framework that would allow for a sustainable whaling industry.
In “Whales and Nations: Environmental Diplomacy on the High Seas,” (University of Washington Press, 2014) Kurkpatrick Dorsey, associate professor of history at the University of New Hampshire, tells the story of the international negotiation, scientific research, and industrial development behind these efforts - and their ultimate failure.
“As a teenager growing up in Southern Ohio, I played a board game at summer camp called ‘Save the Whales.’ What were we saving the whales from? From the whalers, of course, but also from the International Whaling Commission and the general attitude that whales were better as food than as something to be preserved,” Dorsey says.
“I wouldn’t generally recommend using a board game to learn about history, but in this case, the game helped sparked my interest. Why were people so angry about the International Whaling Commission? Why were people arguing about the proper use of a whale? Thirty years later, I have finally written this book,” he says.
“Whales and Nations” begins in the early 20th century, when new technology revived the fading whaling industry and made whale hunting possible on an unprecedented scale. By the 1920s, declining whale populations prompted efforts to develop “rational” -- what today would be called sustainable -- whaling practices.
But even though almost everyone involved with commercial whaling knew that the industry was on an unsustainable path, Dorsey argues that powerful economic, political, and scientific forces made failure nearly inevitable.
“Why had these knowledgeable and powerful people been unable to put whaling on a sustainable course? Part of the answer comes from the widespread agreement that whales were masses of meat and blubber that were meant to be harvested. New refining techniques converted whale oil to margarine, which meant that many Europeans encountered whales as a thin spread on their morning toast, and most governments were determined to keep the oil flowing,” he says.
Based on a deep engagement with diplomatic history and access to extensive archival resources in Norway, Great Britain, United States, New Zealand, and Australia, the papers of the International Whaling Commission, and the papers of prominent whalers and scientists, “Whales and Nations” provides a unique perspective on the challenges facing international conservation projects. This history has profound implications for today’s pressing questions of global environmental cooperation and sustainability.
“One hundred years after Sir Sidney Harmer’s prophetic warning that whaling in Antarctic waters was on an unsustainable course, most people who encounter whales cannot imagine harpooning Willy. But have we learned lessons for solving the ocean’s problems?” Dorsey asks.
The University of New Hampshire, founded in 1866, is a world-class public research university with the feel of a New England liberal arts college. A land, sea, and space-grant university, UNH is the state's flagship public institution, enrolling 12,300 undergraduate and 2,200 graduate students.
Kurkpatrick Dorsey, associate professor of history at the University of New Hampshire, discusses his new book Whales and Nations: Environmental Diplomacy on the High Seas.
Credit: University of Washington Press
Kurkpatrick Dorsey, associate professor of history at the University of New Hampshire.
Whales and Nations: Environmental Diplomacy on the High Seas
Secondary Contact: Kurkpatrick Dorsey | 603-862-3022 | UNH Department of History | <urn:uuid:4f6f344a-549b-481e-ab6f-22d5d4c71c15> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unh.edu/news/releases/2014/02/lw06dorsey.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946864 | 777 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
The catecholamine theory of mood was first developed by Schildraut and Kety. They noted that depression is associated with a catecholamine deficiency in the brain while mania is associated with a catecholamine excess in the brain.
References & BibliographyEdit | <urn:uuid:d188073f-29e1-42ad-9298-6c00a7d05fea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Depression_and_catecholamines | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.692158 | 129 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Science educators from T.L. Hanna and Westside high schools are working together with Clemson University faculty to provide high school biology students the opportunity to learn more about advanced scientific research and its effects.
“EMRGE,” which stands for Ethics in Medical Research and Genetic Engineering, is a project supported by Clemson's SC LIFE Project and involving Clemson University faculty from The Rutland Institute for Ethics, the Center for Academic Integrity, and the SC DNA Learning Center collaborating with science educators from the two District Five high schools.
Last week over 210 District Five biology students traveled to Clemson to participate in activities such as faculty-led discussions about the impacts of advanced research, an investigation of stem cell differentiation at the South Carolina DNA Learning Center, a Bioengineering Department presentation on how tissue engineering works, as well as discussions about the Clemson experience from students in the FIRST program (first generation in their family to be in a four-year degree conferring university) and career opportunities related to the field trip.
The visit included opportunities for Clemson students to meet with the biology students. At lunchtime, the biology students had the opportunity to speak with Clemson student volunteers in various degree programs about their experiences and ask questions. Some Clemson students in the School of Education’s high school biology track volunteered in the learning center, at the information sessions, and during lunch. Later in the school year the students will conduct a genetic engineering investigation on their home campuses with their teachers. | <urn:uuid:b05f8df8-ca53-4b29-be79-9ba9d0a30714> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://andersonobserver.com/news/2009/11/25/clemson-and-district-five-collaborate-on-science-curriculum.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965503 | 294 | 2.65625 | 3 |
With the hope of restoring low-cost space exploration, NASA is planning to launch mini satellites into space powered by Nexus One and Nexus S smartphones. The program, called “PhoneSat” aims to launch the “lowest-cost satellites ever flown into space,” which I’m guessing just wasn’t possible if they used an iPhone instead. Zing? Two prototype satellites exist as of now, one being version 1.0, powered by the Nexus One and other is version 2.0 powered by the Nexus S.
If version 1.0 has a successful launch, the team’s hopes is to launch version 2.0 with more equipment attached so they can get some useful data from the probe. Launch is expected later this year for the Nexus One powered satellite and who knows, maybe if all goes well we can land an Android on Mars. Wishful thinking.
Via: PC World
Cheers David and Jacob! | <urn:uuid:4d8550a9-456b-4f7c-aa78-745eda097840> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.droid-life.com/2012/08/24/nasas-phonesat-program-to-launch-android-powered-mini-satellites-into-space/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94364 | 196 | 2.515625 | 3 |
February 8, 2013
Antarctic Adelie Penguins Learn To Cope With Climate Change
[Watch Video: Adélie Penguins and Climate Change]
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com — Your Universe Online
Researchers studying Adélie penguins say that the Antarctic birds are actually coping with climate change, for now.
A team set out with a five-year NSF grant to conduct research on how penguin populations cope with climate change, and on how individual birds cope. During the expedition, they wanted to know why some penguins succeed in coping with climate change, while others do not.
Researchers say that paying close attention to successfully breeding penguins can offer up clues to scientists about how penguins, as a whole, will eventually cope to the changing world.During the study, the team used GPS and nest tags to note where the Adélie penguins are, and came back to the spot repeatedly during the season to keep track of their successes and failures.
At this time, the scientists are in their 17th season of research, dealing with 17-year-old penguins.
"So we are getting some idea of the mechanisms of their population regulation, like how breeding success and mortality affect their population growth rates, and how this changes with age and experience," said David Ainley, who has been in the field, working on this research project since 1996.
The Adélie penguins return from wintering at sea on ice floes, to large bird colonies every year to build nests and breed. The transition from ice floes to bird colonies can be considered risky due to both a harsh environment and predators.
The group of penguins must travel from the colonies into the adjacent ocean to scrummage for food. This type of penguin only exists where there is sea ice, making the ice vitally important to protect their species, and they are highly sensitive to minor changes in the amount of sea ice.
"When the cover on the ocean reaches around 70 percent ice and there's only 30 percent water, conditions become more difficult for Adélies," said Ainley in a statement. "Above that point penguins begin to have problems with access to the sea and spend too much time walking. Around 20 percent ice cover is ideal for them."
During 2001, an iceberg broke from the Ross Ice Shelf, and the penguin colony at Cape Royds suffered significant losses due to the event.
"Because of the 50 miles of sea ice, the penguins had to walk across to get to open water. The young adults, returning to look for territories, after a short way decided that the walk wasn't worth the effort and began to visit colonies, such as at Cape Bird, closer to seas only partially covered by ice," said Ainley.
He said adults which had nested at Royds started out on the trip, but eventually deserted their mission to get back. After failing to breed for a couple of seasons, he said the adults began to look for new nesting territories.
Every year, the researchers band 400 chicks at the Royds colony, and 1,000 at other, larger colonies. They are able to read the bands using binoculars from 20 feet away. Once the penguins get banded, they will never need to be caught again.
Before the 2001 iceberg had broken off, there were about 4,000 pairs of Adélies at Cape Royds. However, by 2005, the population had decreased to 2,000 pairs.
"These penguins ignored the rule of thumb that scientists believed for decades--that penguins are faithful to their colony of birth--and they began to emigrate to other colonies, not just as young recruits, but birds that bred previously in their respective colonies. This totally tore up the book on how penguins should relate to their chosen habitat," Ainley said.
Now, the team is trying to determine why some penguins are more successful than others. They found that only 20 percent of the individuals are successful breeders for consecutive years, which they refer to as "super breeders."
According to the researchers, super breeders could hold the key to how the species will adapt to climate change.
"We've been studying the foraging behavior of these super breeders, comparing it to other penguins, and we found that the super breeders are kind of the Michael Phelps of the penguin world. Their foraging trips are shorter, because they dive deeper, dive more rapidly with shorter rest periods at the surface, and ultimately bring back more food to their chicks," Ainley said.
Research equipment helps the team monitor the comings and goings of the birds, and they document how much they weigh when they go out to sea, and how much they weigh upon their return. They apply small instruments to the back of penguins to record their diving behavior, and use satellites to pinpoint where they go to find food.
If all the sea ice were to disappear, then the penguins would not survive. However, subtle changes lead to speculation about how, or if, they are able to adapt.
The research is ongoing, and while the future of sea ice remains uncertain, scientists like Ainley and his team, aim to try and ensure the certainty of these penguins' survival. | <urn:uuid:385aee8c-668a-45bc-aa93-da0d89e8c11d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112780488/penguins-cope-with-climate-change-020813/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969324 | 1,088 | 3.0625 | 3 |
The continued rise in juvenile crimes is becoming a threat to society as years go by. Crimes committed by children below age 15, have been reported as early as the 19th century when they faced about the same punishment as adult criminals: public shaming, incarceration, even execution by hanging. At least 10 juveniles who were 14 at the time of their offense were executed during the 1800æ¯ including two 10 years old, according to the Washington-based Coalition for Juvenile Justice (Kresnak, 2003, p2).
æÂÂt is apparent in this generation that the rate of teenage and younger children becoming juveniles delinquent is growing each year at a rapid paste. In 1985, there were 1,600 juvenile delinquents under the age of 12 years, in 1995, the number more than doubled to 3,400, and in 2005, the number rose to 4,700. During the same time period, the numbers grew from 31,400 in 1985, to 64,500 in 1995, and reached 77,600 across the United States of America (USA) for juvenile delinquents in the 13 to 15 age group (Puzzanchera and Kang, 2008).
As the rate of juvenile delinquency across the USA skyrockets, we begin to take a closer look at the juvenile systems in place and the factors that contribute to juvenile delinquency. According to Merrian-Webster Online Dictionary, juvenile delinquency is defined as æ onduct by a juvenile characterized by antisocial behavior that is beyond parental control and therefore subject to legal action.
Juvenile delinquent had been classified as a person under age (usually below 18), who is found to have committed a crime in states which have declared by law that a minor lacks responsibility and thus may not be sentenced as an adult. We located factor contributing to juvenile delinquency as location, gender, race, education, family status (one or two parent household), previous... | <urn:uuid:e6a5871e-5867-4a66-9551-0c3ec433ac57> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.writework.com/essay/juvenile-delinquency-case-studies-justice-system | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973122 | 400 | 3.125 | 3 |
|THE WORKS OF THE LAW|
3:20 is the first occurrence of the expression "works of the Torah"
(Gk., ergon nomou) in Paul. This term is familiar in modern preaching as
"works of the law," however it would be more properly translated in
context as "works of Torah," since the law (nomos) Paul is everywhere
speaking of in Romans and Galatians is the Mosaic Law (Torah; nomos being the
common Septuagint translation of the Hebrew term "Torah"; see the
parallel essay, "The Law in Paul" for further discussion).
The translation of ergon nomou as "works of Torah" is confirmed by archaeological-lexical evidence because it also appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the writings of the first-century Qumran community in Israel. It appears in a famous document known as MMT, which served as the Constitution or Declaration of Independence for the Qumran community. This document, whose name translates as "Some Pertinent Works of Torah," is focused on certain disputed interpretations of specific Mosaic regulations, and it reveals an enormous preoccupation on the part of first century Jews with works of Torah. The phrase works of Torah/works of Law is used repeatedly and sheds great light on the meaning of the term in Paul (cf. the three articles in the Nov/Dec 1994 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review and R. Eisenman and M. Wises book The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered, chapter 6, Works Reckoned as Righteousness Legal Texts).
The term "works of Torah" thus predates Paul and is a term he picked up from the Jewish vocabulary of his day (which is why he is having to dispute with people over it in Romans and Galatians, because they were already using the term). And as we said, its first occurrence in Paul is Romans 3:20. Before this point in Romans the term ergon ("work" or "deed") and its cognates were only found in 2:6, 7, and 15. In none of these places does the term indicate what Paul here has in mind.
In 2:6 Paul stated that God would judge every man according to his work. Obviously he did not mean works of Torah because the judgement of Gentiles was in view as well as the judgement of Jews (cf. 2:9-10).
In 2:7 Paul stated that God would reward those who persevered "in well-doing" (lit., "in good work") by giving them eternal life or immortality (as well as glory and honor). But this is precisely what Paul says works of Torah will not get one because Torah does not give the power to deal with sin. (Thus there is a distinction in Paul's mind between "good work" and "works of Torah.")
And in 2:15 Paul stated that when Gentiles do by nature what Torah requires they show that "what the Torah requires" (lit., "the work of Torah") is written on their hearts. This is the core of Torah which is really important—the same thing Paul has in mind in 8:3-4 when he says that God has done what Torah could not do by sending his Son to condemn sin in the flesh, "in order that the just [righteous] requirement of the Torah might be fulfilled in us" (8:4). The "work of Torah" of 2:15 is thus the same as "the righteous requirement of the Torah" of 8:4. It, not all the Torah's commands about diet and festival and ceremony, is what is written on the hearts of Gentiles and which Christ died in order to empower us to accomplish.
Thus the introduction of the term "works of Torah" in 3:20 is a new theme in the epistle, separate from the general "works" (actions, whether good or bad) according to which men will be judged, separate from the "good work" which God will reward with eternal life, and separate from the "work of the Law" which is written on the hearts of Gentiles and which Christ died so that we might fulfill. Because of its distinction from these things, we must inquire more closely into what Paul means by the term.
Unfortunately, the context here does not give us much of a clue, and it becomes clear in the next chapter, Romans 4. Once the term "works of Torah" has been introduced, evidence accumulates rapidly concerning precisely what Paul has in mind.
In 3:28, Paul reiterates his thesis that "a man is justified by faith apart from works of Torah." To support this, he asks rhetorically, "Or is God the God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles also? Yes, of Gentiles also" (3:29). "Works of Torah" must therefore be something that are characteristic of Jews rather than Gentiles. If Paul has in mind anything particular here, it would presumably be the ceremonial components of Torah (circumcision, food laws, festival laws), which are distinctively characteristic of Jews. It would not be the moral components of Torah, since even Gentiles have these written on their hearts (2:15) and they consequently do them "by nature" (2:14).1
It is in chapter 4 that we have the first concrete example of what Paul means by "works of Torah," and the example confirms the thesis just advanced (that if Paul has anything in mind it is the ceremonial rather than the moral components of Torah). The example is circumcision (4:9-12). Paul emphasizes with great force the non-necessity of circumcision for justification. In fact, the whole purpose of his discussion of Abraham as the father of the faithful (chapter 4) is to show the non-necessity of circumcision.
This indicates that circumcision is the work of Torah par excellence which Paul has in mind—something confirmed by the fact that Paul had earlier conducted an extended discussion of the irrelevance of circumcision to salvation (2:25-3:1) and by the fact that right after his affirmation in 3:27 that works of Torah are not necessary he drew the implication that God "will justify the circumcised on the ground of their faith and the uncircumcised through their faith" (3:30).
Our hypothesis that Paul has in mind primarily the ceremonial elements of Torah by "works of Torah" is thus confirmed by the discussion of circumcision in Romans. It is further confirmed by the discussion of circumcision in Galatians.
Paul takes pains to point out Titus was not compelled to be circumcised at Jerusalem (Gal 2:3). Paul characterizes the agitators who scared Peter into hypocrisy were "the circumcision party" (Gal 2:12). He emphasizes that "if you receive circumcision, Christ will profit you nothing" (Gal 5:2). His statement that that "every man who receives circumcision . . . is bound to keep the whole Torah" (Gal 5:3), indicates that circumcision was at the forefront of the debate over Torah and was the sign of embracing Torah. He states that "in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail" (Gal 5:6).
Paul emphasizes the difference between his preaching and the preaching of circumcision by asking, "But if I . . . still preach circumcision, why am I still persecuted?" (Gal 5:11), and goes on to state that he wishes the circumcisers "would go the whole way and emasculate themselves!" (Gal 5:12, NIV) He warns his readers that those "that would compel you to be circumcised . . . [do so] only in order that they may not be persecuted" (Gal 6:12) and that "even those who receive circumcision do not themselves keep the Torah, but they desire to have you circumcised that they may glory in your flesh" (Gal 6:13), finally reminding his readers again that "neither circumcision counts for anything, nor uncircumcision, but a new creation" (Gal 6:15).
But while circumcision is the work of Torah par excellence which Paul has in mind, there are other works, as indicated by the text of Galatians. When Paul reminds Peter in Galatians 2:16 that they both "know that a man is not justified by works of Torah," it is in a context where Peter and the other Jews had separated themselves from eating with the Gentiles of Antioch (Gal. 2:12-13). This was because Gentiles were unclean and because they ate unclean food (Acts 10:9-16 with 11:3-12). Eating with Gentiles thus indicated a breach of the separation between clean and unclean people (clearly stressed in the Torah) and a partaking of unclean food (also stressed in the Torah). Thus the laws of separation between clean and unclean are also in view when Paul discusses "works of Torah."
Paul also laments that the Galatians "observe [Jewish] days, and months, and seasons, and years!" (Gal 4:10). This indicates that in addition to circumcision, separation laws, and food laws, Jewish festival laws are also subsumed under what Paul has in mind when he speaks of "works of Torah." In short, Paul has principally in mind the ceremonial works of Torah when he speaks of "works of Torah."2
But a question arises concerning whether Paul has in mind only the ceremonial works of Torah when he uses the phrase. Does he also have in mind the moral work of Torah? Many contemporary Protestant preachers assume that he does, but this is a judgement that must be established by exegesis and evidence rather than by a simple assertion that it is so.
A person who recognizes the united nature of Torah in Paul's thought might argue that, by virtue of its united nature, when Paul speaks of works of Torah he must mean all works of Torah, whether ceremonial or moral. But this is a faulty inference. Arguing that a united whole is unnecessary does not mean that none of its elements are necessary. To assert that it does mean this is to commit what is known in logic as the fallacy of division (i.e., the whole has a certain property—non-necessity—therefore all the parts have this property as well).3
To give an everyday example, a dietician might tell us that drinking diet Coke is not necessary to good health, but we would not at all be permitted to draw the inference from this that drinking water (the principal ingredient of diet Coke) is not necessary to good health. In the same way, we cannot simply assume from the fact that Torah is not necessary to salvation that none of the things in Torah are necessary to salvation. This is abundantly shown by the fact that one of the things in Torah is belief in God, which on anyone's account, is necessary for salvation.4
Furthermore, Paul's apparent view of a united Torah is mitigated by the fact he regularly moves back and forth between elements of Torah which are and are not important but uses strikingly similar language to express these elements. For example, his use of the phrase "works of Torah" to denote primarily (or exclusively) the ceremonial works which are characteristic of Jews (and which are not written on the hearts of Gentiles) and the similar phrase "work of Torah" which is written on the hearts of Gentiles and which does sometimes characterize their behavior. Much of the impression one gets that Paul has a united Torah in mind is derived from his language (which always speaks of a single Torah, not a set of moral, civil, and ceremonial Torahs), yet his language differentiates between different kinds of "works of Torah."
Because of both these considerations (the logical and the linguistic), one cannot argue from Paul's view of a united Torah to the conclusion that he is saying that every element of Torah is unnecessary. Indeed, as we have seen, at least one element of Torah—belief in God—is necessary. That "work of Torah" is required.
So we must turn to exegesis and evidence to establish whether the "(moral) work of the Torah" is included in Paul's phrase "works of Torah." There are a number of very powerful arguments for the idea that they are not:
1. One piece of evidence that we already noted comes from outside the Bible. Recent archaeological and linguistic studies have shown that in first century Judaism the phrase "works of Torah" was a technical term for actions which served as Jewish identity markers (i.e., ceremonial works), indicating their membership in the Jewish covenant, in contrast to those who were outside of it.5
2. Paul clearly has the ceremonial works in mind but he does not clearly have the moral work in mind. This is indicated by the fact that he repeatedly and explicitly stresses the non-necessity of ceremonial works, and especially circumcision, but he never repeatedly or explicitly stresses the non-necessity of the moral work, such as love.
3. Furthermore, Paul not only does not stress the non-necessity of love but that he lays a great deal of stress on the importance of love and obedience. For example, when Paul states that "we wait for the hope of [justification]" (Gal 5:5) he says that "neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail [toward that hope], but faith working through love" (or "faith made effective through love," RSV margin; Gal 5:6).
4. Also, Paul indicates that eternal life is a reward for "perseverance in good work" (Rom 2:7) and that we "seek . . . immortality by perseverance in good work" (ibid.). He also states that "he who sows to the Spirit will from the Spirit reap eternal life" (Gal 6:8) and sowing to the Spirit is defined in context as "sharing all good things with him who teaches" (Gal 6:6, see also 2 Cor 9:1-6), "doing the good" (Gal 6:9), and "doing good to all men" (Gal 6:10). These clearly indicate the necessity of doing good in order to receive the gift of eternal life on the last day.
The only way a person could try to avoid the force of this argument would be to say that that (1) is ultimately inconclusive (even though quite strong) because it relies on extra-canonical evidence, that (2), while quite strong, is presumptive rather than conclusive, that (3) has in mind primarily good that is necessary after one is justified, not before, and that (4) is speaking of the final reception of eternal life rather than initial justification.
This rejoineder is possible (but very doubtful, in view of the strength of the preceding arguments), but even if successful it would not damage the exposition of Romans we are here developing. It would merely show that love is not necessary for initial justification, leaving intact the fact that they are necessary for the reward of eternal life on the last day (Rom 2:7, Gal 6:6-10) and final, eschatological justification (Gal 5:5-6).
The thesis that love is not necessary for initial justification is something to which everyone in Christendom is agreed. The fact Protestants agree to it is so well-known it does not need documentation. But the agreement of Catholics to this thesis is so commonly denied (in Protestant preaching) that it does need documentation.
A Catholic can be perfectly happy saying that "works of Torah" (including works of love) are not necessary to become justified because the Council of Trent, the official Catholic response to the Protestant Reformers, states, "[N]othing that precedes justification, whether faith or works, merits the grace of justification. For if it is by grace, it is no more by works. Otherwise, as the apostle says, grace is no more grace."6 Trent thus teaches that nothing prior to justification, including works (of whatever kind) merits justification.
In fact, Catholic theology would teach that works of love proper are impossible prior to justification because prior to that time the theological virtue of love has not been infused (poured) into the believer's heart (cf. Rom 5:5—"God's love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit which has been given to us"). The only kind of love which a person has before justification is the self-oriented love which he shows to those who he hopes will do him good. But this kind of love doesn't count for anything with God (Matt. 5:46). But if works of love proper are not possible before justification, obviously they are not necessary for justification.
Finally, the Eastern Orthodox would also agree with the thesis that works of love are not necessary in order to become justified, indicating the agreement of all in Christendom on this point.
Therefore, even if "works of Torah" includes "the (moral) work of the Torah," it is of no consequence to our exposition of Romans. It is extremely improbable, given an unbiased evaluation of the four arguments above, that Paul includes the moral work under "works of Torah," but it would not damage our interpretation if he does.
One word of application of the preceding considerations to the interpretation of 3:20. As we saw earlier, Paul reasoned that through Torah comes the knowledge of sin and, since Torah does not impart the power to escape sin, it is incapable of justifying one. Paul thus states that "no human will be justified in his sight by works of Torah." Either interpretation of "works of Torah" will make sense of this assertion.
If "works of Torah" means all works of the Torah, including works of love, then it is obvious they will not justify one because Torah does not give the ability to do works of love. Similarly, if "works of Torah" means ceremonial works, then it is again obvious that one is not justified by works of Torah because doing ceremonial works does not even begin to deliver from sin, which is the reason the Torah is unable to justify.
Thus, whichever way the phrase "works of Torah" is construed, Paul's argument remains firm: Torah only gives knowledge of sin, not escape from it, and so performing works of Torah will not lead to justification. By works of Torah no man will be justified.
1. For further development, see commentary on 3:29.
2. The phrase "ceremonial works of Torah" is to be preferred to the more common phrase "works of the ceremonial law" since Paul does not speak of a ceremonial Torah in contrast to a moral Torah or a civil Torah. The tripartite division of Torah into moral, civil, and ceremonial commands, while an accurate division, is an anachronism that is not found in Paul's thought. The Torah can certainly be divided in that manner, but Paul does not himself make that division. If any division is at the fore of Paul's mind, it is between the binding and the non-binding parts of Torah.
But when he discusses these he does not speak of two separate Torahs, but of one Torah which has two aspects—moral and ceremonial—which respectively are and are not binding on Christians. We must thus differentiate between the "(ceremonial) works of Torah" which do not count for anything "in Christ" and the "(moral) work of Torah" which is written on the hearts of Gentiles and which Christians are empowered to fulfill.
3. To give an example of this fallacy I learned in my first class in logic, a great building may have a certain property, such as weighing hundreds of tons, but it does not follow from this that each brick the building has this property as well.
4. Even if it is implicit faith.
5. See Dunn, Jesus, Paul and the Law, p. 220, Romans, vol. 1, p. 154. This thesis is endorsed by numerous modern authors, including E.P. Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, p. 147, Alan Segal, Paul the Convert, p. 131, F. J. Matera, Galatians, p. 93,
6. Trent, session six, "Decree on Justification," ch. 8, citing Rom 11:6.
Copyright (c) 1996 by James Akin. All Rights Reserved.
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|September 25th, 2009, 03:08 PM||#1|
Women In Insane Asylums
The following is taken from "Mental Illness in the 19th Century" by Carrie Hughes.
As you can see, many of the "Probable Causes of Mental Disorder" are ones which would apply only to Women and not to Men:
Asylum Records, a List of Probable Causes, Apparent or Assigned, for Mental Disorder, 1882:
Anxiety for Family
Death of Husband
Excitement after Imprisonment
Fright from Assault
Reversal of Circumstances
Change of Life
Climate of India
Hyperlactation (= too much breast milk!)
