sentence1 stringlengths 1 133k | sentence2 stringlengths 1 131k |
|---|---|
musician, songwriter and drummer (d. 1980) 1948 – Martin Hannett, English bass player, guitarist, and record producer (d. 1991) 1948 – Duncan Hunter, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician 1949 – Tom Berenger, American actor, film producer and television writer 1950 – Jean Chalopin, French director, producer, and screenwriter, founded DIC Entertainment 1950 – Gregory Harrison, American actor 1950 – Edgar Savisaar, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior 1951 – Karl-Hans Riehm, German hammer thrower 1952 – Karl Bartos, German singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1953 – Pirkka-Pekka Petelius, Finnish actor and screenwriter 1954 – Thomas Mavros, Greek footballer 1954 – Vicki Sue Robinson, American actress and singer (d. 2000) 1955 – Tommy Emmanuel, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1955 – Susie Essman, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter 1956 – Fritz Hilpert, German drummer and composer 1956 – John Young, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1957 – Jim Craig, American ice hockey player 1959 – Andrea de Cesaris, Italian racing driver (d. 2014) 1959 – Phil Wilson, English politician 1960 – Greg Adams, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman 1960 – Chris Elliott, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter 1960 – Peter Winterbottom, English rugby player 1961 – Ray Cote, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Justin Madden, Australian footballer and politician 1961 – Lea Thompson, American actress, director, and producer 1962 – Corey Hart, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1963 – David Leigh, holder of the Sir Samuel Hall Chair of Chemistry at the University of Manchester 1963 – Viktor Orbán, Hungarian politician, 38th Prime Minister of Hungary 1963 – Wesley Willis, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2003) 1964 – Leonard Asper, Canadian lawyer and businessman 1964 – Stéphane Caristan, French hurdler and coach 1964 – Yukio Edano, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs 1964 – Darryl "D.M.C." McDaniels, American rapper and producer 1965 – Brooke Shields, American model, actress, and producer 1966 – Diesel, American-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Roshan Mahanama, Sri Lankan cricketer and referee 1967 – Phil Keoghan, New Zealand television host and producer 1967 – Kenny Lofton, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster 1971 – Arun Luthra, Indo-Anglo-American saxophonist, konnakol artist, composer, and arranger 1972 – Christian McBride, American bassist and record producer 1972 – Archie Panjabi, British actress 1972 – Frode Estil, Norwegian skier 1972 – Antti Niemi, Finnish international footballer and coach 1972 – Dave Roberts, American baseball player and coach 1974 – Hiroiki Ariyoshi, Japanese comedian and singer 1975 – Mac Suzuki, Japanese baseball player 1976 – Colin Farrell, Irish actor 1976 – Matt Harpring, American basketball player and sportscaster 1977 – Domenico Fioravanti, Italian swimmer 1977 – Moses Sichone, Zambian footballer 1979 – Jean-François Gillet, Belgian footballer 1981 – Mikael Antonsson, Swedish footballer 1981 – Daniele Bonera, Italian footballer 1981 – Jake Peavy, American baseball player 1981 – Marlies Schild, Austrian skier 1984 – Andrew Bailey, American baseball player 1984 – Milorad Čavić, Serbian swimmer 1984 – Nate Robinson, American basketball player 1985 – Jordy Nelson, American football player 1986 – Robert Gesink, Dutch cyclist 1989 – Marco Reus, German footballer 1990 – Erik Karlsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1992 – Michaël Bournival, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Laura Ikauniece, Latvian heptathlete 1996 – Normani Kordei Hamilton, American singer 1998 – Santino Ferrucci, American race car driver Deaths Pre-1600 455 – Petronius Maximus, Roman emperor (b. 396) 930 – Liu Hua, princess of Southern Han (b. 896) 960 – Fujiwara no Morosuke, Japanese statesman (b. 909) 1076 – Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, English politician (b. 1050) 1089 – Sigwin von Are, archbishop of Cologne 1162 – Géza II, king of Hungary (b. 1130) 1321 – Birger, king of Sweden (b. 1280) 1326 – Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley (b. 1271) 1329 – Albertino Mussato, Italian statesman and writer (b. 1261) 1349 – Thomas Wake, English politician (b. 1297) 1370 – Vitalis of Assisi, Italian hermit and monk (b. 1295) 1408 – Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1358) 1410 – Martin of Aragon, Spanish king (b. 1356) 1504 – Engelbert II of Nassau (b. 1451) 1558 – Philip Hoby, English general and diplomat (b. 1505) 1567 – Guido de Bres, Belgian pastor and theologian (b. 1522) 1594 – Tintoretto, Italian painter and educator (b. 1518) 1601–1900 1601 – Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne (b. 1547) 1640 – Zeynab Begum, Safavid princess (date of birth unknown) 1665 – Pieter Jansz. Saenredam, Dutch painter (b. 1597) 1680 – Joachim Neander, German theologian and educator (b. 1650) 1740 – Frederick William I of Prussia (b. 1688) 1747 – Andrey Osterman, German-Russian politician, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1686) 1809 – Joseph Haydn, Austrian pianist and composer (b. 1732) 1809 – Jean Lannes, French general (b. 1769) 1831 – Samuel Bentham, English architect and engineer (b. 1757) 1832 – Évariste Galois, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1811) 1837 – Joseph Grimaldi, English actor, comedian and dancer, (b. 1779) 1846 – Philip Marheineke, German pastor and philosopher (b. 1780) 1847 – Thomas Chalmers, Scottish minister and economist (b. 1780) 1848 – Eugénie de Guérin, French author (b. 1805) 1899 – Stefanos Koumanoudis, Greek archaeologist, teacher and writer (b. 1818) 1901–present 1908 – Louis-Honoré Fréchette, Canadian author, poet, and politician (b. 1839) 1909 – Thomas Price, Welsh-Australian politician, 24th Premier of South Australia (b. 1852) 1910 – Elizabeth Blackwell, English-American physician and educator (b. 1821) 1931 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1866) 1931 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (b. 1864) 1945 – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (b. 1904) 1954 – Antonis Benakis, Greek art collector and philanthropist, founded the Benaki Museum (b. 1873) 1957 – Stefanos Sarafis, Greek general and politician (b. 1890) 1957 – Leopold Staff, Polish poet and academic (b. 1878) 1960 – Willem Elsschot, Flemish author and poet (b. 1882) 1960 – Walther Funk, German economist, journalist, and politician, German Minister of Economics (b. 1890) 1962 – Henry F. Ashurst, American lawyer and politician (b. 1874) 1967 – Billy Strayhorn, American pianist and composer (b. 1915) 1970 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1929) 1976 – Jacques Monod, French biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) 1977 – William Castle, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1914) 1978 – József Bozsik, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1925) 1981 – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, English economist and journalist (b. 1914) 1982 – Carlo Mauri, Italian mountaineer and explorer (b. 1930) 1983 – Jack Dempsey, American boxer and lieutenant (b. 1895) 1985 – Gaston Rébuffat, French mountaineer and author (b. 1921) 1986 – Jane Frank, American painter and sculptor (b. 1918) 1986 – James Rainwater, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 1987 – John Abraham, Indian director and screenwriter (b. 1937) 1989 – Owen Lattimore, American author and academic (b. 1900) 1989 – C. L. R. James, Trinidadian journalist and historian (b. 1901) 1993 – Honey Tree Evil Eye, or, Spuds MacKenzie, Bud Light Bull Terrier mascot (b. 1983) 1994 – Uzay Heparı, Turkish actor, producer, and composer (b. 1969) 1994 – Herva Nelli, Italian-American soprano (b. 1909) 1995 – Stanley Elkin, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1930) 1996 – Timothy Leary, American psychologist and author (b. 1920) 1998 – Charles Van Acker, Belgian-American race car driver (b. 1912) 2000 – Petar Mladenov, Bulgarian diplomat, 1st President of Bulgaria (b. 1936) 2000 – A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, Sri Lankan historian, author, and academic (b. 1928) 2001 – Arlene Francis, American actress, talk show host, game show panelist, and television personality (b. 1907) 2002 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (b. 1929) 2004 – Aiyathurai Nadesan, Sri Lankan journalist (b. 1954) 2004 – Robert Quine, American guitarist (b. 1941) 2004 – Étienne Roda-Gil, French screenwriter and composer (b. 1941) 2006 – Miguel Ortiz Berrocal, Spanish sculptor (b. 1933) 2006 – Raymond Davis, Jr., American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1914) 2009 – Danny La Rue, Irish-British drag queen performer and singer (b. 1927) 2009 – George Tiller, American physician (b. 1941) 2010 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (b. 1911) 2010 – Brian Duffy, English photographer and producer (b. 1933) 2010 – William A. Fraker, American director, producer, and cinematographer (b. 1923) 2010 – Rubén Juárez, Argentinian singer-songwriter and bandoneón player (b. 1947) 2010 – Merata Mita, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1942) 2011 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (b. 1919) 2011 – Jonas Bevacqua, American fashion designer, co-founded the Lifted Research Group (b. 1977) 2011 – Derek Hodge, Virgin Islander lawyer and politician, Lieutenant Governor of the United States Virgin Islands (b. 1941) 2011 – Hans Keilson, German-Dutch psychoanalyst and author (b. 1909) 2011 – John Martin, English admiral and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey (b. 1918) 2011 – Andy Robustelli, American football player and manager (b. 1925) 2012 – Christopher Challis, English cinematographer (b. 1919) 2012 – Randall B. Kester, American lawyer and judge (b. 1916) 2012 – Paul Pietsch, German racing driver and publisher (b. 1911) 2012 – Orlando Woolridge, American basketball player and coach (b. 1959) 2013 – Gerald E. Brown, American physicist and academic (b. 1926) 2013 – Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (b. 1933) 2013 – Miguel Méndez, American author and poet (b. 1930) 2013 – Tim Samaras, American engineer and storm chaser (b. 1957) 2013 – Jairo Mora Sandoval, Costa Rican environmentalist (b. 1987) 2013 – Jean Stapleton, American actress (b. 1923) 2014 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (b. 1928) 2014 – Marinho Chagas, Brazilian footballer and coach (b. 1952) 2014 – Hoss Ellington, American race car driver (b. 1935) 2014 – Martha Hyer, American actress (b. 1924) 2014 – Lewis Katz, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1942) 2014 – Mary Soames, Baroness Soames, English author (b. 1922) 2015 – Gladys Taylor, Canadian author and publisher (b. 1917) 2016 – Mohamed Abdelaziz, President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976–2016) (b. 1947) 2016 – Jan Crouch, American televangelist, co-founder of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (b. 1938) 2016 – Carla Lane, English television writer (b. 1928) 2016 – Rupert Neudeck, German journalist and humanitarian (b. 1939) Holidays and observances Anniversary of Royal Brunei Malay Regiment (Brunei) Christian feast day: Camilla Battista da Varano Hermias Petronella Visitation of Mary (Western Christianity) May 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) The beginning of Gawai Dayak (Dayaks in Sarawak, Malaysia and | American actor 1950 – Edgar Savisaar, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior 1951 – Karl-Hans Riehm, German hammer thrower 1952 – Karl Bartos, German singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1953 – Pirkka-Pekka Petelius, Finnish actor and screenwriter 1954 – Thomas Mavros, Greek footballer 1954 – Vicki Sue Robinson, American actress and singer (d. 2000) 1955 – Tommy Emmanuel, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1955 – Susie Essman, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter 1956 – Fritz Hilpert, German drummer and composer 1956 – John Young, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1957 – Jim Craig, American ice hockey player 1959 – Andrea de Cesaris, Italian racing driver (d. 2014) 1959 – Phil Wilson, English politician 1960 – Greg Adams, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman 1960 – Chris Elliott, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter 1960 – Peter Winterbottom, English rugby player 1961 – Ray Cote, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Justin Madden, Australian footballer and politician 1961 – Lea Thompson, American actress, director, and producer 1962 – Corey Hart, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer 1963 – David Leigh, holder of the Sir Samuel Hall Chair of Chemistry at the University of Manchester 1963 – Viktor Orbán, Hungarian politician, 38th Prime Minister of Hungary 1963 – Wesley Willis, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2003) 1964 – Leonard Asper, Canadian lawyer and businessman 1964 – Stéphane Caristan, French hurdler and coach 1964 – Yukio Edano, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs 1964 – Darryl "D.M.C." McDaniels, American rapper and producer 1965 – Brooke Shields, American model, actress, and producer 1966 – Diesel, American-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Roshan Mahanama, Sri Lankan cricketer and referee 1967 – Phil Keoghan, New Zealand television host and producer 1967 – Kenny Lofton, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster 1971 – Arun Luthra, Indo-Anglo-American saxophonist, konnakol artist, composer, and arranger 1972 – Christian McBride, American bassist and record producer 1972 – Archie Panjabi, British actress 1972 – Frode Estil, Norwegian skier 1972 – Antti Niemi, Finnish international footballer and coach 1972 – Dave Roberts, American baseball player and coach 1974 – Hiroiki Ariyoshi, Japanese comedian and singer 1975 – Mac Suzuki, Japanese baseball player 1976 – Colin Farrell, Irish actor 1976 – Matt Harpring, American basketball player and sportscaster 1977 – Domenico Fioravanti, Italian swimmer 1977 – Moses Sichone, Zambian footballer 1979 – Jean-François Gillet, Belgian footballer 1981 – Mikael Antonsson, Swedish footballer 1981 – Daniele Bonera, Italian footballer 1981 – Jake Peavy, American baseball player 1981 – Marlies Schild, Austrian skier 1984 – Andrew Bailey, American baseball player 1984 – Milorad Čavić, Serbian swimmer 1984 – Nate Robinson, American basketball player 1985 – Jordy Nelson, American football player 1986 – Robert Gesink, Dutch cyclist 1989 – Marco Reus, German footballer 1990 – Erik Karlsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1992 – Michaël Bournival, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Laura Ikauniece, Latvian heptathlete 1996 – Normani Kordei Hamilton, American singer 1998 – Santino Ferrucci, American race car driver Deaths Pre-1600 455 – Petronius Maximus, Roman emperor (b. 396) 930 – Liu Hua, princess of Southern Han (b. 896) 960 – Fujiwara no Morosuke, Japanese statesman (b. 909) 1076 – Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, English politician (b. 1050) 1089 – Sigwin von Are, archbishop of Cologne 1162 – Géza II, king of Hungary (b. 1130) 1321 – Birger, king of Sweden (b. 1280) 1326 – Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley (b. 1271) 1329 – Albertino Mussato, Italian statesman and writer (b. 1261) 1349 – Thomas Wake, English politician (b. 1297) 1370 – Vitalis of Assisi, Italian hermit and monk (b. 1295) 1408 – Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1358) 1410 – Martin of Aragon, Spanish king (b. 1356) 1504 – Engelbert II of Nassau (b. 1451) 1558 – Philip Hoby, English general and diplomat (b. 1505) 1567 – Guido de Bres, Belgian pastor and theologian (b. 1522) 1594 – Tintoretto, Italian painter and educator (b. 1518) 1601–1900 1601 – Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne (b. 1547) 1640 – Zeynab Begum, Safavid princess (date of birth unknown) 1665 – Pieter Jansz. Saenredam, Dutch painter (b. 1597) 1680 – Joachim Neander, German theologian and educator (b. 1650) 1740 – Frederick William I of Prussia (b. 1688) 1747 – Andrey Osterman, German-Russian politician, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1686) 1809 – Joseph Haydn, Austrian pianist and composer (b. 1732) 1809 – Jean Lannes, French general (b. 1769) 1831 – Samuel Bentham, English architect and engineer (b. 1757) 1832 – Évariste Galois, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1811) 1837 – Joseph Grimaldi, English actor, comedian and dancer, (b. 1779) 1846 – Philip Marheineke, German pastor and philosopher (b. 1780) 1847 – Thomas Chalmers, Scottish minister and economist (b. 1780) 1848 – Eugénie de Guérin, French author (b. 1805) 1899 – Stefanos Koumanoudis, Greek archaeologist, teacher and writer (b. 1818) 1901–present 1908 – Louis-Honoré Fréchette, Canadian author, poet, and politician (b. 1839) 1909 – Thomas Price, Welsh-Australian politician, 24th Premier of South Australia (b. 1852) 1910 – Elizabeth Blackwell, English-American physician and educator (b. 1821) 1931 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1866) 1931 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (b. 1864) 1945 – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (b. 1904) 1954 – Antonis Benakis, Greek art collector and philanthropist, founded the Benaki Museum (b. 1873) 1957 – Stefanos Sarafis, Greek general and politician (b. 1890) 1957 – Leopold Staff, Polish poet and academic (b. 1878) 1960 – Willem Elsschot, Flemish author and poet (b. 1882) 1960 – Walther Funk, German economist, journalist, and politician, German Minister of Economics (b. 1890) 1962 – Henry F. Ashurst, American lawyer and politician (b. 1874) 1967 – Billy Strayhorn, American pianist and composer (b. 1915) 1970 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1929) 1976 – Jacques Monod, French biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910) 1977 – William Castle, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1914) 1978 – József Bozsik, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1925) 1981 – Barbara |
English actor, director, and screenwriter 1961 – Bob Yari, Iranian-American director and producer 1962 – Kevin Eastman, American author and illustrator, co-created the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1962 – Richard Fuller, English lawyer and politician 1962 – Tim Loughton, English businessman and politician 1962 – Tonya Pinkins, American actress and singer 1963 – Michel Langevin, Canadian drummer and songwriter 1963 – Élise Lucet, French journalist 1963 – Helen Sharman, English chemist and astronaut 1964 – Wynonna Judd, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1964 – Andrea Montermini, Italian race car driver 1964 – Tom Morello, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1965 – Troy Coker, Australian rugby player 1965 – Billy Donovan, American basketball player and coach 1965 – Iginio Straffi, Italian animator and producer, founded Rainbow S.r.l. 1966 – Thomas Häßler, German footballer and manager 1966 – Stephen Malkmus, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Tim Burgess, English singer-songwriter 1967 – Rechelle Hawkes, Australian hockey player 1967 – Sven Pipien, German-American bass player 1968 – Jason Kenney, Canadian lawyer and politician, 40th Canadian Minister of National Defence 1968 – Zacarias Moussaoui, French citizen, sentenced to life in prison related to September 11 attacks 1969 – Naomi Kawase, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Ryuhei Kitamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Paul Grayson, English rugby player and coach 1971 – Duncan Jones, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Idina Menzel, American singer-songwriter and actress 1971 – Jiří Šlégr, Czech ice hockey player and politician 1971 – Adrian Vowles, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1972 – Manny Ramirez, Dominican-American baseball player and coach 1974 – Big L, American rapper (d. 1999) 1974 – Kostas Chalkias, Greek footballer 1974 – CeeLo Green, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor 1974 – David Wilkie, American ice hockey player and coach 1975 – Evan Eschmeyer, American basketball player 1975 – Brian Fair, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Andy Farrell, English rugby player and coach 1975 – Marissa Mayer, American computer scientist and businesswoman 1976 – Rasho Nesterović, basketball player 1976 – Magnus Norman, Swedish tennis player and coach 1976 – Margaret Okayo, Kenyan runner 1977 – Rachael Stirling, English actress 1977 – Federico Vilar, Argentinian-Italian footballer 1979 – Mike Bishai, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Clint Bowyer, American race car driver 1979 – Francis Lessard, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Steven Gerrard, English international footballer and manager 1980 – Ilona Korstin, Russian basketball player 1980 – Ryōgo Narita, Japanese author 1981 – Devendra Banhart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1981 – Gianmaria Bruni, Italian race car driver 1981 – Ahmad Elrich, Australian footballer 1981 – Remy Ma, American rapper 1981 – Lars Møller Madsen, Danish handball player 1981 – Hisanori Takada, Japanese footballer 1982 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (d. 2007) 1982 – James Simpson-Daniel, English rugby player 1984 – Sham Kwok Fai, Hong Kong footballer 1984 – Matt Maguire, Australian footballer 1984 – Alexander Sulzer, German ice hockey player 1985 – Igor Kurnosov, Russian chess player (d. 2013) 1985 – Igor Lewczuk, Polish footballer 1985 – Aaron Volpatti, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Nikolay Bodurov, Bulgarian international footballer 1989 – Ailee, Korean-American singer and songwriter 1989 – Lesia Tsurenko, Ukrainian tennis player 1990 – Andrei Loktionov, Russian ice hockey player 1991 – Jonathan Fox, English swimmer 1992 – Harrison Barnes, American basketball player 1992 – Danielle Harold, English actress 1994 – Scott Laughton, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Beatriz Haddad Maia, Brazilian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 531 – Xiao Tong, prince of the Liang Dynasty (b. 501) 727 – Hubertus, bishop Liège 947 – Ma Xifan, king of Chu (b. 899) 1035 – Baldwin IV, count of Flanders (b. 980) 1159 – Władysław II the Exile, High Duke of Poland and Duke of Silesia (b. 1105) 1252 – Ferdinand III, king of Castile and León (b. 1199) 1347 – John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, English peer (b. 1290) 1376 – Joan of Ponthieu, Dame of Epernon, French noblewoman 1416 – Jerome of Prague, Czech martyr and theologian (b. 1379) 1431 