Injury to Head
The history of the treatment (or lack there of) of the mentally ill in the United States is a checkered one.
The first colonists blamed mental illness on witchcraft and demonic possession, and the mentally ill were often imprisoned, sent to alms houses, or remained untreated at home. Conditions in these prisons were appalling. In 1841, Dorothea Dix volunteered to teach a Sunday-school class for women prisoners; she was outraged by the conditions she witnessed. Dix went on to become a renowned advocate for the mentally ill, urging more humane treatment-based care than that given to the mentally ill in prisons. In 1847 she urged the Illinois legislature to provide “appropriate care and support for the curable and incurable indigent insane.” In 1851, Jacksonville Insane Asylum, where Elizabeth Packard was later confined, was opened.
Beginning in the late eighteenth century “moral treatment” had become the prevalent school of treatment in the United States. Replacing the model of demonic possession, “moral treatment” hypothesized that insanity was caused by brain damage from outward influences on the soft and fragile brain. Removing patients to an appropriate environment where they could indulge in clean, healthy living, and would be offered exercise, work, education and religious instruction, was thought to facilitate their cure.
But the “moral treatment” method was riddled with problems. As doctors and other hospital personnel grew frustrated by their lack of progress and a shortage of willing qualified staff, conditions often deteriorated. Faced with overcrowded hospitals, and concerned about the rise of the spiritualist movement (which some attributed to the “moral treatment” method), many superintendents resorted to physical restraints. By the middle part of the century, heredity also was considered a root cause of mental illness. Many in the field believed that weak family and vices, like alcoholism and masturbation, could lead to madness. The mentally ill were considered “genetically inferior” and eugenics and warped interpretations of Darwin’s theories suggested that mental illness could be eliminated through social engineering.
By the 1880s the tide was turning against asylums, thanks to stories of their poor conditions, some true, some sensational, appearing in the press. Greater oversight and medical standards for asylums were implemented. New theories promoted by neurologists included “rest cures” and treatment using static electricity. By the close of the century, Freud’s theories began to arrive in America, precipitating a revolution in psychiatry.
|September 25th, 2009, 03:22 PM||#2|
Elizabeth Packard: Kidnapped & Locked In Insane Asylum
The excerpt below is taken from a website devoted to a play based on the dreadful asylum
experiences of Mrs. Elizabeth Packard.
Mrs. Packard was a perfectly rational and intelligent woman living in the US. In 1860 her husband had her forcibly abducted and incarcerated in an Insane Asylum. She spent 3 horrific years there and was brave enough to write about her living nightmare, which included filthy living conditions and sexual abuse. Her ground-breaking book was called 'Modern Persecutions, Or Insane Asylums Revealed' and it helped shock the world into realizing the necessity of Asylum Reform.
On June 18, 1860, Mrs. Elizabeth Parsons Ware Packard was abducted on her husband’s orders and taken to the insane asylum in Jacksonville, Illinois, where she spent the next three years. After she was released, she wrote profusely. In one volume, Modern Persecution or Insane Asylums Unveiled, she detailed her experiences during that time. (This 3-sentence intro by Emily Mann is taken from website.)
By Elizabeth Packard, author of Asylums Unveiled:
" For the first four months of my prison life, Dr. McFarland treated me himself, and caused me to be treated with all the respect of a hotel boarder, so far as lay in his power.
As to medical treatment, I received none at all, either from himself, or his subordinates. And the same may be said with equal truth, of all the inmates. This is the general rule; those few cases where they receive any kind of medical treatment, are the exceptions.
A little ale occasionally is the principal part of the medical treatment which these patients receive, unless his medical treatment consists in the “laying on of hands,” for this treatment is almost universally bestowed. But the manner in which this was practiced, varied very much in different cases.
For the first four months the Doctor “laid his hands” very gently upon me, except that the pressure of my hand in his was sometimes quite perceptible, and sometimes, as I thought, longer continued than this healing process demanded! …
But after these four months he laid his hands upon me in a different manner, and as I then thought and still do think, far too violently. There was no mistaking the character of these grips—no duplicity after this period, rendered this modern mode of treatment of doubtful interpretation to me.
The eighth ward was then considered the worst in the house, inasmuch as it then contained some of the most dangerous class of patients, even worse than the fifth in this respect, and in respect to filth and pollution it surpassed the fifth at that time. It is not possible for me to conceive of a more fetid smell, than the atmosphere of this hall exhaled. An occupant of this hall would inevitably become so completely saturated with this most offensive effluvia that the odor of the eighth ward patients could be distinctly recognized at a great distance, even in the open air.
I could, in a few moments after the Doctor put me in among them, even taste this most fetid scent at the pit of my stomach. Even our food and drink were so contaminated with it, we could taste nothing else sometimes. It at first seemed to me, I must soon become nothing less than a heap of putrefaction. But I have found out that I can live, move, breathe, and have a being, where I once thought I could not!
The patients were never washed all over, although they were the lowest, filthiest class of prisoners. They could not wait upon themselves any more than an infant, in many instances, and none took the trouble to wait upon them. The accumulation of this defilement about their persons, their beds, their rooms, and the unfragrant puddles of water through which they would delight to wade and wallow, rendered the exhalations in every part of the hall almost intolerable.
One night I was aroused from my slumbers by the screams of a new patient who was entered in my hall. The welcome she received from her keepers, Miss Smith and Miss Bailey, so frightened her that she supposed they were going to kill her.
Therefore, for screaming under these circumstances, they forced her into a screen-room and locked her up. Still fearing the worst, she continued to call for “Help!” Instead of attempting to soothe and quiet her fears, they simply commanded her to stop screaming.
But failing to obey their order, they then seized her violently and dragged her to the bathroom, where they plunged her into the bathtub of cold water.
This shock so convulsed her in agony that she now screamed louder than before. They then drowned her voice by strangulation, by holding her under the water until nearly dead.
When she could speak, she plead in the most piteous tones for “Help! Help!”
But all in vain. The only response was “Will you scream any more?”
She promised she would not, but to make it a thorough “subduing,” they plunged her several times after she had made them this promise! My room was directly opposite with open ventilators over both doors, I could distinctly hear all.
This is what they call giving the patient a “good bath!”
But the bewildered, frightened stranger finds it hard to see the “good” part of it. The patient was then led, wet and shivering, to her room, and ordered to bed with the threat, “If you halloo again, we shall give you another bath.”
|September 25th, 2009, 03:33 PM||#3|
Elizabeth Packard Biography
Elizabeth Packard's entry in Wikipedia.
Elizabeth dared to differ with her husband's extreme religious views, so he persuaded a judge to find her
"slightly insane", which permitted him to have her incarcerated against her will.
|September 25th, 2009, 03:44 PM||#4|
Book: 'The Private War Of Mrs. Packard'
There is a highly regarded biography of Elizabeth Packard called "The Private War of Mrs. Packard"
by Barbara Sapinsley. Here is its link on Amazon. I included several reviews below as they contain excellent information.
From Publishers Weekly:
In 1861, when Elizabeth Packard dared to question the Calvinistic extremism of her husband, Theophilus, a minister in Illinois, he had her committed to an insane asylum. After a lengthy, publicized trial, Elizabeth was pronounced sane and began an arduous, national battle to effect changes in treatment of the mentally ill and in the rights of women. In this first biography of an overlooked pioneering feminist, Elizabeth, who never divorced her abusive husband, and who retained the love of her children, remains an enigmatic figure. Sapinsley, a freelance writer, who examined family journals and medical records to reconstruct the life of a woman who attempted to make a difference, fails to convey the temper of the times against which readers might appreciate Elizabeth's audacity. Photos not seen by PW.
Copyright 1991 Reed Business Information, Inc.
From Library Journal:
This is a fascinating biography of a pioneering crusader who heretofore has been ignored by historians. Popular journalist and author Sapinsley uses family records and an assortment of other primary materials to tell the story of Elizabeth Packard, an otherwise conventional 19th-century wife and mother who was committed to an insane asylum by her husband because of her unorthodox ideas on religion and child-rearing. After winning her freedom in a highly publicized trial, Packard spent the rest of her life lobbying for changes in state laws governing the commitment of individuals to mental institutions. Although geared to general readers, this volume should interest historians as well because it details the sorts of tensions that inspired the fledgling feminists of the same period. Recommended for history and women's studies collections.
- Marie Marmo Mullaney, Caldwell Coll., N.J.
Copyright 1991 Reed Business Information, Inc.
From Kirkus Reviews:
All the makings of a TV docudrama in an unlikely source: the story of feisty Elizabeth Packard, little-known 19th-century advocate of the rights of mental patients, by journalist (Newsweek, The New York Times, etc.) and TV-writer Sapinsley. Packard's troubles began when her vocal deviation from the Calvinist thinking of her aptly named preacher-husband Theophilus became a decided embarrassment to him. Announcing that since she ``persistently refused my will or wishes...it must be that she is insane,'' he took advantage of the law that allowed a husband to have a wife committed to a lunatic asylum simply on his say-so- -plus the ever-ready consent of the admitting doctor. Released three years later through the efforts of her eldest son and subsequently declared sane in a sensational jury trial, Packard spent the rest of her life working to change the laws so that no other wives could be subjected to the same treatment. Gifted with a keen intelligence, determination, and great physical stamina, she managed to support herself through her writings, regain custody of her children, and persuade numerous state legislatures to rewrite the laws regarding commitment and treatment of mental patients. Sapinsley's experience in writing TV documentaries (The Twentieth Century, etc.) is evident in her selection of scenes that dramatize the story. Hampered by the destruction of court and legislative records, she has nevertheless created a vital portrait of a remarkable woman, ingeniously piecing it together from family records, contemporary newspaper clippings, and Packard's own writings. An eye-opener. (Photographs--not seen.) -- Copyright ©1991, Kirkus Associates, LP. All rights reserved.
|September 25th, 2009, 05:23 PM||#5|
Proprietor & Researcher
Join Date: Jul 2003
Nice work Archaic.
If you get the time...look up Bulwer Lytton's wife....I have the ebook here somewhere on the boards...she was put in an asylum or Lytton tried to get her committed...one or the other.
Individuals wishing to join JTRForums.Com
should contact me at : Donston1888@aol.com
Quick link to the Complete A to Z on Amazon below
Search function in operation.
|September 25th, 2009, 06:16 PM||#7|
In 1890 records of the time indicate that 98% of inmates were paupers. here is a classic example, looks a lot older than her 28 years wouldn't you say..
Admission number: 296
Admitted 1st April 1889
“She laughs frequently – when there does not appear to be anything to cause merriment. She has had epileptic attacks since she was a child.
Other facts communicated: she throws herself on the floor of the ward, especially before or after an attack of epilepsy.
Patient is anexcited, emotional imbecile epileptic, with a marked defect in her speech. Has a miserable expression and her speech is a perpetual wail. She is full of complaints about being brought here.
Says she has had fits since she was vaccinated.
Diagnosis: Epileptic imbecility
Previous place of abode: Clayton workhouse.
Nov 15th 1894
“patient is very difficult to understand on account of her peculiar manner of speech but keeps up a continuous flow of conversation of material incoherent”
Mar 13th 1896.
“Patient is a quarrelsome demented epileptic. Her fits are infrequent and slight but she is subject to attacks of excitement. She is incoherent and unable to give sensible answers to questions. Does a little work in the ward. Bodily condition: fairly good.
Died: 22nd July 1898
Apparent cause of death: Congestion of lungs
http://highroydspauperlunaticasylum..../c1543691.html plenty more here, I went through the casebooks at the archives.
|September 25th, 2009, 06:17 PM||#8|
Elizabeth Packard Being Kidnapped
A couple of the so-called "Causes of Mental Disorder" blew me away.
"Shock After Imprisonment" must be another term for "abject terror"...
And "Hyperlaction"!!! That will do it every time.
I guess all they forgot is "Disappointed In Love" and "Really Bad Cramps".
Here is an image of Mrs. Packard being carried onto the train that would take her to the Asylum;
her distressed children are calling out to their mother and attempting to run after her..
|September 25th, 2009, 06:33 PM||#9|
"Curing Insanity" 1873
More illustrations from Packard's 1873 book.
These ones depict the punishments Elizabeth observed another patient suffer at the hands of an angry female warder. The warder suspected the patient of stealing her keys, which she denied.
The title is "Curing Insanity".
|September 25th, 2009, 06:37 PM||#10|
That photo of the female patient is one of the saddest things I've ever seen.
As Elizabeth Packard and others found out to their cost, to complain about being shut up in an Insane Asylum
was taken as the ultimate proof of one's insanity!
Such a Kafkaesque existence must have driven perfectly sane women mad.
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On-line version ISSN 2309-9089
KALMAN, J.. If Jeremiah wrote it, it must be ok: on the attribution of Lamentations to Leremiah in early rabbinic texts. Acta theol. [online]. 2009, vol.29, n.2, pp. 31-53. ISSN 2309-9089.
Despite the absence of any formal attribution of the book of Lamentations to the prophet Jeremiah in the Hebrew Bible, the rabbis of the Talmudic period chose to perpetuate and reinforce this idea. The question explored is how this benefited them. Using Jorge Gracia's discussion of the "pseudo-historical author," the influence of the rabbinic assumption of Jeremiah's authorship of Lamentations on their exegesis of the book is explored. The rabbis were troubled by a number of theologically challenging verses and the claim of authorship opened the door to their use of the book of Jeremiah to explain away these difficulties.
Keywords : Lamentations; Jeremiah; Talmud; Midrash. | <urn:uuid:b7b89a52-d6d6-4504-8d25-d93c9dda21a6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1015-87582009000200005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913498 | 223 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Being With Deaf People
Really . . . there's nothing to be afraid about being with us deaf (and hard of hearing) people.
We come in all races, color, shape, rich or poor. The onlly difference is that it takes more of an effort to communicate on both sides.
We may be able to speak so well as to be almost hearing . . . or we may have such limited amount of language that we can only communicate with very basic gestures.
The point is . . . not everyone is the same. The deaf person you meet at work may be quite different from your grandfather who is gradually losing his hearing.
With these following tips . . . you will be better prepared to deal in a situation when you encounter a deaf person - whether it be social, of emergency nature, or at work.
Ask the deaf person how he or she prefers to communicate, whether it be lipreading, writing or signing. And try to have patience as it will in almost all cases take longer to have a conversation.
Make sure there is plenty of light. If you are outside in the daytime, make sure there is some kind of shade so the glare from the sun isn't as obvious.
To get their attention, you can either wave your hand, tap their shoulders gently, flicker the lights, or stomp on the floor if it is wooden and carries vibrations.
If you are a male, be aware that your facial hair can have a dramatic influence on your communication with the deaf person. Some people can lipread a person with a mustache and beard, other simply find it impossible. Don't take it personally, and don't give up but try other ways to communicate.
Do not SHOUT. In most cases, this simply doesn't work.
Even though some people can lipread very well, such as Heather Whitestone or me, lipreading is still imperfect. At most, I can understand only 35% of what is being said, and the rest of it is pure guesswork. Try not to have big conversation shifts. Wherever possible, minimize the amount of background noise. Make sure your face is in line of view. If the person shows sign of being confused or getting lost, ask if they understood what you said, and repeat your statements if neccessary. Even if the person seems to be following perfectly well, ask them anyway.
Modulate your voice and speech patterns. If you normally speak very softly, try to consciously speak louder. If you usually speak rapidly, try to slow down. I know it can be difficult to remember sometimes, but believe me, it helps both of us.
For most deaf people, communicating on a on-to-one level is much, much easier than in a group situation. If you find yourself in a group situation with a deaf participant, try to cue the participant from time to time what is occuring. If it is work-related, take the time to write good notes and share with the partipicant, and ask if they understood what was happening and if they needed clarification on a few points.
Some deaf people do not have a good English background due to poor schooling. Don't be surprised if their English seems odd to you. If you don't understand, ask. If it helps, have them write down what they're trying to tell you.
If you receive a relay call from a deaf person, be aware that the third party (relay operator) is simply there to interpret. Don't say things such as "tell her to come here." We're the one you're talking with, not the operator - refer to us in the first person tense.
Remember . . . those of you who employ deaf people or are interviewing deaf applicants . . . we are just as capable of working hard as any other people. Sure, we may not be able to answer the phone, but we can do other tasks just as well.
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The rose, a brilliant red. The sky, a purplish blue. The sunset, a soft magenta. If you are seeing these vivid colors, then you may be looking at the next generation of video screens or computer displays. If you aren't, that means the products aren't commercialized yet. But they are possible, thanks to a new blue laser, developed by Dr. E. Fred Schubert, professor of electrical and computer engineering and a member of the faculty of the Photonics Center at Boston University (Boston, MA). In the February 1998, Issue 4, of Electronic Letters, Schubert describes how he and Dean Stocker, a doctoral candidate in physics, fabricated the world's first gallium nitride (InGaN) double-heterostructure laser from tiny pieces of polished sapphire under even smaller layers of semiconducting crystal. The laser materials were scored with a diamond and then "cleaved"--or broken--along the scratch to produce smooth facets that control the paths of the photons that make up the laser beam. The blue laser may also expand the storage capacity of today's digital video disks up to four times. For more information, contact Joan Schwartz at (617) 353-4626, e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org.
The Industrial Internet of Things may be going off the deep end in connecting everything on the plant floor. Some machines, bearings, or conveyors simply donít need to be monitored -- even if they can be.
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May 14th, 2014 - by Walker Rowe
What is the Nginx web and proxy server and how does it compare to Apache? Should you use one of these servers or both? Here we explore some answers to these questions.
The Apache web servers have been in use since 1995. Apache powers more websites than any other product; Microsoft IIS comes in second.
Because the open-source Apache web server has been available for so many years, and has so many users, lots of modules have been written to expand its functionality - most of these are open-source as well. One popular configuration, for instance, is to use Apache to server up static web pages and the mod_jk module to run Java and JSP code on Tomcat to make an interactive application. Another example is using mod_php to execute php scripts without having to use cgi.
But Apache slows down under heavy load, because of the need to spawn new processes, thus consuming more computer memory. It also creates new threads that must compete with others for access to memory and CPU. Apache will also refuse new connections when traffic reaches the limit of processes configured by the administrator.
Nginx is an open source web server written to address some of the performance and scalability issues associated with Apache. The product is open source and free, but Nginx offers support if you buy its Nginx Plus version.
Nginx says its web server was written to address the C10K problem, which is a reference to a paper written by Daniel Kegel about how to get one web server to handle 10,000 connections, given the limitations of the operating systems. In his paper, he cited another paper by Dean Gaudet who wrote, “Why don't you guys use a select/event based model like Zeus? It's clearly the fastest”.
Nginx is indeed event-based. They call their architecture “event-driven and asynchronous”. Apache relies on processes and threads. So, what’s the difference?
How Apache works and why it has limitations
Apache creates processes and threads to handle additional connections. The administrator can configure the server to control the maximum number of allowable processes. This configuration varies depending on the available memory on the machine. Too many processes exhaust memory and can cause the machine to swap memory to disk, severely degrading performance. Plus, when the limit of processes is reached, Apache refuses additional connections.
Apache can be configured to run in pre-forked or worker multi-process mode (MPM). Either way it creates new processes as additional users connect. The difference between the two is that pre-forked mode creates one thread per process, each of which handles one user request. Worker mode creates new processes too, but each has more than one thread, each of which handles one request per user. So one worker mode process handles more than one connection and one pre-fork mode process handles one connection only.
Worker mode uses less memory than forked-mode, because processes consume more memory than threads, which are nothing more than code running inside a process.
Moreover, worker mode is not thread safe. That means if you use non thread-safe modules like mod_php, to serve up php pages, you need to use pre-forked mode, thus consuming more memory. So, when choosing modules and configuration you have to confront the thread-versus-process optimization problem and constraint issues.
The limiting factor in tuning Apache is memory and the potential to dead-locked threads that are contending for the same CPU and memory. If a thread is stopped, the user waits for the web page to appear, until the process makes it free, so it can send back the page. If a thread is deadlocked, it does not know how to restart, thus remaining stuck.
Nginx works differently than Apache, mainly with regard to how it handles threads.
Nginx does not create new processes for each web request, instead the administrator configures how many worker processes to create for the main Nginx process. (One rule of thumb is to have one worker process for each CPU.) Each of these processes is single-threaded. Each worker can handle thousands of concurrent connections. It does this asynchronously with one thread, rather than using multi-threaded programming.
The Nginx also spins off cache loader and cache manager processes to read data from disk and load it into the cache and expire it from the cache when directed.
Nginx is composed of modules that are included at compile time. That means the user downloads the source code and selects which modules to compile. There are modules for connection to back end application servers, load balancing, proxy server, and others. There is no module for PHP, as Nginx can compile PHP code itself.
Here is a diagram of the Nginx architecture taken from Andrew Alexeev´s deep analysis of Nginx and how it works.
In this diagram we see that Nginx, in this instance, is using the FasCGI process to execute Python, Ruby, or other code and the Memcache memory object caching system. The worker processes load the main ht_core Ngix process to for HTTP requests. We also see that Nginx is tightly integrated with Windows and Linux kernel features to gain a boost in performance; these kernel features have improved over time, allowing Nginx to take advantage.
Nginx is said to be event-driven, asynchronous, and non-blocking. “Event” means a user connection. “Asynchronous” means that it handles user interaction for more than one user connection at a time. “Non-blocking” means it does not stop disk I/O because the CPU is busy; in that case, it works on other events until the I/O is freed up.
Nginx compared with Apache 2.4 MPM
Apache 2.4 includes the MPM event module. It handles some connection types in an asynchronous manner, as does Nginx, but not in exactly the same manner. The goal is to reduce memory requirements as load increases.
As with earlier versions, Apache 2.4 includes the worker and pre-forked modes we mentioned above but has added the mpm_event_module (Apache MPM event module) to solve the problem of threads that are kept alive waiting for that user connection to make additional requests. MPM dedicates a thread to handle sockets that are both in listening and keep-alive state. This addresses some of the memory issues associated with older versions of Apache, by reducing the number of threads and processes created. To use this, the administrator would need to download the Apache source code and include the mpm_event_module, and compile Apache instead of using a binary distribution.
The Apache MPM event model is not exactly the same as Nginx, because it still spins off new processes as new requests come in (subject to the limit set by the administrator). Nginx does not set up more processes per user connection. The improvement that comes with Apache 2.4 is that those processes that are spin offs create fewer threads than normal Apache worker mode would. This is because one thread can handle more than one connection, instead of requiring a new process for each connection.
Using Nginx and Apache both
Apache is known for its power and Nginx for speed. This means Nginx can serve up static content quicker, but Apache includes the modules needed to work with back end application servers and run scripting languages.
Both Apache and Nginx can be used as proxy servers, but using Nginx as a proxy server and Apache as the back end is a common approach to take. Nginx includes advanced load balancing and caching abilities. Apache servers can, of course, be deployed in great numbers. A load balancer is needed in order to exploit this. Apache has a load balancer module too, plus there are hardware based load balancers.
Another configuration is to deploy Nginx with the separate php-fpm application. We say that php-fpm is an application, because it is not a .dll or .so loaded at execution time, as is the case with Apache modules. Php-fpm (the FastCGI Process Manager) can be used with Nginx to deliver php scripting ability to Nginx to render non-static content.
When is Apache preferred over Nginx?
Apache comes with built in support for PHP, Python, Perl, and other languages. For example, the mod_python and mod_php Apache modules process PHP and Perl code inside the Apache process. mod_python is more efficient that using CGI or FastCGI, because it does not have to load the Python interpreter for each request. The same is true for mod_rails and mod_rack, which give Apache the ability to run Ruby on Rails. These processes run faster inside the Apache process.
So if your website is predominately Python or Ruby, Apache might be preferred for your application, as Apache does not have to use CGI. For PHP, it does not matter as Nginx supports PHP internally.
Here we have given some explanation of how Nginx is different from Apache and how you might consider using one or both of them, and which of the two might fit your needs more closely. Plus we have discussed how Apache 2.4 brings some of the Nginx improvements in thread and process management to the Apache web server. So you can choose the best solution for your needs. | <urn:uuid:2e285260-5119-461d-ae5b-152ccd554ff6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://anturis.com/blog/nginx-vs-apache/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938978 | 1,945 | 2.828125 | 3 |
IN THIS ARTICLE
Who should have their homocysteine levels tested?
Infants blood and urine are often checked for elevated homocysteine levels if they have a family history of the disease, or if they have certain medical conditions including eye lens dislocations, unusual (Marfan type) body shape, mental retardation, or signs of stroke.
Younger adults who have an early heart attack, stroke, or blood clots are often screened for blood clotting abnormalities including homocysteine blood tests.
At present it is not recommended that individuals consuming normal diets with adequate folate levels be screened for elevated homocysteine levels.
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 2/22/2016
Must Read Articles Related to Homocysteine | <urn:uuid:505cf5ce-84bb-4578-b6eb-e44906256bc6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emedicinehealth.com/homocysteine/page6_em.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925652 | 157 | 2.890625 | 3 |
|What is the History course of study?
A bachelors degree in history provides students with a body of historical knowledge that enables them to understand local, national, and global events as well as to appreciate the range of cultural diversity that makes up the world community.
- Construct historical arguments using primary and secondary sources.
- Describe historical narratives of multiple choices and regions across
space and time.
- Analyze these historical narratives from diverse perspectives.
- Explain how spatial processes have shaped these historical narratives
of people and regions.
|What can I do with this course of study?
The bachelors degree plan assists those who seek a career in social studies education. Additional career paths include higher education, research, publishing, information management, business, public service, law, and other positions requiring effective writing, interdisciplinary thinking, critical skill analysis skills, curiosity, and inquisitiveness.
|What's special about the History course of study?
The history course of study is special because of our students and our faculty. Students entering the history course of study are mentored by history faculties interested in having students achieve success. The course of study seeks students with inquiring minds. The course of study seeks students from diverse backgrounds, with diverse interests, ready to accept today’s challenges. Faculty are devoted to encouraging student academic excellence, to developing students' critical thinking, reading, and writing skills, and to the college mission to produce informed and responsible citizens. | <urn:uuid:485f07dd-a04c-40ab-85b8-e0bf0b65a465> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.alamo.edu/sac/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927909 | 300 | 2.59375 | 3 |
MULBERRY LEAVES AS A CURE & TREATMENT FOR DIABETES
Effect of Mulberry Leaf Extract on Blood
Glucose & Breath Hydrogen Results to
Ingestion of 75 g Sucrose by Type 2 Diabetic
In Asia, type 2 diabetes is treated with mulberry leaf. Studies supporting this usage include the demonstration that mulberry leaf 1) reduced blood glucose in normal rats (1) and rats with diabetes induced by streptozotocin (2) or alloxan (3), 2) reduced fasting blood glucose and A1C concentrations in 12 subjects with type 2 diabetes (4), and 3) relative to glybenclamide therapy, reduced fasting blood glucose, serum lipids, and lipid peroxidation indicators in subjects with type 2 diabetes (5). In the present study, we determined whether co-ingestion of mulberry extract with 75 g sucrose influenced the blood glucose response and sucrose absorption of type 2 diabetic and control subjects.
Participants included 10 healthy control subjects (aged 24–61 years) and 10 type 2 diabetic subjects without complications who were receiving oral hypoglycemic agents (aged 59–75 years; glycohemoglobin 7.1 ± 0.9% [normal <6.2%]). The study was approved by the Minneapolis VA Medical Center Human Studies Committee. Mulberry leaf extract was provided by NatureGen (San Diego, CA). Placebo (red dye #40 and caramel) was similar in color and taste to the mulberry.
At 8 a.m., subjects randomly ingested mulberry extract (1 g) or placebo plus 75 g sucrose in 500 ml hot water. The test was repeated in 1 week with the opposite treatment. Medications (except acarbose) were allowed. Hourly breath samples for H2 measurements (6) were obtained for 8 h. Blood glucose was assessed via finger stick (AccuCheck; Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN) before and at intervals over 120 min after sucrose ingestion in control subjects and additionally at 180 and 240 min in type 2 diabetic subjects. A low H2–producing lunch was provided after completion of glucose measurements. On the test day, subjects kept a diary of severity of abdominal and other symptoms rated on a linear scale (0 = none through 4 = severe) (7).
Calculations and statistics.
Because blood glucose concentrations often declined below baseline after 120 min, the significance of differences of blood glucose increases between extract and placebo was determined by ANOVA of values obtained over the initial 120 min. The statistical model included treatment and time as repeated measures and the interactions of treatment and time. The influence of treatment on breath H2 was determined from differences between areas under the curves for 8 h (two-tailed paired t test). Sucrose malabsorption was estimated from breath H2 concentrations (8).
Compared with placebo, co-ingestion of mulberry produced significant reductions in blood glucose increases for the initial 120 min of the study (Fig. 1). The mean ± SD increases in glucose for mulberry versus placebo over this period were 15 ± 18 vs. 22 ± 33 mg/dl (P = 0.005) for control subjects and 42 ± 28 vs. 54 ± 46 mg/dl (P = 0.002) for type 2 diabetic subjects. Placebo was associated with greater glucose declines below fasting at the tail end of the study (Fig. 1). The peak-to-trough difference in blood glucose concentration was significantly (P < 0.001) less for mulberry versus placebo for both groups.
Breath H2 concentration was greater (P < 0.01) in the mulberry versus the placebo treatment for both subject groups. Sucrose malabsorption with the extract was estimated to be 12 and 16 g for the control and diabetic subjects, respectively. There was no significant difference in severity for any symptom between mulberry- and placebo-treated subjects; 3 of 20 subjects receiving mulberry or placebo reported mild gas and/or bloating.
The co-ingestion of mulberry extract with 75 g sucrose significantly reduced the increase in blood glucose observed over the initial 120 min of testing in control and type 2 diabetic subjects (Fig. 1). Blood glucose declines at the tail end of the study were less with extract. Thus, peak-to-trough fluctuations in blood glucose were markedly reduced by mulberry ingestion.
The mulberry-induced reduction in blood glucose presumably reflects the ability of mulberry to inhibit intestinal sucrase (9). The increased H2 observed with mulberry indicates that this supplement induced sucrose malabsorption.
The reduction of blood glucose at early time points but higher values at later time points with mulberry would yield relatively minor alterations in A1C. However, factors other than A1C concentrations may play a role in the microvascular complications of diabetes (10,11). Brownlee (12) proposed that generation of reactive oxygen species is the common pathway responsible for diabetes complications, and glucose fluctuations are associated with increased markers of oxidative injury (13). Thus, reductions in blood glucose fluctuation with mulberry extract might reduce diabetes complications despite minor reduction of A1C.
Two drugs (acarbose and miglitol) that inhibit carbohydrate digestion produce modest reductions in fasting blood glucose and A1C (14) and slow progression of glucose intolerance to overt diabetes (15). Use of these drugs has been limited by associated bloating, gas, and diarrhea (16). These symptoms were not significantly increased by mulberry extract; however, convincing evidence of lesser side effects will require studies with extract ingested with each major meal.
Some individuals prefer an herbal over a pharmaceutical preparation, and such individuals might find mulberry extract more acceptable and better tolerated than acarbose or miglitol. In addition, mulberry extract contains compounds such as fagomine, which induces insulin secretion (17), and antioxidants that putatively reduce lipid peroxidation (5,18,19).
While mulberry leaf is considered safe as a drug and a foodstuff in Asia (20), the extract contains multiple constituents, increasing the potential for idiosyncratic reactions. While unlikely, such reactions can be excluded only after extensive, monitored use of the extract.
Changes in blood glucose concentration from the fasting concentration of 10 healthy control subjects (A) and 10 type 2 diabetic subjects (B) after ingestion of 75 g sucrose with 1.0 g mulberry leaf extract (□) or placebo (⧫). The difference between mulberry and placebo over the first 120 min of the study, determined by ANOVA, was highly significant for control (P = 0.005) and diabetic (P = 0.002) subjects.
Miyahara C, Miyazawa M, Satoh S, Sakai A, Mizusaki S: Inhibitory effects of mulberry leaf extract on postprandial hyperglycemia in normal rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 50:161–164, 2004
Chen F, Nakashima N, Kimura I, Kimura M: Hypoglycemic activity and mechanisms of extracts from mulberry leaves (folium mori) and cortex mori radicis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Yakugaku Zasshi 115:476–482, 1995
Ye F, Shen ZF, Qiao FX, Zhao DY, Xie MZ: Experimental treatment of complications in alloxan diabetic rats with alpha-glucosidase inhibitor from the Chinese medicinal herb ramulus mori. Yao Xue Xue Bao 37:108–112, 2002
Murata K, Yatsunami K, Mizukami O, Toriumi Y, Hoshino G, Kamei T: Effects of propolis and mulberry leaf extract on type 2 diabetes. Focus Alternat Complement Ther 8:4524–525, 2003
Andallu B, Suryakantham V, Srikanthi BL, Reddy GK: Effect of mulberry (Morus indica L.) therapy on plasma and erythrocyte membrane lipids in patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin Chim Acta 314:47–53, 2001
Strocchi A, Corazza G, Ellis CJ, Gasbarrini G, Levitt MD: Detection of malabsorption of low doses of carbohydrate: accuracy of various breath H2 criteria. Gastroenterology 105:1404–1410, 1993
Suarez Fl, Zummaraga LM, Furne JK, Levitt MD: Nutritional supplements used in weight reduction programs increase intestinal gas in persons who malaborb lactose. J Am Diet Association 101:1147–1152, 2001
Zhong L, Furne JK, Levitt MD: An extract of black, green and mulberry teas causes malabsorption of carbohydrate but not triacylglycerol in health controls. J Clin Nutr 84:551–555, 2006
Oku T, Yamada M, Nakamura M, Sadamori N, Nakamura S: Inhibitory effects of extractives from leaves of Morus alba on human and rat small intestinal disaccharidase activity. Br J Nutr 95:933–938, 2006
Brownlee M, Hirsch IB: Glycemic variability: a hemoglobin A1c-independent risk factor for diabetic complications. JAMA 295:1707–1708, 2006
Brownlee M: The pathphysiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism. Diabetes 54:1615–1625, 2005
Monnier L, Mas E, Ginet C, Michael F, Villon L, Cristol JP, Colette C: Activation of oxidative stress by acute glucose fluctuations compared with sustained chronic hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA 295:1681–1687, 2006
Chiasson JL, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Josse RG, Karasik A, Laakso M: The STOP-NIDDM trial: an international study on the efficacy of an α-glucosidase inhibitor to prevent type 2 diabetes in a population with impaired glucose tolerance rationale, design, and preliminary screening data. Diabetes Care 21:1720–1725, 1998
Balfour JA, McTavish D: Acarbose: an update of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in diabetes mellitus. Drugs 46:1025–1054, 1993
Taniguchi S, Asano N, Tomino F, Miwa I: Potentiation of glucose-induced insulin secretion by fagomine, a pseudo-sugar isolated from mulberry leaves. Horm Metab Res 30:679–683, 1998
Enkhamaa B, Shiwaku K, Katsube T, Kitajima K, Anuurad E, Yamasaki M, Yamane Y: Mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaves and their major flavonol queretin 3-(6-malonylglucoside) attenuate atherosclerotic lesion development in LDL receptor-deficient mice. J Nutr 135:729–734, 2005
Varadacharylul AB: Antioxidant role of mulberry (Morus indica L. cv. Anantha) leaves in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Clin Chim Acta 348:215–218, 2004
Srivastava S, Kapoor R, Thathola A, Srivastava RP: Mulberry (Morus alba) leaves as human food: a new dimension of sericulture. Int J Food Sci & Nutr 54:411–416, 2003
Traditionally, mulberries have been used to nourish and clean the blood, benefit the kidneys, treat weakness, fatigue and anemia. They have a strong anti-inflammatory and antiseptic action, which may help cleanse the digestive tract and benefit those with gout, arthritis, or rheumatic problems. The fruits faint scent and sweet taste make it suitable for all ages.
Black Mulberries are believed to have been consumed by mankind since before recorded history. The mulberry has been cultivated in China for at least 50,000 years, mainly for the rearing of silkworms. The bark of the black mulberry tree is traditionally used for Chinese papermaking. A mulberry tree can live for over 600 years. Until recently many trees in England dated back to the 17th century. King James I planted plantations of trees around England, in an effort to rear silkworms. The entire yield was enough to make only one dress for his Queen.
CHOOSE WHITE OR RED MULBERRY
Sourced & published by Henry Sapiecha
Tags: mulberry leaf power, diabetes & mulberry leaf, mulberry to treat diabetes, weeping mulberry & diabetes, curing diabetes, easy treatment for diabetes, fruit tree leaves for diabetes treatment, treating diabetes with mulberry leaf | <urn:uuid:e4dca718-2a80-4b4a-8777-e0e3a4482ef2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://newcures.info/2012/08/06/mulberry-leaves-as-a-cure-treatment-for-diabetes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888928 | 2,686 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Over 100 people attended the Peaceful Rally for Justice, Rights, & Respect on Saturday, October 23, 2010 to
- Honor the loss of these vibrant individuals.
- March in solidarity for justice and respect.
- Listen to passionate speeches.
- Support those who have been personally affected.
- Build a stronger community that cares.
- Envision a world without violence and discrimination.
The Rally was held in response to widespread bullying, suicide, and murder within our community/ies.
- Chanel Larkin, an African-American transgender woman, was murdered in Milwaukee on May 7, 2010.
- Three other African-American LGBT deaths since May 2010 (hit and run, robbery, intimate partner violence).
- Nearly a dozen youth in the past 2 months have committed suicide after being harassed and bullied by schoolmates for being (or being perceived as) LGBT.
These tragedies have similar roots in a society…
…that is racist;
…that denies LGBT people basic human rights;
…that allows too many African-American and/or LGBT students to drop out of school (or die) before completing their education; and
…that does not stop bullying, discrimination, and prejudice whenever and wherever it happens, be that at home, school, religious institution, neighborhood or nation.
The speakers at the rally included:
Each speech is rich with unique perspectives and full of passion for the injustices we face and also full compassion for the victims and the surviving loved ones. | <urn:uuid:8d9dc64f-cea8-4e55-b526-e594924df62c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://forge-forward.org/anti-violence/community-cares/speeches/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951194 | 306 | 2.75 | 3 |
What Feline Diseases
Are Out There?
Your cat can easily be affected by any number of feline diseases, but the good thing is that you have the power to protect him from many illnesses by taking him to the vet to get vaccinated. Vaccinations are a good way for you to ensure that your cat has a healthy, long life.
Diseases can affect all parts of your cat's body, just like they do for humans. This is why getting vaccinated is important, along with eating foods with a high nutritional content, getting plenty of exercise and keeping your cat indoors.
Here is a list of some common diseases:
- Feline Leukemia Virus - This is a widely spread virus that affects the immune system and causes anemia. Learn more about the feline leukemia virus as well as feline leukemia treatment options, signs of feline leukemia, and that are given.
- Feline Distemper - Feline distemper also known as Panleukopenia, is a highly contagious disease that is spread mainly through contact with an infected cat's feces or urine.
- Feline Lymphoma - Feline lymphoma is a common cancer among cats. It has been found that the highest occurrence of this is in cats who have also tested positive for feline leukemia.
- Feline Herpes - The Feline Herpes Virus Type 1 is quite common in cats, and can end up giving them upper respiratory infections.
- Feline Kidney Disease - The feline kidney disease is common in older cats, as the kidneys stop functioning as well as they used to.
There are two types: Acute Renal Failure, where the damage happens more suddenly, and Chronic Renal Failure, where the process is much slower, taking place for many months to many years.
It is important to remember that it can be difficult to determine if and when your cat is ill. Firstly, many feline diseases have symptoms that may be quite subtle and non-specific. Secondly, cats are very good at hiding the fact that they are feeling unwell. Look out for signs such as:
You cat hiding away a lot more than usual – this is something that cats often do when they are not feeling well
- Any obvious symptoms such as diarrhoea, regular vomiting, coughing, sneezing, etc.
- If your cat appears to be depressed and under the weather
- If your cat loses his appetite to a very noticeable degree
- Sudden weight loss
- Any other symptoms that lead you to believe that he could be unwell
Home » Cat Health Problems » Feline Diseases
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"Unclean! Unclean!" These were the words of lepers as they announced their presence among the unafflicted in biblical times. The mere mention of leprosy has struck fear in the hearts of people for thousands of years. Even though it is one of the least contagious of all bacterial diseases, the fear of physical disfigurement and the loss of social status that it brings, has made leprosy one of the most dreaded of all diseases. Lepers have been ostracized and put into separate colonies, where they lived as social outcasts and "untouchables" until the end of their lives.
Leprosy or Hansen's disease is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae and is the only known bacterium that infects peripheral nerves. It also affects the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and produces skin lesions (Ryan et al. 2004). If left untreated, there can be progressive and permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes.
Many people have felt a religious calling to risk contracting the disease themselves in order to care for lepers. Some of these most noble people include Father Damien of Molokai, Hawaii; Dr. Albert Schweitzer in Lamberene, Gabon; and Mother Teresa in Calcutta, India.
The crucial breakthrough in the cure for leprosy came when G. H. A. Hansen followed the lead of Robert Koch, who first suggested that microorganisms could cause disease. When Hansen began to look into the "invisible" world for the cause of leprosy, he risked everything he had in order to help those that no one else wanted to touch.
A disease called "leprosy" was recorded in ancient India (fifteenth century B.C.E.), in Japan (tenth century B.C.E.), and in Egypt (sixteenth century B.C.E.). Some propose that the spread of this disease to the West originated from Egypt (Souvay and Donovan 1910).
In the sixth century C.E., Saint Radegund was praised for dedicating her life to caring for lepers.
In 1078 C.E., a leprosarium was built in Rochester, England, and in 1084 Archbishop Lanfranc built another at Harbledown near Canterbury for the care of 100 lepers. These became known as lazar houses, based on the story of Lararus, and many were built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (Turner et al. 1995).
The English monk, Orderic Vitalis, writes in the twelfth century C.E., of another monk, Ralf, who was so overcome by the plight of lepers that he prayed to catch leprosy himself (which he eventually did). The leper would carry a clapper and bell to warn of his approach, and this was as much to attract attention for charity as to warn people that a diseased person was near.
In 1873, Mycobacterium leprae, the causative agent of leprosy, was discovered by G. H. Armauer Hansen in Norway , making it the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in man (Hansen 1874; Irgens 2002).
From 1873 to 1899, Father Damien worked in the leper colony of Kalaupapa on the island of Molokai in Hawaii. He eventually contracted leprosy and died at age 49. On June 4, 1995, Pope John Paul II beatified Blessed Damien and gave him his official spiritual title.
In 1913, Dr. Albert Schweitzer began his work in Lamberene, Gabon, where he labored for more than 40 years until his death in 1965. Many of his patients were lepers. In 1953, he received the Nobel Peace Prize, and spent the prize money to build a clinic for his hospital.
In 1950, Mother Teresa started the Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta, India. She persuaded the leaders that leprosy was not contagious and got the lepers to build a colony at Titagarh that she named after Mahatma Gandhi. In 1979, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her lifelong work with the poor.
In 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that between two and three million individuals were permanently disabled because of leprosy (WHO 1995).
The word "leprosy" derives from the ancient Greek words lepros, a "scale," and lepein, "to peel" (Barnhart 1995). The word came into the English language via Latin and Old French. The first attested English use is in the Ancrene Wisse, a thirteenth-century manual for nuns ("Moyseses hond…bisemde o þe spitel uuel & þuhte lepruse." The Middle English Dictionary, s.v., "leprous"). A roughly contemporaneous use is attested in the Anglo-Norman Dialogues of Saint Gregory, "Esmondez i sont li lieprous" (Anglo-Norman Dictionary, s.v., "leprus").
The term Tzaraath from the Hebrew Bible is commonly translated as leprosy, although the symptoms of Tzaraath are not entirely consistent with leprosy and might refer to a variety of skin disorders other than Hansen's disease (Heller et al. 2003).
In particular tinea capitis, a fungal scalp infection and related infections on other body parts caused by the dermatophyte fungus Trichophyton violaceum, are abundant throughout the Middle East and North Africa today and might also have been common in biblical times. Similarly, the related agent of the disfiguring skin disease favus, Trichophyton schoenleinii, appears to have been common throughout Eurasia and Africa before the advent of modern medicine. People with severe favus and similar fungal diseases along with other skin diseases not caused by microorganisms tended to be classed as having leprosy as late as the seventeenth century in Europe (Kane et al. 1997). This is clearly shown in the painting Governors of the Home for Lepers at Haarlem 1667 by Jan de Bray, where a young Dutch man with a vivid scalp infection, almost certainly caused by a fungus, is shown being cared for by three officials of a charitable home intended for leprosy sufferers. The use of the word "leprosy" before the mid-nineteenth century, when microscopic examination of skin for medical diagnosis was first developed, can seldom be correlated reliably with Hansen's disease as we understand it today.
Mycobacterium leprae is a rod-shaped bacterium with an affinity for acid-fast stains. Its length varies from 1-8 microns and it is 0.2 microns wide. It has the longest doubling time of all known bacteria and has thwarted every effort at culture in a defined medium (Truman et al 2001). It can be grown in the foot pads of mice and armadillos and some primates.
Less than half of the genome of M. leprae contains functional genes. Gene deletion and decay appear to have eliminated many important metabolic activities, including siderophore production, part of the oxidative and most of the microaerophilic and anaerobic respiratory chains, and numerous catabolic systems and their regulatory circuits ( Cole et al. 1998).
The genome sequence of a strain of M. leprae, originally isolated in Tamil Nadu and designated TN, has been completed recently. The genome sequence was found to contain 3,268,203 base-pairs (bp), and to have an average G+C content of 57.8 percent, values much lower than the corresponding values for M. tuberculosis, which are 4,441,529 bp and 65.6 percent G+C. There are 1500 genes that are common to both M. leprae and M. tuberculosis. There is speculation that as M. leprae evolved it may have lost many genes (Cole et al. 2001).
The clinical manifestations of leprosy vary but primarily affect the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes (Naafs et al. 2001). Patients with this chronic infectious disease are classified as having either: (1) paucibacillary (tuberculoid leprosy), (2) multibacillary Hansen's disease (lepromatous leprosy), or (3) borderline leprosy.
Recently, leprosy has also emerged as a problem in HIV patients on antiretroviral drugs (McNeil Jr. 2006).
The exact mechanism of transmission of leprosy is not known. M. leprae never has been grown on defined media; as a result it has been difficult to study the pathogenic mechanisms. There is a theory that not all people who are infected with M. leprae develop leprosy, and genetic factors have long been thought to play a role, due to the observation of clustering of leprosy around certain families, and the failure to understand why certain individuals develop lepromatous leprosy while others develop other types of leprosy. However, what is not clear is the role of genetics and other factors in determining this clinical expression. In addition, malnutrition and possible prior exposure to other environmental mycobacteria may play a role in development of the overt disease.
There is a belief that the disease is transmitted by contact between infected persons and healthy persons. In general, closeness of contact is related to the dose of infection. Of the various situations that promote close contact, contact within the household is the only one that is easily identified, although the actual incidence among contacts and the relative risk for them appear to vary considerably in different studies. In incidence studies, infection rates for contacts of lepromatous leprosy have varied from 6.2 per 1000 per year in Cebu, Philippines (Doull et al. 1942) to 55.8 per 1000 per year in a part of Southern India (Noordeen et al. 1978).
M. leprae leaves the human body through the skin and the nasal mucosa, although their relative importance in contract transmission is not clear. It is true that lepromatous cases show large numbers of organisms deep down in the dermis. However, whether they reach the skin surface in sufficient numbers is doubtful. There are reports of acid-fast bacilli being found in the desquamating epithelium of the skin, but researchers could not find any acid-fast bacilli in the epidermis, even after examining a very large number of specimens from patients and their contacts (Weddell et al. 1963). Fairly large numbers of M. leprae have been found in the superficial keratin layer of the skin of lepromatous leprosy patients, suggesting that the organism could exit along with sebaceous secretions (Job et al. 1999). The importance of the nasal mucosa, especially the ulcerated mucosa, in transmission was recognized as early as 1898 (Schaffer 1898). The quantity of bacilli from nasal mucosal lesions in lepromatous leprosy ranged from 10 thousand to 10 million (Shepard 1960). The majority of lepromatous patients showed leprosy bacilli in their nasal secretions (Pedley 1973), which produced as many as 10 million viable organisms per day (Davey et al. 1974).
The entry route of M. leprae into the human body is not definitely known, but the two most likely routes are the skin and upper respiratory tract. The evidence in favor of the respiratory route is on the increase in spite of the long-held belief that the skin was the exclusive route of entry. The successful transmission of leprosy through aerosols containing M. leprae in immune-suppressed mice suggests a similar possibility in humans (Rees et al. 1977). Successful results have been reported with mice when M. leprae were introduced into their nasal cavity by topical application (Chehl et al. 1985). In summary, entry through the respiratory route appears the most probable, although other routes, particularly broken skin, cannot be ruled out. Most investigators think that M. leprae is usually spread from person to person via respiratory droplets (CDC 2005).
In leprosy, the reference points for measuring the incubation period, the times of infection, and the onset of disease are difficult to define; the former because of the lack of adequate immunological tools and the latter because of the insidious nature of the onset of leprosy. The minimum incubation period reported is as short as a few weeks, based on the very occasional occurrence of leprosy among young infants (Montestruc et al. 1954). The maximum incubation period reported is as long as 30 years, as observed among war veterans known to have been exposed for short periods in endemic areas but otherwise living in non-endemic areas. It is generally agreed that the average incubation period is between 3 to 5 years.
Until the use of dapsone pills, pioneered by Dr. R.G. Cochrane and used at the hospital compound in Carville, Louisiana in 1946, there was no effective cure for leprosy. Dapsone is only weakly bactericidal against M. leprae and it was considered necessary for patients to take the drug indefinitely. When only dapsone was used, it soon resulted in a widespread emergence of resistance. By the 1960s, the world’s only known anti-leprosy drug became virtually useless.
The search for more effective anti-leprosy drugs led to the use of clofazimine and rifampicin in the 1960s and 1970s (Rees et al. 1970) and later, to avoid the danger of resistance, combined therapy was formulated using rifampicin and dapsone (Yawalkar et al. 1982). Multidrug therapy (M.D.T.), combining all three drugs, was first recommended by the World Health Organization in 1981. These three anti-leprosy drugs are still used in the standard M.D.T. regimens. None of them should be used alone because of the risk of developing resistance.
The use of M.D.T. was slow and sporadic in most endemic countries over the next decade, due mainly to the high cost of the combined treatment. In 1985 leprosy was still considered a public health problem in 122 countries. The World Health Assembly (W.H.A.) in 1991 passed a resolution to eliminate leprosy as a public health problem by the year 2000. This was defined as reducing the global prevalence of the disease to less than 1 case per 100,000. The World Health Organization (WHO) was given this challenge.
The WHO recommended two types of standard M.D.T. regimen be adapted (WHO 1994). The first was a 24-month treatment for multibacillary (MB or lepromatous) cases using rifampicin, clofazimine, and dapsone. The second was a six-month treatment for paucibacillary (PB or tuberculoid) cases, using rifampicin and dapsone. At the First International Conference on the Elimination of Leprosy as a Public Health Problem, held in Hanoi the next year, the global strategy was endorsed and funds were provided to WHO for the procurement and supply of M.D.T. to all endemic countries.
Since 1995, WHO has supplied all endemic countries with free M.D.T. in blister packs. This free provision was extended in 2000, and again in 2005, and will run until at least the end of 2010. At the country level, non-government organizations (NGOs) affiliated with the national program will continue to be provided with an appropriate free supply of this M.D.T. by the government.
M.D.T. remains highly effective and patients are no longer infectious after the first monthly dose. It is safe and easy to use. Relapse rates remain low, and there is no known resistance to the combined drugs (WHO 1997). The WHO determined that the duration of treatment for MB leprosy could be shortened safely to 12 months "without significantly compromising its efficacy."
Other drugs that are used include ethionamide, aspirin, prednisone, and thalidomide (Adam Med. Enc. 2005).
Improving detection of the disease will allow people to begin treatment earlier. Improving education about Hansen's disease will help people to understand that the disease is neither highly contagious nor incurable.
In 2000, the World Health Organization listed 91 countries in which Hansen's disease is endemic. India, Myanmar. and Nepal contained 70 percent of cases. In 2002, 763,917 new cases were detected worldwide, and in that year the WHO listed Brazil, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Nepal as having 90 percent of Hansen's disease cases.
Hansen's disease is also tracked by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Its prevalence in the United States has remained low and relatively stable. There are decreasing numbers of cases worldwide, though pockets of high prevalence continue in certain areas such as Brazil, South Asia (India, Nepal), some parts of Africa (Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique), and the western Pacific.
At highest risk are those living in endemic areas with poor conditions, such as inadequate bedding, contaminated water and insufficient diet, or other diseases (e.g., HIV) that compromise immune function. Recent research suggests that there is a defect in cell-mediated immunity that causes susceptibility to the disease. The region of DNA responsible for this variability may also be involved in Parkinson's disease, giving rise to current speculation that the two disorders are linked in some way at the biochemical level.
Although annual incidence—the number of new leprosy cases occurring each year—is important as a measure of transmission, it is difficult to measure in leprosy due to its long incubation period, delays in diagnosis after onset of the disease, and the lack of laboratory tools to detect leprosy in its very early stages. Registered prevalence is a better indicator of the disease burden, since it reflects the number of active leprosy cases diagnosed and receiving treatment with M.D.T. at a given point in time (WHO Study Group 1985). New case detection is another indicator of the disease burden and usually reported by countries on an annual basis. It includes cases diagnosed with onset of disease in the year in question (true incidence) and a large proportion of cases with onset in previous years (termed a backlog prevalence of undetected cases). The new case detection rate (N.C.D.R.) is defined by the number of newly detected cases, previously untreated, during a year divided by the population in which the cases have occurred.