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (b. 1412) 1434 – Prokop the Great, Czech general (b. 1380) 1469 – Lope de Barrientos, Castilian bishop (b. 1389) 1472 – Jacquetta of Luxembourg, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg (b. 1416) 1574 – Charles IX of France (b. 1550) 1593 – Christopher Marlowe, English poet and playwright (b. 1564) 1601–1900 1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth of the Sikh gurus (b. 1563) 1640 – Peter Paul Rubens, German-Belgian painter (b. 1577) 1696 – Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Tewkesbury, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1638) 1670 – John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (b. 1597) 1712 – Andrea Lanzani, Italian painter (b. 1645) 1718 – Arnold van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle, Dutch-English general (b. 1670) 1744 – Alexander Pope, English poet, essayist, and translator (b. 1688) 1770 – François Boucher, French painter and set designer (b. 1703) 1778 – Voltaire, French philosopher and author (b. 1694) 1778 – José de la Borda, French/Spanish mining magnate in colonial Mexico (b. ca. 1700) 1829 – Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial, French general (b. 1774) 1832 – James Mackintosh, Scottish historian, jurist, and politician (b. 1765) 1855 – Mary Reibey, Australian businesswoman, (b. 1777) 1873 – Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, Indian Muslim scholar, (b. 1800) 1892 – Mary Hannah Gray Clarke, American author, correspondent, and poet (b. 1835) 1865 – John Catron, American lawyer and judge (b. 1786) 1901–present 1901 – Victor D'Hondt, Belgian mathematician, lawyer, and jurist (b. 1841) 1911 – Milton Bradley, American businessman, founded the Milton Bradley Company (b. 1836) 1912 – Wilbur Wright, American pilot and businessman, co-founded the Wright Company (b. 1867) 1918 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher and theorist (b. 1856) 1925 – Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (b. 1876) 1926 – Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician and physicist (b. 1864) 1934 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (b. 1848) 1939 – Floyd Roberts, American race car driver (b. 1904) 1941 – Prajadhipok, Thai king (b. 1893) 1946 – Louis Slotin, Canadian physicist and chemist (b. 1910) 1947 – Georg von Trapp, Austrian captain (b. 1880) 1948 – József Klekl, Slovene-Hungarian priest and politician (b. 1874) 1949 – Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, French cardinal (b. 1874) 1951 – Hermann Broch, Austrian-American author (b. 1886) 1953 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (b. 1886) 1955 – Bill Vukovich, American race car driver (b. 1918) 1957 – Piero Carini, Italian race car driver (b. 1921) 1960 – Boris Pasternak, Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) 1961 – Rafael Trujillo, Dominican soldier and politician, 36th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1891) 1964 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian king (b. 1882) 1964 – Eddie Sachs, American race car driver (b. 1927) 1964 – Leó Szilárd, Hungarian-American physicist and engineer (b. 1898) 1965 – Louis Hjelmslev, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1899) 1967 – Claude Rains, English-American actor (b. 1889) 1971 – Marcel Dupré, French organist and composer (b. 1886) 1975 – Steve Prefontaine, American runner (b. 1951) 1975 – Tatsuo Shimabuku, Japanese martial artist, founded Isshin-ryū (b. 1908) 1975 – Michel Simon, Swiss-born French actor (b. 1895) 1976 – Max Carey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1890) 1976 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain (b. 1902) 1978 – Jean Deslauriers, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1909) 1980 – Carl Radle, American bass player and producer (b. 1942) 1981 – Don Ashby, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1955) 1981 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, 7th President of Bangladesh (b. 1936) 1982 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (b. 1904) 1986 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer, founded his own eponymous fashion brand (b. 1940) 1993 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1914) 1994 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899) 1994 – Marcel Bich, Italian-French businessman, co-founded Société Bic (b. 1914) 1994 – Agostino Di Bartolomei, Italian footballer (b. 1955) 1995 – Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (b. 1912) 1995 – Lofty England, English-Austrian engineer (b. 1911) 1995 – Bobby Stokes, English footballer (b. 1951) 1996 – Léon-Étienne Duval, French cardinal (b. 1903) 1996 – Alo Mattiisen, Estonian composer (b. 1961) 1999 – Kalju Lepik, Estonian poet and author (b. 1920) 2000 – Tex Beneke, American saxophonist and bandleader (b. 1914) 2001 – Denis Whitaker, Canadian general and historian (b. 1915) 2005 – Gérald Leblanc, Acadian poet (b. 1945) 2005 – Tomasz Pacyński, Polish journalist and author (b. 1958) 2005 – Alma Ziegler, American baseball player and stenographer (b. 1918) 2006 – Shohei Imamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2006 – David Lloyd, New Zealand biologist and academic (b. 1938) 2006 – Robert Sterling, American actor (b. 1917) 2007 – Jean-Claude Brialy, Algerian-French actor and director (b. 1933) 2007 – Birgit Dalland, Norwegian politician (b. 1907) 2007 – Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, Indian poet and critic (b. 1927) 2009 – Torsten Andersson, Swedish painter and illustrator (b. 1926) 2009 – Susanna Haapoja, Finnish politician (b. 1966) 2009 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (b. 1916) 2010 – Yuri Chesnokov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1933) 2010 – Dufferin Roblin, Canadian commander and politician, 14th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1917) 2011 – Isikia Savua, Fijian police officer and diplomat (b. 1952) 2011 – Saleem Shahzad, Pakistani journalist (b. 1970) 2011 – Marek Siemek, Polish philosopher and historian (b. 1942) 2011 – Clarice Taylor, American actress (b. 1917) 2011 – Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921) 2012 – John Fox, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1957) 2012 – Andrew Huxley, English physiologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917) 2012 – Gerhard Pohl, German economist and politician (b. 1937) 2012 – Jack Twyman, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1934) 2013 – Jayalath Jayawardena, Sri Lankan physician and politician (b. 1953) 2013 – Larry Jones, American football player and coach (b. 1933) 2014 – Hienadz Buraukin, Belarusian poet, journalist, and diplomat (b. 1936) 2014 – Henning Carlsen, Danish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2014 – Joan Lorring, British actress | – Pro Hart, Australian painter (d. 2006) 1928 – Agnès Varda, Belgian-French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1929 – Georges Gilson, French archbishop 1930 – Mark Birley, English businessman, founded Annabel's (d. 2007) 1930 – Robert Ryman, American painter (d. 2019) 1931 – Larry Silverstein, American real estate magnate 1932 – Ray Cooney, English actor and playwright 1932 – Pauline Oliveros, American accordion player and composer (d. 2016) 1932 – Ivor Richard, Baron Richard, Welsh politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2018) 1934 – Alexei Leonov, Russian general, pilot, and cosmonaut (d. 2019) 1934 – Alketas Panagoulias, Greek footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1935 – Ruta Lee, Canadian-American actress and dancer 1935 – Guy Tardif, Canadian academic and politician (d. 2005) 1936 – Keir Dullea, American actor 1937 – Christopher Haskins, Anglo-Irish businessman, life peer, and British politician 1937 – Rick Mather, American-English architect (d. 2013) 1938 – Billie Letts, American author and educator (d. 2014) 1939 – Michael J. Pollard, American actor (d. 2019) 1939 – Dieter Quester, Austrian race car driver 1939 – Tim Waterstone, Scottish businessman, founded Waterstones 1940 – Jagmohan Dalmiya, Indian cricket administrator (d. 2015) 1940 – Gilles Villemure, Canadian-American ice hockey player 1942 – John Gladwin, English bishop 1942 – Carole Stone, English journalist and author 1943 – James Chaney, American civil rights activist (d. 1964) 1943 – Anders Michanek, Swedish motorcycle racer 1943 – Gale Sayers, American football player and philanthropist (d. 2020) 1944 – Lenny Davidson, English guitarist and songwriter 1944 – Meredith MacRae, American actress (d. 2000) 1944 – Stav Prodromou, Greek-American engineer and businessman 1945 – Gladys Horton, American singer (d. 2011) 1946 – Allan Chapman, English historian and author 1946 – Dragan Džajić, Serbian and Yugoslav footballer 1947 – Jocelyne Bourassa, Canadian golfer (d. 2021) 1948 – Johan De Muynck, Belgian former professional road racing cyclist 1948 – Michael Piller, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2005) 1948 – David Thorpe, Australian rules footballer 1949 – P.J. Carlesimo, American basketball player and coach 1949 – Paul Coleridge, English lawyer and judge 1949 – Bob Willis, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1950 – Bertrand Delanoë, French politician, 14th Mayor of Paris 1950 – Paresh Rawal, Indian actor, producer, and politician 1950 – Joshua Rozenberg, English lawyer, journalist, and author 1951 – Zdravko Čolić, Bosnian Serb singer-songwriter 1951 – Fernando Lugo, Paraguayan bishop and politician, President of Paraguay 1951 – Stephen Tobolowsky, American actor, singer, and director 1952 – Daniel Grodnik, American screenwriter and producer 1952 – Kerry Fraser, Canadian ice hockey player, referee, and sportscaster 1953 – Jim Hunter, Canadian skier 1953 – Colm Meaney, Irish actor 1955 – Topper Headon, English drummer and songwriter 1955 – Jacqueline McGlade, English-Canadian biologist, ecologist, and academic 1955 – Caroline Swift, English lawyer and judge 1955 – Colm Tóibín, Irish novelist, poet, playwright, and critic 1956 – Tim Lucas, American author, screenwriter, and critic 1957 – Mike Clayton, Australian golfer 1958 – Eugene Belliveau, Canadian football player 1958 – Marie Fredriksson, Swedish singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2019) 1958 – Steve Israel, American lawyer and politician 1958 – Michael López-Alegría, Spanish-American captain, pilot, and astronaut 1958 – Ted McGinley, American actor 1959 – Phil Brown, English footballer, coach, and manager 1959 – Randy Ferbey, Canadian curler 1959 – Frank Vanhecke, Belgian politician 1961 – Harry Enfield, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1961 – Bob Yari, Iranian-American director and producer 1962 – Kevin Eastman, American author and illustrator, co-created the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1962 – Richard Fuller, English lawyer and politician 1962 – Tim Loughton, English businessman and politician 1962 – Tonya Pinkins, American actress and singer 1963 – Michel Langevin, Canadian drummer and songwriter 1963 – Élise Lucet, French journalist 1963 – Helen Sharman, English chemist and astronaut 1964 – Wynonna Judd, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1964 – Andrea Montermini, Italian race car driver 1964 – Tom Morello, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1965 – Troy Coker, Australian rugby player 1965 – Billy Donovan, American basketball player and coach 1965 – Iginio Straffi, Italian animator and producer, founded Rainbow S.r.l. 1966 – Thomas Häßler, German footballer and manager 1966 – Stephen Malkmus, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Tim Burgess, English singer-songwriter 1967 – Rechelle Hawkes, Australian hockey player 1967 – Sven Pipien, German-American bass player 1968 – Jason Kenney, Canadian lawyer and politician, 40th Canadian Minister of National Defence 1968 – Zacarias Moussaoui, French citizen, sentenced to life in prison related to September 11 attacks 1969 – Naomi Kawase, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1969 – Ryuhei Kitamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Paul Grayson, English rugby player and coach 1971 – Duncan Jones, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Idina Menzel, American singer-songwriter and actress 1971 – Jiří Šlégr, Czech ice hockey player and politician 1971 – Adrian Vowles, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1972 – Manny Ramirez, Dominican-American baseball player and coach 1974 – Big L, American rapper (d. 1999) 1974 – Kostas Chalkias, Greek footballer 1974 – CeeLo Green, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor 1974 – David Wilkie, American ice hockey player and coach 1975 – Evan Eschmeyer, American basketball player 1975 – Brian Fair, American singer-songwriter 1975 – Andy Farrell, English rugby player and coach 1975 – Marissa Mayer, American computer scientist and businesswoman 1976 – Rasho Nesterović, basketball player 1976 – Magnus Norman, Swedish tennis player and coach 1976 – Margaret Okayo, Kenyan runner 1977 – Rachael Stirling, English actress 1977 – Federico Vilar, Argentinian-Italian footballer 1979 – Mike Bishai, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Clint Bowyer, American race car driver 1979 – Francis Lessard, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Steven Gerrard, English international footballer and manager 1980 – Ilona Korstin, Russian basketball player 1980 – Ryōgo Narita, Japanese author 1981 – Devendra Banhart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1981 – Gianmaria Bruni, Italian race car driver 1981 – Ahmad Elrich, Australian footballer 1981 – Remy Ma, American rapper 1981 – Lars Møller Madsen, Danish handball player 1981 – Hisanori Takada, Japanese footballer 1982 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (d. 2007) 1982 – James Simpson-Daniel, English rugby player 1984 – Sham Kwok Fai, Hong Kong footballer 1984 – Matt Maguire, Australian footballer 1984 – Alexander Sulzer, German ice hockey player 1985 – Igor Kurnosov, Russian chess player (d. 2013) 1985 – Igor Lewczuk, Polish footballer 1985 – Aaron Volpatti, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Nikolay Bodurov, Bulgarian international footballer 1989 – Ailee, Korean-American singer and songwriter 1989 – Lesia Tsurenko, Ukrainian tennis player 1990 – Andrei Loktionov, Russian ice hockey player 1991 – Jonathan Fox, English swimmer 1992 – Harrison Barnes, American basketball player 1992 – Danielle Harold, English actress 1994 – Scott Laughton, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Beatriz Haddad Maia, Brazilian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 531 – Xiao Tong, prince of the Liang Dynasty (b. 501) 727 – Hubertus, bishop Liège 947 – Ma Xifan, king of Chu (b. 899) 1035 – Baldwin IV, count of Flanders (b. 980) 1159 – Władysław II the Exile, High Duke of Poland and Duke of Silesia (b. 1105) 1252 – Ferdinand III, king of Castile and León (b. 1199) 1347 – John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, English peer (b. 1290) 1376 – Joan of Ponthieu, Dame of Epernon, French noblewoman 1416 – Jerome of Prague, Czech martyr and theologian (b. 1379) 1431 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (b. 1412) 1434 – Prokop the Great, Czech general (b. 1380) 1469 – Lope de Barrientos, Castilian bishop (b. 1389) 1472 – Jacquetta of Luxembourg, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg (b. 1416) 1574 – Charles IX of France (b. 1550) 1593 – Christopher Marlowe, English poet and playwright (b. 1564) 1601–1900 1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth of the Sikh gurus (b. 1563) 1640 – Peter Paul Rubens, German-Belgian painter (b. 1577) 1696 – Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Tewkesbury, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1638) 1670 – John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (b. 1597) 1712 – Andrea Lanzani, Italian painter (b. 1645) 1718 – Arnold van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle, Dutch-English general (b. 1670) 1744 – Alexander Pope, English poet, essayist, and translator (b. 1688) 1770 – François Boucher, French painter and set designer (b. 1703) 1778 – Voltaire, French philosopher and author (b. 1694) 1778 – José de la Borda, French/Spanish mining magnate in colonial Mexico (b. ca. 1700) 1829 – Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial, French general (b. 1774) 1832 – James Mackintosh, Scottish historian, jurist, and politician (b. 1765) 1855 – Mary Reibey, Australian businesswoman, (b. 1777) 1873 – Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, Indian Muslim scholar, (b. 1800) 1892 – Mary Hannah Gray Clarke, American author, correspondent, and poet (b. 1835) 1865 – John Catron, American lawyer and judge (b. 1786) 1901–present 1901 – Victor D'Hondt, Belgian mathematician, lawyer, and jurist (b. 1841) 1911 – Milton Bradley, American businessman, founded the Milton Bradley Company (b. 1836) 1912 – Wilbur Wright, American pilot and businessman, co-founded the Wright Company (b. 1867) 1918 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher and theorist (b. 1856) 1925 – Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (b. 1876) 1926 – Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician and physicist (b. 1864) 1934 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (b. 1848) 1939 – Floyd Roberts, American race car driver (b. 1904) 1941 – Prajadhipok, Thai king (b. 1893) 1946 – Louis Slotin, Canadian physicist and chemist (b. 1910) 1947 – Georg von Trapp, Austrian captain (b. 1880) 1948 – József Klekl, Slovene-Hungarian priest and politician (b. 1874) 1949 – Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, French cardinal (b. 1874) 1951 – Hermann Broch, Austrian-American author (b. 1886) 1953 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (b. 1886) 1955 – Bill Vukovich, American race car driver (b. 1918) 1957 – Piero Carini, Italian race car driver (b. 1921) 1960 – Boris Pasternak, Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) 1961 – Rafael Trujillo, Dominican soldier and politician, 36th President of the Dominican Republic (b. 1891) 1964 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian king (b. 1882) 1964 – Eddie Sachs, American race car driver (b. 1927) 1964 – Leó Szilárd, Hungarian-American physicist and engineer (b. 1898) 1965 – Louis Hjelmslev, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1899) 1967 – Claude Rains, English-American actor (b. 1889) 1971 – Marcel Dupré, French organist and composer (b. 1886) 1975 – Steve Prefontaine, American runner (b. 1951) 1975 – Tatsuo Shimabuku, Japanese martial artist, founded Isshin-ryū (b. 1908) 1975 – Michel Simon, Swiss-born French actor (b. 1895) 1976 – Max Carey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1890) 1976 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain (b. 1902) 1978 – Jean Deslauriers, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1909) 1980 – Carl Radle, American bass player and producer (b. 1942) 1981 – Don Ashby, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1955) 1981 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, 7th President of Bangladesh (b. 1936) 1982 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (b. 1904) 1986 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer, founded his own eponymous fashion brand (b. 1940) 1993 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1914) 1994 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1899) 1994 – Marcel Bich, Italian-French businessman, co-founded Société Bic (b. 1914) 1994 – Agostino Di Bartolomei, Italian footballer (b. 1955) 1995 – Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (b. 1912) 1995 – Lofty England, English-Austrian engineer (b. 1911) 1995 – Bobby Stokes, English footballer (b. 1951) 1996 – Léon-Étienne Duval, |
(d. 1813) 1734 – Franz Mesmer, German physician and astrologer (d. 1815) 1741 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian organist and composer (d. 1801) 1789 – Franz Schlik, Austrian earl and general (d. 1862) 1790 – Jules Dumont d'Urville, French admiral and explorer (d. 1842) 1790 – James Pradier, French neoclassical sculptor (d. 1852) 1794 – Ignaz Moscheles, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1870) 1795 – Charles Barry, English architect, designed the Upper Brook Street Chapel and Halifax Town Hall (d. 1860) 1800 – Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1877) 1810 – Margaret Fuller, American journalist and critic (d. 1850) 1817 – Manuel Robles Pezuela, Unconstitutional Mexican interim president (d. 1862) 1820 – James Buchanan Eads, American engineer, designed the Eads Bridge (d. 1887) 1820 – Lorenzo Sawyer, American lawyer and judge (d. 1891) 1824 – Ambrose Burnside, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1881) 1834 – Jānis Frīdrihs Baumanis, Latvian architect (d. 1891) 1834 – Carl Bloch, Danish painter and academic (d. 1890) 1837 – Anatole Mallet, Swiss mechanical engineer and inventor (d. 1919) 1837 – Józef Wieniawski, Polish pianist and composer (d. 1912) 1838 – Amaldus Nielsen, Norwegian painter (d. 1932) 1840 – George Throssell, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1910) 1844 – `Abdu'l-Bahá, Iranian religious leader (d. 1921) 1848 – Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (d. 1896) 1855 – Isabella Ford, English author and activist (d. 1924) 1861 – József Rippl-Rónai, Hungarian painter (d. 1927) 1863 – Władysław Horodecki, Polish architect (d. 1930) 1864 – William O'Connor, American fencer (d. 1939) 1865 – Epitácio Pessoa, Brazilian jurist and politician, 11th President of Brazil (d. 1942) 1875 – Alfred P. Sloan, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1966) 1882 – William Halpenny, Canadian pole vaulter (d. 1960) 1883 – Douglas Fairbanks, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1939) 1884 – Corrado Gini, Italian sociologist and demographer (d. 1965) 1887 – Thoralf Skolem, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (d. 1963) 1887 – Nikolai Vekšin, Estonian-Russian sailor and captain (d. 1951) 1888 – Adriaan Roland Holst, Dutch writer (d. 1976) 1888 – Zack Wheat, American baseball player and police officer (d. 1972) 1889 – Ernst Niekisch, German educator and politician (d. 1967) 1890 – Herbert Marshall, English-American actor and singer (d. 1966) 1891 – Pär Lagerkvist, Swedish novelist, playwright, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1892 – Albert Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer, British peer (d. 1975) 1896 – Felix Steiner, Russian-German SS officer (d. 1966) 1897 – Jimmie Guthrie, Scottish motorcycle racer (d. 1937) 1898 – Scott O'Dell, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1989) 1898 – Josef Terboven, German soldier and politician (d. 1945) 1899 – Jeralean Talley, American super-centenarian (d. 2015) 1900 – Hans Frank, German lawyer and politician (d. 1946) 1900 – Franz Leopold Neumann, German lawyer and theorist (d. 1954) 1901–present 1908 – John Bardeen, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) 1908 – Hélène Boucher, French pilot (d. 1934) 1910 – Margaret Wise Brown, American author and educator (d. 1952) 1910 – Hugh Casson, English architect and academic (d. 1999) 1910 – Scatman Crothers, American actor and comedian (d. 1986) 1910 – Franz Kline, American painter and academic (d. 1962) 1910 – Artie Shaw, American clarinet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 2004) 1911 – Lou Brouillard, Canadian boxer (d. 1984) 1911 – Paul Augustin Mayer, German cardinal (d. 2010) 1911 – Betty Nuthall, English tennis player (d. 1983) 1912 – Jean Françaix, French pianist and composer (d. 1997) 1912 – John Payne, American actor (d. 1989) 1914 – Harold Hitchcock, English visionary landscape artist (d. 2009) 1914 – Celestine Sibley, American journalist and author (d. 1999) 1914 – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, English economist, journalist, and prominent Catholic layperson (d. 1981) 1915 – S. Donald Stookey, American physicist and chemist, invented CorningWare (d. 2014) 1917 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (d. 2008) 1918 – Denis Compton, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1997) 1919 – Robert Bernstein, American author and playwright (d. 1988) 1919 – Ruth Fernández, Puerto Rican contralto and a member of the Puerto Rican Senate (d. 2012) 1919 – Betty Garrett, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2011) 1920 – Helen O'Connell, American singer (d. 1993) 1921 – Humphrey Lyttelton, British jazz musician and broadcaster (d. 2008) 1923 – Alicia de Larrocha, Catalan-Spanish pianist (d. 2009) 1923 – Irving Millman, American virologist and microbiologist (d. 2012) 1924 – Karlheinz Deschner, German author and activist (d. 2014) 1925 – Joshua Lederberg, American biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1926 – Basil Salvadore D'Souza, Indian bishop (d. 1996) 1926 – Joe Slovo, Lithuanian-South African activist and politician (d. 1995) 1928 – Rosemary Clooney, American singer and actress (d. 2002) 1928 – Nigel Davenport, English actor (d. 2013) 1928 – Nina Otkalenko, Russian runner (d. 2015) 1929 – Ulla Jacobsson, Swedish-Austrian actress (d. 1982) 1930 – Friedrich Achleitner, German poet and critic (d. 2019) 1931 – Barbara Barrie, American actress 1932 – Kevork Ajemian, Syrian-French journalist and author (d. 1998) 1933 – Joan Collins, English actress 1933 – Ove Fundin, Swedish motorcycle racer 1934 – Robert Moog, electronic engineer and inventor of the Moog synthesizer (d. 2005) 1935 – Lasse Strömstedt, Swedish author (d. 2009) 1936 – Ingeborg Hallstein, German soprano and actress 1936 – Charles Kimbrough, American actor 1939 – Michel Colombier, French-American composer and conductor (d. 2004) 1939 – Reinhard Hauff, German director and screenwriter 1940 – Bjorn Johansen, Norwegian saxophonist (d. 2002) 1940 – Gérard Larrousse, French race car driver 1940 – Cora Sadosky, Argentinian mathematician and academic (d. 2010) 1941 – Zalman King, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1941 – Rod Thorn, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1942 – Gabriel Liiceanu, Romanian philosopher, author, and academic 1942 – Kovelamudi Raghavendra Rao, Indian director, screenwriter, and choreographer 1943 – Peter Kenilorea, Solomon Islands politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (d. 2016) 1944 – John Newcombe, Australian tennis player and sportscaster 1945 – Padmarajan, Indian director, screenwriter, and author (d. 1991) 1946 – David Graham, Australian golfer 1947 – Jane Kenyon, American poet and translator (d. 1995) 1948 – Myriam Boyer, French actress, director, and producer 1949 – Daniel DiNardo, American cardinal 1949 – Alan García, Peruvian lawyer and politician, 61st and 64th President of Peru (d. 2019) 1950 – Martin McGuinness, Irish republican and Sinn Féin politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2017) 1951 – Anatoly Karpov, Russian chess player 1951 – Antonis Samaras, Greek economist and politician, 185th Prime Minister of Greece 1952 – Martin Parr, English photographer and journalist 1954 – Gerry Armstrong, Northern Irish international footballer, striker 1954 – Marvelous Marvin Hagler, American boxer and actor (d. 2021) 1955 – Luka Bloom, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Andrea Pazienza, Italian illustrator and painter (d. 1988) 1956 – Ursula Plassnik, Austrian politician and diplomat, Foreign Minister of Austria 1956 – Buck Showalter, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1958 – Mitch Albom, American journalist, author, and screenwriter 1958 – Drew Carey, American actor, game show host, and entrepreneur 1958 – Lea DeLaria, American actress and singer 1959 – Marcella Mesker, Dutch tennis player and sportscaster 1960 – Linden Ashby, American actor 1961 – Daniele Massaro, Italian footballer and manager 1961 – Norrie May-Welby, Scottish Australian gender activist 1962 – Karen Duffy, American actress 1963 – Viviane Baladi, Swiss mathematician 1964 – Ruth Metzler, Swiss lawyer and politician 1965 – Manuel Sanchís Hontiyuelo, Spanish footballer 1965 – Tom Tykwer, German director, producer, screenwriter, and composer 1965 – Melissa McBride, American actress 1965 – Paul Sironen, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Graeme Hick, Zimbabwean-English cricketer and coach 1966 – Gary Roberts, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1967 – Luís Roberto Alves, Mexican footballer 1967 – Anna Ibrisagic, Swedish politician 1968 – Guinevere Turner, American actress and screenwriter 1970 – Bryan Herta, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Bryan Herta Autosport 1971 – George Osborne, English journalist and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer 1972 – Rubens Barrichello, Brazilian race car driver 1972 – Martin Saggers, English cricketer and umpire 1973 – Maxwell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1974 – Jewel, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actress, and poet 1974 – Manuela Schwesig, German politician, German Federal Minister of Family Affairs 1976 – Ricardinho, Brazilian footballer and manager 1977 – Richard Ayoade, British actor, director and writer 1977 – Ilia Kulik, Russian figure skater 1978 – Scott Raynor, American drummer 1979 – Rasual Butler, American basketball player (d. 2018) 1979 – Brian Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Theofanis Gekas, Greek footballer 1980 – Ben Ross, Australian rugby league player 1983 – Silvio Proto, Belgian-Italian footballer 1984 – Hugo Almeida, Portuguese footballer 1985 – Sebastián Fernández, Uruguayan footballer 1985 – Teymuraz Gabashvili, Russian tennis player 1985 – Wim Stroetinga, Dutch cyclist 1985 – Ross Wallace, Scottish footballer 1986 – Ryan Coogler, American film director and screenwriter 1986 – Alexei Sitnikov, Russian-Azerbaijani figure skater 1986 – Alice Tait, Australian swimmer 1986 – Ruben Zadkovich, Australian footballer 1987 – Gracie Otto, Australian actress, director, producer, and screenwriter 1987 – Bray Wyatt, American wrestler 1988 – Rosanna Crawford, Canadian biathlete 1988 – Angelo Ogbonna, Italian footballer 1988 – Morgan Pressel, American golfer 1989 – Ezequiel Schelotto, Italian footballer 1990 – Dan Evans, British tennis player 1990 – Kristina Kucova, Slovakian tennis player 1990 – Oliver Venno, Estonian volleyball player 1991 – Aaron Donald, American football player 1991 – Lena Meyer-Landrut, German singer-songwriter 1991 – César Pinares, Chilean footballer 1996 – Katharina Althaus, German ski jumper 1996 – Emmanuel Boateng, Ghanaian footballer 1996 – Razvan Marin, Romanian footballer 1997 – Pedro Chirivella, Spanish footballer 1997 – Coy Craft, American footballer 1997 – Joe Gomez, English footballer 1997 – Gustaf Nilsson, Swedish footballer 1997 – Sam Timmins, New Zealand basketball player 1998 – Sérgio Sette Câmara, Brazilian racing driver 1998 – Salwa Eid Naser, Bahraini track and field sprinter 1999 – James Charles, American internet personality Deaths Pre-1600 230 – Urban I, pope of the Catholic Church 922 – Li Sizhao, Chinese general and governor 962 – Guibert of Gembloux, Frankish abbot (b. 892) 1125 – Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1086) 1304 – Jehan de Lescurel, French poet and composer 1338 – Alice de Warenne, Countess of Arundel, English noble (b. 1287) 1370 – Toghon Temür, Mongol | Lake Maggiore in northern Italy, killing 14 people. Births Pre-1600 635 – K'inich Kan Bahlam II, Mayan king (d. 702) 675 – Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II, King of Mutharaiyar dynasty, Tamil Nadu, India 1052 – Philip I of France (d. 1108) 1100 – Emperor Qinzong of Song (d. 1161) 1127 – Uijong of Goryeo, Korean monarch of the Goryeo dynasty (d. 1173) 1330 – Gongmin of Goryeo, Korean ruler (d. 1374) 1586 – Paul Siefert, German composer and organist (d. 1666) 1601–1900 1606 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish mathematician and philosopher (d. 1682) 1614 – Bertholet Flemalle, Flemish Baroque painter (d. 1675) 1617 – Elias Ashmole, English astrologer and politician (d. 1692) 1629 – William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, noble of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1663) 1707 – Carl Linnaeus, Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist (d. 1778) 1718 – William Hunter, Scottish-English anatomist and physician (d. 1783) 1729 – Giuseppe Parini, Italian poet and educator (d. 1799) 1730 – Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia, Prussian prince and general (d. 1813) 1734 – Franz Mesmer, German physician and astrologer (d. 1815) 1741 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian organist and composer (d. 1801) 1789 – Franz Schlik, Austrian earl and general (d. 1862) 1790 – Jules Dumont d'Urville, French admiral and explorer (d. 1842) 1790 – James Pradier, French neoclassical sculptor (d. 1852) 1794 – Ignaz Moscheles, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1870) 1795 – Charles Barry, English architect, designed the Upper Brook Street Chapel and Halifax Town Hall (d. 1860) 1800 – Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1877) 1810 – Margaret Fuller, American journalist and critic (d. 1850) 1817 – Manuel Robles Pezuela, Unconstitutional Mexican interim president (d. 1862) 1820 – James Buchanan Eads, American engineer, designed the Eads Bridge (d. 1887) 1820 – Lorenzo Sawyer, American lawyer and judge (d. 1891) 1824 – Ambrose Burnside, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1881) 1834 – Jānis Frīdrihs Baumanis, Latvian architect (d. 1891) 1834 – Carl Bloch, Danish painter and academic (d. 1890) 1837 – Anatole Mallet, Swiss mechanical engineer and inventor (d. 1919) 1837 – Józef Wieniawski, Polish pianist and composer (d. 1912) 1838 – Amaldus Nielsen, Norwegian painter (d. 1932) 1840 – George Throssell, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1910) 1844 – `Abdu'l-Bahá, Iranian religious leader (d. 1921) 1848 – Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (d. 1896) 1855 – Isabella Ford, English author and activist (d. 1924) 1861 – József Rippl-Rónai, Hungarian painter (d. 1927) 1863 – Władysław Horodecki, Polish architect (d. 1930) 1864 – William O'Connor, American fencer (d. 1939) 1865 – Epitácio Pessoa, Brazilian jurist and politician, 11th President of Brazil (d. 1942) 1875 – Alfred P. Sloan, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1966) 1882 – William Halpenny, Canadian pole vaulter (d. 1960) 1883 – Douglas Fairbanks, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1939) 1884 – Corrado Gini, Italian sociologist and demographer (d. 1965) 1887 – Thoralf Skolem, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (d. 1963) 1887 – Nikolai Vekšin, Estonian-Russian sailor and captain (d. 1951) 1888 – Adriaan Roland Holst, Dutch writer (d. 1976) 1888 – Zack Wheat, American baseball player and police officer (d. 1972) 1889 – Ernst Niekisch, German educator and politician (d. 1967) 1890 – Herbert Marshall, English-American actor and singer (d. 1966) 1891 – Pär Lagerkvist, Swedish novelist, playwright, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1892 – Albert Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer, British peer (d. 1975) 1896 – Felix Steiner, Russian-German SS officer (d. 1966) 1897 – Jimmie Guthrie, Scottish motorcycle racer (d. 1937) 1898 – Scott O'Dell, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1989) 1898 – Josef Terboven, German soldier and politician (d. 1945) 1899 – Jeralean Talley, American super-centenarian (d. 2015) 1900 – Hans Frank, German lawyer and politician (d. 1946) 1900 – Franz Leopold Neumann, German lawyer and theorist (d. 1954) 1901–present 1908 – John Bardeen, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991) 1908 – Hélène Boucher, French pilot (d. 1934) 1910 – Margaret Wise Brown, American author and educator (d. 1952) 1910 – Hugh Casson, English architect and academic (d. 1999) 1910 – Scatman Crothers, American actor and comedian (d. 1986) 1910 – Franz Kline, American painter and academic (d. 1962) 1910 – Artie Shaw, American clarinet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 2004) 1911 – Lou Brouillard, Canadian boxer (d. 1984) 1911 – Paul Augustin Mayer, German cardinal (d. 2010) 1911 – Betty Nuthall, English tennis player (d. 1983) 1912 – Jean Françaix, French pianist and composer (d. 1997) 1912 – John Payne, American actor (d. 1989) 1914 – Harold Hitchcock, English visionary landscape artist (d. 2009) 1914 – Celestine Sibley, American journalist and author (d. 1999) 1914 – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, English economist, journalist, and prominent Catholic layperson (d. 1981) 1915 – S. Donald Stookey, American physicist and chemist, invented CorningWare (d. 2014) 1917 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (d. 2008) 1918 – Denis Compton, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1997) 1919 – Robert Bernstein, American author and playwright (d. 1988) 1919 – Ruth Fernández, Puerto Rican contralto and a member of the Puerto Rican Senate (d. 2012) 1919 – Betty Garrett, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2011) 1920 – Helen O'Connell, American singer (d. 1993) 1921 – Humphrey Lyttelton, British jazz musician and broadcaster (d. 2008) 1923 – Alicia de Larrocha, Catalan-Spanish pianist (d. 2009) 1923 – Irving Millman, American virologist and microbiologist (d. 2012) 1924 – Karlheinz Deschner, German author and activist (d. 2014) 1925 – Joshua Lederberg, American biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) 1926 – Basil Salvadore D'Souza, Indian bishop (d. 1996) 1926 – Joe Slovo, Lithuanian-South African activist and politician (d. 1995) 1928 – Rosemary Clooney, American singer and actress (d. 2002) 1928 – Nigel Davenport, English actor (d. 2013) 1928 – Nina Otkalenko, Russian runner (d. 2015) 1929 – Ulla Jacobsson, Swedish-Austrian actress (d. 1982) 1930 – Friedrich Achleitner, German poet and critic (d. 2019) 1931 – Barbara Barrie, American actress 1932 – Kevork Ajemian, Syrian-French journalist and author (d. 1998) 1933 – Joan Collins, English actress 1933 – Ove Fundin, Swedish motorcycle racer 1934 – Robert Moog, electronic engineer and inventor of the Moog synthesizer (d. 2005) 1935 – Lasse Strömstedt, Swedish author (d. 2009) 1936 – Ingeborg Hallstein, German soprano and actress 1936 – Charles Kimbrough, American actor 1939 – Michel Colombier, French-American composer and conductor (d. 2004) 1939 – Reinhard Hauff, German director and screenwriter 1940 – Bjorn Johansen, Norwegian saxophonist (d. 2002) 1940 – Gérard Larrousse, French race car driver 1940 – Cora Sadosky, Argentinian mathematician and academic (d. 2010) 1941 – Zalman King, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1941 – Rod Thorn, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1942 – Gabriel Liiceanu, Romanian philosopher, author, and academic 1942 – Kovelamudi Raghavendra Rao, Indian director, screenwriter, and choreographer 1943 – Peter Kenilorea, Solomon Islands politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (d. 2016) 1944 – John Newcombe, Australian tennis player and sportscaster 1945 – Padmarajan, Indian director, screenwriter, and author (d. 1991) 1946 – David Graham, Australian golfer 1947 – Jane Kenyon, American poet and translator (d. 1995) 1948 – Myriam Boyer, French actress, director, and producer 1949 – Daniel DiNardo, American cardinal 1949 – Alan García, Peruvian lawyer and politician, 61st and 64th President of Peru (d. 2019) 1950 – Martin McGuinness, Irish republican and Sinn Féin politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2017) 1951 – Anatoly Karpov, Russian chess player 1951 – Antonis Samaras, Greek economist and politician, 185th Prime Minister of Greece 1952 – Martin Parr, English photographer and journalist 1954 – Gerry Armstrong, Northern Irish international footballer, striker 1954 – Marvelous Marvin Hagler, American boxer and actor (d. 2021) 1955 – Luka Bloom, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Andrea Pazienza, Italian illustrator and painter (d. 1988) 1956 – Ursula Plassnik, Austrian politician and diplomat, Foreign Minister of Austria 1956 – Buck Showalter, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1958 – Mitch Albom, American journalist, author, and screenwriter 1958 – Drew Carey, American actor, game show host, and entrepreneur 1958 – Lea DeLaria, American actress and singer 1959 – Marcella Mesker, Dutch tennis player and sportscaster 1960 – Linden Ashby, American actor 1961 – Daniele Massaro, Italian footballer and manager 1961 – Norrie May-Welby, Scottish Australian gender activist 1962 – Karen Duffy, American actress 1963 – Viviane Baladi, Swiss mathematician 1964 – Ruth Metzler, Swiss lawyer and politician 1965 – Manuel Sanchís Hontiyuelo, Spanish footballer 1965 – Tom Tykwer, German director, producer, screenwriter, and composer 1965 – Melissa McBride, American actress 1965 – Paul Sironen, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Graeme Hick, Zimbabwean-English cricketer and coach 1966 – Gary Roberts, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1967 – Luís Roberto Alves, Mexican footballer 1967 – Anna Ibrisagic, Swedish politician 1968 – Guinevere Turner, American actress and screenwriter 1970 – Bryan Herta, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Bryan Herta Autosport 1971 – George Osborne, English journalist and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer 1972 – Rubens Barrichello, Brazilian race car driver 1972 – Martin Saggers, English cricketer and umpire 1973 – Maxwell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1974 – Jewel, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actress, and poet 1974 – Manuela Schwesig, German politician, German Federal Minister of Family Affairs 1976 – Ricardinho, Brazilian footballer and manager 1977 – Richard Ayoade, British actor, director and writer 1977 – Ilia Kulik, Russian figure skater 1978 |
1891 – The International Electrotechnical Exhibition opens in Frankfurt, Germany, and will feature the world's first long-distance transmission of high-power, three-phase electric current (the most common form today). 1901–present 1916 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the French Third Republic sign the secret wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement partitioning former Ottoman territories such as Iraq and Syria. 1918 – The Sedition Act of 1918 is passed by the U.S. Congress, making criticism of the government during wartime an imprisonable offense. It will be repealed less than two years later. 1919 – A naval Curtiss NC-4 aircraft commanded by Albert Cushing Read leaves Trepassey, Newfoundland, for Lisbon via the Azores on the first transatlantic flight. 1920 – In Rome, Pope Benedict XV canonizes Joan of Arc. 1929 – In Hollywood, the first Academy Awards ceremony takes place. 1943 – The Holocaust: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends. 1951 – The first regularly scheduled transatlantic flights begin between Idlewild Airport (now John F Kennedy International Airport) in New York City and Heathrow Airport in London, operated by El Al Israel Airlines. 1959 – The Triton Fountain in Valletta, Malta is turned on for the first time. 1960 – Theodore Maiman operates the first optical laser (a ruby laser), at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California. 1961 – Park Chung-hee leads a coup d'état to overthrow the Second Republic of South Korea. 1966 – The Communist Party of China issues the "May 16 Notice", marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. 1969 – Venera program: Venera 5, a Soviet space probe, lands on Venus. 1974 – Josip Broz Tito is elected president for life of Yugoslavia. 1988 – A report by the Surgeon General of the United States C. Everett Koop states that the addictive properties of nicotine are similar to those of heroin and cocaine. 1991 – Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom addresses a joint session of the United States Congress. She is the first British monarch to address the U.S. Congress. 1997 – Mobutu Sese Seko, the President of Zaire, flees the country. 2003 – In Morocco, 33 civilians are killed and more than 100 people are injured in the Casablanca terrorist attacks. 2005 – Kuwait permits women's suffrage in a 35–23 National Assembly vote. 2011 – STS-134 (ISS assembly flight ULF6), launched from the Kennedy Space Center on the 25th and final flight for . 