Endemic countries also report the number of new cases with established disabilities at the time of detection, as an indicator of the backlog prevalence. However, determination of the time of onset of the disease is generally unreliable.
|Table 1: Prevalence at beginning of 2006, and trends in new case detection 2001-2005, excluding Europe|
|New Case Detection during the year|
|Start of 2006||2001||2002||2003||2004||2005|
|South-East Asia||133,422 (0.81)||668,658||520,632||405,147||298,603||201,635|
|Eastern Mediterranean||4,024 (0.09)||4,758||4,665||3,940||3,392||3,133|
|Western Pacific||8,646 (0.05)||7,404||7,154||6,190||6,216||7,137|
|Table 2: Prevalence and Detection, countries still to reach elimination|
|New Case Detection
|Start of 2004||Start of 2005||Start of 2006||During 2003||During 2004||During 2005|
|BRAZIL||79,908 (4.6)||30,693 (1.7)||27,313 (1.5)||49,206 (28.6)||49,384 (26.9)||38,410 (20.6)|
|DEM. REPUB. CONGO||6,891 (1.3)||10,530 (1.9)||9,785 (1.7)||7,165 (13.5)||11,781 (21,1)||10,737 (18.7)|
|MADAGASCAR||5,514 (3.4)||4,610 (2.5)||2,094 (1.1)||5,104 (31.1)||3,710 (20.5)||2,709 (14.6)|
|MOZAMBIQUE||6,810 (3.4)||4,692 (2.4)||4,889 (2.5)||5,907 (29.4)||4,266 (22.0)||5,371 (27.1)|
|NEPAL||7,549 (3.1)||4,699 (1.8)||4,921 (1.8)||8,046 (32.9)||6,958 (26.2)||6,150 (22.7)|
|TANZANIA||5,420 (1.6)||4,777 (1.3)||4,190 (1.1)||5,279 (15.4)||5,190 (13.8)||4,237 (11.1)|
As reported to WHO by 115 countries and territories in 2006 (WHO 2006). The reason for the annual detection being higher than the prevalence at the end of the year is that new cases complete their treatment within the year and therefore no longer remain on the registers.
Table 1 shows that global annual detection has been declining since 2001. The African region reported an 8.7 percent decline in the number of new cases compared with 2004. The comparable figure for the Americas was 20.1 percent, for South-East Asia 32 percent, and for the Eastern Mediterranean it was 7.6 percent. The Western Pacific area, however, showed a 14.8 percent increase during the same period.
Table 2 shows the leprosy situation in the six major countries that have yet to achieve the goal of elimination at the national level. It should be noted that: a) Elimination is defined as a prevalence of less than 1 case per 10,000 population; b) Madagascar reached elimination at the national level in September 2006; and c) Nepal detection rates are reported from mid-November 2004 to mid-November 2005.
The Leprosy Mission of Canada estimates that 4 million people are currently suffering from leprosy (L.M.C. 2007). When the WHO declares that leprosy has been eliminated, according to their definition of 1/10,000, then in a world of 6 billion people that leaves 600,000 people with leprosy.
All links retrieved July 30, 2014.
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Learn about author Cynthia Rylant and the books she has written. Biographies, interviews, lesson plans, and classroom activities for creating an author study are included.
Read the interview with Cynthia Rylant and learn about her writing career.
Students explore the element of plot using the works of Cynthia Rylant. An interactive "Plot Diagram" is offered to map the plot of a selected story. Additional links to Cynthia Rylant are included.
Using "Long Night Moon" by Cynthia Rylant, students are taught to write original stories while incorporating the circular plot structure. Additional titles using circular plots are given. An interactive "circle plot diagram" is available.
In this activity, students are taught about "thoughtshots", a method of learning how to bring flashbacks, flash-aheads, and internal dialogue to their writing. Several of Cynthia Rylant's books are used in this activity.
Use these illustrated book reviews by students to excite your students in reading books by Cynthia Rylant.
This activity guide from the publisher provides discussion and extension lessons.
Use "The Shy Scarecrow" by Cynthia Rylant to engage students in a lesson to extend vocabulary and rhyming skills. Additional titles about scarecrows are given.
Use Cynthia Rylant's books, Appalachia and When I Was Young in the Mountains to learn about mountains and coal mines of West Virginia.
Read a brief story written by Cynthia Rylant, where inspirations of her stories come from, and why she loves writing books. NOTE: This site includes ads.
This site provides lesson plans and classroom activities for Rylant's books. NOTE: This site has a link leads to discussion board. NOTE: This site includes ads.
Click `Study Guide (PDF)' to help students when reading 'Missing May'.
Use this lesson plan to to supplement the book "The Relatives Came." NOTE: This site includes ads.
Use this information and the educational links to learn more about the book "Henry and Mudge and the Starry Night." Two Quia activities are listed as well.
Request State Standards
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AEGIS, Shield of the Fleet
During the tension-filled 1960s, as Russian and American submarines and surface combatants carefully jockeyed for position across the globe, Soviet engineers quietly turned their attention toward a new weapon capable of breaking the longstanding naval stalemate.
It was a highly maneuverable new missile, dubbed an “antiship” missile, designed to skim just above the surface of the water, evading radar while locking onto seaborne targets in the harshest of weather conditions.
The devastating new technology debuted on Oct. 21, 1967, when an Egyptian gunship fired four Russian-built Styx missiles at the Israeli warship Eliat. The missiles streaked toward their target, impervious to countermeasures, sinking the Eliat and killing 47 of its crew members.
For years, the Navy had studied various combinations of radar, armor and onboard missile systems to protect its ships at sea. Now, it was time to double down, to develop a new defense system—a system that, in time, would become the most effective combat system ever put to sea.
Aegis: A Partnership that Works
For more than 40 years, Lockheed Martin has partnered with the U.S. Navy on the Aegis Combat System
Protector of the Open Seas
Originally named the Advanced Surface Missile System (ASMS), the Navy’s new initiative called for the creation of an onboard defensive missile system capable of detecting and intercepting incoming missiles launched from air and sea. Renamed AEGIS as a homage to the magical shield used by Zeus, the program launched in 1969 with Lockheed Martin legacy company RCA as lead contractor.
Unlike conventional rotating radar of the period, which gauged the speed and direction of a target once every 10 to 30 seconds, AEGIS was designed to lock onto multiple incoming missiles and aircraft, continuously tracking their movements while assigning each a potential threat value. It operated according to a fire-control loop, which sought to detect, track and engage threats. Once fixed on a target, the system relayed the oncoming missile’s position back to the ship’s main computer and helped crew members quickly and decisively calculate how to best intercept it with defensive countermeasures.
Photo Courtesy U.S. Navy
Under the direction of Rear Admiral Wayne E. Meyer, who subscribed to a “build a little, test a little, learn a lot” philosophy, the AEGIS Weapon System was carefully refined over the next five years. In 1974, it was tested aboard the USS Norton Sound and successfully intercepted aerial targets along the Pacific Missile Test Range.
By 1981, the USS Ticonderoga (CG 47) became the Unites States’ first AEGIS-guided missile cruiser. It was a game-changer. Even new advances in Soviet missile technology could not keep pace with the new defensive capabilities of the AEGIS, providing the United States with a critical new asset in the all-important strategic chess game at sea. On January 22nd, 1983 when Ticonderoga was commissioned, the rallying cry was: “Stand by, Admiral Gorshkov, AEGIS is at sea!”
Sword Meets Shield
Lockheed Martin continued to help the Navy improve the AEGIS system throughout the 1980s. The introduction of specialized radar equipment allowed for tracking of several hundred targets at once, and an upgraded guidance system extended the range of antiaircraft missiles by calculating more precise flight paths.
But it was the introduction of Martin Marietta’s MK-41 Vertical Launching System (VLS) in 1986 that turned AEGIS into a formidable first-strike weapon. The VLS could rapidly fire a host of different missiles, launching Tomahawks at land targets, Standard Missiles into the air and Antisubmarine Rockets at enemy vessels lurking beneath the water.
The system’s versatility was proved during Operation Desert Storm, when the AEGIS-equipped cruiser Bunker Hill took over tactical control of 26 warships and more than 300 aircraft, directing attacks against Iraqi forces and coordinating the interception of enemy missiles.
AEGIS cruisers and destroyers were used in Kosovo and during Operation Iraqi Freedom, further solidifying their reputations as floating shields for allied forces. But by 2008, AEGIS would be called upon to intercept something unlike anything it had ever targeted before: an errant US built satellite with toxic fuel onboard.
Aegis Satellite Intercept
Lockheed Martin engineers played a significant role in the destruction of an errant satellite in 2008.
Operation Burnt Frost
The late 1990s ushered in improvements in radar, missiles and guidance systems that allowed AEGIS to intercept ballistic missiles midway through their flight paths before they descended toward their targets. AEGIS-equipped ships could now strategically occupy key locations across the globe and pick off incoming missiles over the open ocean.
So when U.S. officials discovered in 2008 that one of America’s own satellites was about to fall back to Earth–containing over 1,000 pounds of potentially hazardous hydrazine chemicals–they turned to the highest-performing AEGIS cruiser in its fleet: the USS Lake Erie.
In less than two months, Lockheed Martin helped the Navy customize the AEGIS system for this unprecedented challenge, and the USS Lake Erie sailed off to a point hundreds of miles northwest of Hawaii on a mission code-named Operation Burnt Frost. After tracking the satellite’s trajectory for days, Lake Erie launched a single missile on Feb. 20, 2008.
A few minutes later, sensors and radars confirmed a direct hit. The missile had struck the satellite with such accuracy that the hydrazine was completely neutralized, averting the release of a potentially dangerous chemical into the atmosphere.
“AEGIS is not a one-trick pony,” said Jim Sheridan, Director of AEGIS USN Development for Lockheed Martin. “It’s a multi-mission platform—capable of anti-aircraft warfare, ballistic missile defense as well as anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare—which is why there is a high level of interest in AEGIS from our allies.”
Photo Courtesy U.S. Navy
Shielding the World
A little over a year after the successful satellite intercept, President Obama outlined a new four-phase strategy to defend Europe against short- and intermediate-range Iranian missile attacks using a combination of land- and sea-based AEGIS ballistic missile systems. What was once the United States’ most valuable defensive technology now provides a shield under which friendly nations across the world can find protection and safety.
Phase one, which is already in place, positions AEGIS warships in the Mediterranean to counter regional threats and is followed by the phase two and phase three positioning of a land-based AEGIS defense system, dubbed AEGIS Ashore, in Romania and Poland. The plan calls for the stationing of advanced AEGIS systems, each designed to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of reaching the United States, by 2021.
Currently, Australia, Spain, Japan, Norway and South Korea use or are planning to deploy AEGIS systems in their naval warships.
Sources and Further Reading
- Boslaugh, David L. When Computers Went to Sea: The Digitization of the United States Navy. Los Alamitos, Calf.: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1999.
- Chambers, John Whiteclay, II, ed. The Oxford Companion to American Military History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Coalson, Robert. “European Missile Defense: What’s on the Table at NATO Summit?” Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty. http://www.rferl.org/content/european-missile-defense-explainer/24586198.html, accessed August 23, 2012.
- Daalder, Ivo H. “A New Shield Over Europe.” The New York Times. June 6, 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/07/opinion/a-new-shield-over-europe.html, accessed August 23, 2012.
- Grant, R.G. Battle at Sea: 3,000 Years of Naval Warfare. New York: DK Publishing, 2011.
- Horowitz, Michael C. The Diffusion of Military Power: Causes and Consequences for International Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010.
- Lockheed Martin. “AEGIS Evolution Continues.” http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/ms2/features/120418-AEGIS-evolution-continues.html, accessed August 23, 2012.
- Middendorf, William J., II, Potomac Fever: A Memoir of Politics and Public Service. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2011.
- Missile Defense Agency. “One-Time Mission: Operation Burnt Frost.” U.S. Department of Defense. http://www.mda.mil/system/AEGIS_one_time_mission.html, accessed August 22, 2012.
- Pearn, Michael. “Seek and Destroy: The AEGIS Combat System.” http://www.naval-technology.com/features/feature45460/, accessed August 23, 2012.
- Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1991.
- Sheridan, James. “Interview with The History Factory.” Dec. 4, 2012
- Tucker, Spencer C. The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan and Iraq Conflicts, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, Calf.: ABC-CLIO, 2010.
- Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Santa Barbara, Calf.: ABC-CLIO, 2009. | <urn:uuid:31ddc63a-5432-43be-918e-de61a1f90c03> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/100years/stories/aegis.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.907031 | 2,090 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The history of the “intelligent design” creationist textbook Of Pandas and People is probably known in greater detail than the history of just about any other textbook. Pandas was central to 2005’s Kitzmiller v. Dover trial, and was the first publication to lay out the major themes of the “intelligent design” movement. In the course of the Kitzmiller trial, material from NCSE’s archives led to a subpoena for the early drafts of Pandas, which demonstrated that the textbook started out as an overtly creationist project, and that references to “creationism,” “creationist,” “creator,” and related terms were swapped for “intelligent design,” “design advocates,” “designer,” and so forth. The infamous chart from Barbara Forrest’s testimony in Kitzmiller showed that switcheroo, and featured prominently in Judge Jones’s conclusion that intelligent design is a form of creationism.
The publisher of Pandas, the Foundation for Thought and Ethics, is striking back now (PDF link), trying to rewrite that early history eight years after it was exposed and publicized.
John Buell, FTE’s president and the presumable author of the essay, argues that the research tying Pandas to its overtly creationist origins is all wrong. He claims that the references to “creationism,” “creation,” and “creationists” were all placeholders while they tried to invent new terminology, and that the vagaries of the publishing industry caused it to take three years to swap the terms out. He argues furthermore that talking about creationists is different from talking about creationism, since being a creationist could be construed simply to mean someone who believes in a god or gods. And he insists that the antonym for “natural” in passages rejecting natural evolutionary mechanisms is not “supernatural,” but “manmade” or “artificial.” Much of this is the standard dodge that ID creationists have always used when pressed on the identity of the designer, and much of the history Buell offers is already known. He does add some new details, and I’m looking forward to hearing Nick Matzke’s reaction. It would be interesting if he were to update or expand his fascinating chapter in But Is It Science? on the early days of the ID movement.
What’s missing from Buell’s account is any reference to the actual genesis of the textbook. His history starts in 1983, two years after the project was first made public. That announcement came on the front page of the newsletter for the young-earth creationist group “Students for Origins Research,” now known as Access Research Network.
In the Fall 1981 edition of the newsletter, which discussed the McLean trial in Arkansas and the early stages of the Edwards v. Aguillard lawsuit in Louisiana, there was a blurb promising an “unbiased biology textbook”:
A high school biology textbook is in the planning stges that will be sensitively written to ‘present both evolution and creation while limiting discussion to scientific data.’ Dr. Charles B. Thaxton is science advisor to the project and hopes to draw together an editorial board made up of both creationists and evolutionists.
The author selected is a teaching biologist with two McGraw-Hill books in print. A program of market research for this possible three year project is underway. For more information or input contact Dr. Thaxton at the Foundation for Thought and Ethics, P.O. Box 721, Richardson, TX 75080.
Buell is free to claim that the book was never about creationism, but in those early days, he and his colleagues made no bones about the fact that it was intended to “present…creation.” The project was hardly unique in aiming to “limit the discussion to scientific data.” In 1974’s Scientific Creationism (the “Public School Edition”), Henry Morris claimed “This book is needed by public school teachers for two main reasons: first, there is today a wide renewal of interest in creationism and, second, no other book is available which deals with all the important aspects of this subject in a strictly scientific context.” (Emphasis added.)
Buell insists that his book, unlike Morris’s and other overtly creationist efforts, wasn’t religious. As proof of FTE’s good intentions, he observes:
within the 30-day appeal period immediately following the 1982 district court ruling against the teaching of creationism in McLean v. Arkansas, Charles Thaxton and I met with Arkansas Attorney General Steve Clark in his offices in Little Rock, urging him not to appeal the verdict. Simply put, this was because FTE agreed that “creation science” promoted a religious viewpoint that was not appropriate for use in public schools, and that future court rulings would no doubt concur that it is not legal to advocate in public schools.
Given the timing of the announcement about the Pandas project (just as the McLean trial was going south for the creationists and as the stage was set for the Edwards trial), it’s just as reasonable to conclude that the inception of Pandas came as a response to the legal troubles in Arkansas, and that the decision to fully expunge those creationist origins did indeed come as a response to the Edwards ruling. FTE’s awareness, even early on, that overtly creationist arguments were unlikely to survive court review hardly invalidates the conclusion that the book was drafted as an attempt to circumvent constitutional limits on religious instruction in public schools. Buell’s protestations notwithstanding, the evidence he’s offering now doesn’t give any reason to change the conclusions of history and the courts about the creationist nature of the “intelligent design” movement. | <urn:uuid:f4bfa88d-64d3-46fc-aac6-522880f8e8d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ncse.com/blog/2013/10/buellpuckey-0015149 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963297 | 1,255 | 2.53125 | 3 |
These websites are about the book “Charlotte’s Web” and author E.B. White. There are lesson plans, worksheets, quizzes, and student webpages. One website includes letters that students wrote to the characters in the book. There is also information about pigs. Includes links to eTheme resources on spiders, pigs, farm animals, friendship in literature, and other books by E.B. White.
These sites have tips on making friends and how to resolve common problems that threaten friendships. There are several classroom activity ideas to help foster friendships among students. Includes lists of recommended children's books as well as links to eThemes Resources on books that include this theme.
Learn about different animals that live on farms, including cows, horses, dogs, cats, and more. Includes many photos, plus audio files of the animal sounds. There are activities, games, and online stories relating to farm life. Includes links to eThemes Resources on dairy farms, snakes, chickens, and Missouri animals.
These sites are about the book "Trumpet of the Swan" and author E.B. White. Learn about these endangered animals, listen to audio files of their distinct call, and read the history behind Boston's swan boats. Includes activity ideas, graphic organizers, online games, and a board game that can be printed out.
The sites are about the book "Stuart Little" by E.B. White and include book reviews, author biographies, study guides, suggested activities, and online quizzes. There are links to eThemes Resources on mice, story elements, and graphic organizers.
These sites are about pigs. Learn about their life cycle, diet, habitat, care, and the products from pigs. Includes interesting facts, a farm tour, and production process. There are also printable worksheets, coloring pages, games, lesson plans, photos, and video clips. | <urn:uuid:3b4e82de-8776-453c-854e-dcd9401849cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://ethemes.missouri.edu/themes/1313?locale=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957561 | 395 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Taiwanese inventor Peng Yu-Lun believes that trains are more energy inefficient than they have to be, hobbled ecologically by the totally unnecessary task of having to stop to pick up passengers. To counter the problem, he has invented a concept for a constantly moving train, or a "non-stop MRT system."
Giddily, I imagined Japanese train pushers hurling people off of overpasses into huge nets, but his idea is even more ingenious: a top-mounted boarding shuttle that is scooped up when the train passes one station and automatically deposited when it reaches the next stop.
It's a wonderful idea in concept — this sort of solution could potentially eliminate most train and subway delays — but what happens when some carousing subway roughs stand in the doorway of the passenger vehicle, preventing it from closing, while the rest of the shuttlecraft's passengers respond the only way they know how: with a co-ordinated attack of passive aggressive annoyance? And those shuttle crafts would have to be pretty big (and the trains even bigger) to accommodate Tokyo or New York City platform crowds.
Inventor rolls out efficient non-stop train system [Taiwan Headlines via DVICE] | <urn:uuid:4d4ee195-eaae-455e-b0bb-3258b641c574> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gadgets.boingboing.net/2008/06/18/boarding-a-train-tha.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94842 | 247 | 2.546875 | 3 |
New studies show that zinc, selenium with vitamin E and red clover subdue cancer-cell growth or reduce risk overall.
Doctors in a zinc study explained that healthy prostate tissue has 10 times more zinc than other body soft tissues, and that prostate cancer cells have low zinc levels and can’t store the mineral. Researchers followed over 35,000 men, aged 50 to 76, for four years and found that those who consumed at least 15 mg of zinc per day from supplements and/or diet were much less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer compared to men who got less zinc.
In a selenium and vitamin E study, scientists cited earlier research showing that selenium curbs abnormal, potentially cancerous cells and wanted to find out how. The doctors gave 39 men with prostate cancer 200 mcg of selenium per day, 400 IU of vitamin E per day, these two nutrients together or a placebo for about one month before scheduled surgery to remove the prostate gland. Examining prostate tissue samples after surgery from men who took selenium and vitamin E together, doctors found healthier, more normal activity in the gene that contains the code for a tumor-suppressing protein compared to that gene in the tissue of other men.
In a lab study of red clover, researchers explained that in prostate cancer, male sex hormones such as testosterone can aggravate the disease. In a prostate cancer cell culture, doctors artificially raised levels of testosterone and prostate-specific antigen—a marker for prostate cancer—to recreate the negative cell environment that encourages the cancer to grow. Scientists then exposed the cells to red clover extract and saw these negative effects reverse. Researchers concluded, “Something is happening in the prostate tissue microenvironment that is illustrating a potential cancer prevention effect from this supplement [red clover].” | <urn:uuid:5dbe5513-2fdb-4202-8505-dad5c8a22982> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nutritionexpress.com/article+index/authors/newsletter+editor/2009+newsletters/showarticle.aspx?id=1133 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932637 | 368 | 2.578125 | 3 |
This page briefly describes the general properties of enzymes present in milk. Enzymes are proteins that have biological functions. Milk enzymes come from several sources: the native milk, airborne bacterial contamination, bacteria that are added intentionally for fermentation, or in somatic cells present in milk. For more details on milk enzymes see references by Farkye (2003), Fox and McSweeney (1998), Pruitt (2003), and Whitney (1988).
Each enzyme has a specific site of action on its target molecule, and optimal conditions (pH and temperature). There are a large number of enzymes in milk and the functions of many are not well-defined. It should be noted that the enzymes in milk do not make a major contribution to the digestion of milk in humans, which is accomplished by enzymes in the human stomach and small intestine.
Lipases are enzymes that degrade fats. The major lipase in milk is lipoprotein lipase. It is associated with the casein micelle. Agitation during processing may bring the lipase into contact with the milk fat resulting in fat degradation and off-flavors. Pasteurization will inactivate the lipase in milk and increase shelf life.
Proteases are enzymes that degrade proteins. The major protease in milk is plasmin. Some proteases are inactivated by heat and some are not. Protein degradation can be undesirable and result in bitter off-flavors, or it may provide a desirable texture to cheese during ripening. Proteases are important in cheese manufacture, and a considerable amount of information is available in the cheese literature.
Alkaline phosphatase is a heat sensitive enzyme in milk that is used as indicator of pasteurization. If milk is properly pasteurized, alkaline phosphatase is inactivated.
Lactoperoxidase is one of the most heat-stable enzymes found in milk. Lactoperoxidase, when combined with hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate, has antibacterial properties. It is suggested that the presence of lactoperoxidase in raw milk inhibits the disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) present in milk. However, since there is no hydrogen peroxide or thiocyanate present in fresh milk, these compounds would have to be added to milk in order to achieve the antibacterial benefits. Lysozyme is another enzyme that has some antibacterial activities, although the amount of lysozyme present in milk is very small. | <urn:uuid:2edbfbd0-3b11-4941-a768-9b804ed53b71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/Enzymes.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955942 | 504 | 3.8125 | 4 |
|A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z|
Scabies are caused by insects and it is an infection of the skin. The skin is the largest organ of the body and any infection or disease takes a very long time to cure. The insects burrow under the layers of skin and lay eggs. They do not go away by just bathing and keeping yourself clean.
These mites are also very contagious and any other person who comes in close contact with you is likely to get it. Scabies causes itchy rashes. The rashes are red and blotchy. You can also feel the mites under your skin. Scabies, if not treated on time, spreads to other parts of the body. They are more susceptible to spread to the warmer parts of the body. When you start scratching the itchy spots, then they turn into sores and also get infected.
First of all, start using topical antibiotic creams to treat the infection. The doctor will prescribe some ointments to apply over the rashes and you have to follow it diligently. Cut the source of scabies and make sure you wash all your clothes in medicated water. Wash even the bedding and other things you wear. One can get scabies from everywhere including the stuffed toys. These mites love the dust and usually live in it. Apply the antibiotic cream generously all over your body so that the rash and the mites do not spread to other parts of the body and arrest the mites in the spot of the rash. The antibiotic cream will actually kill them.
More Articles : | <urn:uuid:71eff0c6-4fb7-4cd5-8385-a487721bb556> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rocketswag.com/health/disease/s/scabies/How-Do-You-Get-Rid-Of-Scabies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949273 | 338 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Evolutionary 'Game Changer' Doesn't Change Anything
by Brian Thomas, M.S. *
Widespread news reports recently proclaimed that a collection of primate fossils discovered in a collapsed cave in South Africa just might be an evolutionary “game changer.” ABC News reported that this creature, called Australopithecus sediba, “could be a key link in the process of evolution that led to modern human beings.”1 One headline read, “Rethinking Human Origins: Fossils Reveal a New Ancestor on the Family Tree.”2 But none of these claims is true, and it’s relatively easy to understand why.
If this fossil is a real “game changer,” then it should clearly demonstrate human evolution. Otherwise, it’s just an extinct kind of ape. It should show transitional features, such as bones and body proportions that are on their way to becoming shaped like a human’s. It should also be found in earth layers that are significantly below, and that therefore pre-date, evidence of humans. Does this new fossil meet either expectation?
Confusion over Sediba’s Age Assignment
Five technical papers in the September 8, 2011, issue of the journal Science offered analyses of the various Australopithecus sediba bone fossils. In one, researchers explained why they believe that the fossils’ age assignment makes them valid candidates for pre-human ancestors.3
The study authors argued that the “Sediba” fossils are almost exactly 1.977 million years old. They then asserted that no Homo—the scientific name for human—fossil remains are any older than 1.9 million years, so that Sediba supposedly existed 77,000 years before humans. They reasoned that man therefore could have evolved from Sediba or a Sediba-like creature.
But genuine human remains have been discovered in earth layers below, and thus were deposited before, Sediba fossils. These must be ignored for Sediba to possibly be an evolutionary precursor of humans, because descendants cannot pre-date their ancestors.