2014 – Twelve people are killed in two explosions in the Gikomba market area of Nairobi, Kenya. Births Pre-1600 1418 – John II of Cyprus, King of Cyprus and Armenia and also titular King of Jerusalem from 1432 to 1458 (probable; d. 1458) 1455 – Wolfgang I of Oettingen, German count (d. 1522) 1542 – Anna Sibylle of Hanau-Lichtenberg, German noblewoman (d. 1580) 1601–1900 1606 – John Bulwer, British doctor (d. 1656) 1611 – Pope Innocent XI (d. 1689) 1641 – Dudley North, English economist and politician (d. 1691) 1710 – William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician, Lord Steward of the Household (d. 1782) 1718 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1799) 1763 – Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, French pharmacist and chemist (d. 1829) 1788 – Friedrich Rückert, German poet and translator (d. 1866) 1801 – William H. Seward, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Secretary of State (d. 1872) 1804 – Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, American educator who founded the first U.S. kindergarten (d. 1894) 1819 – Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Estonian journalist and poet (d. 1890) 1821 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and statistician (d. 1894) 1824 – Levi P. Morton, American banker and politician, 22nd United States Vice President (d. 1920) 1824 – Edmund Kirby Smith, American general (d. 1893) 1827 – Pierre Cuypers, Dutch architect, designed the Amsterdam Centraal railway station and Rijksmuseum (d. 1921) 1831 – David Edward Hughes, Welsh-American physicist, co-invented the microphone (d. 1900) 1859 – Horace Hutchinson, English golfer (d. 1932) 1862 – Margaret Fountaine, English lepidopterist and diarist (d.1940) 1876 – Fred Conrad Koch, American biochemist and endocrinologist (d. 1948) 1879 – Pierre Gilliard, Swiss author and academic (d. 1962) 1882 – Simeon Price, American golfer (d. 1945) 1883 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish politician, 3rd President of Turkey (d. 1986) 1888 – Royal Rife, American microbiologist and instrument maker (d. 1971) 1890 – Edith Grace White, American ichthyologist (d. 1975) 1892 – Osgood Perkins, American actor (d. 1937) 1894 – Walter Yust, American journalist and writer (d. 1960) 1897 – Zvi Sliternik, Israeli entomologist and academic (d. 1994) 1898 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (d. 1980) 1898 – Desanka Maksimović, Serbian poet and academic (d. 1993) 1898 – Kenji Mizoguchi, Japanese director and screenwriter (d. 1956) 1901–present 1903 – Charles F. Brannock, American inventor and manufacturer (d. 1992) 1905 – Henry Fonda, American actor (d. 1982) 1906 – Ernie McCormick, Australian cricketer (d. 1991) 1906 – Alfred Pellan, Canadian painter and educator (d. 1988) 1906 – Arturo Uslar Pietri, Venezuelan lawyer, journalist, and author (d. 2001) 1906 – Margret Rey, German author and illustrator (d. 1996) 1907 – Bob Tisdall, Irish hurdler (d. 2004) 1909 – Margaret Sullavan, American actress and singer (d. 1960) 1909 – Luigi Villoresi, Italian race car driver (d. 1997) 1910 – Olga Bergholz, Russian poet and author (d. 1975) 1910 – Higashifushimi Kunihide, Japanese monk and educator (d. 2014) 1910 – Aleksandr Ivanovich Laktionov, Russian painter and educator (d. 1972) 1912 – Studs Terkel, American historian and author (d. 2008) 1913 – Gordon Chalk, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Queensland (d. 1991) 1913 – Woody Herman, American singer, saxophonist, and clarinet player (d. 1987) 1914 – Edward T. Hall, American anthropologist and author (d. 2009) 1915 – Mario Monicelli, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1916 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (d. 2009) 1917 – Ben Kuroki, American sergeant and pilot (d. 2015) 1917 – James C. Murray, American lawyer and politician (d. 1999) 1917 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican author and photographer (d. 1986) 1918 – Wilf Mannion, English footballer and manager (d. 2000) 1919 – Liberace, American pianist and entertainer (d. 1987) 1919 – Ramon Margalef, Spanish ecologist and biologist (d. 2004) 1920 – Martine Carol, French actress (d. 1967) 1921 – Harry Carey, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1923 – Victoria Fromkin, American linguist and academic (d. 2000) 1923 – Merton Miller, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000) 1923 – Peter Underwood, English parapsychologist and author (d. 2014) 1924 – Barbara Bachmann, American microbiologist (d. 1999) 1924 – Dawda Jawara, 1st President of the Gambia (d. 2019) 1925 – Nancy Roman, American astronomer (d. 2018) 1925 – Ola Vincent, Nigerian banker and economist (d. 2012) 1925 – Nílton Santos, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013) 1928 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and coach (d. 1989) 1929 – Betty Carter, American singer-songwriter (d. 1998) 1929 – John Conyers, American lawyer and politician (d. | establishes the nickel. 1868 – The United States Senate fails to convict President Andrew Johnson by one vote. 1874 – A flood on the Mill River in Massachusetts destroys much of four villages and kills 139 people. 1877 – The 16 May 1877 crisis occurs in France, ending with the dissolution of the National Assembly 22 June and affirming the interpretation of the Constitution of 1875 as a parliamentary rather than presidential system. The elections held in October 1877 led to the defeat of the royalists as a formal political movement in France. 1888 – Nikola Tesla delivers a lecture describing the equipment which will allow efficient generation and use of alternating currents to transmit electric power over long distances. 1891 – The International Electrotechnical Exhibition opens in Frankfurt, Germany, and will feature the world's first long-distance transmission of high-power, three-phase electric current (the most common form today). 1901–present 1916 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the French Third Republic sign the secret wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement partitioning former Ottoman territories such as Iraq and Syria. 1918 – The Sedition Act of 1918 is passed by the U.S. Congress, making criticism of the government during wartime an imprisonable offense. It will be repealed less than two years later. 1919 – A naval Curtiss NC-4 aircraft commanded by Albert Cushing Read leaves Trepassey, Newfoundland, for Lisbon via the Azores on the first transatlantic flight. 1920 – In Rome, Pope Benedict XV canonizes Joan of Arc. 1929 – In Hollywood, the first Academy Awards ceremony takes place. 1943 – The Holocaust: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends. 1951 – The first regularly scheduled transatlantic flights begin between Idlewild Airport (now John F Kennedy International Airport) in New York City and Heathrow Airport in London, operated by El Al Israel Airlines. 1959 – The Triton Fountain in Valletta, Malta is turned on for the first time. 1960 – Theodore Maiman operates the first optical laser (a ruby laser), at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California. 1961 – Park Chung-hee leads a coup d'état to overthrow the Second Republic of South Korea. 1966 – The Communist Party of China issues the "May 16 Notice", marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. 1969 – Venera program: Venera 5, a Soviet space probe, lands on Venus. 1974 – Josip Broz Tito is elected president for life of Yugoslavia. 1988 – A report by the Surgeon General of the United States C. Everett Koop states that the addictive properties of nicotine are similar to those of heroin and cocaine. 1991 – Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom addresses a joint session of the United States Congress. She is the first British monarch to address the U.S. Congress. 1997 – Mobutu Sese Seko, the President of Zaire, flees the country. 2003 – In Morocco, 33 civilians are killed and more than 100 people are injured in the Casablanca terrorist attacks. 2005 – Kuwait permits women's suffrage in a 35–23 National Assembly vote. 2011 – STS-134 (ISS assembly flight ULF6), launched from the Kennedy Space Center on the 25th and final flight for . 2014 – Twelve people are killed in two explosions in the Gikomba market area of Nairobi, Kenya. Births Pre-1600 1418 – John II of Cyprus, King of Cyprus and Armenia and also titular King of Jerusalem from 1432 to 1458 (probable; d. 1458) 1455 – Wolfgang I of Oettingen, German count (d. 1522) 1542 – Anna Sibylle of Hanau-Lichtenberg, German noblewoman (d. 1580) 1601–1900 1606 – John Bulwer, British doctor (d. 1656) 1611 – Pope Innocent XI (d. 1689) 1641 – Dudley North, English economist and politician (d. 1691) 1710 – William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician, Lord Steward of the Household (d. 1782) 1718 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1799) 1763 – Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, French pharmacist and chemist (d. 1829) 1788 – Friedrich Rückert, German poet and translator (d. 1866) 1801 – William H. Seward, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Secretary of State (d. 1872) 1804 – Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, American educator who founded the first U.S. kindergarten (d. 1894) 1819 – Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Estonian journalist and poet (d. 1890) 1821 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and statistician (d. 1894) 1824 – Levi P. Morton, American banker and politician, 22nd United States Vice President (d. 1920) 1824 – Edmund Kirby Smith, American general (d. 1893) 1827 – Pierre Cuypers, Dutch architect, designed the Amsterdam Centraal railway station and Rijksmuseum (d. 1921) 1831 – David Edward Hughes, Welsh-American physicist, co-invented the microphone (d. 1900) 1859 – Horace Hutchinson, English golfer (d. 1932) 1862 – Margaret Fountaine, English lepidopterist and diarist (d.1940) 1876 – Fred Conrad Koch, American biochemist and endocrinologist (d. 1948) 1879 – Pierre Gilliard, Swiss author and academic (d. 1962) 1882 – Simeon Price, American golfer (d. 1945) 1883 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish politician, 3rd President of Turkey (d. 1986) 1888 – Royal Rife, American microbiologist and instrument maker (d. 1971) 1890 – Edith Grace White, American ichthyologist (d. 1975) 1892 – Osgood Perkins, American actor (d. 1937) 1894 – Walter Yust, American journalist and writer (d. 1960) 1897 – Zvi Sliternik, Israeli entomologist and academic (d. 1994) 1898 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (d. 1980) 1898 – Desanka Maksimović, Serbian poet and academic (d. 1993) 1898 – Kenji Mizoguchi, Japanese director and screenwriter (d. 1956) 1901–present 1903 – Charles F. Brannock, American inventor and manufacturer (d. 1992) 1905 – Henry Fonda, American actor (d. 1982) 1906 – Ernie McCormick, Australian cricketer (d. 1991) 1906 – Alfred Pellan, Canadian painter and educator (d. 1988) 1906 – Arturo Uslar Pietri, Venezuelan lawyer, journalist, and author (d. 2001) 1906 – Margret Rey, German author and illustrator (d. 1996) 1907 – Bob Tisdall, Irish hurdler (d. 2004) 1909 – Margaret Sullavan, American actress and singer (d. 1960) 1909 – Luigi Villoresi, Italian race car driver (d. 1997) 1910 – Olga Bergholz, Russian poet and author (d. 1975) 1910 – Higashifushimi Kunihide, Japanese monk and educator (d. 2014) 1910 – Aleksandr Ivanovich Laktionov, Russian painter and educator (d. 1972) 1912 – Studs Terkel, American historian and author (d. 2008) 1913 – Gordon Chalk, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Queensland (d. 1991) 1913 – Woody Herman, American singer, saxophonist, and clarinet player (d. 1987) 1914 – Edward T. Hall, American anthropologist and author (d. 2009) 1915 – Mario Monicelli, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1916 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (d. 2009) 1917 – Ben Kuroki, American sergeant and pilot (d. 2015) 1917 – James C. Murray, American lawyer and politician (d. 1999) 1917 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican author and photographer (d. 1986) 1918 – Wilf Mannion, English footballer and manager (d. 2000) 1919 – Liberace, American pianist and entertainer (d. 1987) 1919 – Ramon Margalef, Spanish ecologist and biologist (d. 2004) 1920 – Martine Carol, French actress (d. 1967) 1921 – Harry Carey, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1923 – Victoria Fromkin, American linguist and academic (d. 2000) 1923 – Merton Miller, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000) 1923 – Peter Underwood, English parapsychologist and author (d. 2014) 1924 – Barbara Bachmann, American microbiologist (d. 1999) 1924 – Dawda Jawara, 1st President of the Gambia (d. 2019) 1925 – Nancy Roman, American astronomer (d. 2018) 1925 – Ola Vincent, Nigerian banker and economist (d. 2012) 1925 – Nílton Santos, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013) 1928 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and coach (d. 1989) 1929 – Betty Carter, American singer-songwriter (d. 1998) 1929 – John Conyers, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019) 1929 – Claude Morin, Canadian academic and politician 1929 – Adrienne Rich, American poet, essayist, and feminist (d. 2012) 1930 – Friedrich Gulda, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 2000) 1931 – Vujadin Boškov, Serbian footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2014) 1931 – Hana Brady, Jewish-Czech Holocaust victim (d.1944) 1931 – K. Natwar Singh, Indian scholar and politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs 1931 – Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., American soldier and politician, 85th Governor of Connecticut 1934 – Kenneth O. Morgan, Welsh historian and author 1934 – Antony Walker, English general 1935 – Floyd Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1936 – Karl Lehmann, German cardinal (d. 2018) 1937 – Yvonne Craig, American ballet dancer and actress (d. 2015) 1938 – Stuart Bell, English lawyer and politician (d. 2012) 1938 – Ivan Sutherland, American computer scientist and academic 1938 – Marco Aurelio Denegri, Peruvian television host and sexologist (d. 2018) 1939 – Mario Segni, Italian professor and politician 1941 – Denis Hart, Australian archbishop 1942 – David Penry-Davey, English lawyer and judge (d. 2015) 1943 – Kay Andrews, Baroness Andrews, English politician 1943 – Dan Coats, American politician and diplomat, 29th United States Ambassador to Germany 1943 – Wieteke van Dort, Dutch actress, comedian, singer, writer and artist 1944 – Billy Cobham, |
(d. 1066) 1408 – Annamacharya, Hindu saint (d. 1503) 1539 – Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (d. 1621) 1601–1900 1622 – Louis de Buade de Frontenac, French soldier and governor (d. 1698) 1644 – Gabriël Grupello, Flemish Baroque sculptor (d. 1730) 1650 – Richard Brakenburgh, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1702) 1665 – Magnus Stenbock, Swedish field marshal and Royal Councillor (d. 1717) 1694 – Daniel Gran, Austrian painter (d. 1757) 1715 – François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, French cardinal and diplomat (d. 1794) 1733 – Hubert Robert, French painter (d. 1808) 1752 – Louis Legendre, French butcher and politician (d. 1797) 1762 – Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, English politician (d. 1834) 1770 – Princess Elizabeth of the United Kingdom (d. 1840) 1772 – Ram Mohan Roy, Indian philosopher and reformer (d. 1833) 1779 – Johann Nepomuk Schödlberger, Austrian painter (d. 1853) 1782 – Hirose Tansō, Japanese neo-Confucian scholar, teacher, writer (d. 1856) 1783 – William Sturgeon, English physicist and inventor, invented the electromagnet and electric motor (d. 1850) 1808 – Gérard de Nerval, French poet and translator (d. 1855) 1811 – Giulia Grisi, Italian soprano (d. 1869) 1811 – Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle, English politician (d. 1864) 1813 – Richard Wagner, German composer (d. 1883) 1814 – Amalia Lindegren, Swedish painter (d. 1891) 1820 – Worthington Whittredge, American painter (d. 1910) 1828 – Albrecht von Graefe, German ophthalmologist and academic (d. 1870) 1831 – Henry Vandyke Carter, English anatomist and surgeon (d. 1897) 1833 – Félix Bracquemond, French painter and etcher (d. 1914) 1833 – Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Spanish politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1895) 1841 – Catulle Mendès, French poet, author, and playwright (d. 1909) 1844 – Mary Cassatt, American painter and educator (d. 1926) 1846 – Rita Cetina Gutiérrez, Mexican poet, educator, and activist (d. 1908) 1848 – Fritz von Uhde, German painter and educator (d. 1911) 1849 – Aston Webb, English architect and academic (d. 1930) 1858 – Belmiro de Almeida, Brazilian painter, illustrator, sculptor (d. 1935) 1859 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (d. 1930) 1859 – Tsubouchi Shōyō, Japanese author, playwright, and educator (d. 1935) 1864 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (d. 1931) 1868 – Augusto Pestana, Brazilian engineer and politician (d. 1934) 1874 – Daniel François Malan, South African clergyman and politician, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa (d. 1959) 1876 – Julius Klinger, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1942) 1879 – Warwick Armstrong, Australian cricketer and journalist (d. 1947) 1879 – Jean Cras, French admiral and composer (d. 1932) 1879 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian statesman and independence leader (d. 1926) 1880 – Francis de Miomandre, French author and translator (d. 1959) 1884 – Wilhelmina Hay Abbott, Scottish suffragist and feminist (d. 1957) 1885 – Giacomo Matteotti, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1924) 1885 – Soemu Toyoda, Japanese admiral (d. 1957) 1887 – A. W. Sandberg, Danish film director and screenwriter (d. 1938) 1891 – Johannes R. Becher, German politician, novelist, and poet (d. 1958) 1894 – Friedrich Pollock, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1970) 1897 – Robert Neumann, German and English-speaking author (d. 1975) 1900 – Juan Arvizu, Mexican lyric opera tenor and bolero vocalist (d.1985) 1901–present 1901 – Maurice J. Tobin, American politician, 6th United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1953) 1902 – Jack Lambert, English footballer and manager (d. 1940) 1902 – Al Simmons, American baseball player and coach (d. 1956) 1904 – Uno Lamm, Swedish electrical engineer and inventor (d. 1989) 1905 – Bodo von Borries, German physicist and academic, co-invented the electron microscope (d. 1956) 1905 – Tom Driberg, British politician (d. 1976) 1907 – Hergé, Belgian author and illustrator (d. 1983) 1907 – Laurence Olivier, English actor, director, and producer (d. 1989) 1908 – Horton Smith, American golfer and captain (d. 1963) 1909 – Bob Dyer, American-Australian radio and television host (d. 1984) 1909 – Margaret Mee, English illustrator and educator (d. 1988) 1912 – Herbert C. Brown, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1913 – Rafael Gil, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1913 – Dominique Rolin, Belgian author (d. 2012) 1914 – Max Kohnstamm, Dutch historian and diplomat (d. 2010) 1914 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, bandleader, poet (d. 1993) 1917 – George Aratani, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1917 – Jean-Louis Curtis, French author (d. 1995) 1919 – Paul Vanden Boeynants, Belgian businessman and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2001) 1920 – Thomas Gold, Austrian-American astrophysicist and academic (d. 2004) 1921 – George S. Hammond, American scientist (d. 2005) 1922 – Quinn Martin, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1987) 1924 – Charles Aznavour, French-Armenian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2018) 1925 – Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (d. 1991) 1927 – Michael Constantine, American actor (d. 2021) 1927 – Peter Matthiessen, American novelist, short story writer, editor, co-founded The Paris Review (d. 2014) 1927 – George Andrew Olah, Hungarian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1928 – Serge Doubrovsky, French theorist and author (d. 2017) 1928 – John Mackenzie, Scottish director and producer (d. 2011) 1928 – T. Boone Pickens, American businessman (d. 2019) 1928 – Hiroshi Sano, Japanese novelist (d. 2013) 1929 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet (d. 2013) 1930 – Kenny Ball, English jazz trumpet player, vocalist, and bandleader (d. 2013) 1930 – Marisol Escobar, French-American sculptor (d. 2016) 1930 – Harvey Milk, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1978) 1932 – Robert Spitzer, American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2015) 1933 – Fred Anderson, Australian-South African rugby league player (d. 2012) 1933 – Chen Jingrun, Chinese mathematician and academic (d. 1996) 1934 – Peter Nero, American pianist and conductor 1935 – Billy Rayner, Australian rugby league player (d. 2006) 1936 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (d. 2014) 1937 – Facundo Cabral, Argentinian singer-songwriter (d. 2011) 1938 – Richard Benjamin, American actor and director 1938 – Susan Strasberg, American actress (d. 1999) 1939 – Paul Winfield, American actor (d. 2004) 1940 – Kieth Merrill, American filmmaker 1940 – E. A. S. Prasanna, Indian cricketer 1940 – Michael Sarrazin, Canadian actor (d. 2011) 1940 – Bernard Shaw, American journalist 1940 – Mick Tingelhoff, American Pro Football Hall of Famer (d. 2021) 1941 – Menzies Campbell, Scottish sprinter and politician 1942 – Roger Brown, American basketball player (d. 1997) 1942 – Ted Kaczynski, American academic and mathematician turned anarchist and serial murderer (Unabomber) 1942 – Barbara Parkins, Canadian actress 1942 – Richard Oakes, Native American civil rights activist (d. 1972) 1943 – Betty Williams, Northern Irish peace activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020) 1943 – Tommy John, American baseball player 1944 – | English physicist and inventor, invented the electromagnet and electric motor (d. 1850) 1808 – Gérard de Nerval, French poet and translator (d. 1855) 1811 – Giulia Grisi, Italian soprano (d. 1869) 1811 – Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle, English politician (d. 1864) 1813 – Richard Wagner, German composer (d. 1883) 1814 – Amalia Lindegren, Swedish painter (d. 1891) 1820 – Worthington Whittredge, American painter (d. 1910) 1828 – Albrecht von Graefe, German ophthalmologist and academic (d. 1870) 1831 – Henry Vandyke Carter, English anatomist and surgeon (d. 1897) 1833 – Félix Bracquemond, French painter and etcher (d. 1914) 1833 – Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Spanish politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1895) 1841 – Catulle Mendès, French poet, author, and playwright (d. 1909) 1844 – Mary Cassatt, American painter and educator (d. 1926) 1846 – Rita Cetina Gutiérrez, Mexican poet, educator, and activist (d. 1908) 1848 – Fritz von Uhde, German painter and educator (d. 1911) 1849 – Aston Webb, English architect and academic (d. 1930) 1858 – Belmiro de Almeida, Brazilian painter, illustrator, sculptor (d. 1935) 1859 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (d. 1930) 1859 – Tsubouchi Shōyō, Japanese author, playwright, and educator (d. 1935) 1864 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (d. 1931) 1868 – Augusto Pestana, Brazilian engineer and politician (d. 1934) 1874 – Daniel François Malan, South African clergyman and politician, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa (d. 1959) 1876 – Julius Klinger, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1942) 1879 – Warwick Armstrong, Australian cricketer and journalist (d. 1947) 1879 – Jean Cras, French admiral and composer (d. 1932) 1879 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian statesman and independence leader (d. 1926) 1880 – Francis de Miomandre, French author and translator (d. 1959) 1884 – Wilhelmina Hay Abbott, Scottish suffragist and feminist (d. 1957) 1885 – Giacomo Matteotti, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1924) 1885 – Soemu Toyoda, Japanese admiral (d. 1957) 1887 – A. W. Sandberg, Danish film director and screenwriter (d. 1938) 1891 – Johannes R. Becher, German politician, novelist, and poet (d. 1958) 1894 – Friedrich Pollock, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1970) 1897 – Robert Neumann, German and English-speaking author (d. 1975) 1900 – Juan Arvizu, Mexican lyric opera tenor and bolero vocalist (d.1985) 1901–present 1901 – Maurice J. Tobin, American politician, 6th United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1953) 1902 – Jack Lambert, English footballer and manager (d. 1940) 1902 – Al Simmons, American baseball player and coach (d. 1956) 1904 – Uno Lamm, Swedish electrical engineer and inventor (d. 1989) 1905 – Bodo von Borries, German physicist and academic, co-invented the electron microscope (d. 1956) 1905 – Tom Driberg, British politician (d. 1976) 1907 – Hergé, Belgian author and illustrator (d. 1983) 1907 – Laurence Olivier, English actor, director, and producer (d. 1989) 1908 – Horton Smith, American golfer and captain (d. 1963) 1909 – Bob Dyer, American-Australian radio and television host (d. 1984) 1909 – Margaret Mee, English illustrator and educator (d. 1988) 1912 – Herbert C. Brown, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1913 – Rafael Gil, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1913 – Dominique Rolin, Belgian author (d. 2012) 1914 – Max Kohnstamm, Dutch historian and diplomat (d. 2010) 1914 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, bandleader, poet (d. 1993) 1917 – George Aratani, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1917 – Jean-Louis Curtis, French author (d. 1995) 1919 – Paul Vanden Boeynants, Belgian businessman and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2001) 1920 – Thomas Gold, Austrian-American astrophysicist and academic (d. 2004) 1921 – George S. Hammond, American scientist (d. 2005) 1922 – Quinn Martin, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1987) 1924 – Charles Aznavour, French-Armenian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2018) 1925 – Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (d. 1991) 1927 – Michael Constantine, American actor (d. 2021) 1927 – Peter Matthiessen, American novelist, short story writer, editor, co-founded The Paris Review (d. 2014) 1927 – George Andrew Olah, Hungarian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) 1928 – Serge Doubrovsky, French theorist and author (d. 2017) 1928 – John Mackenzie, Scottish director and producer (d. 2011) 1928 – T. Boone Pickens, American businessman (d. 2019) 1928 – Hiroshi Sano, Japanese novelist (d. 2013) 1929 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet (d. 2013) 1930 – Kenny Ball, English jazz trumpet player, vocalist, and bandleader (d. 2013) 1930 – Marisol Escobar, French-American sculptor (d. 2016) 1930 – Harvey Milk, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1978) 1932 – Robert Spitzer, American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2015) 1933 – Fred Anderson, Australian-South African rugby league player (d. 2012) 1933 – Chen Jingrun, Chinese mathematician and academic (d. 1996) 1934 – Peter Nero, American pianist and conductor 1935 – Billy Rayner, Australian rugby league player (d. 2006) 1936 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (d. 2014) 1937 – Facundo Cabral, Argentinian singer-songwriter (d. 2011) 1938 – Richard Benjamin, American actor and director 1938 – Susan Strasberg, American actress (d. 1999) 1939 – Paul Winfield, American actor (d. 2004) 1940 – Kieth Merrill, American filmmaker 1940 – E. A. S. Prasanna, Indian cricketer 1940 – Michael Sarrazin, Canadian actor (d. 2011) 1940 – Bernard Shaw, American journalist 1940 – Mick Tingelhoff, American Pro Football Hall of Famer (d. 2021) 1941 – Menzies Campbell, Scottish sprinter and politician 1942 – Roger Brown, American basketball player (d. 1997) 1942 – Ted Kaczynski, American academic and mathematician turned anarchist and serial murderer (Unabomber) 1942 – Barbara Parkins, Canadian actress 1942 – Richard Oakes, Native American civil rights activist (d. 1972) 1943 – Betty Williams, Northern Irish peace activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020) 1943 – Tommy John, American baseball player 1944 – John Flanagan, Australian fantasy author 1945 – Bob Katter, Australian politician 1946 – George Best, Northern Irish footballer and manager (d. 2005) 1946 – Michael Green, English physicist and academic 1946 – Howard Kendall, English footballer and manager (d. 2015) 1946 – Andrei Marga, Romanian philosopher, political scientist, politician 1946 – Lyudmila Zhuravleva, Russian-Ukrainian astronomer 1948 – Tomás Sánchez, Cuban painter and engraver 1948 – Nedumudi Venu, Indian actor and screenwriter (d. 2021) 1949 – Cheryl Campbell, English actress 1949 – Valentin Inzko, Austrian diplomat 1950 – Bernie Taupin, English singer-songwriter and poet 1953 – François Bon, French writer 1953 – Cha Bum-kun, South Korean footballer and manager 1953 – Paul Mariner, English footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2021) 1954 – Barbara May Cameron, Native American human rights activist (d. 2002) 1954 – Shuji Nakamura, Japanese-American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate 1955 – Iva Davies, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Lucie Brock-Broido, American poet (d. 2018) 1957 – Lisa Murkowski, American lawyer and politician 1959 – David Blatt, Israeli-American basketball player and coach 1959 – Olin Browne, American golfer 1959 – Morrissey, English singer-songwriter and performer 1959 – Kwak Jae-yong, South Korean director and screenwriter 1959 – Mehbooba Mufti, Indian politician 1960 – Hideaki Anno, Japanese animator, director, and screenwriter 1962 – Andrew Magee, French-American golfer 1962 – Brian Pillman, American football player and wrestler (d. 1997) 1963 – Claude Closky, French contemporary artist 1965 – Jay Carney, American journalist, 29th White |
arc is parallel to the secant through its endpoints. It is one of the most important results in real analysis. This theorem is used to prove statements about a function on an interval starting from local hypotheses about derivatives at points of the interval. More precisely, the theorem states that if is a continuous function on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , then there exists a point in such that the tangent at is parallel to the secant line through the endpoints and , that is, History A special case of this theorem was first described by Parameshvara (1380–1460), from the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in India, in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and Bhāskara II. A restricted form of the theorem was proved by Michel Rolle in 1691; the result was what is now known as Rolle's theorem, and was proved only for polynomials, without the techniques of calculus. The mean value theorem in its modern form was stated and proved by Augustin Louis Cauchy in 1823. Many variations of this theorem have been proved since then. Formal statement Let be a continuous function on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval where Then there exists some in such that The mean value theorem is a generalization of Rolle's theorem, which assumes , so that the right-hand side above is zero. The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting. One only needs to assume that is continuous on , and that for every in the limit exists as a finite number or equals or . If finite, that limit equals . An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued cube root function mapping , whose derivative tends to infinity at the origin. Note that the theorem, as stated, is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued. For example, define for all real Then while for any real These formal statements are also known as Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem. Proof The expression gives the slope of the line joining the points and , which is a chord of the graph of , while gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point . Thus the mean value theorem says that given any chord of a smooth curve, we can find a point on the curve lying between the end-points of the chord such that the tangent of the curve at that point is parallel to the chord. The following proof illustrates this idea. Define , where is a constant. Since is continuous on and differentiable on , the same is true for . We now want to choose so that satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Namely By Rolle's theorem, since is differentiable and , there is some in for which , and it follows from the equality that, Implications Theorem 1: Assume that f is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval I of the real line. If the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero, then f is constant in the interior. Proof: Assume the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero. Let (a, b) be an arbitrary open interval in I. By the mean value theorem, there exists a point c in (a,b) such that This implies that . Thus, f is constant on the interior of I and thus is constant on I by continuity. (See below for a multivariable version of this result.) Remarks: Only continuity of f, not differentiability, is needed at the endpoints of the interval I. No hypothesis of continuity needs to be stated if I is an open interval, since the existence of a derivative at a point implies the continuity at this point. (See the section continuity and differentiability of the article derivative.) The differentiability of f can be relaxed to one-sided differentiability, a proof given in the article on semi-differentiability. Theorem 2: If f' (x) = g' (x) for all x in an interval (a, b) of the domain of these functions, then f - g is constant, i.e. f = g + c where c is a constant on (a, b). Proof: Let F = f − g, then F' = f' − g' = 0 on the interval (a, b), so the above theorem 1 tells that F = f − g is a constant c or f = g + c. Theorem 3: If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f on I is F(x) + c where c is an constant. Proof: It directly follows from the theorem 2 above. Cauchy's mean value theorem Cauchy's mean value theorem, also known as the extended mean value theorem, is a generalization of the mean value theorem. It states: if the functions and are both continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , then there exists some , such that Of course, if and , this is equivalent to: Geometrically, this means that there is some tangent to the graph of the curve which is parallel to the line defined by the points and . However, Cauchy's theorem does not claim the existence of such a tangent in all cases where and are distinct points, since it might be satisfied only for some value with , in other words a value for which the mentioned curve is stationary; in such points no tangent to the curve is likely to be defined at all. An example of this situation is the curve given by which on the interval goes from the point to , yet never has a horizontal tangent; however it has a stationary point (in fact a cusp) at . Cauchy's mean value theorem can be used to prove L'Hôpital's rule. The mean value theorem is the special case of Cauchy's mean value theorem when . Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem The proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of the mean value theorem. Suppose . Define , where is fixed in such a way that , namely Since and are continuous on and differentiable on , the same is true for . All in all, satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem: consequently, there is some in for which | that satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Namely By Rolle's theorem, since is differentiable and , there is some in for which , and it follows from the equality that, Implications Theorem 1: Assume that f is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval I of the real line. If the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero, then f is constant in the interior. Proof: Assume the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero. Let (a, b) be an arbitrary open interval in I. By the mean value theorem, there exists a point c in (a,b) such that This implies that . Thus, f is constant on the interior of I and thus is constant on I by continuity. (See below for a multivariable version of this result.) Remarks: Only continuity of f, not differentiability, is needed at the endpoints of the interval I. No hypothesis of continuity needs to be stated if I is an open interval, since the existence of a derivative at a point implies the continuity at this point. (See the section continuity and differentiability of the article derivative.) The differentiability of f can be relaxed to one-sided differentiability, a proof given in the article on semi-differentiability. Theorem 2: If f' (x) = g' (x) for all x in an interval (a, b) of the domain of these functions, then f - g is constant, i.e. f = g + c where c is a constant on (a, b). Proof: Let F = f − g, then F' = f' − g' = 0 on the interval (a, b), so the above theorem 1 tells that F = f − g is a constant c or f = g + c. Theorem 3: If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f on I is F(x) + c where c is an constant. Proof: It directly follows from the theorem 2 above. Cauchy's mean value theorem Cauchy's mean value theorem, also known as the extended mean value theorem, is a generalization of the mean value theorem. It states: if the functions and are both continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , then there exists some , such that Of course, if and , this is equivalent to: Geometrically, this means that there is some tangent to the graph of the curve which is parallel to the line defined by the points and . However, Cauchy's theorem does not claim the existence of such a tangent in all cases where and are distinct points, since it might be satisfied only for some value with , in other words a value for which the mentioned curve is stationary; in such points no tangent to the curve is likely to be defined at all. An example of this situation is the curve given by which on the interval goes from the point to , yet never has a horizontal tangent; however it has a stationary point (in fact a cusp) at . Cauchy's mean value theorem can be used to prove L'Hôpital's rule. The mean value theorem is the special case of Cauchy's mean value theorem when . Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem The proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of the mean value theorem. Suppose . Define , where is fixed in such a way that , namely Since and are continuous on and differentiable on , the same is true for . All in all, satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem: consequently, there is some in for which . Now using the definition of we have: Therefore: which implies the result. If , then, applying Rolle's theorem to , it follows that there exists in for which . Using this choice of , Cauchy's mean value theorem (trivially) holds. Generalization for determinants Assume that and are differentiable functions on that are continuous on . Define There exists such that . Notice that and if we place , we get Cauchy's mean value theorem. If we place and we get Lagrange's mean value theorem. The proof of the generalization is quite simple: each of and are determinants with two identical rows, hence . The Rolle's theorem implies that there exists such that . Mean value theorem in several variables The mean value theorem generalizes to real functions of multiple variables. The trick is to use parametrization to create a real function of one variable, and then apply the one-variable theorem. Let be an open convex subset of , and let be a differentiable function. Fix points , and define . Since is a differentiable function in one variable, the mean value theorem gives: for some between 0 and 1. But since and , computing explicitly we have: where denotes a gradient and a dot product. Note that this is an exact analog of the theorem in one variable (in the case this is the theorem in one variable). By the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, the equation gives the estimate: In particular, when the partial derivatives of are bounded, is Lipschitz continuous (and therefore uniformly continuous). As an application of the above, we prove that is constant if is open and connected and every partial derivative of is 0. Pick some point , and let . We want to show for every . For that, let . Then E is closed and nonempty. It is open too: for every , for every in some neighborhood of . (Here, it is crucial that and are sufficiently close to each other.) Since is connected, we conclude . The above arguments are made in a coordinate-free manner; hence, they generalize to the case when is a subset of a Banach space. Mean value theorem for vector-valued functions There is no exact analog of the mean value theorem for vector-valued functions. In Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Rudin gives an inequality which can be applied to many of the same situations to which the mean value theorem is applicable in the one dimensional case: Jean Dieudonné in his classic treatise Foundations of Modern Analysis discards the mean value theorem and replaces it by mean inequality as the proof is not constructive and one cannot find the mean value and in applications one only needs mean inequality. Serge Lang in Analysis I uses the mean value theorem, in integral form, as an instant reflex but this use requires the continuity of the derivative. If one uses the Henstock–Kurzweil integral one can have the mean value theorem in integral form without the additional assumption that derivative should be continuous as every derivative is Henstock–Kurzweil integrable. The problem is roughly speaking the following: If is a differentiable function (where is open) and if , is the line segment in question (lying inside ), then one can apply the above parametrization procedure to each of the component functions of f (in the above notation set ). In doing so one finds points on the line segment satisfying But generally there will not be a single point on the line |
and hurling club Mallow railway station Mallow, Iran, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran Mallow, Virginia, United States Mallows Bay, Maryland, United States The Mallows, a historic home located at Head of the Harbor in Suffolk County, New York People Dave Mallow (born 1948), U.S. voice actor, also known as Colin Phillips Johannes Mallow (born 1981), German memory-sports competitor Charles Edward Mallows (1864–1915), English architect and landscape architect Colin Lingwood Mallows (born 1930), English statistician Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters Mallow, cook and one of the Trial Captains of Akala Island in Pokémon Sun & Moon Hober Mallow, character in the Foundation | Lavatera, tree mallow or rose mallow Malacothamnus, bush-mallow Malva, mallow Malvaviscus, Turk's cap mallow, wax mallow Sidalcea, Greek mallow, chequer-mallow Sphaeralcea, globemallow Insects: Larentia clavaria, mallow, species of moth Mallow skipper, butterfly Places Mallow, Alberta, a locality in Alberta, Canada Mallow, County Cork, a town in the Republic of Ireland Mallow (Parliament of Ireland constituency), 1613–1800 Mallow (UK Parliament constituency), 1801–1885 Mallow GAA, a Gaelic football and hurling club Mallow railway station Mallow, Iran, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran Mallow, Virginia, United States Mallows Bay, Maryland, United States The Mallows, a historic home located at Head of the Harbor in Suffolk County, New York People Dave Mallow (born 1948), U.S. voice actor, also known as Colin Phillips Johannes Mallow (born 1981), German memory-sports competitor Charles Edward Mallows (1864–1915), English architect and landscape architect Colin Lingwood Mallows (born 1930), English statistician Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters Mallow, cook and one of the Trial Captains of |