In response to 2010 Sediba-related headlines, creation anthropology author Marvin Lubenow noted recognizably human fossils dated by evolutionists at or even older than Sediba’s 1.977-million-year age assignment. Lubenow wrote in an online article:
I list three fossils from Kenya and Tanzania dated by evolutionists at older than 2 million years that, morphologically [based on shape], are indistinguishable from modern humans. Further, I list at least 18 Homo erectus fossils that are dated by evolutionists between 1.75 and 2 million years. More recent Homo discoveries include an upper jaw (maxilla) from Ethiopia and a lower jaw (mandible) from Malawi, both dated at 2.3 million years.4
But there is more evidence of humans before Sediba. In agreement with the original assessment published in Science in 1980, two recent analyses concluded that the famous Laetoli footprints in Tanzanian volcanic mud were made by feet that were essentially identical to those of humans.5,6 The tracks were tacked onto the evolutionary timeline at 3.7 million years ago—long before Sediba—but despite their foot shape, the tracks were assigned to extinct apes!
A human foot bone fossil—the fourth metatarsal—was recently found in Ethiopia among an assemblage of hundreds of unattached bones and assigned an age of three million years. Researchers, also publishing in Science, compared it with those of the modern human, chimpanzee, and gorilla.7 Though their analysis rigorously demonstrated that it perfectly matched a human’s and was totally unlike the apes’, they claimed it was the foot bone of an extinct ape.8 Was this because it did not match the evolutionists’ consensus time of man’s supposed “emergence” at 1.9 million years?
And what about the evolutionary dating of “the first appearance of stone tools at 2.6 million years ago” that the Sediba authors acknowledged?9 As far as is known, only people make stone tools. And as described below, Sediba’s hands were not fit for tool-making.
How did the authors promoting Sediba as a “game changer” deal with these human bones, human foot tracks, and human tools, all deposited before Sediba? They simply dismissed them by saying “their age is uncertain.”3 They must say this in order to isolate Sediba’s candidacy as a pre-human ancestor from the fossil facts.
The many pre-Sediba Homo remains are the real “game changers.”
Human Evolution from Sediba?
Even if the human bones, tracks, and artifacts that predate Sediba were somehow not from Homo, what is the feasibility that a creature like Sediba could have evolved into a human in 77,000 years? According to the researchers, morphing Sediba into Homo would require refashioning at least these features:
Increased brain size and organization, dentognathic [protruding mouth] reduction,…(a projecting nose), increased body size, biomechanical reorganization of the pelvis for locomotion, relative lower limb elongation, enhanced bipedal characteristics of the foot (a longitudinal arch), and the potential for tool use and manufacture.3
All those precise alterations by randomly occurring natural forces in only 77,000 years?
Such drastic changes are not only impossible over such a relatively short time, but no amount of time would be sufficient for natural forces to transform one fully formed, well-fitted ape creature into a human because nature alone cannot and does not build complicated machinery. According to observable science, the ravages of time don’t construct, they deconstruct.10
Sediba’s Ape Hand
Pre-Sediba human remains must be ignored to maintain this fossil’s “game changer” status. However, did Sediba at least have transitional features, such as a part-ape, part-human hand?
One of the Science reports examined the features of each bone in the wrist and hand from what appears to have been an adult female of this extinct ape kind. The unique hand doesn’t look like a modern ape’s, a modern human’s, or any kind of gradual transition between the two. The researchers wrote that it had a “mosaic” of features.9
Its finger bones were long, curved, and—“together with its primitive australopith-like upper limb”—demonstrate that this small primate was fitted for swinging through trees.9 Human finger bones are straight.
Also, Sediba’s thumb was long and skinny. A human thumb is proportioned to bear “large loads during stone tool production.” So Sediba’s thumb probably “was not subject to the same type or frequency of loading as that of other contemporary or later hominins.”9 Thus, it could swing from tree branches and probably could not make tools out of hard stone.
The study authors concluded that the uniqueness of Sediba’s hand “adds to the range of morphological [shape] variation previously documented in the hominin carpometacarpal [wrist] joints and to the ambiguity surrounding the polarity and functional significance of some of these features.”9
“Functional significance” refers to the fossil hand’s potential to make tools. As far as is known, only the human hand, integrated with human muscles, nerves, and mental processes, has this capability.11
“Game Changer” Label Totally Unjustified, but Typical
So, if Science says that this fossil adds “ambiguity”—a synonym for “uncertainty”—then how can media reports justify the claim that it “reveals a new ancestor”? When it comes to human evolution, headlines don’t match reality. For example, the fossil nicknamed “Ida” was promoted as the “missing link” in 2009, but almost immediately was debunked as an extinct variety of lemur with no evolutionary significance whatsoever.12
Preliminary reports of these same Australopithecus sediba fossils made similar claims of possible human ancestry. But it was quickly seen as “not a missing link.”13 These new Sediba fossil descriptions confirm that it is still “not a missing link.” Rather than showing any transitional features between ape and man, its anatomy, including its hand, was a mosaic of well-matched features that were fitted together as though specially created.
Australopithecus sediba had a unique and separate suite of physical and therefore genetic characteristics. It was not a transition toward man, but an extinct ape kind. It is not an evolutionary game changer, but the hype surrounding it shows that the game of promoting human evolution with premature and misleading headlines has not changed at all.
- Potter, N. Evolutionary ‘Game Changer’: Fossil May Be Human Ancestor. ABC News. Posted on abcnews.go.com September 8, 2011.
- Kluger, J. Rethinking Human Origins: Fossils Reveal a New Ancestor on the Family Tree. Time Science. Posted on time.com September 8, 2011.
- Pickering, R. et al. 2011. Australopithecus sediba at 1.977 Ma and Implications for the Origins of the Genus Homo. Science. 333 (6048): 1421-1423.
- Lubenow, M. The Problem with Australopithecus sediba. Answers in Genesis. Posted on answersingenesis.org August 11, 2010.
- Raichlen, D. A. et al. 2010. Laetoli Footprints Preserve Earliest Direct Evidence of Human-Like Bipedal Biomechanics. PLoS One. 5 (3): e9769.
- Crompton, R. H. Human-like external function of the foot, and fully upright gait, confirmed in the 3.66 million year old Laetoli hominin footprints by topographic statistics, experimental footprint-formation and computer simulation. Journal of the Royal Society Interface. Published online before print July 20, 2011.
- Ward, C. V., W. H. Kimbel and D. C. Johanson. 2011. Complete Fourth Metatarsal and Arches in the Foot of Australopithecus afarensis. Science. 331 (6018): 750-753.
- Thomas, B. 2011. “Lucy’s” New Foot Bone Is Actually Human. Acts & Facts. 40 (4): 17.
- Kivell, T. L. et al. 2011. Australopethecus sediba Hand Demonstrates Mosaic Evolution of Locomoter and Manipulative Abilities. Science. 333 (6048): 1411-1417.
- Sanford, J. C. 2005. Genetic Entropy and the Mystery of the Genome. Lima, NY: Ivan Press, 96.
- Bell, Sir Charles. 1852. The Fourth Bridgewater Treatise on the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God as Manifested in the Creation: The Hand; Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design, 5th ed. London: John Murray, 1.
- Thomas, B. 2009. The Ida Fossil: A Clever Campaign for a Lackluster “Link.” Acts & Facts. 38 (7): 17.
- Choi, C. Q. Fossil Skeletons May Be Human Ancestor. LiveScience. Posted on livescience.com April 8, 2010.
Image credit: University of Zurich, Peter Schmid. Usage does not imply endorsement.
* Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research.
Cite this article: Thomas, B. 2011. Evolutionary “Game Changer” Doesn’t Change Anything. Acts & Facts. 40 (12): 16-17. | <urn:uuid:021f372d-5d8b-46da-a3fd-73ebbe3faa22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.icr.org/article/6486/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928669 | 2,545 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Lead poisoning occurs when a person swallows or breathes lead, which can damage many parts of the body, especially in young children.
for searching the Internet and other reference sources
The year Josh turned 12, his parents bought a bigger house so that they would have a bedroom for his little brother, Timmy, who had just started to crawl. Everyone in the family was excited about the move to the house, which was in an older neighborhood with giant trees in the yards.
Josh spent many Saturday afternoons helping his dad fix up the 50-year-old house. Josh's dad knew that chips of paint from homes this age often contain lead, which could be poisonous to Timmy if he put them in his mouth. One of his first projects, then, was to scrape off the old paint and replace it with new, lead-free paint.
A few months later, Timmy's doctor tested his blood during a routine checkup and found a high level of lead. His parents had not known that Timmy could get lead poisoning from lead dust as well as paint chips. Luckily, the problem was caught and treated early.
What Is Lead Poisoning?
Lead is a metal that has been mined for thousands of years. In the past, it was used to make many everyday items found in or near homes, such as paint, gasoline, water pipes, and food cans. When a person swallows or breathes lead, however, it can be highly poisonous. It is especially dangerous to children ages 6 years and younger. This is partly because the bodies of such young children are changing rapidly and partly because children in this age group tend to put things in their mouths.
Lead is poisonous because it interferes with some of the body's basic activities. To some extent, the body cannot tell the difference between lead and calcium, a mineral that helps build strong bones. Like calcium, lead stays in the bloodstream for a few weeks. Then it is deposited into the bones, where it can stay for a lifetime. Even small amounts of lead can permanently harm children over time, leading to learning disabilities, behavior problems, decreased intelligence, and other damage. Large amounts of lead can cause seizures, unconsciousness, or even death.
What Causes Lead Poisoning?
There are many familiar items that are in our everyday environment that can cause lead poisoning.
Manufacturers used to put lead in paint to make it last longer and cling better to surfaces. Since 1978, the sale of lead-based paint for use in homes has been banned in the United States. It also has become illegal to paint children's toys and household furniture with lead-based paint. However, lead-based paint is still found in more than four out of five homes built before the time of the ban. Old paint that is peeling, chipped, or chalky is a hazard. Because lead has a sweet taste, children may eat chips of lead paint. Even lead-based paint in good condition can pose a risk if it is on surfaces that children chew or that get a lot of wear and tear. Lead-based paint can also be found on old children's toys and household furniture.
The most common way to get lead poisoning is through contact with lead in the form of dust. Lead can get into dust when old paint is scraped or sanded, or when painted surfaces bump or rub together. This dust can then settle on objects that people touch or children put into their mouths.
Oil companies used to add lead to gasoline to improve performance. This let lead particles escape into the air through car exhaust systems. In 1978, the amount of lead allowed in gasoline in the United States was cut, and cars today use lead-free gasoline. However, the soil around roads may still contain leftover lead from the old gasoline. Lead also can get into soil when the outside paint on old buildings flakes or peels.
Lead was once widely used in household plumbing. This lead can get into water that flows through the pipes. In 1986 and 1988, the use of lead in public water systems and plumbing was limited in the United States. However, the lead in old faucets, pipes, and solder used to connect pipes is still a problem. The amount of lead in water depends on the water's temperature (warm or hot water can contain more lead), the minerals and acid it contains, how long the water sits in the pipes, and the condition of the pipes.
Lead solder was once used to seal food cans. This lead could mix with the food inside the can. In 1995, the United States banned this use of lead solder, but it still may be found in some imported cans.
Some other sources of lead are:
- Lead-glazed pottery or leaded crystal can leach lead into foods and drinks.
- Lead smelters and other industries can release lead into the air.
- Jobs that involve working with lead can get lead dust on the clothes, skin, and hair.
- Hobbies such as making pottery and refinishing furniture use lead.
- Folk medicines and homemade cosmetics sometimes contain lead.
Who Is at High Risk?
Anyone of any age can be poisoned by lead. However, the risk is greatest to young children. In the United States, about 900,000 children ages 1 to 5 years have a dangerously high level of lead in their blood. These are some situations linked to increased risk in young children:
- Living in or regularly visiting a home built before 1950.
- Living in or regularly visiting a home built before 1978 that has chipped or peeling paint or that has been remodeled recently.
- Living with an adult whose job or hobby involves contact with lead.
- Having a brother, sister, or playmate who has had lead poisoning.
What Are the Symptoms?
Lead poisoning is not easy to detect. Sometimes no symptoms occur, and at other times the symptoms look like those of other illnesses. Some of the possible early signs of lead poisoning in children are constant tiredness or overactivity, irritability, loss of appetite, weight loss, decreased attention span, trouble sleeping, and constipation.
High levels of lead can cause seizures, unconsciousness, or even death in children. However, most cases of lead poisoning involve much lower levels of lead. Over time, though, even low levels of lead may cause permanent damage. At low levels, lead can cause problems like learning disabilities, behavior problems, decreased intelligence, speech problems, decreased attention span, brain or nerve damage, poor coordination, kidney damage, decreased growth, and hearing loss.
Contact with lead is especially dangerous for children. However, it can be harmful for teenagers and adults as well. If a pregnant woman comes into contact with lead, it can raise her risk of illness during pregnancy. It can also cause problems, including brain damage or death, in her unborn baby. At high levels, lead in adults can cause problems such as infertility, high blood pressure, digestion problems, nerve disorders, memory problems, decreased attention span, and muscle and joint pain.
How Is Lead Poisoning Diagnosed?
Often lead poisoning has few symptoms. The only way to know whether a person has lead poisoning is to get a blood test that measures the amount of lead in the blood. Children who are not at high risk are usually tested at ages 1 and 2 years. Children who are at high risk are usually tested every 6 months between the ages of 6 months and 2 years, then once a year until age 6. A blood test can also be done at any time on anyone who has symptoms or may have had exposure to lead.
How Is Lead Poisoning Treated?
The first step in treatment is to avoid more contact with lead. This means finding and removing any sources of lead in the home. The next step is to make any needed changes in diet. Children should eat at least three meals a day, because they absorb less lead when they have food in their systems. Children also should eat plenty of foods high in iron and calcium, such as milk, cheese, fish, peanut butter, and raisins. When they do not get enough iron and calcium, their bodies mistake lead for these minerals and more lead is absorbed and deposited in their tissues.
If blood levels of lead are high enough, the doctor may prescribe a drug that chelates (KEE-lates), or binds to, lead in the body. Once lead is bound up in this way, the body can remove it through urine or bowel movements. Depending on the drug used, it may be given in a vein, by shot, or by mouth.
Lead's Role in History
Lead lasts a long time and has a low melting temperature. In ancient Rome, wealthy families had indoor plumbing with lead pipes. (The chemical symbol for lead is Pb, from the Latin word plumbum for a lead weight. This also is the root for the word "plumber.") The Romans also lined their outside pipes and water tanks with lead, and they made lead plates and eating utensils. Roman wine makers even sweetened sour wine by adding a syrup containing powdered lead. Modern historians have suggested that lead poisoning may explain the strange behavior of several Roman emperors, including Caligula (A.D. 12-41), who wasted a fortune on public entertainment, banished and murdered relatives, made his favorite horse a public official, and declared himself a god. The decline and fall of the Roman Empire may have been due, at least in part, to lead.
Getting the Lead Out
These tips can help prevent lead poisoning:
- Wash the hands often, especially after spending time outside and before eating.
- Wash the floors, windowsills, and other surfaces in the home weekly.
- Use a sponge or mop with a solution of water and all-purpose cleaner to dean up dust.
- Rinse the sponge or mop thoroughly after cleaning dirty or dusty areas.
- Keep younger children from chewing on painted surfaces, such as windowsills or cribs.
- Do not let younger children put toys and other objects with painted surfaces in their mouths.
- Have younger children play in grassy areas instead of soil, which may have lead in it.
- Wash a younger child's bottles, pacifiers, toys, and stuffed animals often.
- Use cold tap water for drinking or cooking, because lead is more likely to leach into hot water taken from the tap.
- Eat a well-balanced diet that is low in fat and high in iron and calcium.
Kessel, Irene, and John T. O'Connor. Getting the Lead Out: The Complete Resource on How to Prevent and Cope with Lead Poisoning. New York: Plenum Publishing, 1997.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxics. "Lead in Your Home: A Parent's Reference
Guide." To order, contact the National Lead Information Center,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Lead Poisoning Prevention
4770 Buford Highway, Atlanta, GA 30341, (888) 232-6789. A federal
agency that aims to prevent childhood lead poisoning.
National Lead Information Center, 8601 Georgia Avenue, Suite 503, Silver
Spring, MD 20910, (800) 424-LEAD. A federal clearinghouse for lead | <urn:uuid:b442e543-a193-4976-9826-eb74eebe2c6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.humanillnesses.com/original/Kid-Men/Lead-Poisoning.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966348 | 2,324 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Enjoy the following website links with your child. These websites have been used in the classroom or are supplemental to concepts your child is learning in third grade.
- Summer Math Resources
- Moodle ~ online "blog" for our classroom
Study Island ~ P.S.S.A. preparation website
Funbrain ~ interactive math games
Dance Mat Typing ~ practice finger placement and movement
Weather ~ interactive website teaching weather forecasting and predictions
Weather ~ gives the local forecast for any area, in kid-friendly terms
Water Cycle ~ interactive activities to see & understand the water cycle
Solar System Project ~ science class
Solar System ~ information about the solar system is read to you
- Solar System ~ learn about your planet (scroll down page)
- Earth ~ facts!
- Energy ~ find out how much energy is in the food we eat!
- Energy ~ riddles, puzzles, and more
- Soil Millionaire
- Soil Matching
- Hectic Harvest ~ planting and harvesting your own garden!
- Energy Quest
- EdHeads - Simple Machines
- HSP Math ~ see & hear lessons, play games, and practice what you are learning in class with an online version of your textbook!!
- All Skills Math Practice
- ***Ordering Numbers ELab ***
- Comparing Numbers ~ Scroll down for games
- ***Shapes ELab***
- Ordering Numbers Greatest to Least
- Addition Properties
- Halloween Games - odd/even/multiples/sums
- Subtraction Games
- More Subtraction
- Perimeter and Area
- Perimeter and Area 2
- Measurement 2
- Making Change
- Funbrain Change ~ challenging!
- Piggy Bank Game ~ you have to be quick!!
- Time Games
- Multiplication Games
- Multiplication Math-O
- Multiplication Flashcards
- Math Playground ~ flashcards, PROBLEM SOLVING
- Math eLab ~ interactive math activities that are aligned with our curriculum; a lot of steps to get to the page, but the students will be learning this in school
- Tut Pup ~ interactive math games, play against someone from another country!
- Macmillan Mcgraw-Hill Math ~ Math Lessons & Games
- Bitesize Math ~ fun & challenging
- Find the Fraction
- Equivalent Fractions
- Pizza Fractions
- Adding Fractions
- Fraction Bars ~ to help find equivalent fractions and simplest form
- Division Mystery Picture
- Sum Sense Division
- More Probability
- Xtra Math
- Multi-Step Problem Solving | <urn:uuid:8e2941c2-c5e1-49e7-b895-df44d02d14af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eastpenn.k12.pa.us/teacherpages/kkao/Websites.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.792249 | 553 | 3.140625 | 3 |
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An allergic reaction to iodine is a relatively rare occurrence, although it can be potentially life threatening in the most severe cases. Possible signs of this allergy include skin reactions, difficulty breathing, and joint pain. The most severe type of allergic reaction is known as anaphylaxis, which can be fatal within a matter of minutes without emergency medical attention. Some medications, particularly contrast dyes used for some medical tests, contain iodine and can cause symptoms in those with a true allergy to iodine. Any specific questions or concerns about a possible iodine allergy in an individual situation should be discussed with a doctor or other medical professional.
In most cases, an iodine sensitivity causes mild symptoms, like a mild fever, stomach upset, and itching, that do not present any major medical concerns. Iodine is found in varying amounts in shellfish, although there is some scientific debate over whether an allergic reaction to shellfish is due to the iodine content.
Signs of an allergic reaction that require immediate medical attention include respiratory distress, chest pain, and facial swelling. A severe and potentially fatal type of allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis is a serious medical complication that can cause death within a matter of minutes. The face, tongue, and throat may begin to swell, causing difficulty when breathing or swallowing. A lack of oxygen to the brain can lead to permanent brain damage or even death if emergency medical services are not secured.
An anaphylactic allergic reaction to iodine may cause asthma-type symptoms, rapid heartbeat, or dizziness. The skin may appear to be flushed, and the patient may partially or completely lose consciousness. If any of these symptoms occur, a caregiver should not attempt to drive the patient to the hospital. Instead, an ambulance should be called so that emergency life-saving techniques can begin right away.
When a person with a suspected iodine allergy arrives at the hospital, the primary focus is to stabilize him or her by providing any necessary supportive care, such as oxygen therapy or the use of a mechanical ventilator. An IV may be inserted into a vein so that any necessary medications or fluids can be introduced directly into the bloodstream. After the patient's health has stabilized, an injectible medication known as epinephrine is usually prescribed and should be carried by the patient at all times in the event of a recurrence.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:bd99c725-75e0-45ea-9e99-040d759ed80b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-signs-of-an-allergic-reaction-to-iodine.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940054 | 531 | 3.234375 | 3 |
- The digitization of books for the purposes of providing a searchable index is transformative, and therefore is a Fair Use under copyright law.
- The provision of these search capabilities “promotes the Progress of Science and useful Arts” and thus supports the goals of U.S. copyright policy and law.
- The provision of in-copyright texts for visually impaired students and researchers is in direct support of the Americans With Disabilities Act.
The judge decided this for HathiTrust, but this is the same question that is being asked in the Authors Guild lawsuit against Google. There are some obvious differences between the two situations, however. First, unlike HathiTrust Google is a for-profit company, so it loses points on the first factor of the fair use test:
(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;Because Google is digitizing works primarily from university libraries, both HathiTrust and Google do well on the second factor:
(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;Works of a creative nature (defined as "prose fiction, poetry, and drama") are given greater protection than works of fact. HathiTrust reports that only 9% of its digital collection meets the "creative" definition.
The third factor:
(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole
would seem to go against HathiTrust (and Google), but the judge looked at the two primary uses for the digital texts, keyword indexing and providing digital copies to members of the community with sight disabilities, and determined that they could not be done with anything less than a complete copy. If the argument of transformation is made in the case against Google, this factor should be the same.
Factor four is about the effect on the market:
(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work
This is a bit tricky because presumably HathiTrust will point its users to the library-owned hard copies of the book, especially since many of the digitized books will be out of print and not available from publishers. Therefore there isn't much interaction with the market at all. The judge added that, if anything, the greater amount of discovery might lead to sales, but I wouldn't hold out much hope for that. The other use is to provide access to the blind; this is a non-market for print materials if there ever was one. Google, on the other hand, has partnered with publishers to sell digitized books as ebooks, and therefore the positive market force should be stronger in that case if Google can show that previously out-of-print books can be sold through its service.
Not mentioned anywhere that I can find is the question of digital "photographs" of pages vs. OCR'd text. The suit and the decision blend these together as "a digital copy." Having seen some of the results of Google's digitization I can say that the text resulting from the OCR can be quite lossy depending on the page layout (tables of contents in particular come out quite badly) and the quality of the original book. It is also the "transformation" part of the copying, since the photographs of the pages are simply copies of the page and are by their nature human-readable substitutes for the page itself. The judge seems to consider these "transitory" but in fact they are quite solidly real, and are stored in the HathiTrust repository. I suspect it is these pictures of the pages that the Authors Guild fears will be pirated should HathiTrust be hacked, less so the OCR'd pages which are unattractive plain text. However, HathiTrust was able to show the judge that it takes security quite seriously, and the Authors Guild was unable to demonstrate any quantifiable risk.
What is heartening in this decision is the judge's enthusiasm for the role of libraries in further science and knowledge, and his great admiration of HathiTrust's service to scholars and to the blind. His decision is both factual and moral: he refers to the "invaluable contribution to the progress of science and the cultivation of the arts that at the same time effectuates the ideas espoused by the ADA." We could not have hoped for a better advocate for digital libraries than Judge Harold Baer Jr. | <urn:uuid:97f6ed27-fe55-40b0-b46f-31a07be89f74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kcoyle.blogspot.de/2012/10/copyright-victories-part-ii.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959661 | 903 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Editor's note: The ABA blog welcomes New Jersey birder Blake Mathys as one of a group of regular contributors on the subject of Bird ID and field skills. Blake is presently a professor at Stockton College in New Jersey, and is also a part-time lecturer, teaching Ornithology, at Rutgers University.
We've all had the experience of being out in the field birding, accompanied by a person with superior birding skills. A bird flies over, and you get a quick and poor look at the silhouette before it disappears into the distance. You mentally guess it was a woodpecker, but the view was so short that you can't even be sure you're in the correct family. Your birding companion quickly identifies it as a Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, and you stand in awe. You know what a Yellow-bellied Sapsucker looks like, having seen them various times over the years, but you just didn't see enough on this bird to come to a conclusion as to its identity. How did this person, standing beside you and obtaining the same mediocre looks, come to a definitive identification? Why is it some people are able to identify the vast majority of the birds that they see out in the field, even when conditions aren't conducive to good views and the birds are far away?
I know when I first started birding, there was only one explanation for other birders' amazing abilities: magic. How else could I explain these seemingly superhuman feats? As I've become more experienced and better able to identify birds, I've realized that magic isn't the answer (although there are still times that I wonder). Here in my first post, I would like to briefly explain how we identify most of the birds we see in the field, and I hope that my explanation will help to make the identification process a little clearer, a little easier to understand. If we know how we identify birds, we will become better at it. First, let me start with an analogy that I hope will demystify the identification process.
A friend invites you to a party. All of the guests, except for you, work for a company of a few hundred people. Upon arriving at the party, your friend begins to introduce you to people that she knows. You are taken around the room, and your friend says, "This is Mike, he works in accounting," and "Here's Shelly, she is in charge of inventory on the third floor," and so on. By the end of the night, you've been introduced to dozens of people. Are you in awe and confused by your friend's amazing abilities to identify and name people? Of course not, it can easily be explained by the simple everyday fact that your friend spends a lot of time with her co-workers, and therefore now recognizes them. This is the key to bird identification: familiarity facilitates recognition.
We recognize things and people all day, every day (perhaps not while asleep, although I suppose we recognize mentally conjured objects, and sometimes birds, in our dreams). When we see a stapler, we know it is a stapler because we have seen staplers before and know what they look like. The biggest key to identifying birds in the field is to gain that experience, to become familiar with species so that we recognize them when we see them again. We identify most birds (and most things) not by going through the field marks, but by the subconscious mental matching of what we see to what we know.
Our ability to recognize species is going to be directly correlated with how often we see them. In much of Eastern North America, the Red-tailed Hawk is the default hawk of the roadsides and field edges. We see it so often that we are intimately familiar with it, its appearance indelibly etched into our minds. These repeated experiences allow us to build up a total species appearance…not just the field guide views, but impressions of how it handles wind gusts and what posture it usually assumes while perched. Our repeated experience eventually allows us to identify a Red-tailed Hawk even when we have less than the best views. This is how the birding friend from the first paragraph identified the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker: more experience allowed an easier recognition of the characters that clinched the identification. It wasn't magic; better field identification skills are attainable by anyone willing to put in the time.