march westward continued towards the river Marne—with a temporary recuperative halt in Termes—which they reached in early September. During the First Battle of the Marne, Bloch's troop was responsible for the assault and capture of Florent before advancing on La Gruerie. Bloch led his troop with shouts of "Forward the 18th!" They suffered heavy casualties: 89 men were either missing or known to be dead. Bloch enjoyed the early days of the war; like most of his generation, he had expected a short but glorious conflict. Gustave Bloch remained in France, wishing to be close to his sons at the front. Except for two months in hospital followed by another three recuperating, he spent the war in the infantry; he joined as a sergeant and rose to become the head of his section. Bloch kept a war diary from his enlistment. Very detailed in the first few months, it rapidly became more general in its observations. However, says the historian Daniel Hochedez, Bloch was aware of his role as both a "witness and narrator" to events and wanted as detailed a basis for his historiographical understanding as possible. The historian Rees Davies notes that although Bloch served in the war with "considerable distinction", it had come at the worst possible time both for his intellectual development and his study of medieval society. For the first time in his life, Bloch later wrote, he worked and lived alongside people he had never had close contact with before, such as shop workers and labourers, with whom he developed a great camaraderie. It was a completely different world to the one he was used to, being "a world where differences were settled not by words but by bullets". His experiences made him rethink his views on history, and influenced his subsequent approach to the world in general. He was particularly moved by the collective psychology he witnessed in the trenches. He later declared he knew of no better men than "the men of the Nord and the Pas de Calais" with whom he had spent four years in close quarters. His few references to the French generals were sparse and sardonic. Apart from the Marne, Bloch fought at the battles of the Somme, the Argonne, and the final German assault on Paris. He survived the war, which he later described as having been an "honour" to have served through. He had, however, lost many friends and colleagues. Among the closest of them, all killed in action, were: Maxime David (died 1914), Antoine-Jules Bianconi (died 1915) and Ernest babut (died 1916). Bloch himself was wounded twice and decorated for courage, receiving the Croix de Guerre and the Légion d'Honneur. He had joined as a non-commissioned officer, received an officer's commission after the Marne, and had been promoted to warrant officer and finally a captain in the fuel service, (Service des essences) before the war ended. He was clearly, says Loyn, both a good and a brave soldier; he later wrote, "I know only one way to persuade a troop to brave danger: brave it yourself". While on front-line service, Bloch contracted severe arthritis which required him to retire regularly to the thermal baths of Aix-les-Bains for treatment. He later remembered very little of the historical events he found himself in, writing only that his memories were "a discontinuous series of images, vivid in themselves, but badly arranged, like a reel of motion picture film containing some large gaps and some reversals of certain scenes". Bloch later described the war, in a detached style, as having been a "gigantic social experience, of unbelievable richness". For example, he had a habit of noting the different coloured smoke that different shells made — percussion bombs had black smoke, timed bombs were brown. He also remembered both the "friends killed at our side ... of the intoxication which had taken hold of us when we saw the enemy in flight". He also considered it to have been "four years of fighting idleness". Following the Armistice in November 1918, Bloch was demobilised on 13 March 1919. Career Early career The war was fundamental in re-arranging Bloch's approach to history, although he never acknowledged it as a turning point. In the years following the war, a disillusioned Bloch rejected the ideas and the traditions that had formed his scholarly training. He rejected the political and biographical history which up until that point was the norm, along with what the historian George Huppert has described as a "laborious cult of facts" that accompanied it. In 1920, with the opening of the University of Strasbourg, Bloch was appointed chargé de cours (assistant lecturer) of medieval history. Alsace-Lorraine had been returned to France with the Treaty of Versailles; the status of the region was a contentious political issue in Strasbourg, its capital, which had a large German population. Bloch, however, refused to take either side in the debate; indeed, he appears to have avoided politics entirely. Under Wilhelmine Germany, Strasbourg had rivalled Berlin as a centre for intellectual advancement, and the University of Strasbourg possessed the largest academic library in the world. Thus, says Stephan R. Epstein of the London School of Economics, "Bloch's unrivalled knowledge of the European Middle Ages was ... built on and around the French University of Strasbourg's inherited German treasures". Bloch also taught French to the few German students who were still at the Centre d'Études Germaniques at the University of Mainz during the Occupation of the Rhineland. He refrained from taking a public position when France occupied the Ruhr in 1923 over Germany's perceived failure to pay war reparations. Bloch began working energetically, and later said that the most productive years of his life were spent at Strasbourg. In his teaching, his delivery was halting. His approach sometimes appeared cold and distant—caustic enough to be upsetting—but conversely, he could be also both charismatic and forceful. Durkheim died in 1917, but the movement he began against the "smugness" that pervaded French intellectual thinking continued. Bloch had been greatly influenced by him, as Durkheim also considered the connections between historians and sociologists to be greater than their differences. Not only did he openly acknowledge Durkheim's influence, but Bloch "repeatedly seized any opportunity to reiterate" it, according to R. C. Rhodes. At Strasbourg, he again met Febvre, who was now a leading historian of the 16th century. Modern and medieval seminars were adjacent to each other at Strasbourg, and attendance often overlapped. Their meeting has been called a "germinal event for 20th-century historiography", and they were to work closely together for the rest of Bloch's life. Febvre was some years older than Bloch and was probably a great influence on him. They lived in the same area of Strasbourg and became kindred spirits, often going on walking trips across the Vosges and other excursions. Bloch's fundamental views on the nature and purpose of the study of history were established by 1920. That same year he defended, and subsequently published, his thesis. It was not as extensive a work as had been intended due to the war. There was a provision in French further education for doctoral candidates for whom the war had interrupted their research to submit only a small portion of the full-length thesis usually required. It sufficed, however, to demonstrate his credentials as a medievalist in the eyes of his contemporaries. He began publishing articles in Henri Berr's Revue de Synthèse Historique. Bloch also published his first major work, Les Rois Thaumaturges, which he later described as "ce gros enfant" (this big child). In 1928, Bloch was invited to lecture at the Institute for the Comparative Study of Civilizations in Oslo. Here he first expounded publicly his theories on total, comparative history: "it was a compelling plea for breaking out of national barriers that circumscribed historical research, for jumping out of geographical frameworks, for escaping from a world of artificiality, for making both horizontal and vertical comparisons of societies, and for enlisting the assistance of other disciplines". Comparative history and the Annales His Oslo lecture, called "Towards a Comparative History of Europe", formed the basis of his next book, Les Caractères Originaux de l'Histoire Rurale Française. In the same year he founded the historical journal Annales with Febvre. One of its aims was to counteract the administrative school of history, which Davies says had "committed the arch error of emptying history of human element". As Bloch saw it, it was his duty to correct that tendency. Both Bloch and Febvre were keen to refocus French historical scholarship on social rather than political history and to promote the use of sociological techniques. The journal avoided narrative history almost completely. The inaugural issue of the Annales stated the editors' basic aims: to counteract the arbitrary and artificial division of history into periods, to re-unite history and social science as a single body of thought, and to promote the acceptance of all other schools of thought into historiography. As a result, the Annales often contained commentary on contemporary, rather than exclusively historical, events. Editing the journal led to Bloch forming close professional relationships with scholars in different fields across Europe. The Annales was the only academic journal to boast a preconceived methodological perspective. Neither Bloch nor Febvre wanted to present a neutral facade. During the decade it was published it maintained a staunchly left-wing position. Henri Pirenne, a Belgian historian who wrote comparative history, closely supported the new journal. Before the war he had acted in an unofficial capacity as a conduit between French and German schools of historiography. Fernand Braudel—who was himself to become an important member of the Annales School after the Second World War—later described the journal's management as being a chief executive officer—Bloch—with a minister of foreign affairs—Febvre. Utilizing comparative methodology allowed Bloch to discover instances of uniqueness within aspects of society, and he advocated it as a new kind of history. According to Bryce Lyon, Braudel and Febvre, "promising to perform all the burdensome tasks" themselves, asked Pirenne to become editor-in-chief of Annales to no avail. Pirenne remained a strong supporter, however, and had an article published in the first volume in 1929. He became close friends with both Bloch and Febvre. He was particularly influential on Bloch, who later said that Pirenne's approach should be the model for historians and that "at the time his country was fighting beside mine for justice and civilisation, wrote in captivity a history of Europe". The three men kept up a regular correspondence until Pirenne's death in 1935. In 1923, Bloch attended the inaugural meeting of the International Congress on Historical Studies (ICHS) in Brussels, which was opened by Pirenne. Bloch was a prolific reviewer for Annales, and during the 1920s and 1930s he contributed over 700 reviews. These were both criticisms of specific works, but more generally, represented his own fluid thinking during this period. The reviews demonstrate the extent to which he shifted his thinking on particular subjects. Move to Paris In 1930, both keen to make a move to Paris, Febvre and Bloch applied to the École pratique des hautes études for a position: both failed. Three years later Febvre was elected to the Collège de France. He moved to Paris, and in doing so, says Fink, became all the more aloof. This placed a strain on Bloch's and his relations, although they communicated regularly by letter and much of their correspondence is preserved. In 1934, Bloch was invited to speak at the London School of Economics. There he met Eileen Power, R. H. Tawney and Michael Postan, among others. While in London, he was asked to write a section of the Cambridge Economic History of Europe; at the same time, he also attempted to foster interest in the Annales among British historians. He later told Febvre in some ways he felt he had a closer affinity with academic life in England than that of France. For example, in comparing the Bibliothèque Nationale with the British Museum, he said that During this period he supported the Popular Front politically. Although he did not believe it would do any good, he signed Alain's—Émile Chartier's pseudonym—petition against Paul Boncour's Militarisation laws in 1935. While he was opposed to the rise of European fascism, he also objected to attempting to counter the ideology through "demagogic appeals to the masses," as the Communist Party was doing. Febvre and Bloch were both firmly on the left, although with different emphases. Febvre, for example, was more militantly Marxist than Bloch, while the latter criticised both the pacifist left and corporate trade unionism. In 1934, Étienne Gilson sponsored Bloch's candidacy for a chair at the Collège de France. The College, says the historian Eugen Weber, was Bloch's "dream" appointment--although one never to be realised--as it was one of the few (possibly the only) institutions in France where personal research was central to lecturing. Camille Jullian had died the previous year, and his position was now available. While he had lived, Julian had wished for his chair to go to one of his students, Albert Grenier, and after his death, his colleagues generally agreed with him. However, Gilson proposed that not only should Bloch be appointed, but that the position be redesignated the study of comparative history. Bloch, says Weber, enjoyed and welcomed new schools of thought and ideas, but mistakenly believed the College should do so also; the College did not. The contest between Bloch and Grenier was not just the struggle for one post between two historians; it was also a struggle to determine which path historiography within the College would take for the next generation. To complicate the situation further, the country was in both political and economic crises, and the College's budget was slashed by 10%. No matter who filled it, this made another new chair financially unviable. By the end of the year, and with further retirements, the College had lost four professors: it could replace only one, and Bloch was not appointed. Bloch personally suspected his failure was due to antisemitism and Jewish quotas. At the time, Febvre blamed it on a distrust of Bloch's approach to scholarship by the academic establishment, although Epstein has argued that this could not have been an over-riding fear as Bloch's next appointment indicated. Joins the Sorbonne Henri Hauser retired from the Sorbonne in 1936, and his chair in economic history was up for appointment. Bloch—"distancing himself from the encroaching threat of Nazi Germany"—applied and was approved for his position. This was a more demanding position than the one he had applied for at the College. Weber has suggested Bloch was appointed because unlike at the College, he had not come into conflict with many faculty members. Weber researched the archives of the College in 1991 and discovered that Bloch had indicated an interest in working there as early as 1928, even though that would have meant him being appointed to the chair in numismatics rather than history. In a letter to the recruitment board written the same year, Bloch indicated that although he was not officially applying, he felt that "this kind of work (which he claimed to be alone in doing) deserves to have its place one day in our great foundation of free scientific research". H. Stuart Hughes says of Bloch's Sorbonne appointment: "In another country, it might have occasioned surprise that a medievalist like Bloch should have been named to such a chair with so little previous preparation. In France it was only to be expected: no one else was better qualified". His first lecture was on the theme of never-ending history, a process, a never-to-be-finished thing. Davies says his years at the Sorbonne were to be "the most fruitful" of Bloch's career, and according to Epstein he was by now the most significant French historian of his age. In 1936, Friedman says he considered using Marx in his teachings, with the intention of bringing "some fresh air" into the Sorbonne. The same year, Bloch and his family visited Venice, where they were chaperoned by the Italian historian Gino Luzzatto. During this period they were living in the Sèvres – Babylone area of Paris, next to the Hôtel Lutetia. By now, Annales was being published six times a year to keep on top of current affairs, however, its "outlook was gloomy". In 1938, the publishers withdrew support and, experiencing financial hardship, the journal moved to cheaper offices, raised its prices, and returned to publishing quarterly. Febvre increasingly opposed the direction Bloch wanted to take the journal. Febvre wanted it to be a "journal of ideas", whereas Bloch saw it as a vehicle for the exchange of information to different areas of scholarship. By early 1939, war was known to be imminent. Bloch, in spite of his age, which automatically exempted him, had a reserve commission for the army holding the rank of captain. He had already been mobilised twice in false alarms. In August 1939, he and his wife Simonne intended to travel to the ICHS in Bucharest. In autumn 1939, just before the outbreak of war, Bloch published the first volume of Feudal Society. Second World War On 24 August 1939, at the age of 53, Bloch was mobilised for a third time, now as a fuel supply officer. He was responsible for the mobilisation of the French Army's massive motorised units. This involved him undertaking such a detailed assessment of the French fuel supply that he later wrote he was able to "count petrol tins and ration every drop" of fuel he obtained. During the first few months of the war, called the Phoney War, he was stationed in Alsace. He possessed none of the eager patriotism with which he had approached the First World War. Instead, Carole Fink suggests that because Bloch felt himself to have been discriminated against, he had "begun to distance himself intellectually and emotionally from his comrades and leaders". Back in Strasbourg, his main duty was evacuating civilians behind the Maginot Line. Further transfers occurred, and Bloch was re-stationed to Molsheim, Saverne, and eventually to the 1st Army headquarters in Picardy, where he joined the Intelligence Department, in liaison with the British. Bloch was largely bored between 1939 and May 1940 as he often had little work to do. To pass the time and occupy himself, he decided to begin writing a history of France. To this end, he purchased notebooks and began to work out a structure for the work. Although never completed, the pages he managed to write, "in his cold, poorly lit rooms", eventually became the kernel of The Historian's Craft. At one point he expected to be invited to neutral Belgium to deliver a series of lectures in Liège. These never took place, however, disappointing Bloch very much; he had planned to speak on Belgian neutrality. He also turned down the opportunity to travel to Oslo as an attaché to the French Military Mission there. He was considered an excellent candidate for the position due to his fluency in Norwegian and knowledge of the country. Bloch considered it and came close to accepting; ultimately, though, it was too far from his family, whom he rarely saw enough of in any case. Some academics had escaped France for The New School in New York City, and the School also invited Bloch. He refused, possibly because of difficulties in obtaining visas: the US government would not grant visas to every member of his family. Fall of France In May 1940, the German army outflanked the French and forced them to withdraw. Facing capture in Rennes, Bloch disguised himself in civilian clothes and lived under German occupation for a fortnight before returning to his family at their country home in Fougères. He fought at the Battle of Dunkirk in May–June 1940 and was evacuated to England with the British Expeditionary Force on the requisitioned steamer MV Royal Daffodil, which he later described as taking place "under golden skies coloured by the black and fawn smoke". Before the evacuation, Bloch ordered the immediate burning of fuel supplies. Although he could have remained in Britain, he chose to return to France the day he arrived because his family was still there. Bloch felt that the French Army lacked the esprit de corps or "fervent fraternity" of the French Army in the First World War. He saw the French generals of 1940 as behaving as unimaginatively as Joseph Joffre had in the first war. He did not, however, believe that the earlier war was an indication of how the next would progress: "no two successive wars", he wrote in 1940, "are ever the same war". To Bloch, France collapsed because her generals failed to capitalise on the best qualities humanity possessed—character and intelligence—because of their own "sluggish and intractable" progress since the First World War. He was horrified by the defeat which, Carole Fink has suggested, he saw as being worse, for both France and the world, than her previous defeats at Waterloo and Sedan. Bloch understood the reasons for France's sudden defeat: not in the rumours of British betrayal, communist fifth columns or fascist plots, but in her failure to motorise, and perhaps more importantly, her failure to understand what motorisation meant. He understood that it was the latter that allowed the French army to become bogged down in Belgium, and this had been compounded by the French army's slow retreat. He wrote in Strange Defeat that a fast, motorised retreat might have saved the army. Two-thirds of France was occupied by Germany. Bloch, one of the few elderly academics to volunteer, was demobilised soon after Philippe Pétain's government signed the Armistice of 22 June 1940 forming Vichy France in the remaining southern-third of the country. Bloch moved south, where in January 1941, he applied for and received one of only ten exemptions to the ban on employing Jewish academics the Vichy government made. This was probably due to Bloch's pre-eminence in the field of history. He was allowed to work at the "University of Strasbourg-in-exile", the universities of Clermont-Ferrand, and Montpellier. The latter, further south, was beneficial to his wife's health, which was in decline. The dean of faculty at Montpellier was Augustin Fliche, an ecclesiastical historian of the Middle Ages, who, according to Weber, "made no secret of his antisemitism". He disliked Bloch further for having once given him a poor review. Fliche not only opposed Bloch's transfer to Montpellier but made his life uncomfortable when he was there. The Vichy government was attempting to promote itself as a return to traditional French values. Bloch condemned this as propaganda; the rural idyll that Vichy said it would return France to was impossible, he said, "because the idyllic, docile peasant life of the French right had never existed". Declining relationship with Febvre Bloch's professional relationship with Febvre was also under strain. The Nazis wanted French editorial boards to be stripped of Jews in accordance with German racial policies; Bloch advocated disobedience, while Febvre was passionate about the survival of Annales at any cost. He believed that it was worth making concessions to keep the journal afloat and to keep France's intellectual life alive. Bloch rejected out of hand any suggestion that he should, in his words, "fall into line". Febvre also asked Bloch to resign as joint-editor of the journal. Febvre feared that Bloch's involvement, as a Jew in Nazi-occupied France, would hinder the journal's distribution. Bloch, forced to accede, turned the Annales over to the sole editorship of Febvre, who then changed the journal's name to Mélanges d'Histoire Sociale. Bloch was forced to write for it under the pseudonym Marc Fougères. The journal's bank account was also in Bloch's name; this too had to go. Henri Hauser supported Febvre's position, and Bloch was offended when Febvre intimated that Hauser had more to lose than both of them. This was because, whereas Bloch had been allowed to retain his research position, Hauser had not. Bloch interpreted Febvre's comment as implying that Bloch was not a victim. Bloch, alluding to his ethnicity, replied that the difference between them was that, whereas he feared for his children because of their Jewishness, Febvre's children were in no more danger than any other man in the country. The Annalist historian André Burguière suggests Febvre did not really understand the position Bloch, or any French Jew, was in. Already damaged by this disagreement, Bloch's and Febvre's relationship declined further when the former had been forced to leave his library and papers in his Paris apartment following his move to Vichy. He had attempted to have them transported to his Creuse residence, but the Nazis—-who had made their headquarters in the hotel next to Bloch's apartment—-looted his rooms and confiscated his library in 1942. Bloch held Febvre responsible for the loss, believing he could have done more to prevent it. Bloch's mother had recently died, and his wife was ill; furthermore, although he was permitted to work and live, he faced daily harassment. On 18 March 1941, Bloch made his will in Clermont-Ferrand. The Polish social historian Bronisław Geremek suggests that this document hints at Bloch in some way foreseeing his death, as he emphasised that nobody had the right to avoid fighting for their country. In March 1942 Bloch and other French academics such as Georges Friedmann and Émile Benveniste, refused to join or condone the establishment of the Union Générale des Israelites