I found that I became much better at identification when I started birding alone. I was forced to really look at the birds myself, to actually focus on what I was seeing instead of just enjoying a new species that someone else had identified for me. This brings up another important point: anything that forces you to pay more attention to the birds you are seeing will help to imprint their characteristics into your mind. This can be different things for different people, but photography, making sketches, and taking field notes are three things that seem obvious to me. These things force us to spend more time looking at an individual, instead of identifying it and moving on to the next one. More time creates a more complete subconscious mental impression, allowing us to recognize that species when we see it again. The best birders aren't born knowing how to identify all of the birds; they spend a lot of time and effort gaining that knowledge.
You may be thinking that this works well for Red-tailed Hawk, American Robin, and European Starling, but what about Yellow Rail or Kirtland's Warbler? How can we learn to recognize species that we only see rarely (or haven't ever seen before)? The answer is that we can begin to become familiar with appearances even without field experience. Looking at photographs on the internet or studying field guides is a great way to start the process of creating a mental template. When you actually encounter a species for the first time, careful study of it will make it easier for you to recognize it again. It may be necessary to rely on field marks for the first few encounters, but then you'll get to the important stage where you recognize it. It won't be just "the stripe over the eye" but instead a general familiarity with its appearance allowing recognition, a mental shortcut allowing you identify the species even when that "stripe over the eye" (or other essential field mark) isn't visible. I hope that this idea is as encouraging to you as it is to me; identifying birds in the field, no matter your level of expertise, is mainly about experience and familiarity, not about memorizing every field mark in those field guides on your shelf. You are already able to successfully recognize your friends and family; just remember: being certain of that difficult and distant field identification uses the same mental machinery. | <urn:uuid:d987570c-23bc-413f-9939-efcf565fe848> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.aba.org/2011/04/how-do-we-identify-birds.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973708 | 1,374 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Capital PunishmentCapital punishment, or the death penalty, was the legal punishment for murder during this entire period. Yet a small proportion of those convicted of murder were sentenced to death, and a smaller proportion of those were actually executed. During this entire time capital punishment was a politically charged issue, with periodic calls for its abolition. Juries imposed the death sentence under the law, but judges controlled the conduct of trial and had the authority to modify or overrule the jury's sentence.
During the entire period of this data set, 1870-1930, capital punishment was the law. If a person was convicted of the most serious form of murder - the Illinois statutes did not define murder by degrees - the punishment stipulated was death; although most convictions for murder did not result in a sentence of death, and most convicted murderers were not executed. In this set of more than 11,000 homicides there were over 100 cases in which the death penalty was recorded as being imposed, 18 cases in which research has indicated the death sentence was imposed and not carried out, and 76 cases in which research has indicated that the defendant was executed. During the period 1870-1930 there were several national and local movements to abolish capital punishment, and during some of this period the death penalty was imposed more often than at other times (Table 2 and JCLC p.852-866).
Under present day legal standards the guilt and punishment for a capital defendant are decided in two separate phases of a capital trial: the guilt phase and the penalty phase - different legal standards apply in the two phases. In the period of this database, a judge or a jury decided in a single proceeding both whether the defendant was guilty and whether to impose the death sentence. The jury could also recommend leniency or mercy, and that the sentence of a defendant convicted of murder be life, not death. The judge was not obligated to follow the jury’s recommendation for leniency or their recommendation to impose the death penalty. If the decision to sentence death was made by a jury, the judge nonetheless had the authority to reduce the sentence of death to a life sentence. And if the jury did not impose the death sentence, the judge could nonetheless impose the sentence of death. For example, at the sentencing of the Haymarket defendants, Judge Gary had the authority to commute the death sentences imposed upon the anarchists to life terms.
During the period 1870-1930 the method of execution changed. The method of execution in Illinois was hanging from 1839 to 1926 (1839 Ill. Laws. Div. 15, sec. 156). Electrocution was introduced as the method of execution for defendants sentenced to death in 1927 (1927 Ill. Laws. Div. 14). And from 1983 until the present the method of execution has been lethal injection.
The death penalty is in effect in Illinois at the present time, although there is a moratorium on executions in the state which was introduced by Governor George Ryan in 2000 and continued by Governor Rod Blagojevich in 2004. The moratorium on executions in Illinois was the first such moratorium to be instituted by a state in the United States. Other states have since imposed moratoriums on the imposition of capital punishment. The moratorium in Illinois was followed by the publication of a comprehensive Commission Report on the history and status of capital punishment in Illinois. In January of 2003, Governor George Ryan granted clemency to all inmates then under a sentenced of death in Illinois, more than 160 persons, an unprecedented act of clemency in the history of criminal law in the United States.
The pattern of changes in methods of executions in Illinois is typical of many states. See, Deborah W. Denno, “When Legislatures Delegate Death: The Troubling Paradox behind State Uses of Electrocution and Lethal Injection and What It Says about Us,” 63 Ohio State Law Journal 63 (2002).
Several articles in Volume 92, Numbers 3 & 4 of The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology address issues related to capital punishment:
Leigh Bienen and Brandon Rottinghaus, "Learning from the Past, Living in the Present: Understanding Homicide in Chicago, 1870-1930," describe the scope of the Chicago Historical Homicide Project and the metholdogy of data collection and analysis.
Derral Cheatwood, “Capital Punishment for the Crime of Homicide in Chicago: 1870-1930,” analyzes the capital cases in the database and compares the imposition of the death sentence in the period 1870-1930 with patterns in capital case disposition in the present period.
Thomas Geraghty, “ Cook County Criminal Law Practice in 1929: A Community’s Response to Crime and a Notorious Trial,” examines Cook County criminal law practice in a 1929 capital case. This article examines the transcripts and documents associated with a 1929 capital murder case, People v. Fisher, 172 N.E. 743 (Ill. 1930). The circumstances involved a capital trial of six black defendants for the murder of a black security guard which occurred during a robbery of a bank on the south side of Chicago, a case which received front page attention from Chicago newspapers in 1929 and 1930 (JCLC p.555-558). Three of the defendants in this case were sentenced to death and executed. Three other defendants were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment. The analysis of this 1929 case offers many points of comparison between practices and procedures in a 1929 case and present practices in criminal trials in Cook County generally, and the imposition of the death penalty in particular.
Richard R.W. Brooks and Stephen Raphael, “Life Terms or Death Sentences: The Uneasy Relationship between Judicial Elections and Capital Punishment,” analyze the relationship between judicial sentencing patterns and the election of judges. Using regression models and other established statistical methods in the social sciences, this study focuses on more than a thousand sentencing outcomes in the data set decided by more than one hundred judges. The authors found judge-specific effects related to whether the defendant was sentenced to death and the proximity of a judicial election. This conclusion is perhaps not surprising given the highly politicized methods of appointing and selecting judges during the period. For a contemporaneous description of some of these corrupt practices, Crime and the Civic Cancer – Graft written by former Judge M.L. McKinley, is an exposé describing graft and corruption in the courts in 1923.
Edward M. Burke’s “Lunatics and Anarchists: Political Homicide in Chicago,” describes the assassination of Mayor Carter Harrison in 1893 by a defendant, Eugene Patrick Prendergast, whose sanity at the time and sunsequent of the crime was questioned. Under the direction of Clarence Darrow at a special post conviction hearing before a jury on the question of his competency to be executed, medical experts examined the defendant and reported on his mental condition and fitness to be executed. The issue of competency to be executed is important is present day capital punishment jurisprudence. In spite of divided medical opinion and the efforts of Clarence Darrow, the jury found the defendant competent to be be executed. An appeal for clemency to Governor John Peter Altgeld was not successful, and the defendant was eventually executed in 1894 after two continuances.
BACK TO TOP | <urn:uuid:e77dec56-48bc-4e79-8f93-924e3e292ded> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homicide.northwestern.edu/legal/capital/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964149 | 1,487 | 4.09375 | 4 |
Banbridge developed around
a bridge constructed over the river Bann in 1712. The town developed
after 1767 when a patent was granted to hold fairs and markets.
Here's a description of Banbridge, written by a visitor there
in 1796 .
"This country in entirely occupied in the manufacture of
linen, but the late troubles have made trade to languish. The
mills, however, are still going, and it is hoped that a year of
peace will restore order and prosperity. Military life was rigorously
enforced here on the inhabitants; they were not permitted to have
lights in their houses after nine o'clock, and any person found
in the streets after that hour was in danger of being arrested.
A fair was held during the time I stayed in this little town,
and it passed over quite peacefully; the soldiers promenaded through
the market-place and obliged women who wore anything green, ribbon
or otherwise, to take it off.....
A vigorous government in Ireland has been able to repress, and
hold in the path of duty, a people discontented and seduced by
the success of the French innovations."
(Joe Canning, "The Stranger in Iveagh," Banbridge District
Historical Society Journal, Vol. 2, Banbridge, N. Ireland, 1990,
A brown linen market was erected
in 1817. It was an important staging post on the main Belfast-
Dublin road. The road very very steep as can be seen on either
side of The Cut. The road was levelled in 1832/4 and the bridge
constructed at a total cost of £ 19,000. The clock tower
on the right belongs to the market house which was constructed
on its present site in 1834 at a cost of £2,000. The original
market house was in the centre of the road, where the bridge now
stands. The bridge was rebuilt in 1885, widening it from 23 feet
to 46 feet.
In 1828, the Flax Market was
held monthly on a Monday. In 1836 the horse fairs were held on
12th January & 26th August each year. It was described as
the best in the north of Ireland. Cattle fairs were held on the
1st Monday of each month and a market on Tuesday. The tolls &
customs levied belonged to the Marquis of Downshire. Petty Sessions
were held every fortnight. The Court House is in Scarva Street
and was built by the Marquis of Downshire in 1830. It is a whinstone
building corniced with granite. Its dimensions are 60 by 50 feet
with 2 storeys. On the first storey was the meal and corn market,
a black hole and porter's apartment. On the upper storey was the
court room, at the rear of which was the news room and a retiring
room. The top of the building is surmounted by a cupola, in which
there is a clock with 4 faces. A Board of Commissioners was established
in 1828 for the purpose of lighting, paving , watching and cleansing
the town. There were 4 main streets- Newry, Bridge, Scarva and
Rathfriland. In 1841 the popukation of Seapatrick parish was 9528
with the population of Banbridge being 3324 people.
The Post Office Directory
of 1886 says that there was a mineral water factory, a hemstitching
factory & a rope making factory. The population in 1910 was
here for a photo of Banbridge Railway Station
here to see information on schools
in the area.
Newspaper articles from
Volunteers Militia meeting 23 Jan 1793; Banbridge Fair notice
6 Mar 1794; | <urn:uuid:33b3541e-b3cc-425b-b3b6-f4ebdcfa4313> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rosdavies/PHOTOSwords/SeapatrickAll.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974516 | 798 | 2.546875 | 3 |
I love pictures of volcanoes from space, because they are beautiful and exotic, and give us a sense of the danger and awesome nature of our erupting Earth.
I browse through quite a few, and after a while it becomes easy to get distanced from the actual ground-truth nature of these monsters. That’s natural, I suppose; after seeing a dozen or more, it’s easy to forget that what you are looking at is the fury of our dynamic planet at its most base.
I’ve posted about the lovely island volcano Paluweh before; it’s an eight kilometer (five mile) wide mountain in Indonesia. Its peak, Mount Rokatenda, stretches about 875 meters (a little over half a mile) above the ocean surface. The island is a lumpy circle, pleasing to the eye, covered in vegetation and in photos generally dotted with clouds.
It’s also active. It’s had episodic eruptions historically, and in 2012 started a series of small events that have ejected plumes high into the air, and unleashed pyroclastic flows onto the ground—a swift wave of hot rock and gas that scorch the ground beneath it. Imagine the devastation of a tsunami of water, and now replace that liquid with vaporized rock, and you’ll imagine how terrifying such a thing is.
I knew all that as I found new images of Paluweh taken by Landsat 8, a new Earth-observing satellite launched in February of 2013. Still, the pictures were so pretty I started prepping them to put on the blog. First, let me show them to you:
[Photo by NASA/Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using Landsat 8 data from the USGS Earth Explorer. Go to the NASA Earth Observatory page for hi-res versions and descriptions of both.]
The pictures are interactive; slide the bar to the right and you see Paluweh from Landsat 8 as it was on Aug. 3, 2013. Slide it to the left and you see the volcano on Sep. 4, 2013, after an eruption left ash blanketing the northwest half of the peak. If you slide back and forth you can see what appear to be more subtle changes, including thicker vegetation in the later image, but more ash deposits scattered here and there.
But what may be subtle in these images is far more obvious from the ground: The eruption which began on Aug. 10, 2013 sent a pyroclastic flow down the slope, funneled by the steep canyon walls, where it rolled over a village and killed five people, perhaps six.
Thousands of people live on the island, and after the recent activity started several thousand were evacuated; those in the red zone near the peak have all left. However, many people are used to the volcano rumbling, and have refused to evacuate. As many as 6000 people may still be on the island.
When I read that, my stomach fell. It was a slap in the face, a stark reminder that the intense beauty of our planet sometimes comes at a price, and a high one at that—something we here in Boulder know all too well.
I will still marvel at these magnificent geologic formations, and still be eager to find more observations of them from orbit. But that admiration will always be tempered by the knowledge that these are far more than just pretty pictures. What you see in them is real, and has a real, and profound, impact on those who live there. | <urn:uuid:9b41ca65-dec3-4571-b699-e4dd05d9647f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2013/09/29/paluweh_island_volcano_deadly_eruption_seen_from_space.html?wpisrc=burger_bar | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95467 | 729 | 3.078125 | 3 |
- The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general-purpose visual modeling language that is used to specify, visualize, construct, and document the artifacts of a software system. It captures decisions and understanding about systems that must be constructed. It is used to understand, design, browse, configure, maintain, and control information about such systems. It is intended for use with all development methods, lifecycle stages, application domains, and media. The modeling language is intended to unify past experience about modeling techniques and to incorporate current software best practices into a standard approach. UML includes semantic concepts, notation, and guidelines. It has static, dynamic, environmental, and organizational parts. It is intended to be supported by interactive visual modeling tools that have code generators and report writers. The UML specification does not define a standard process but is intended to be useful with an iterative development process. It is intended to support most existing object-oriented development processes.
Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case Driven Approach (1992)
Ivar Jacobson, Magnus Christerson, Patrik Jonsson & Gunnar Overgaard 1992. Object-Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case Driven Approach (ACM Press). Addison-Wesley, 1992, ISBN 0-201-54435-0.
- People regard their environment in terms of objects. Therefore it is simple to think in the same way when it comes to designing a model.
- p. 42; cited in: Sten Carlsson and Benneth Christiansson. (1999) "The Concept of Object and its Relation to Human Thinking: Some Misunderstandings Concerning the Connection between Object-Orientation and Human Thinking." Informatica, Lith. Acad. Sci. 10.2. p. 147-160.
- When a user uses the system, she or he will perform a behaviorally related sequence of transactions in a dialogue with the system. We call such a special sequence a use case.
- p. 127; as cited in: Journal of Object-oriented Programming Vol 10, Nr 2-9. p. 32.
- The control objects model functionality that is not naturally tied to any other object... We do not believe that the best (most stable) systems are built by only using objects that correspond to real-life entities, something that many other object-oriented analysis and design techniques claim... Behavior that we place in control objects will, in other methods, be distributed over several other objects, making it hard to change this behavior.
- p. 133 as cited in: "Object Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case Driven Approach Ivar Jacobson, et al. (1992)", Book review by Ted Felix on tedfelix.com, 2006.
- A use case is a complete course of events in the system, seen from a user’s perspective.
- p. 157.
- The analysis model will not be a reflection of what the problem domain looks like... The reason is simply to get a more maintainable structure where changes will be local and thus manageable. We thus do not model reality as it is, as object orientation is often said to do, but we model the reality as we want to see it and to highlight what is important in our application.
- p. 185: cited in: "Object Oriented Software Engineering: A Use Case Driven Approach Ivar Jacobson, et al. (1992)", Book review by Ted Felix on tedfelix.com, 2006.
Quotes about Jacobson
- The key books about object-oriented graphical modeling languages appeared between 1988 and 1992. Leading figures included Grady Booch [Booch,OOAD]; Peter Coad [Coad, OOA], [Coad, OOD]; Ivar Jacobson (Objectory) [Jacobson, OOSE]; Jim Odell [Odell]; Jim Rumbaugh (OMT) [Rumbaugh, insights], [Rumbaugh, OMT]; Sally Shlaer and Steve Mellor [Shlaer and Mellor, data], [Shlaer and Mellor, states] ; and Rebecca Wirfs-Brock (Responsibility Driven Design) [Wirfs-Brock].
- Martin Fowler (2004) A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling Language. p. 7. | <urn:uuid:159d3f0d-e57b-4cfb-baef-1ddabc3ae783> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ivar_Jacobson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.844883 | 921 | 3.296875 | 3 |
March 1862 & 2012
Events Then & Now
Then: Confederate Gen. Stonewall Jackson used lightening marches and intimate knowledge of Virginia's Shenandoah Valley to frustrate and ultimately defeat several Union armies sent against him. Most historians begin the Valley Campaign with the March 23 battle Kernstown, south of Winchester, which actually was a Confederate defeat. The campaign ended June 8–9 with Jackson's twin victories at Cross Keys and Port Republic.
2012: The Valley Campaign is the theme of a March 3 conference in Winchester VA. Battle anniversary programs are scheduled along the way. See www.shenandoahatwar.org and the listings below and in this section for anniversary commemorations.
March 2, 1862 – Confederates evacuate batteries at Columbus (KY)
Then: It was a short-lived Confederate occupation of the high ground above the Mississippi. Southern forces had occupied the site here a few months before.
2012: A state park commemorates and interprets the site. A Civil War weekend is held annually in October. parks.ky.gov/parks/recreationparks/columbus-belmont.
March 6–8, 1862 – Battle of Pea Ridge (AR)
Then: The Union cemented its control of Missouri with a victory here in Northwest Arkansas. The battle featured a variety of soldiers, including Indians.
2012: The NPS park plans a variety of tours, ranger programs and living history March 9–11 commemorating the battle.
NPS website: www.nps.gov/peri.
March 9, 1862 – Battle of the Ironclads (Hampton Roads, VA)
Then: Strange looking ironclad ships slugged it out in Hampton Roads, making the contest between the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia (Merrimack) the first battle between such vessels. While the battle itself is regarded as a draw, the Monitor saved much of the Union fleet and was left with control of waterways.
2012: The remains of the USS Monitor, which sank off North Carolina during the war, are undergoing restoration at the Monitor Center in the Mariners' Museum in Newport News. The Mariners' Museum hosts a conference and living history program March 9–11.
March 14, 1862 – Battle of New Bern (NC)
Then: Union forces began their push into mainland North Carolina with a successful army-navy assault against the lightly defended town. New Bern remained under Union control the rest of the war and was the base for expeditions deeper into the state.
2012: The New Bern Battlefield Park preserves some of the Confederate defenses east of the city and Civil War Trails signs interpret the action in town. Plans include a symposium March 9–10 plus living history and tours of the New Bern Battlefield Park March 11 and 14.
March 14, 1862 – Union occupies New Madrid (MO)
Then: Union troops under Gen. John Pope occupied New Madrid and an "immense amount of war material" following a short campaign. Confederates had withdrawn to Island No. 10 in the Mississippi River.
2012: The event is commemorated with a living history weekend at the Hunter Dawson State Historic Site in New Madrid March 10-11.
March 23, 1862 – First Battle of Kernstown (VA)
Then: This is considered the opening act of Stonewall Jackson's Shenandoah Valley Campaign. Jackson's ill-advised assault here resulted in Confederate defeat, the only one of the Campaign.
2012: Two parts of the battlefield are preserved in the Winchester area: Rose Hill and the Pritchard-Grim Farm. Walking tours at both sites are planned on the anniversary date. Ranger-guided "On This Day" walking tours scheduled at the Pritchard-Grim Farm site at 1 pm and another at Rose Hill at 4 pm on March 23. Living history programs, a bus tour and a cemetery walk are set March 24.
March 26–28, 1862 – Battle at Glorieta Pass (modern New Mexico)
Then: Called a Southern victory on the battlefield, the fighting here eventually doomed Confederate Gen. Henry Sibley's western expedition. The Confederates lost most of their supplies, forcing a withdrawal. eventually, from the Southwest.
2012: The battlefield is interpreted in part of the Pecos National Historical Park, which hosts a living history weekend close to the anniversary dates. | <urn:uuid:f033a321-766b-4e9f-904e-c422496431a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.civilwar-va.com/150/2012/March.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929506 | 896 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Japan raises nuclear alert to highest level
Tokyo, April 12, 2011
Japan raised the severity of its nuclear disaster to the highest level on Tuesday, putting it on a par with the world's worst disaster nuclear accident at Chernobyl after another major aftershock rattled the quake-ravaged east.
Engineers were no closer to restoring the cooling systems at the plant's reactors, critical to bringing down the temperature of overheated nuclear fuel rods, showing that the battle to contain the damage was far from over, although a fire at the plant appeared to have been extinguished.
The rating of the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant was raised to 7, the worst on an internationally recognised scale, from a 5-rating. Japan said this reflects the initial severity of the crisis and not the current situation.
'This is a preliminary assessment, and is subject to finalisation by the International Atomic Energy Agency,' said an official at the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA), the government's nuclear watchdog, which made the announcement with the Nuclear Safety Commission.
Nuclear industry specialist Murray Jennex, an associate professor at San Diego State University in California, dismissed the comparison.
'It's nowhere near that level. Chernobyl was terrible - it blew and they had no containment, and they were stuck. Their (Japan's) containment has been holding, the only thing that hasn't is the fuel pool that caught fire,' he said.
A level 7 incident entails a major release of radiation with widespread health and environmental effects, while a 5-rated event, which is what Fukushima is currently classified as, is a limited release of radioactive material, with several deaths from radiation, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency.
The scale is designed so the severity of an event is about 10 times greater for each increase in level. The 1979 US nuclear accident at Three Mile Island was a 5-rated incident.
News of the fire at the plant came only minutes after a 6.3 aftershock struck off the coast of Chiba, 77 km (48 miles) northwest of Tokyo. Kyodo said Japan's main international airport Narita closed runways for checks but later resumed flights.
An aftershock measuring 6.6 quake hit Fukushima prefecture on Monday evening, temporarily cutting power and forcing workers to evacuate the nuclear plant.
Japan's nuclear agency NISA said Monday's aftershock, which killed one and knocked out power to 220,000 households, did not damage the plant.
There have been hundreds of aftershocks since March 11, when a massive 9 magnitude earthquake and 15 metre tsunami hit northeast Japan, plunging the country into its worst crisis since World War Two.
Nearly 28,000 Japanese are dead or missing and the world's third-largest economy is reeling with power blackouts, factory closures and cuts to supply lines. The disaster is estimated to cost heavily indebted Japan some $300 billion, making it the world's most costly.
The country's nuclear commission also released a preliminary calculation for the cumulative amount of external exposure to radiation, saying it had exceeded the yearly limit of 1 millisieverts in areas extending more than 60 kms (36 miles) to the northwest of the plant and about 40 km to the south-southwest, Kyodo reported.
TEPCO said on Monday it had stopped the discharge of low-level radioactive water into the sea that have drawn complaints from neighbouring China and South Korea.
It has already pumped 10,400 tonnes of low-level radioactive water into the ocean to free up storage capacity for highly contaminated water from the reactors.
In a desperate move to cool the highly radioactive fuel rods, Tepco has pumped water onto reactors, some of which have experienced a partial meltdown.
But the strategy has hindered moves to restore the plant's internal cooling system as engineers have had to focus on how to store 60,000 tonnes of contaminated water.
Engineers are also pumping nitrogen into reactors to counter a build-up of hydrogen and prevent another explosion sending more radiation into the air, but they say the risk of such a dramatic event has lowered significantly since March 11.
Because of accumulated radiation contamination, the government is encouraging people to leave certain areas beyond its 20 km (12 mile) exclusion zone around the plant. Thousands of people could be affected by the move. – Reuters | <urn:uuid:dfcc7ec7-1b17-4ae2-8b10-49607985a077> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tradearabia.com/news/INTNEWS_196741.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95777 | 877 | 2.640625 | 3 |
From BR Bullpen
Elmer Griffin Stricklett
- Bats Right, Throws Right
- Height 5' 6", Weight 140 lb.
- School Santa Clara University
- Debut April 22, 1904
- Final Game September 24, 1907
- Born August 29, 1876 in Glasco, KS USA
- Died June 7, 1964 in Santa Cruz, CA USA
Biographical Information
Elmer Stricklett is sometimes incorrectly credited as the inventor of the spitball. While he didn't invent the pitch himself - Bill James and Rob Neyer present credible evidence that he learned the pitch from minor league teammate George Hildebrand, who learned it from his teammate Frank Corridon - he played an important role in popularizing it. Both Jack Chesbro and Ed Walsh, early exponents of the spitter, supposedly learned about the pitch by watching Stricklett.
In the minors, he won 20 games in a season at least five times. | <urn:uuid:b71c4525-4d01-4aaf-87ef-58553e9b6204> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.baseball-reference.com/bullpen/Elmer_Stricklett | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946415 | 199 | 2.65625 | 3 |
"Lester Brown has produced another 'planetary survey' book that tells us how to get off the wrecking train we are on by courtesy of a dozen environmental assaults such as climate change. The better news (and there’s plenty) is that turning problems into opportunities generally puts money into our pockets." —Norman Myers, 21st Century School, University of Oxford on World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse
From the Arctic sea ice to the Antarctic interior and the mountainous peaks of Peru, Alaska, and Tibet, ice is melting at an alarming rate. The accelerating loss of ice sheets, sea ice, and glaciers is one of the most powerful and striking indicators of a warming climate.
The most notable ice loss in recent years has been the shrinking of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean. From the beginning of the satellite record in 1979 through 1996, ice area decreased at a steady rate of 3 percent per decade in response to rising temperature. In the following decade, ice area decreased by 11 percent, reaching a dramatic minimum in 2007. In September of that year, sea ice occupied only 3.6 million square kilometers, an area 27 percent smaller than the previous record low (in 2005) and 38 percent smaller than the 1979–2007 average. Summer sea ice coverage has increased slightly in the last two years, but it is still far below the long-term average. (See figure.)
Declines in ice thickness and volume are just as dramatic. The combination of these trends has led to a decrease in the amount of ice that persists in the Arctic through multiple seasons. Multiyear ice is more stable and less susceptible to break-up than the thin, short-lived seasonal ice that forms each winter. Between 1987 and 2007, the amount of ice at least five years old has plummeted from 57 to just 7 percent. (See figure.) Drastic changes in sea ice cover have led scientists from the University of Washington and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to predict that the summer of 2037 could see the first ice-free Arctic in a million years. Other scientists have predicted a largely ice-free summertime Arctic as early as 2015.