des France by the Vichy government, a group intended to include all Jews in France, both of birth and immigration. French resistance In November 1942, as part of an operation known as Case Anton, the German Army crossed the demarcation line and occupied the territory previously under direct Vichy rule. This was the catalyst for Bloch's decision to join the French Resistance sometime between late 1942 and March 1943. Bloch was careful not to join simply because of his ethnicity or the laws that were passed against it. As Burguière has pointed out, and Bloch would have known, taking such a position would effectively "indict all Jews who did not join". Burguière has pinpointed Bloch's motive for joining the Resistance in his characteristic refusal to mince his words or play half a role. Bloch had previously expressed the view that "there can be no salvation where there is not some sacrifice". He sent his family away and returned to Lyon to join the underground. In spite of knowing a number of francs-tireurs around Lyon, Bloch still found it difficult to join them because of his age. Although the Resistance recruited heavily among university lecturers—and indeed, Bloch's alma mater, the École Normale Superieur, provided it with many members—he commented in exasperation to Simonne that he "didn't know it is so difficult to offer one's life". The French historian and philosopher François Dosse quotes a member of the franc-tireurs active with Bloch as later describing how "that eminent professor came to put himself at our command simply and modestly". Bloch used his professional and military skills on their behalf, writing propaganda for them and organising their supplies and materiel, becoming a regional organiser. Bloch also joined the Mouvements Unis de la Résistance (Unified Resistance Movement, or MUR), section R1, and edited the underground newsletter, Cahiers Politique. He went under various pseudonyms: Arpajon, Chevreuse, Narbonne. Often on the move, Bloch used archival research as his excuse for travelling. The journalist-turned-resistance fighter Georges Altman later told how he knew Bloch as, although originally "a man, made for the creative silence of gentle study, with a cabinet full of books" was now "running from street to street, deciphering secret letters in some Lyonaisse Resistance garret"; all Bloch's notes were kept in code. For the first time, suggests Lyon, Bloch was forced to consider the role of the individual in history, rather than the collective; perhaps by then even realising he should have done so earlier. Death Bloch was arrested at the Place de Pont, Lyon, during a major roundup by the Vichy milice on 8 March 1944, and handed over to Klaus Barbie of the Lyon Gestapo. Bloch was using the pseudonym "Maurice Blanchard", and in appearance was "an ageing gentleman, rather short, grey-haired, bespectacled, neatly dressed, holding a briefcase in one hand and a cane in the other". He was renting a room above a dressmaker's shop on rue des Quatre Chapeaux; the Gestapo raided the place the following day. It is possible Bloch had been denounced by a woman working in the shop. | was also in Bloch's name; this too had to go. Henri Hauser supported Febvre's position, and Bloch was offended when Febvre intimated that Hauser had more to lose than both of them. This was because, whereas Bloch had been allowed to retain his research position, Hauser had not. Bloch interpreted Febvre's comment as implying that Bloch was not a victim. Bloch, alluding to his ethnicity, replied that the difference between them was that, whereas he feared for his children because of their Jewishness, Febvre's children were in no more danger than any other man in the country. The Annalist historian André Burguière suggests Febvre did not really understand the position Bloch, or any French Jew, was in. Already damaged by this disagreement, Bloch's and Febvre's relationship declined further when the former had been forced to leave his library and papers in his Paris apartment following his move to Vichy. He had attempted to have them transported to his Creuse residence, but the Nazis—-who had made their headquarters in the hotel next to Bloch's apartment—-looted his rooms and confiscated his library in 1942. Bloch held Febvre responsible for the loss, believing he could have done more to prevent it. Bloch's mother had recently died, and his wife was ill; furthermore, although he was permitted to work and live, he faced daily harassment. On 18 March 1941, Bloch made his will in Clermont-Ferrand. The Polish social historian Bronisław Geremek suggests that this document hints at Bloch in some way foreseeing his death, as he emphasised that nobody had the right to avoid fighting for their country. In March 1942 Bloch and other French academics such as Georges Friedmann and Émile Benveniste, refused to join or condone the establishment of the Union Générale des Israelites des France by the Vichy government, a group intended to include all Jews in France, both of birth and immigration. French resistance In November 1942, as part of an operation known as Case Anton, the German Army crossed the demarcation line and occupied the territory previously under direct Vichy rule. This was the catalyst for Bloch's decision to join the French Resistance sometime between late 1942 and March 1943. Bloch was careful not to join simply because of his ethnicity or the laws that were passed against it. As Burguière has pointed out, and Bloch would have known, taking such a position would effectively "indict all Jews who did not join". Burguière has pinpointed Bloch's motive for joining the Resistance in his characteristic refusal to mince his words or play half a role. Bloch had previously expressed the view that "there can be no salvation where there is not some sacrifice". He sent his family away and returned to Lyon to join the underground. In spite of knowing a number of francs-tireurs around Lyon, Bloch still found it difficult to join them because of his age. Although the Resistance recruited heavily among university lecturers—and indeed, Bloch's alma mater, the École Normale Superieur, provided it with many members—he commented in exasperation to Simonne that he "didn't know it is so difficult to offer one's life". The French historian and philosopher François Dosse quotes a member of the franc-tireurs active with Bloch as later describing how "that eminent professor came to put himself at our command simply and modestly". Bloch used his professional and military skills on their behalf, writing propaganda for them and organising their supplies and materiel, becoming a regional organiser. Bloch also joined the Mouvements Unis de la Résistance (Unified Resistance Movement, or MUR), section R1, and edited the underground newsletter, Cahiers Politique. He went under various pseudonyms: Arpajon, Chevreuse, Narbonne. Often on the move, Bloch used archival research as his excuse for travelling. The journalist-turned-resistance fighter Georges Altman later told how he knew Bloch as, although originally "a man, made for the creative silence of gentle study, with a cabinet full of books" was now "running from street to street, deciphering secret letters in some Lyonaisse Resistance garret"; all Bloch's notes were kept in code. For the first time, suggests Lyon, Bloch was forced to consider the role of the individual in history, rather than the collective; perhaps by then even realising he should have done so earlier. Death Bloch was arrested at the Place de Pont, Lyon, during a major roundup by the Vichy milice on 8 March 1944, and handed over to Klaus Barbie of the Lyon Gestapo. Bloch was using the pseudonym "Maurice Blanchard", and in appearance was "an ageing gentleman, rather short, grey-haired, bespectacled, neatly dressed, holding a briefcase in one hand and a cane in the other". He was renting a room above a dressmaker's shop on rue des Quatre Chapeaux; the Gestapo raided the place the following day. It is possible Bloch had been denounced by a woman working in the shop. In any case, they found a radio transmitter and many papers. Bloch was imprisoned in Montluc prison, during which time his wife died. While imprisoned he was tortured, suffering beatings and ice-baths. On occasion, his torturers broke his ribs and wrists, which led to his being returned to his cell unconscious. He eventually caught bronchopneumonia and fell seriously ill. It was later claimed that he gave away no information to his interrogators, and while incarcerated taught French history to other inmates. In the meantime, the allies had invaded Normandy on 6 June 1944. As a result, the Nazi regime was keen to evacuate and "liquidate their holdings" in France; this meant disposing of as many prisoners as they could. Between May and June 1944 the Nazi occupying forces shot around 700 prisoners in scattered locations to avoid the risk of this becoming common knowledge, thus inviting Resistance reprisals around southern France. Among those killed was Bloch, one of a group of 26 Resistance prisoners picked out in Montluc and driven along the Saône towards Trévoux on the night of 16 June 1944. Driven to a field near Saint-Didier-de-Formans, they were shot by the Gestapo in groups of four. According to Lyon, Bloch spent his last moments comforting a 16-year-old beside him who was worried that the bullets might hurt. Bloch fell first, reputedly shouting "Vive la France" before being shot. A coup de grâce was delivered. One man managed to crawl away and later provided a detailed report of events; the bodies were discovered on 26 June. For some time Bloch's death was merely a "dark rumour" until it was confirmed to Febvre. At his burial, his own words were read at the graveside. With them, Bloch proudly acknowledged his Jewish ancestry while identifying foremost as a Frenchman. He described himself as "a stranger to any formal religious belief as well as any supposed racial solidarity, I have felt myself to be, quite simply French before anything else". According to his instructions, no orthodox prayers were said over his grave, and on it was to be carved his epitaph dilexi veritatem ("I have loved the truth"). In 1977, his ashes were transferred from St-Didier to Fougeres and the gravestone was inscribed as he requested. Febvre had not approved of Bloch's decision to join the Resistance, believing it to be a waste of his brain and talents, although, as Davies points out, "such a fate befell many other French intellectuals". Febvre continued publishing Annales, ("if in a considerably modified form" comments Beatrice Gottlieb), dividing his time between his country château in the Franche-Comté and working at the École Normale in Paris. This caused some outrage, and, after liberation, when classes were returning to a degree of normality, he was booed by his students at the Sorbonne. Major works Bloch's first book was L'Ile de France, published in 1913. A small book, Lyon calls it "light, readable and far from trivial", and showing the influence of H. J. Fleure in how Bloch combined discussion on geography, language and archaeology. It was translated into English in 1971. Davies says 1920's Rois et Serfs, (Kings and Serfs), is a "long and rather meandering essay", although it had the potential to be Bloch's definitive monograph upon the single topic that "might have evoked his genius at his fullest", the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Loyn also describes it as a "loose-knit monograph", and a program to move forward rather than a full-length academic text. Bloch's most important early work—based on his doctoral dissertation—was published in 1924 as Rois et Thaumaturges; it was published in English as The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England in 1973. Here he examined medieval belief in the royal touch, and the degree to which kings used such a belief for propaganda purposes. It was also the first example of Bloch's inter-disciplinary approach, as he used research from the fields of anthropology, medicine, psychology and iconography. It has been described as Bloch's first masterwork. It has a 500-page descriptive analysis of the medieval view of royalty effectively possessing supernatural powers. Verging on the antiquarian in his microscopic approach, and much influenced by the work of Raymond Crawfurd—who saw it as a "dubious if exotic" aspect of medicine, rather than history—Bloch makes diverse use of evidence from different disciplines and periods, assessing the King's Evil as far forward as the 19th century. The book had originally been inspired by discussions Bloch had with Louis, who acted as a medical consultant while his brother worked on it. Bloch concluded that the royal touch involved a degree of mass delusion among those who witnessed it. 1931 saw the publication of Les caractéres originaux de l'histoire rurale francaise. In this—what Bloch called "mon petit livre"—he used both the traditional techniques of historiographical analysis(for example, scrutinising documents, manuscripts, accounts and rolls) and his newer, multi-faceted approach, with a heavy emphasis on maps as evidence. Bloch did not allow his new methods to detract from the former: he knew, says the historian Daniel Chirot, that the traditional methods of research were "the bread and butter of historical work. One had to do it well to be a minimally accepted historian". The first of "two classic works", says Hughes, and possibly his finest, studies the relationship between physical geographical location and the development of political institutions. Loyn has called Bloch's assessment of medieval French rural law great, but with the addendum that "he is not so good at describing ordinary human beings. He is no Eileen Power, and his peasants do not come to life as hers do". In this study, Chirot says Bloch "entirely abandoned the concept of linear history, and wrote, instead, from the present or near past into the distant past, and back towards the present". Febvre wrote the introduction to the book for its publication, and described the technique as "reading the past from the present", or what Bloch saw as starting with the known and moving into the unknown. Later writings and posthumous publishing La Société Féodale was published in two volumes (The Growth of Ties of Dependence, and Social Classes and Political Organisation) in 1939, and was translated into English as Feudal Society in 1961. Bloch described the study as something of a sketch, although Stirling has called it his "most enduring work ... still a cornerstone of medieval curricula" in 2007 and representative of Bloch at the peak of his career. In Feudal Society he used research from the broadest range of disciplines to date to examine feudalism in the broadest possible way—most notably including a study of feudal Japan. He also compared areas where feudalism was imposed, rather than organically developed (such as England after the Norman conquest) and where it was never established (such as Scotland and Scandinavia). Bloch defined feudal society as, "from the peasants' point of view", politically fragmentary, where they are ruled by an aristocratic upper-class. Daniel Chirot has described The Royal Touch, French Rural History and Feudal Society—all of which concentrate on the French Middle Ages—as Bloch's most significant works. Conversely, his last two—The Historian's Craft and Strange Defeat—have been described as unrepresentative of his historical approach in that they discuss contemporary events in which Bloch was personally involved and without access to primary sources. Strange Defeat was uncompleted at the time of his death, and both were published posthumously in 1949. Davies has described The Historian's Craft as "beautifully sensitive and profound"; the book was written in response to his son, Étienne, asking his father, "what is history?". In his introduction, Bloch wrote to Febvre. Likewise, Strange Defeat, in the words of R. R. Davies, is a "damning and even intolerant analysis" of the long- and short-term reasons France fell in 1940. Bloch affirmed that the book was more than a personal memoir; rather, he intended it as a deposition and a testament. It contains—"uncomfortably and honestly"—Bloch's own self-appraisal: Bloch emphasises failures in the French mindset: in the loss of morale of the soldiery and a failed education of the officers, effectively a failure of both character and intelligence on behalf of both. He condemns the "mania" for testing in education which, he felt, treated the testing as being an end in itself, draining generations of Frenchmen and Frenchwomen of originality and initiative or thirst for knowledge, and an "appreciation only of successful cheating and sheer luck". Strange Defeat has been called Bloch's autopsy of the France of the inter-war years. A collection of essays was published in English in 1961 as Land and Work in Medieval Europe. The long essay was a favoured medium of Bloch's, including, Davies says, "the famous essay on the water mill and the much-challenged one on the problem of gold in medieval Europe". In the former, Bloch saw one of the most important technological advances of the era, in the latter, the effective creation of a European currency. Although one of his best essays, according to Davies—"Liberté et servitude personnelles au Moyen Age, particulierement en France"—was not published when it could have been; this, he remarked was "an unpardonable omission". Historical method and approach Davies says Bloch was "no mean disputant" in historiographical debate, often reducing an opponent's argument to its most basic weaknesses. His approach was a reaction against the prevailing ideas within French historiography of the day which, when he was young, were still very much based on that of the German School, pioneered by Leopold von Ranke. Within French historiography this led to a forensic focus on administrative history as expounded by historians such as Ernest Lavisse. While he acknowledged his and his generation of historians' debt to their predecessors, he considered that they treated historical research as being little more meaningful than detective work. Bloch later wrote how, in his view, "There is no waste more criminal than that of erudition running ... in neutral gear, nor any pride more vainly misplaced than that in a tool valued as an end in itself". He believed it was wrong for historians to focus on the evidence rather than the human condition of whatever period they were discussing. Administrative historians, he said, understood every element of a government department without understanding anything of those who worked in it. Bloch was very much influenced by Ferdinand Lot, who had already written comparative history, and by the work of Jules Michelet and Fustel de Coulanges with their emphasis on social history, Durkheim's sociological methodology, François Simiand's social economics, and Henri Bergson's philosophy of collectivism. Bloch's emphasis on using comparative history harked back to the Enlightenment, when writers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu decried the notion that history was a linear narrative of individuals and pushed for greater use of philosophy in studying the past. Bloch condemned the "German-dominated" school of political economy, which he considered "analytically unsophisticated and riddled with distortions". Equally condemned were then-fashionable ideas on racial theories of national identity. Bloch believed that political history on its own could not explain deeper socioeconomics trends and influences. Bloch did not see social history as being a separate field within historical research. Rather, he saw all aspects of history to be inherently a part of social history. By definition, all history was social history, an approach he and Febvre termed "histoire totale", not a focus on points of fact such as dates of battles, reigns, and changes of leaders and ministries, and a general confinement by the historian to what he can identify and verify. Bloch explained in a letter to Pirenne that, in Bloch's eyes, the historian's most important quality was the ability to be surprised by what he found—"I am more and more convinced of this", he said; "damn those of us who believe everything is normal!"Bloch identified two types of historical eras: the generational era and the era of civilisation: these were defined by the speed with which they underwent change and development. In the latter type of period, which changed gradually, Bloch included physical, structural, and psychological aspects of society, while the generational era could experience fundamental change over a relatively few generations. Bloch founded what modern French historians call the "regressive method" of historical scholarship. This method avoids the necessity of relying solely on historical documents as a source, by looking at the issues visible in later historical periods and drawing from them what they may have looked like centuries earlier. Davies says this was particularly useful in Bloch's study of village communities as "the strength of communal traditions often preserves earlier customs in a more or less fossilized state". Bloch studied peasant tools in museums, observed their use in work, and discussed the objects with the people who used them. He believed that in observing a plough or an annual harvest one was observing history, as more often than not both the technology and the technique were much the same as they had been hundreds of years earlier. However, the individuals themselves were not his focus; instead, he focused on "the collectivity, the community, the society". He wrote about the peasantry, rather than the individual peasant; says Lyon, "he roamed the provinces to become familiar with French agriculture over the long term, with the contours of peasant villages, with agrarian routine, its sounds and smells. Bloch claimed that both fighting alongside the peasantry in the war and his historical research into their history had shown him "the vigorous and unwearied quickness" of their minds. Bloch described his area of study as the comparative history of European society and explained why he did not identify himself as a medievalist: "I refuse to do so. I have no interest in changing labels, nor in clever labels themselves, or those that are thought to be so." He did not leave a full study of his methodology, although it can be effectively reconstructed piecemeal. He believed that history was the "science of movement", but did not accept, for example, the aphorism that one could protect against the future by studying the past. His work did not use a revolutionary approach to historiography; rather, he wished to combine the schools of thinking that preceded him into a new broad approach to history and, as he wrote in 1926, to bring to history "ce murmure qui n'était pas de la mort", ("the whisper that was not death'). He criticised what he called