Declining sea ice is a self-reinforcing trend because of what is known as the albedo effect. Ice reflects up to 70 percent of the sunlight that reaches it, while ocean water reflects only 6 percent and absorbs the rest as heat. This means that as soon as a small amount of sea ice disappears and exposes the underlying ocean water, the system starts absorbing more energy, which leads to further ice melt. Dangers associated with this runaway warming scenario include rapid destruction of diverse ecosystems that support polar bears, seals, and walruses, among other organisms; a thawing of the Arctic tundra, which can release copious amounts of the greenhouse gas methane; and increased warming of nearby Greenland.
Satellite data indicate that the Greenland ice sheet has been experiencing accelerated melt, particularly over the past several decades. In fact, Greenland’s average annual melt between 2002 and 2005 was triple that of the 1997-2003 period, and the summer melt area on the ice sheet has increased 30 percent since 1979. In recent years, changes in ice dynamics associated with higher temperatures have caused glaciers to flow faster, leading to additional ice loss. Melt water lubricates the base of glaciers that carry ice from the interior to the sea, causing their movement to accelerate (for example, the speed of Greenland’s largest outlet glacier doubled in just five years). Surface lakes propagate fractures through the ice sheet as they drain, further lubricating the base and weakening the ice sheet with a network of cracks. And glaciers have been calving into the ocean with enough force to be detected on seismometers all over the world. The frequency of these “glacial earthquakes” has increased in recent years; in 2005, for example, there were over twice as many quakes as in any year before 2002. All told, Greenland lost 1,500 gigatons of ice between 2000 and 2008, more water than is used in U.S. homes and industry over a six-year period.
In the Southern Hemisphere, Antarctica, too, is showing signs of a warming climate. Annual ice mass loss for the entire continent more than doubled between the periods 2002–06 and 2006–09. In March 2009, a 400-square-kilometer piece of ice broke off of the Wilkins ice shelf, the tenth ice shelf collapse on the Antarctic Peninsula in recent times. The most notable break-up was that of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002, which covered some 3,000 square kilometers, roughly the size of Rhode Island. The West Antarctic ice sheet (WAIS) lost 59 percent more ice in 2006 than it did in 1996. A fast-flowing drainage glacier of WAIS, the Pine Island glacier, experienced a quadrupling in its average rate of volume loss between 1995 and 2006. Previously well-established as stable or even gaining mass, the East Antarctic ice sheet may in fact be shrinking. A late 2009 Nature Geoscience study points toward a net melting of the ice sheet since 2006. This new discovery adds to the ever-growing fears of ice sheet collapse and sea level rise. With increased melting, scientists say sea level could rise as much as 2 meters by the end of this century.
Mountain glaciers are much smaller in comparison to the polar ice sheets and, thus, do not pose nearly as great a threat to world sea levels. But due to their proximity and importance to human settlements, their melting is of grave and immediate concern. Melting mountain glaciers can create hazards like rockfalls, avalanches, and outburst floods from glacial lakes; they also have significant impacts on freshwater supplies. Worldwide, the average annual rate of mountain glacier melt was over twice as great between 1996 and 2005 as during the previous decade. The World Glacier Monitoring Service named 2007, the most recent year for which data are available, the eighteenth consecutive year of retreat for the 30 reference glaciers measured since 1976. (See figure.)
The glaciers in the Himalayas and on the Tibetan plateau make up the largest body of ice outside the poles and provide water to Asia’s major river systems, which supply water to over 2 billion people. This water is vital for drinking and for irrigating the wheat and rice crops in China and India, the largest in the world. In recent years, Himalayan glaciers have been retreating at rates ranging from 10 to 60 meters per year. As the glaciers disappear, the dry-season flows of river systems that depend on them may decrease by up to 70 percent, making them seasonal rivers. River systems at risk include the Yangtze, Yellow, Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
The Andes, home to 90 percent of the world’s tropical glaciers, are also experiencing rapid melt and a shrinking water supply: between the early 1970s and 2006, Peruvian and Bolivian glaciers lost about one third of their surface area. In Peru, glacier and snow melt provides 80 percent of the fresh water, used not only for drinking but also for hydroelectricity, which supplies more than 80 percent of the country’s power. In neighboring Bolivia, the La Paz governor is already anticipating severe water shortages and considering a program for migration out of the capital city. The 18,000-year-old Chacaltaya glacier, home of the country’s only ski resort, disappeared in 2009.
The glaciers of Tanzania’s Mount Kilimanjaro, long cultural and spiritual icons, decreased in area by 84 percent between 1912 and 2007 and continue to melt rapidly. In Alaska, 98 percent of glaciers are currently thinning or retreating. And accelerated melting puts Montana’s Glacier National Park on track to lose its namesakes by 2020. (See additional examples.)
These current ice loss trends are alarming, but perhaps more disconcerting is the fact that ice melt is occurring even faster than scientific models have predicted, emphasizing the need to cut emissions before the world sees ice sheet collapse, catastrophic inundation of low-lying coastal areas, and widespread water and food shortages. After all, in the words of Stockholm University professor Johan Rockström, “We don’t know how to refreeze the Greenland ice sheet.”
Copyright © 2009 Earth Policy Institute | <urn:uuid:1733d028-0727-4ec4-97c7-b1f4624e2485> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.earthpolicy.org/index.php?/indicators/C50/ice_melting_2009 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949813 | 1,710 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Why keep a food and activity journal?
Awareness is an important part of making lasting changes for healthy living. Keeping a journal is a good way to become aware of what you eat (and how much), what you do, how you feel and any habits you may have.
- Commit to writing in your journal every day and reflect on what you may have learned that day.
- Write down times to help you figure out any habits (such as when you ate or how long you were active).
- Try to keep your journal with you at all times, so you can write things down before you forget.
- In case you don't have your journal with you, write a note and add it later.
Whether you are trying to lose weight or simply trying to improve your health, the choices you make each day make a difference.
Looking back... To move forward
Each day look at what you wrote down in your journal and find ways to make small, healthy changes in your daily life. You may be surprised by what you find out and how valuable your newfound knowledge can be.
Taking it all in
- Write down what you eat and drink each day, starting when you wake up and ending when you go to bed.
- Try to include how much you ate (portion sizes). If you're not sure, estimate. This will help you get an idea how much you eat each day.
- Jot down symptoms, thoughts and feelings for each entry to help you see why you make certain choices.
- To understand why you want to eat (hunger, mood, routine, etc.), ask yourself, "Am I truly hungry?" and take note of this in your journal.
Taking it in stride
- Write down your physical activity each day– include what kind of things you did and how much time you spent doing them (like running or walking for 30 minutes).
- Be sure to include everyday activities, such as doing household chores and walking the dog.
Taking care of your whole self
- Jot down anything that may reflect how you feel each day.
- Be sure to include hobbies and time spent with others.
Food for thought
- For each day, write down what comes to mind—any goals, insights or questions you may have.
- Include questions and concerns you want to discuss with your family doctor at your next visit.
Adapted with permission from Am I Hungry? What to Do When Diets Don't Work. Michelle May, M.D., with Lisa Galpher, Psy.D., and Janet Carr, M.S., R.D. Nourish Publishing. Copyright 2005 Michelle May, M.D.
Written by familydoctor.org editorial staff | <urn:uuid:c3752d3e-7f51-4f54-8386-4026cd917462> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://familydoctor.org/familydoctor/en/prevention-wellness/food-nutrition/healthy-food-choices/aim-to-change-food-and-activity-journal.printerview.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946487 | 559 | 2.828125 | 3 |
When monetary policy fails people lose their homes and their savings. And we don’t have to travel back very far in British history for a lesson in what can happen when the people who set interest rates get it wrong.
In 1986 the Thatcher Government looked like it had presided over a British economic miracle. The sick man of Europe had become its enterprising centre. Inflation had been brought under control and employment was increasing. But, with the hard work done, the Chancellor, Nigel Lawson, embarked upon a controversial monetary experiment. He manipulated the money supply to try and keep the pound at an exchange rate of three deutschmarks. The results were disastrous.
Between 1986 and 1988 interest rates were allowed to drift too low. There was an unsustainable credit fuelled boom — the Lawson Boom. When it burst, as inevitably it did, the result was the most severe recession since the end of the Second World War, crippling interest rates that destroyed the finances of many families and a sharp rise in both unemployment and welfare spending. Much of the good work of the Thatcher decade was undone and all because the authority responsible for controlling inflation had focused on the wrong goal.
Continue reading here . | <urn:uuid:5f54f3fa-4b8d-4f42-bb07-2faee0921cb2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.iea.org.uk/print/8314 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978308 | 237 | 2.921875 | 3 |
This week, the world’s countries are coming together at UN headquarters in New York to affirm the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that will guide global development efforts through 2030. While the SDGs have had plenty of active involvement and support from the World Bank Group and our multilateral counterparts, the countries themselves have set this agenda.
The agenda is both ambitious — more than doubling the eight Millennium Development Goals that will officially expire at the end of 2015 — and more comprehensive. For example, where the first MDG set out to “Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,” its successor SDGs take on these challenges in their entirety: “End poverty in all its forms everywhere” (Goal 1) and “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture” (Goal 2). And in a world whose “emerging markets” now include larger economies than many members of the European Union, countries have chosen to make these goals universal, equally applicable to the globe’s richer and poorer nations.
MDGs and Beyond 2015
Tomorrow morning, Pope Francis will kick off the UN General Assembly’s session on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and by the end of the day, the world’s leaders will have affirmed the 17 goals. This is a momentous occasion, worth celebrating, but the hard work begins Monday morning. That’s when the focus shifts from what to how.
The first 16 goals cover a range of critical development needs, expanding on the Millennium Development Goals that have guided development efforts since 2000. The final SDG is qualitatively different. Rather than expound on what we want to achieve, it addresses how we will achieve the goals. It focuses on the means of implementation.
Juancito is from a small town in rural Peru. He wakes up every day at 5 a.m. to walk two hours to get to school. One day, he fell and twisted his ankle, but because the nearest health clinic is three hours away, his teacher had to fill in as a health care provider.
Juancito’s story provided the inspiration for the third-place winning team of the first Ideas for Action Competition, sponsored by the World Bank Group and the Wharton Business School. The team noted that the local government — which receives royalties from a mining company — didn’t lack the funds needed for development, but community needs were being overlooked.
I work in one of the most rewarding fields imaginable – helping low- and middle-income countries develop so that poor people have a fair chance at reaching their full potential. My field of work is at a critical crossroads, and it is no exaggeration that the decisions we make this year will have an impact on everyone in the world and especially the poorest.
What a remarkable and busy six weeks!
There has been a tremendous re-energizing globally to explore and identify ways to finance the proposed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The international recognition that the SDGs need to go even further than the previous Millennium Development Goals has prompted discussion of how to get from billions to trillions of dollars to achieve sustainable and inclusive development.
In September 2000, world leaders committed to the Millennium Development Goals.
Until then, few dared to imagine goals such as eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, universalizing access to education or reducing maternal mortality would be possible. Now, with 500 days left before the end of 2015, the MDGs are less a leap of imagination and more of a challenge that many leaders feel is within reach.
The proposed WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) WASH Post 2015 goals for sanitation calls for universal access to basic improved sanitation – by the year 2030. Using largely small scale project approaches that have failed to deliver sustainable sanitation service delivery – especially for the poor -- most countries have not yet achieved the more modest MDG sanitation goals. However, many countries have already started working to achieve the goal of universal access by taking steps to make the transformational changes needed to stop doing “business as usual” in their sanitation programs.
Who are the bottom 40 percent of society? Where do they live? What do they do? What other characteristics do they have?
These are just some of the questions we are hoping to answer as part of the World Bank Group’s new mission critical – to end extreme and chronic poverty by 2030 and boost shared prosperity. The renewed effort against poverty is needed as more than one billion people in the developing world continue to live in abject poverty (i.e. on less than $1.25 a day).
The following post first appeared on the Huffington Post.
Half the world's adults, approximately 2.5 billion individuals, do not have an account with a formal financial institution. Lack of access to finance is disproportionately skewed towards the poor, women, youth, and rural residents. Defined as the proportion of individuals and firms that use financial services, financial inclusion is increasingly seen as critical for ending extreme poverty and supporting inclusive and sustainable development. It provides people with the tools to invest in themselves by saving for retirement, investing in education, capitalizing on business opportunities, and confronting shocks (Global Financial Development Report, 2014). According to the World Bank Group's newly launched Global Financial Development Report 2014 on Financial Inclusion, most of the unbanked cite barriers such as cost, lack of documentation, distance, lack of trust, or religious reasons. | <urn:uuid:48f032e7-2200-4707-802f-98ecebf516b3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://blogs.worldbank.org/category/tags/mdgs-and-beyond-2015 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949829 | 1,115 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The cost of a pint of beer in 1834 was a ha’penny. That’s right, a ha’penny. Half a penny.
In today’s money the cost is even more surprising: a pint cost the equivalent of just 16p.
Why is that? Well, there are all sorts of factors to be taken into account apart simply from inflation – the costs of labour for example were much lower than today, and the amount of punitive duty is obviously much higher in 2012. It’s 16p if you compare it with the retail price index. But to get a real sense of what this meant in 1834 you really need to look at the cost of a pint against average wages (in which case it becomes roughly £1.55).
An amazingly useful tool to help you with these conversions for any date from 1830 onwards is the online Measuring Wealth calculator. This explains the complexity of attempting historic rates of exchange (do you want average wage conversion, GDP, retail price index and so on), and includes some very useful essays for non-economic historians. And there’s even a funky little App available from the site called the Time Traveller’s Investment Calculator if you need such a tool with you for research trips. | <urn:uuid:949ab918-4610-4f22-bde3-22a5d73db3ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.carolineshenton.co.uk/the-timetravelling-beer-drinker/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953157 | 262 | 3.25 | 3 |
Leeches and Spiders and Toads, Oh, My! The Emergence of Modern Medicine
Abigail Adams: Science, Medicine, Inventions and tech
Skill: High School/College
Time Required: One to three class periods
When Abigail and John Adams were raising their four children, many children were expected to die before age 5 or 6, usually of infectious disease. Soldiers, too, during the Revolution, had a good chance of dying of wounds incurred in battle. Indeed, medicine as a science in the 18th and 19th century was in its infancy, and most medical practice depended on folk wisdom and herbal remedies. As time passed into the 19th and 20th centuries, basic discoveries about the human body and about the nature of disease increased medical knowledge, until today, we have conquered most contagious diseases and the mortality rate of babies and children is much lower.
Colonial diseases and cures 18th Century Medical Myths from Williamsburg
From Quackery to Bacteriology: The Emergence of Modern Medicine in 19th Century America
18th Century Medicine 19th Century Medicine Medicine in 1860s Victoria (Canada) Credits:
This lesson was developed by Averil McClelland, Kent State University. | <urn:uuid:235afbee-38f3-463b-aadf-3c49638f484b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.firstladies.org/curriculum/curriculum.aspx?Curriculum=959 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957912 | 253 | 2.640625 | 3 |
|On the frontline of climate change|
For many of North America's indigenous activists at the Bolivia summit, the fight against climate change is rooted in local issues
This week's massive climate conference in Bolivia played host to a geographically diverse group of diplomats from the US, well-versed in advancing tough negotiating postures, and working within a framework of international treaties often not worth the paper they're printed on. The US delegation didn't come from the state department, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or the department of energy. Yet one delegate was given central billing in the inaugural event that kicked off the conference earlier in the week.
"We remain firm in our inalienable, sovereign rights," Faith Gemmill told a crowd of thousands that filled up Tiquipaya Coliseum on a sun-scorched morning, to a loud round of applause. "We the indigenous people of the north have survived colonial policies intended to terminate us, assimilate us, and displace us from our land. Despite this, we are still here! Indigenous people of Alaska and North America have given me voice to transmit this message to you."
Faith Gemmill is executive director of Redoil (Resisting Environmental Destruction on Indigenous Lands), an Alaska Native grassroots alliance formed in 2002 that organises around the impacts of oil and gas development on or near native land in Alaska. She was one of more than 20 indigenous representatives from North America who travelled to the Cochabamba, Bolivia this week for the World People's Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth, which ended on Thursday with a host of concrete proposals heavily informed by indigenous thinking on "living well" versus "living better", and influenced by the long and fraught histories of the impact of resource extraction on their traditional lands. The US government politely declined to send as much as a low-level observer to the historic summit, which drew more than 31,000 people from all over the world, and representatives from almost 50 governments.
"People have to make a choice, whether they want the Earth to continue to be here, or if life will disappear. It's a hard choice, and we're all involved in it," Carrie Dann tells me, a 75-year-old woman who travelled to Cochabamba from the Great Basin ("What non-indigenous people call Nevada," Carrie tells me), representing the Western Shoshone Defence Project. Carrie came to meet with other indigenous activists whose advocacy and activism against climate change is rooted in very local struggles. For Carrie, it's the Barrick Gold Corporation, a Canadian mining giant that is looking to mine a rich store of gold in Mt Tenabo – a sacred site for the Shoshone. The tribe has sued the US Bureau of Land Management, which approved the lease to Barrick, in an attempt to block the project.
"They were given the right to mine, but nobody knows what it's going to look like. It's a horrible destruction, it looks like a cancer on the earth. They keep extracting more and more for their people, eventually there won't be anything left."
One consistent premise that seemed to unite many indigenous activists from North America who travelled here was a desire to debunk many of the much-touted technocratic solutions to combat climate change – such as carbon offsetting.
"Including forests in the carbon market, it's a terrible idea. They want to offset emissions by planting or protecting trees," Jihan Gearon told me, an organiser with the Indigenous Environment Network, from Navajo country in the Southwest. "So corporations say, 'Great! we'll expand our emissions, but offset it by planting trees in the Amazon'. But in our network, which encompasses North and South America, we are seeing indigenous people displaced from their homes to 'protect' the land."
Another theme that came out of my many conversations with these North American diplomats was a deep historical analysis about who bears the brunt of extraction and energy development – including the resurgence of a nuclear industry that has successfully branded itself as form of "clean energy" that will be a key component in mitigating climate change.
"My homeland has one of the largest deposits of uranium in the world," Navajo activist and scholar Michelle Cook tells me. Although the Navajo nation, and the smaller Havasupai tribe whose ancestral lands run through the Grand Canyon, have long banned uranium mining, there is a there is a new uranium boom in the Southwest encroaching on tribal lands. "People often don't realise how destructive nuclear energy is and how it impacts indigenous communities specifically. There is nothing clean about an energy source that gives people cancer, and causes irreparable harm to the land, water, and future generations."
If the raison d'être of the meetings here in Cochabamba was to advance the kind of genuinely ambitious solutions to combating climate change that many world governments failed to deliver on in the UN sponsored talks last winter, it also appears to have been a place for a diplomatic corps on the frontlines of the struggle against climate change to meet each other, compare notes, and fortify each other for what will likely be a long slog ahead.
"Our indigenous people are the third world of the north," said Tom Goldtooth, director of the Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN), sitting with me outside on the last day of the conference during one of the closing plenaries, echoes of Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez's long-winded oratory in the background. "We're working hard to break down the borders placed between our communities." | <urn:uuid:71be4a6d-8df5-450c-b7d4-db41006423da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://protestbarrick.net/article.php?id=589 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960723 | 1,125 | 2.546875 | 3 |
valac is the Vala compiler, but it does not only accept Vala: it also accepts Genie (with python-like syntax, extension: .gs), C, and .vapi (Vala API) files. You can declare a low-level function in C, create an object with this function as method in Vala, and use both in a Genie file: you will get a ready-to-run executable.
How does the Vala Compiler workEdit
The main function of Vala was to be a modern object-oriented programming language for GNOME. Both Vala and Genie sources are processed into C code, wich is compiled.
i.e., in this example:
$ valac func.c obj.vala prog.gs -o program
Valac generates obj.vala.c from obj.vala and prog.gs.c from prog.gs. Then, Valac runs GCC (with many -I arguments, automatically generated) to compile all files to object code, and finally ld is called by gcc: we will get a native executable, "program", from a mix of C, Vala and Genie source code.
Of course, the typical arguments, like --version and --help work with Valac. It also inherits the -c (compile to .o, no linking) argument from GCC.
Other useful arguments:
- -C: convert to C code
- --cc=COMMAND: use COMMAND as C compiler
- -Xopt: pass -opt as argument to the C compiler (ex: -Xcc=O3 sets GCC's optimizer to level 3)
- --pkg PNAME: add packages from pkg-config (like -pkg:PNAME in Mono mcs or `pkg-config PNAME --cflags --libs` in gcc)
A complete example (program using GTK2 & goocanvas, some threading, etc.):
- valac --pkg gtk+-2.0 --pkg goocanvas --pkg glib-2.0 --thread --pkg gee-1.0 --debug --Xcc=-O3 gtk_goocanvas.vala
TODO Explain how to structure a project of a program or library written in Vala. | <urn:uuid:3334deca-39cc-4fa7-ac5b-ac1deb036da9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Vala_Programming/Concepts/Basic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.711618 | 484 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Sir James George Frazer (18541941). The Golden Bough. 1922.
LII. Killing the Divine Animal
§ 1. Killing the Sacred Buzzard
IN THE PRECEDING chapters we saw that many communities which have progressed so far as to subsist mainly by agriculture have been in the habit of killing and eating their farinaceous deities either in their proper form of corn, rice, and so forth, or in the borrowed shapes of animals and men. It remains to show that hunting and pastoral tribes, as well as agricultural peoples, have been in the habit of killing the beings whom they worship. Among the worshipful beings or gods, if indeed they deserve to be dignified by that name, whom hunters and shepherds adore and kill are animals pure and simple, not animals regarded as embodiments of other supernatural beings. Our first example is drawn from the Indians of California, who living in a fertile country under a serene and temperate sky, nevertheless rank near the bottom of the savage scale. The Acagchemem tribe adored the great buzzard, and once a year they celebrated a great festival called Panes or bird-feast in its honour. The day selected for the festival was made known to the public on the evening before its celebration and preparations were at once made for the erection of a special temple (vanquech), which seems to have been a circular or oval enclosure of stakes with the stuffed skin of a coyote or prairie-wolf set up on a hurdle to represent the god Chinigchinich. When the temple was ready, the bird was carried into it in solemn procession and laid on an altar erected for the purpose. Then all the young women, whether married or single, began to run to and fro, as if distracted, some in one direction and some in another, while the elders of both sexes remained silent spectators of the scene, and the captains, tricked out in paint and feathers, danced round their adored bird. These ceremonies being concluded, they seized upon the bird and carried it to the principal temple, all the assembly uniting in the grand display, and the captains dancing and singing at the head of the procession. Arrived at the temple, they killed the bird without losing a drop of its blood. The skin was removed entire and preserved with the feathers as a relic or for the purpose of making the festal garment or paelt. The carcase was buried in a hole in the temple, and the old women gathered round the grave weeping and moaning bitterly, while they threw various kinds of seeds or pieces of food on it, crying out, Why did you run away? Would you not have been better with us? you would have made pinole (a kind of gruel) as we do, and if you had not run away, you would not have become a Panes, and so on. When this ceremony was concluded, the dancing was resumed and kept up for three days and nights. They said that the Panes was a woman who had run off to the mountains and there been changed into a bird by the god Chinigchinich. They believed that though they sacrificed the bird annually, she came to life again and returned to her home in the mountains. Moreover, they thought that as often as the bird was killed, it became multiplied; because every year all the different Capitanes celebrated the same feast of Panes, and were firm in the opinion that the birds sacrificed were but one and the same female.
The unity in multiplicity thus postulated by the Californians is very noticeable and helps to explain their motive for killing the divine bird. The notion of the life of a species as distinct from that of an individual, easy and obvious as it seems to us, appears to be one which the Californian savage cannot grasp. He is unable to conceive the life of the species otherwise than as an individual life, and therefore as exposed to the same dangers and calamities which menace and finally destroy the life of the individual. Apparently he imagines that a species left to itself will grow old and die like an individual, and that therefore some step must be taken to save from extinction the particular species which he regards as divine. The only means he can think of to avert the catastrophe is to kill a member of the species in whose veins the tide of life is still running strong and has not yet stagnated among the fens of old age. The life thus diverted from one channel will flow, he fancies, more freshly and freely in a new one; in other words, the slain animal will revive and enter on a new term of life with all the spring and energy of youth. To us this reasoning is transparently absurd, but so too is the custom. A similar confusion, it may be noted, between the individual life and the life of the species was made by the Samoans. Each family had for its god a particular species of animal; yet the death of one of these animals, for example an owl, was not the death of the god, he was supposed to be yet alive, and incarnate in all the owls in existence. | <urn:uuid:85d2e0b4-734d-4134-8da0-97a6c97f3aab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartelby.net/196/124.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979454 | 1,044 | 2.890625 | 3 |
ROCKY FLATS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE
Facts and information from
the developers of Candelas
We want you to know the story
about Rocky Flats.
This website is designed to answer your questions about Rocky Flats through a straightforward presentation
of the facts. We invite you to use this site, our downloadable guide, and the resources identified below to learn more
and become better informed about the cleanup of Rocky Flats.
The Developers of Candelas
An Invaluable Environmental Asset - The Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge provides
a critical habitat for hundreds of acres of rare xeric tallgrass prairie. Populations of mule deer and elk that live on the
refuge represent a crucial link between Colorado's wildlife heritage and the Denver metropolitan area.
Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge
Created after the largest and most successful environmental cleanup in history, Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge
represents a remarkable Colorado milestone. For decades, the center of Rocky Flats was home to a manufacturing plant
supporting America’s nuclear weapons program. But in the mid-2000s, following a massive 10-year cleanup project costing more than
$7 billion, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Energy (DOE), surrounding cities and all other
representative authorities gave approval to transform the area into protected open space. Due to a lack of federal government
funding, the refuge is not yet open to the public. That will soon change, however, as Colorado recently announced plans for
bike and pedestrian trails connecting Rocky Flats to other open spaces.
Rocky Flats: 1952-1992
The former Rocky Flats facility took its place in U.S. defense history when it opened in 1952 as a factory producing triggers for nuclear weapons. Public
concerns and the end of the Cold War marked the closing of Rocky Flats, and in 1992 the U.S. government decided to completely dismantle
the plant, beginning the nation’s most ambitious environmental cleanup.
The Cleanup: 1995-2007
By 1995, cleanup activities had begun under the oversight of the U.S. Department of Energy,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, and
representatives from the region’s city and county governments. In a span of ten years, the rubble of 800
buildings and 100 tons of material was safely transported and buried deep in federal nuclear waste storage
facilities around the U.S.
In 2007, every government and quasi-government agency involved in the Rocky Flats cleanup pronounced the effort
complete—the area now exceeded the environmental standards set as the cleanup goal. From there, almost 4,000 acres
surrounding the old facility were transferred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to create the wildlife refuge
that exists today.
A Candelas home-owner took this photograph of a large elk herd during a tour of the Rocky Flats Wildlife Refuge. The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, which manages the refuge, reports that the area is home for 239 migratory and resident wildlife species, including prairie falcons, deer, elk, coyotes, songbirds, and the federally threatened Preble’s meadow jumping mouse. Candelas communities are situated along the southern-most border of the almost 4,000-acre wildlife refuge that surrounds the former site of the Rocky Flats facility.
Candelas is situated more than 1.3 miles from where the Rocky Flats facility once stood, and the
two locations are separated by thousands of acres of protected open space.
The Result: An Environmentally Sound Open Space
The Rocky Flats cleanup effort created an open space that exceeds every standard for being environmentally sound. Water
streaming from the area, for example, is reported by the U.S. government to be 100 times cleaner than federal drinking
water standards. And the DOE reports that the ground on and around the old site carries no increased risk of exposure to
harmful contaminants for humans or animals.
Ongoing Care and Constant Monitoring
As part of the federal government’s permanent commitment to protecting the Rocky Flats area, the U.S. department of energy operates three water-treatment facilities located at the center of the nine-square-mile parcel. The federal government constantly monitors the area’s water quality, and provides air and soil quality data to the Rocky Flats Stewardship Council, an independent coalition of state and local representatives charged with perpetual oversight of the former DOE plant area and surrounding land that is today a wildlife refuge.
Recent Soil Tests
Download Candelas 2013 Soils Test Report (PDF) »
Download Candelas 2011 Soils Test Report (PDF) »
This material was compiled by the developers of Candelas as information for its many current and prospective
residents. The information and data contained in this microsite is public record and can be easily accessed by contacting
any of the organizations listed above, most notably the Rocky Flats Stewardship Council, which is comprised of representatives
from the area’s local municipalities, government agencies, academic institutions, health and environmental organizations, | <urn:uuid:cbd9d37f-fdfd-4736-b6ba-0cd1efc313ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.candelasrockyflats.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916942 | 1,087 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Microfluidics is a field of research that explores the handling of minute amounts of liquids in tiny micrometer scale channels - this approach can reduce sample and reagent consumption, harness benefits from the exquisite micro scale fluid physics, address small objects such as biological cells, but also reduce size and cost of chemical and biological instrumentation and improve overall experimental automation. The potential and vast diversity of design options have driven the expanding field of microfluidics research over the last two decades.
Initial microfluidic devices were fabricated using methods from the microelectronics industry, but cleanrooms, expensive process instrumentation and materials severely restricted access to the technology, especially for chemists and bioscientists, who were not traditional users of cleanrooms. The Whitesides group dramatically changed the field of microfluidics by introducing PDMS-based microfluidics . This simple, robust route to replica mold and seal low-cost elastomeric chips gained widespread popularity in academic communities, unlocking the creativity of researchers to craft their own devices for diverse purposes ranging from studies of fundamental physics, to medical diagnostics.
We have, more recently, sought to develop even simpler and lower-cost microfluidic technologies based on materials such as paper and threads . One class of paper devices is powered by natural occurring wicking, when water wets the hydrophilic cellulose fibers. We have developed a simple method to create fluidic circuits in paper by using a conventional office printer that produces a hydrophobic barrier to selectively block wicking in areas covered with wax ink . Stacking these individual paper sheets into multilayered devices can make even more versatile three-dimensional liquid handling systems (Figure 1) . We are currently working to extend the liquid handling possibilities of these systems, but also to incorporate electrodes (Figure 2) and electronics onto the paper substrates and to perform low-cost diagnostic assays needed in the developing World. Similar to paper, cotton threads are ideal at wicking liquids and acting as one-dimensional fluidic channels (Figure 3).
We have also used hydrophobic papers to construct flow channels by cutting, engraving (Figure 4) and embossing (Figure 5) . These channels have an open cavity and require external pressure to drive the flow. We have demonstrated, that these channels can be used for multiphase droplet microfluidics, they support gas exchange through porous paper, and the flows can be adjusted by foldable valves.
We have advanced PDMS device technology into an entirely new field of research - “soft-robotics”. In “soft robotics” elastomeric channels are turned into useful actuators. The field of microfluidics has provided further inspiration, and components, for the newly emerged area of soft robotics. We have, for example, used similar valve-designs to develop integrated control systems for soft actuators (Figure 6) , and exploited skin with color-filled channels to create a soft robot capable of camouflage (Figure 7) . Combining same elastomers and manufacturing approaches with ion loaded hydrogels and electricity has allowed us to build fast, transparent and electrically driven actuators (for example, transparent loud-speakers) and stretch and pressure sensors with different electromechanical properties (Figure 8) .
Duffy, D.C., McDonald, J.C., Schueller, O.J.A., and Whitesides, G.M., "Rapid Prototyping of Microfluidic Systems in Poly(dimethylsiloxane)", Anal. Chem., 1998, 70, 4974-4984.
Martinez, A.W., Phillips, S.T., Butte, M.J., and Whitesides, G.M., "Patterned Paper as a Platform for Inexpensive, Low Volume, Portable Bioassays", Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2007, 46, 1318-1320.
Reches, M., Mirica, K.A., Dasgupta, R., Dickey, M.D., Butte, M.J., and Whitesides, G.M., "Thread as a Matrix for Biomedical Assays", ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2010, 2, 1722-1728.
Carrilho, E., Martinez, A.W., and Whitesides, G.M., "Understanding Wax Printing - A Simple Micropatterning Process for Paper-Based Microfluidics", Analytical Chemistry, 2009, 81, 7091-7095.
Martinez, A.W., Phillips, S.T., and Whitesides, G.M., "Three-Dimensional Microfluidic Devices Fabricated in Layered Paper and Tape", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, 105, 19606-19611.
Martinez, A.W., Phillips, S.T., Nie, Z., Cheng, C., Carrilho, E., Wiley, B.J., and Whitesides, G.M., "Programmable Diagnostic Devices Made from Paper and Tape", Lab on a Chip, 2010, 10, 2499-2504.
Nie, Z., Nijhuis, C.A., Gong, J., Chen, X., Kumachev, A., Martinez, A.W., Narovlyansky, M., and Whitesides, G.M., "Electrochemical Sensing in Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices", Lab on a Chip, 2010, 10, 477-483.
Lan, W., Zou.X.U, Hamedi.M.M, Hu.J., Parolo.C., Maxwell.E.J, Buhlmann.P., and Whitesides.G.M, "Paper-Based Potentiometric Ion Sensing", Analytical Chemistry, 2014, 86.
Glavan, A., Martinez.R.V., Maxwell.E.J., Subramaniam.A.B., Nunes.R.M.D., Soh.S., and Whitesides.G.M., "Rapid Fabrication of Pressure-Driven Open-Channel Microfluidic Devices in Omniphobic RF Paper", Lab on a Chip, 2013, 13, 2922-2930.
Thuo, M.M., Martinez.R.V., Lan.W., Liu.X., Barber.J.R., Atkinson.M.B.J., Bandarage.D.C., Bloch.J., and Whitesides.G.M., "Fabrication of Low-Cost Paper-Based Microfluidic Devices by Embossing or Cut-and-Stack Method", Chem. Mater., 2014, 26, 4230-4237.
F.Ilievski, A.D.Mazzeo., Shepherd.R.F., X.Chen, and G.M.Whitesides., "Soft Robotics for Chemists", Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2011, 50, 1890-1895.
Mosadegh, B., Mazzeo.A.D., Shepherd.R.F., Morin.S.A., Gupta.U., Sani.I.Z., Lai.D., Takayama.S., and Whitesides.G.M., "Control of Soft Machines Using Actuators Operated by a Braille Display", Lab on a Chip, 2014, 14, 189-199.
Morin, S.A., Shepherd.R.F., Kwok.S.W., Stokes.A.A., Nemiroski.A., and Whitesides.G.M., "Camouflage and Display for Soft Machines", Science, 2012, 337, 828-832.
Sun, J., Keplinger.C., Whitesides.G.M, and Suo.Z., "Ionic Skin", Adv. Mater., 2014, 26, 7608-7614. | <urn:uuid:4c7032b1-064d-4d9b-bcd4-b2dbf28ad99a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gmwgroup.harvard.edu/research/index.php?page=19 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.814043 | 1,662 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Who likes characters like Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Yosemite Sam, and Porky Pig? Well if you like those Looney Tunes characters, you will be sure to love this next lesson that I am about to submit. I am going to show you how to draw Elmer Fudd from Looney Tunes step by step. I love Elmer Fudd because he comes across as being an innocent man that just wants to enjoy a good rabbit or duck hunt. Unfortunately for Elmer, the two animals that he keeps running into a rabbit named Bugs and a duck named Daffy. The difference between the two is very simple one is sly and conniving and the other is impatient and rude. Elmer Fudd made his television debut back in 1937 but he didn’t go by the name we know him as. Instead a man named Tex Avery debuted a character named Egghead in the animated short “Egghead Rides Again”. This character would later turn out to be the very popular Elmer Fudd. Elmer is a very friendly character who is bald, aging, and sometimes kind. He often has a sense of remorse and compassion. There was an episode I remember watching when I was younger, it was a Looney Tunes cartoon and it took place in the woods during hunting season. Elmer Fudd was tracking down a rabbit (Bugs Bunny) and after persistent hunting he finally thought that he killed his game. Now, Bugs being a wise guy that he is carried out his departure in a fashion to leave a hunter feeling bad about what he has just done. Of course Elmer starts crying over the loss of the rabbit he just shot down, and after a while of crying Bugs turns around and humiliates that lad which turned Elmer into a remorseful man, to a raging bull. All the Looney Tune characters are very well developed and I enjoy watching and getting to know everyone. This lesson will show you how to draw Elmer Fudd step by step. I hope you like this tutorial I did try my best to get him drawn right so make sure you comment and rate to let me know what you think. I will return again friends so keep your eyes open. | <urn:uuid:2de14f42-e74f-45b0-85ee-35926d172875> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dragoart.com/tuts/1771/2/1/7467/how-to-draw-elmer-fudd-step-4.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981635 | 451 | 3.015625 | 3 |
What is a lipoma?
A lipoma is a knot of fatty tissue that is usually found just below the skin (subcutaneous). Lipomas can occur almost anywhere on the body, but are most commonly found on the trunk, shoulders, neck, and armpits. Lipomas can rarely form in muscles and internal organs.
A lipoma can be described as a rubbery bulge that feels like it can move. Lipomas tend to grow slowly, often over a period of months or years. They are usually small (usually less than 2 inches across). Sometimes larger lipomas do occur, with some reaching almost 8 inches across.
Lipomas are fairly common, occurring in one in every 1,000 people. People with a lipoma usually have only one, though about 20% of those affected can have several.
Lipomas affect all age groups and can even be present at birth; however, they usually form in people who are between the ages of 40 and 60.
Are lipomas cancerous?
A lipoma is nearly always benign, meaning it is not cancerous and will not develop into cancer. There is a very rare form of cancer known as liposarcoma that occurs within fatty tissue and may look like a deep lipoma. A lipoma that grows quickly or is painful should be checked out by a doctor, and may need a biopsy.
What causes lipomas?
The causes of a lipoma are unknown. It is possible that they are caused by a physical trauma. However, it is unclear whether the trauma causes a lipoma to form, or if the lipoma is discovered simply as a result of medical attention to that area of the body.
In other cases, genetic (inherited) conditions such as Gardner syndrome and hereditary multiple lipomatosis cause a person to have several lipomas. Another rare condition, Madelung's disease, is seen mostly in men who drink a lot of alcohol.
What are the symptoms of lipomas?
Lipomas rarely cause pain, and so most people have no symptoms. However, a person with a lipoma can have some pain if the lipoma presses on the nerves or has some blood vessels running through it.
How are lipomas diagnosed?
In most cases, doctors can diagnose a lipoma with a simple physical examination. However, if the lipoma is large and/or painful, the doctor may order a test to confirm that the lump is not cancerous. These tests may include a biopsy, computed tomography (CT scan), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
A biopsy is a procedure in which a small piece of the fatty tissue is removed from the lipoma so it can be examined under a microscope for signs of cancer. An MRI uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to take a series of very clear, detailed pictures. Like an MRI, a CT scan (or CAT scan) is a procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures, taken from different angles.
Once a lipoma is diagnosed, your doctor will discuss whether treatment is needed and what the options are.
How are lipomas treated?
In many cases, lipomas do not need to be treated. Instead, your doctor may simply recommend watching the lipoma on a regular basis. Sometimes a patient may choose to have the lipoma removed if there is concern about its location and how it affects the person’s appearance. (This procedure may not be covered by health insurance.)
Occasionally, a lipoma causes pain or affects muscle development and needs to be removed. Lipomas are usually self-contained, meaning they do not invade (move into) the surrounding tissue. Therefore, it is usually possible for the doctor to make a small incision (cut) in the skin and then either squeeze out the lipoma, or use liposuction.
During the liposuction procedure, an incision is made in the lipoma, and a thin, hollow tube called a cannula is inserted into the incision. The cannula is then moved back and forth to loosen the fat, which is vacuumed up through the tube.
Liposuction can be useful for larger lipomas, but the procedure is associated with a higher rate of recurrence (the lipoma grows back). Procedures to remove lipomas are usually done under local anesthesia, and patients go home the same day.
What is the outlook for people with lipomas?
The outlook for people with lipomas is extremely positive. Because lipomas are generally harmless and cause no discomfort, they do not affect a person's quality of life. Lipomas do not increase the risk of other diseases, and people who choose to have their lipomas removed for cosmetic reasons usually have limited scarring.
Luba, M., Bangs S., Mohler A, et al. Common Benign Skin Tumors. Am Fam Physician. 2003 Feb 15;67(4):729-738.
Salam, G. Lipoma Excision. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Mar 1;65(5):901-905.
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.
© Copyright 1995-2016, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All rights reserved.
Can't find the health information you’re looking for?
This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 3/31/2016...#15008 | <urn:uuid:bb9591f1-05e3-41db-8216-818a65c7ae10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic_lipomas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945618 | 1,143 | 3.046875 | 3 |
West Nile virus appears to be on the decline in Michigan again this year, but health officials still urge residents to take precautions against the mosquito-borne illness.
Five human cases of West Nile have been reported in Michigan this season -- all in the southeast part of the state -- as of late last week. That's down from 10 cases statewide at the same point in 2007.
But it's relatively early in the West Nile season. The case count could rise later this month.
The virus's peak year in Michigan was 2002, with 644 human cases and 51 deaths. While the overall number of cases has varied by year, the general pattern has been toward fewer Michigan residents coming down with the virus.
Michigan reported 55 West Nile cases, including seven deaths, in 2006. There were 17 reported cases, including four deaths, in 2007.
Health officials can't attribute this year's decline in cases to any one factor.
"I don't think anyone has the total answer to it," said Mary Grace Stobierski, an epidemiologist with the Michigan Department of Community Health. "It's probably the combination of a lot of different factors."
Human cases this year have been confirmed in Wayne, Macomb and Lenawee counties.
West Nile is transmitted by mosquitoes, typically after biting infected birds or horses who carry the virus. It becomes more common in late summer and early autumn.
Michigan's abnormally cool and dry summer may have limited the mosquito population in some areas. Several communities may also be doing a better job of mosquito control than earlier this decade, and more people may be doing what they can to prevent bites.
There also could be cyclical factors at work with the bird population.
Most people bitten by an infected mosquito show no symptoms, but some become sick within a few days. About one in five infected persons will become mildly ill with fever, headache and body aches. Less common symptoms are a skin rash and swollen lymph glands.
Severe cases may result in encephalitis, meningitis or death.
People older than 50 or with weakened immune systems are among the most vulnerable to West Nile.
People can cut down on contact with mosquitoes by wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants, applying insect repellent containing DEET and regularly draining standing water to prevent mosquito breeding. | <urn:uuid:5c752528-9167-4003-bf89-4d9c86bb7f03> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wilx.com/news/health/headlines/29362944.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965004 | 474 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Kids and young adults have the highest swine flu rate
Children and younger adults continue to be most affected by the swine flu according to the latest and most solid government health information. The elderly, who had been warned about the virus due to their age and a lower resistance, have been largely unaffected.
On Tuesday, health officials released figures for swine flu hospitalizations and deaths for the seven weeks since the beginning of September. Twenty-eight states provided the information.
It showed more than half of all hospitalizations were people 24 and younger - more than a quarter were ages 5-18.
“Essentially, this is still a young person’s disease,” said Dr. Anne Schuchat of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Swine flu deaths were concentrated in young and middle-aged adults. A third of all deaths were people ages 25 through 49. Another third were 50-64.
Just 12 percent of deaths occurred in the elderly. That’s a stark contrast to the roughly 90 percent of deaths in the elderly from the seasonal flu, Schuchat said at a Tuesday press conference.
“It’s almost completely reversed,” said Schuchat, who heads the CDC’s National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases.
The figures are similar to what the CDC saw in the spring, she said.
Many people 55 and older have some degree of immunity to the swine flu virus, perhaps from exposure decades ago to a similar vaccine.
However, the ability of the swine flu virus to attack deep in the lungs seems to also make it more dangerous to some of the younger people who are infected, CDC officials say.
The most recent figures show about 5,000 hospitalizations in 27 states for lab-confirmed swine flu, and about 300 deaths in 28 states. | <urn:uuid:b92e2886-0cf4-4de4-8f2a-1247a7d881bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crowleypostsignal.com/kids-and-young-adults-have-highest-swine-flu-rate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97511 | 383 | 2.75 | 3 |
Leslie Goerner, Associate Professor, Humanities Department
EN197: Creative Writing | Syllabus
Creative Writing offers an introduction to the principal techniques of
creative written expression. As a demonstration of competency, students
complete a series of directed writing assignments as well as projects
in short fiction and poetry.
Goals toward which you should work:
Traditionally, literary fiction and poetry have served the function of exploring the meaning of human experience. In fiction, for example, the actions of characters typically explore issues regarding how one should live, often by showing what not to do. One reason why many short stories end unhappily is that the consequences of taking the wrong path are often unpleasant and sometimes disastrous. Although characters in stories do not always learn from their mistakes, readers should be able to identify a lesson. For this class, you will be expected to produce literary fiction and poetry that explore universal meaning and purpose in life. Though this sounds like a grand matter—and it is—you will see in the assigned readings that universal issues are illustrated by local examples. Character + problem = story.
Specialized genres not covered in this course include essay narrative (nonfiction), humorous sketch, children's literature, science fiction, erotica, and horror. If you would like further clarification on this point, please contact me before enrolling in the class.
For further details
on course opportunities, please contact me for a full-length copy of the | <urn:uuid:4fc9ba00-b4c8-4812-87da-ef542728c668> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.mvcc.edu/users/faculty/lgoerner/en197-syllabus.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942787 | 301 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Whether your name is Phoenix, or you just like the bird emerging from the fire idea, we've got something for you...
Quick links to words on this page...
| 1. Legendary Phoenix
3. Dragon and Phoenix
4. Dragon and Phoenix Brings Luck
| 6. Phoenix Rise from the Ashes|
7. Dragon / Emperor Symbol
9. Orchid Queen
10. Queen / Empress
This is the word that translates as "Legendary Phoenix" in Chinese. This refers to the bird that according to Chinese folklore, rose from the fiery ashes.
The phoenix and dragon are by far the most famous creatures in Chinese mythology.
This is the simplest way to write "Phoenix" in Chinese. Because dragon is usually expressed as a single character, when you see "dragon and phoenix" written in Chinese, you'll often see this single-character version.
Please note, this is also the male element of phoenix, so it also means "male phoenix bird." However some Chinese people may argue that the phoenix has a female characteristic, regardless of which character you use.
This is another simple way to write "Phoenix" in Chinese. This is the specifically female element of phoenix, so this is how you write "female phoenix." This character is sometimes used to represent the female empress (many times in history, China was ruled by a woman, in much the same way queens came to power in Europe).
Note that the emperor is always represented as a dragon (not the male version of phoenix).
If you see yourself as a strong woman, this might be scroll for you to express "woman power" or "powerful woman" in a cool way.
This is the simplest way to express "Dragon and Phoenix" in Chinese and Japanese.
This title can be used to represent, "The emperor and empress," or a metaphor for an outstanding personage.
It should be noted that this is most often used as a given name "Ryuuhou" in Japanese. It may be read more as the name than by meaning in Japanese.
This is often seen at weddings and other celebrations in China. It suggests that he dragon and phoenix will bring you auspicious tidings.
The first character is dragon.
The second is phoenix.
The third is presents or brings.
And the last means auspicious, propitious, or luck.
This is the transliteration to Mandarin Chinese for the name Phoenix.
It sounds like Phoenix but does not mean Phoenix.
You may want to carefully consider choosing a scroll that means Phoenix instead, if this is your given name.
This proverb suggests "Legendary Phoenix rises from the ashes." Literally, it means, "Legendary Phoenix [reaches] Nirvana."
There is a legend in China of a great bird which is reborn once every 500 years. This bird gathers all the ill-will, suffering, desire, and other negative things of the whole world. The bird then plunges into the fire to burn away all negative things, sacrificing itself in the process (achieving Nirvana, or perhaps allowing others the opportunity to reach Nirvana).
500 years later, the phoenix is reborn from the ashes again, and the cycle repeats.
This is an alternate form of dragon. Still pronounced the same in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.
This particular Kanji is often associated as an imperial symbol as well as representing the mythical Asian dragon. You may have seen it on the chest or flag of the emperor in old Japanese and Chinese movies.
Note: I would rate this as a non-universal alternate form. The other dragon character is by far more common, and universally understood.
This is the title of empress or emperess, the female form of emperor. This is used in Chinese, Japanese Kanji, and old Korean Hanja.
While the emperor's reign was for life, if he died, his wife would hold his power. In this case, a woman was the ultimate ruler of the greater part of East Asia (what is now China) until her death and the succession of the emperor's first born son to lead the empire. Numerous times in various Chinese dynasties, an empress took power in this way.
The first character means emperor by itself.
The second character alone can mean "wife of an emperor or king" (the first character clarifies that we are talking about an empress, and not a queen). It can also mean sovereign or last offspring, depending on context.
Note: In some books, this word is translated as queen. While only incorrect if you get technical (because an empress is theoretically a higher level than a queen), the meaning is very similar.
This is sometimes used for the title of queen but more technically, this is the wife of the emperor (a higher level than a queen).
This is the short way write "Orchid Queen" in Chinese. This abbreviated version is open to interpretation but it's a cool title.
This is another way to write queen in Chinese, Japanese Kanji, and old Korean Hanja.
This is sometimes used for the title of empress.
The first character means "king" and the second means "wife," or a short form to say "wife of the king / emperor." So this is literally, "king's wife" or "emperor's wife." Some will translate this as "queen consort."
The wall scroll that Sandy is holding in this picture is a "large size"
single-character wall scroll.
We also offer custom wall scrolls in small, medium, and an even-larger jumbo size.
Professional calligraphers are getting to be hard to find these days.
Instead of drawing characters by hand, the new generation in China merely type roman letters into their computer keyboards and pick the character that they want from a list that pops up.
There is some fear that true Chinese calligraphy may become a lost art in the coming years. Many art institutes in China are now promoting calligraphy programs in hopes of keeping this unique form of art alive.
Even with the teachings of a top-ranked calligrapher in China, my calligraphy will never be good enough to sell. I will leave that to the experts.
The same calligrapher who gave me those lessons also attracted a crowd of thousands and a TV crew as he created characters over 6-feet high. He happens to be ranked as one of the top 100 calligraphers in all of China. He is also one of very few that would actually attempt such a feat.
The following table is only helpful for those studying Chinese (or Japanese), and perhaps helps search engines to find this page when someone enters Romanized Chinese or Japanese
|Title||Characters||Romaji(Romanized Japanese)||Various forms of Romanized Chinese|
|houou / ho||fèng huáng
|ootori / otori||fèng / feng4 / feng|
|Phoenix (female)||凰||ou / o||huáng / huang2 / huang|
|Dragon and Phoenix||龍鳳|
|ryuu hou / ryuuhou / ryu ho / ryuho||lóng fèng
|Dragon and Phoenix Brings Luck||龍鳳呈祥|
|lóng fèng chéng xiáng
long2 feng4 cheng2 xiang2
long feng cheng xiang
|lung feng ch`eng hsiang
lung feng cheng hsiang
|Phoenix||菲尼克斯||fēi ní kè sī
fei1 ni2 ke4 si1
fei ni ke si
|fei ni k`o ssu
fei ni ko ssu
|Phoenix Rise from the Ashes||鳳凰涅磐|
|fèng huáng niè pán
feng4 huang2 nie4 pan2
feng huang nie pan
|feng huang nieh p`an
feng huang nieh pan
|Dragon / Emperor Symbol||竜||ryuu / tatsu|
ryu / tatsu
|lóng / long2 / long||lung|
|Empress||皇后||kou gou / kougou / ko go / kogo||huáng hòu
|lán hòu / lan2 hou4 / lan hou / lanhou|
|Queen / Empress||王后||ou kou / oukou / o ko / oko||wáng hòu / wang2 hou4 / wang hou / wanghou|
In some entries above you will see that characters have different versions above and below a line. In these cases, the characters above the line are Traditional Chinese, while the ones below are Simplified Chinese.
Some people may refer to this entry as Kanji, Characters, in Mandarin Chinese, Characters, in Chinese Writing, in Japanese Writing, in Asian Writing, Ideograms, Chinese symbols, Hieroglyphics, Glyphs, in Chinese Letters, Hanzi, in Japanese Kanji, Pictograms, in the Chinese Written-Language, or in the Japanese Written-Language. | <urn:uuid:0161586c-31c5-4c9c-874f-dbbd054789ef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.orientaloutpost.com/phoenix.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925435 | 1,981 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Many people are confused about the role of county judge. The role of county judge is thought by many to be an elected office that requires you to be an attorney. However, this is not the case. The county judge is an administrative position that is defined by the Arkansas Constitution. The primary function of a county judge would be similar to a county commissioner in Oklahoma, a county administrator or some sort of county mayor.
As a mayor conducts city director meetings, a county judge conducts quorum court meetings. This is the only real “court” aspect that leads to the title “judge.” The quorum court can be thought of as the county directors, and it is made up of 13 elected justices of the peace in Sebastian County.
From the efforts of the justices, the county budget and its subsequent expenses are authorized. Once money is allocated, the county judge is responsible for creating the contracts by which to pay for authorized expenses.
The county judge is not the boss of elected officials. Those duties that do not fall under the office of other elected officials are usually the responsibility of the county judge, such as the road department, maintenance, county computer systems, human resources, comptroller and parks.
There is a huge misconception that the county judge controls everything in his county. Despite this fallacy being reinforced by recent actions against other elected officials, the county judge does NOT have the ability nor the authority to determine whether laws have been broken, as is the case with a REAL JUDGE.
The qualifications for county judge are available to all citizens, and I suggest that the Times Record print them as part of a community service report! | <urn:uuid:47270a0d-a220-452b-88bb-498cb7c7bf6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://swtimes.com/opinion/how-you-see-it/letter-county-official-judge-name-only | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977227 | 335 | 2.84375 | 3 |
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