the "idol of the origins", where historians concentrate overly hard on the formation of something to the detriment of studying the thing itself. Bloch's comparative history led him to tie his researches in with those of many other schools: social sciences, linguistics, philology, comparative literature, folklore, geography, and agronomy. Similarly, he did not restrict himself to French history. At various points in his writings, Bloch commented on medieval Corsican, Finnish, Japanese, Norwegian and Welsh history. R. R. Davies has compared Bloch's intelligence with what he calls that of "the Maitland of the 1890s", regarding his breadth of reading, use of language and multidisciplinary approach. Unlike Maitland, however, Bloch also wished to synthesise scientific history with narrative history. According to Stirling, he managed to achieve "an imperfect and volatile imbalance" between them. Bloch did not believe that it was possible to understand or recreate the past by the mere act of compiling facts from sources; rather, he described a source as a witness, "and like most witnesses", he wrote, "it rarely speaks until one begins to question it". Likewise, he viewed historians as detectives who gathered evidence and testimony, as juges d'instruction (examining magistrates) "charged with a vast enquiry of the past". Areas of interest Bloch was not only interested in periods or aspects of history but in the importance of history as a subject, regardless of the period, of intellectual exercise. Davies writes, "he was certainly not afraid of repeating himself; and, unlike most English historians, he felt it his duty to reflect on the aims and purposes of history". Bloch considered it a mistake for the historian to confine himself overly rigidly to his own discipline. Much of his editorialising in Annales emphasised the importance of parallel evidence to be found in neighbouring fields of study, especially archaeology, ethnography, geography, literature, psychology, sociology, technology, air photography, ecology, pollen analysis and statistics. In Bloch's view, this allowed not just a broader field of study, but a far more comprehensive understanding of the past than would be possible from relying solely on historical sources. Bloch's favourite example of how technology impacts society was the watermill. This can be summed up as illustrating how it was known of but little used in the classical period; it became an economic necessity in the early medieval period; and finally, in the later Middle Ages, it represented a scarce resource increasingly concentrated in the nobility's hands. Bloch also emphasised the importance of geography in the study of history, and particularly in the study of rural history. He suggested that, fundamentally, they were the same subjects, although he criticised geographers for failing to take historical chronology or human agency into account. Using a farmer's field as an example, he described it as "fundamentally, a human work, built from generation to generation". Bloch also condemned the view that rural life was immobile. He believed that the Gallic farmer of the Roman period was inherently different from his 18th-century descendants, cultivating different plants, in a different way. He saw England and France's agricultural history as developing similarly, and, indeed, discovered an Enclosure Movement in France throughout the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries on the basis that it had been occurring in England in similar circumstances. Bloch also took a deep interest in the field of linguistics and their use of the comparative method. He believed that using the method in historical research could prevent the historian from ignoring the broader context in the course of his detailed local researches: "a simple application of the comparative method exploded the ethnic theories of historical institutions, beloved of so many German historians". Personal life Bloch was not a tall man, being in height and an elegant dresser. Eugen Weber has described Bloch's handwriting as "impossible". He had expressive blue eyes, which could be "mischievous, inquisitive, ironic and sharp". Febvre later said that when he first met Bloch in 1902, he found a slender young man with "a timid face". Bloch was proud of his family's history of defending France: he later wrote, "My great-grandfather was a serving soldier in 1793; ... my father was one of the defenders of Strasbourg in 1870 ... I was brought up in the traditions of patriotism which found no more fervent champions than the Jews of the Alsatian exodus". Bloch was a committed supporter of the Third Republic and politically left-wing. He was not a Marxist, although he was impressed by Karl Marx himself, whom he thought was a great historian if possibly "an unbearable man" personally. He viewed contemporary politics as purely moral decisions to be made. He did not, however, let it enter into his work; indeed, he questioned the very idea of a historian studying politics. He believed that society should be governed by the young, and, although politically he was a moderate, he noted that revolutions generally promote the young over the old: "even the Nazis had done this, while the French had done the reverse, bringing to power a generation of the past". According to Epstein, following the First World War, Bloch presented a "curious lack of empathy and comprehension for the horrors of modern warfare", while John Lewis Gaddis has found Bloch's failure to condemn Stalinism in the 1930s "disturbing". Gaddis suggests that Bloch had ample evidence of Stalin's crimes and yet sought to shroud them in utilitarian calculations about the price of what he called 'progress'". Although Bloch was very reserved—and later acknowledged that he had generally been old-fashioned and "timid" with women—he was good friends with Lucien Febvre and Christian Pfister. In July 1919 he married Simonne Vidal, a "cultivated and discreet, timid and energetic" woman, at a Jewish wedding. Her father was the Inspecteur-Général de Ponts et Chaussées, and a very prosperous and influential man. Undoubtedly, says Friedman, his wife's family wealth allowed Bloch to focus on his research without having to depend on the income he made from it. Bloch was later to say he had found great happiness with her, and that he believed her to have also found it with him. They had six children together, four sons and two daughters. The eldest two were a daughter Alice, and a son, Étienne. As his father had done with him, Bloch took a great interest in his children's education, and regularly helped with their homework. He could, though, be "caustically critical" of his children, particularly Étienne. Bloch accused him in one of his wartime letters of having poor manners, being lazy and stubborn, and of being possessed occasionally by "evil demons". Regarding the facts of life, Bloch told Etienne to attempt always to avoid what Bloch termed "contaminated females". Bloch was agnostic, if not atheist, in matters of religion. His son Étienne later said of his father, "in his life as well as his writings not even the slightest trace of a supposed Jewish identity" can be found. "Marc Bloch was simply French". Some of his pupils believed him to be an Orthodox Jew, but Loyn says this is incorrect. While Bloch's Jewish roots were important to him, this was the result of the political tumult of the Dreyfuss years, said Loyn: that "it was only anti-semitism that made him want to affirm his Jewishness". Bloch's brother Louis became a doctor, and eventually the head of the diphtheria section of the Hôpital des Enfants-Malades. Louis died prematurely in 1922. Their father died in March the following year. Following these deaths, Bloch took on responsibility for his aging mother as well as his brother's widow and children. Eugen Weber has suggested that Bloch was probably a monomaniac who, in Bloch's own words, "abhorred falsehood". He also abhorred, as a result of both the Franco-Prussian war and more recently the First World War, German nationalism. This extended to that country's culture and scholarship, and is probably the reason he never debated with German historians. Indeed, in Bloch's later career, he rarely mentioned even those German historians with whom he must, professionally, have felt an affinity, such as Karl Lamprecht. Lyon says Lamprecht had denounced what he saw as the German obsession with political history and had focused on art and comparative history, thus "infuriat[ing] the Rankianer". Bloch once commented, on English historians, that "en Angleterre, rien qu'en Angleterre" ("in England, only England"). He was not, though, particularly critical of English historiography, and respected the long tradition of rural history in that country as well as more materially the government funding that went into historical research there. Legacy It is possible, argues Weber, that had Bloch survived the war, he would have stood to be appointed Minister of Education in a post-war government and reformed the education system he had condemned for losing France the war in 1940. Instead, in 1948, his son Étienne offered the Archives Nationales his father's papers for their repository, but they rejected the offer. As a result, the material was placed in the vaults of the École Normale Supérieure, "where it lay untouched for decades". Intellectual historian Peter Burke named Bloch the leader of what he called the "French Historical Revolution", and Bloch became an icon for the post-war generation of new historians. Although he has been described as being, to some extent, the object of a cult in both England and France—"one of the most influential historians of the twentieth century" by Stirling, and "the greatest historian of modern times" by John H. Plumb—this is a reputation mostly acquired postmortem. Henry Loyn suggests it is also one which would have amused and amazed Bloch. According to Stirling, this posed a particular problem within French historiography when Bloch effectively had martyrdom bestowed upon him after the war, leading to much of his work being overshadowed by the last months of his life. This led to "indiscriminate heaps of praise under which he is now almost hopelessly buried". This is partly at least the fault of historians themselves, who have not critically re-examined Bloch's work but rather treat him as a fixed and immutable aspect of the historiographical background. At the turn of the millennium "there is a woeful lack of critical engagement with Marc Bloch's writing in contemporary academic circles" according to Stirling. His legacy has been further complicated by the fact that the second generation of Annalists led by Fernand Braudel has "co-opted his memory", combining Bloch's academic work and Resistance involvement to create "a founding myth". The aspects of his life which made Bloch easy to beatify have been summed up by Henry Loyn as "Frenchman and Jew, scholar and soldier, staff officer and Resistance worker ... articulate on the present as well as the past". The first critical biography of Bloch did not appear until Carole Fink's Marc Bloch: A Life in History was published in 1989. This, wrote S. R. Epstein, was the "professional, extensively researched and documented" story of Bloch's life, and, he commented, probably had to "overcome a strong sense of protectiveness among the guardians of Bloch's and the Annales memory". Since then, continuing scholarship—such as that by Stirling, who calls Bloch a visionary, although a "flawed" one—has been more critically objective of Bloch's recognisable weaknesses. For example, although he was a keen advocate for chronological precision and textual accuracy, his only major work in this area, a discussion of Osbert of Clare's Life of Edward the Confessor, was subsequently "seriously criticised" by later experts in the field such as R. W. Southern and Frank Barlow; Epstein later suggested Bloch was "a mediocre theoretician but an adept artisan of method". Colleagues who worked with him occasionally complained that Bloch's manner could be "cold, distant, and both timid and hypocritical" due to the strong views he had held on the failure of the French education system. Bloch's reduction of the role of individuals, and their personal beliefs, in changing society or making history has been challenged. Even Febvre, reviewing Feudal Society on its post-war publication, suggested that Bloch had unnecessarily ignored the individual's role in societal development. Bloch has also been accused of ignoring unanswered questions and presenting complete answers when they are perhaps not deserved, and of sometimes ignoring internal inconsistencies. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill has also criticised Bloch's division of the feudal period into two distinct times as artificial. He also says Bloch's theory on the transformation of blood ties into feudal bonds does not correspond with either chronological evidence or what is known of the nature of the early family unit. Bloch seems to have occasionally ignored, whether accidentally or deliberately, important contemporaries in his field. Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes, for example, who founded the history of technology as a new discipline, built new harnesses from medieval illustrations, and drew histographical conclusions. Bloch, though, does not seem to have acknowledged the similarities between his and Lefebvre's approaches to physical |
- by then he was spending most of his spare time learning as much as he could about Linear B, some of his study time being spent under the covers at night with a flashlight. When he was not boarding at school, Ventris lived with his mother, before 1935 in coastal hotels, and then in the avant garde Berthold Lubetkin's Highpoint modernist apartments in Highgate, London. His mother's acquaintances, who frequented the house, included many sculptors, painters, and writers of the day. The money for her artistic patronage came from Polish estates. Young adult Ventris's father died in 1938 and his mother Dora became administrator of the estate. With the German invasion of Poland in 1939, Mrs Ventris lost her private income, and in 1940 Dora's father died. Ventris lost his mother to clinical depression and an overdose of barbiturates. He never spoke of her, assuming instead an ebullient and energetic manner in whatever he decided to do, a trait which won him numerous friends. A friend of the family, Russian sculptor Naum Gabo, took Ventris under his wing. Ventris later said that Gabo was the most family he had ever had. It may have been at Gabo's house that he began the study of Russian. He decided on architecture as a career, and enrolled in the Architectural Association School of Architecture. There he met his wife-to-be Lois Knox-Niven, daughter of Lois Butler. Her social background was similar to Ventris's: her family was well-to-do, she had travelled in Europe, and she was interested in architecture. She was also popular and very beautiful. Ventris did not complete his architecture studies, being conscripted in 1942. He chose the Royal Air Force (RAF). His preference was for navigator rather than pilot, and he completed the extensive training in the UK and Canada, to qualify early in 1944 and be commissioned. While training, he studied Russian intensively for several weeks, the purpose of which is not clear. He took part in the bombing of Germany, as aircrew on the Handley Page Halifax with No. 76 Squadron RAF, initially at RAF Breighton and then at RAF Holme-on-Spalding Moor. After the conclusion of the war he served out the rest of his term on the ground in Germany, for which he was chosen because of his knowledge of Russian. His duties are unclear. His friends assumed he was on intelligence duties, interpreting his denials as part of a legal gag. No evidence of such assignments has emerged in the decades since. There is also no evidence that he was ever part of any code-breaking unit, as was Chadwick, even though the public has readily believed this explanation of his genius and success with Linear B. Architect and palaeographer After the war he worked briefly in Sweden, learning enough Swedish to communicate with scholars. Then he came home to complete his architectural education with honours in 1948 and settled down with Lois working as an architect. He designed schools for the Ministry of Education. He and his wife personally designed their family home, 19 North End, Hampstead. Ventris and his wife had two children, a son, Nikki (1942–1984) and a daughter, Tessa (born 1946). Ventris continued with his efforts on Linear B, discovering in 1952 that it was an archaic form of Greek. He was awarded an OBE in 1955 for "services to Mycenaean paleography." In 1959 he was posthumously awarded the British Academy's Kenyon Medal. Death and legacy In 1956 Ventris, who lived in Hampstead, died instantly in a late-night collision in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, with a parked truck while driving home, aged 34. The coroner's verdict was accidental death. An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Ventris at his home in Hampstead and a street in Heraklion, the capital of the Greek island of Crete, was named in his honor. Decipherment At the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologist Arthur Evans began excavating an ancient site at Knossos, on the island of Crete. In doing so he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with two unknown scripts, Linear A and Linear B. Evans attempted to decipher both in the following decades, with little success. In 1936, Evans hosted an exhibition on Cretan archaeology at Burlington House in London, home of the Royal Academy. It was the jubilee anniversary (50 years) of the British School of Archaeology in Athens, contemporaneous owners and managers of the Knossos site. Evans had given the site to them some years previously. Villa Ariadne, Evans's home there, was now part of the school. Boys from Stowe school were in attendance at one lecture and tour conducted by | London, home of the Royal Academy. It was the jubilee anniversary (50 years) of the British School of Archaeology in Athens, contemporaneous owners and managers of the Knossos site. Evans had given the site to them some years previously. Villa Ariadne, Evans's home there, was now part of the school. Boys from Stowe school were in attendance at one lecture and tour conducted by Evans himself at age 85. Ventris, 14 years old, was present and remembered Evans walking with a stick. The stick was undoubtedly the cane named Prodger which Evans carried all his life to assist him with his short-sightedness and night blindness. Evans held up tablets of the unknown scripts for the audience to see. During the interview period following the lecture, Ventris immediately confirmed that Linear B was as yet undeciphered, and determined to decipher it. In 1940, the 18-year-old Ventris had an article "Introducing the Minoan Language" published in the American Journal of Archaeology. Ventris's initial theory was that Etruscan and Linear B were related and that this might provide a key to decipherment. Although this proved incorrect, it was a link he continued to explore until the early 1950s. Shortly after Evans died, Alice Kober noted that certain words in Linear B inscriptions had changing word endings – perhaps declensions in the manner of Latin or Greek. Using this clue, Ventris constructed a series of grids associating the symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels. While which consonants and vowels these were remained mysterious, Ventris learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to begin guessing. Kober was a classics professor at Brooklyn College and had done extensive work on Linear B. Ventris acknowledged her work as having made a significant contribution to his own work. Shortly before World War II, American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered a further 600 or so tablets of Linear B in the Mycenaean palace of Pylos on the Greek mainland. Photographs of these tablets by archaeologist Alison Frantz facilitated Ventris's later decipherment of the Linear B script. Comparing the Linear B tablets discovered on the Greek mainland, and noting that certain symbol groups appeared only in the Cretan texts, Ventris made the inspired guess that those were place names on the island. This proved to be correct. Armed with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much of the text and determined |
Associates' founder and president David Warhol noted that "video games at that time had to have 'wall to wall' music". He brought in George "The Fat Man" Sanger and his band, along with David Hayes, to compose the score. Their goal was to create songs that suited each character, such as a punk rock theme for Razor, an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy's "The Boys Are Back in Town" for Dave Miller. Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music. Reception According to Stuart Hunt of Retro Gamer, Maniac Mansion received highly positive reviews from critics. Nevertheless, Ron Gilbert noted that "it wasn't a huge hit" commercially. In 2011, Hunt wrote that "as so often tends to be the way with cult classics, the popularity it saw was slow in coming". Keith Farrell of Compute!'s Gazette was struck by Maniac Mansions similarity to film, particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart "information or urgency". He lauded the game's graphics, animation and high level of detail. Commodore Users Bill Scolding and three reviewers from Zzap!64 compared the game to The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Further comparisons were drawn to Psycho, Friday the 13th, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, The Addams Family and Scooby-Doo. Russ Ceccola of Commodore Magazine found the cutscenes to be creative and well made, and he commented that the "characters are distinctively Lucasfilm's, bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character". In Compute!, Orson Scott Card praised the game's humor, cinematic storytelling and lack of violence. He called it "compellingly good" and evidence of Lucasfilm's push "to make computer games a valid storytelling art". German magazine Happy-Computer commended the point-and-click interface and likened it to that of Uninvited by ICOM Simulations. The publication highlighted Maniac Mansions graphics, originality, and overall enjoyability: one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released. Happy-Computer later reported that Maniac Mansion was the highest-selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months. The game's humor received praise from Zzap!64, whose reviewers called the point-and-click controls "tremendous" and the total package "innovative and polished". Shay Addams of Questbusters: The Adventurer's Newsletter preferred Maniac Mansions interface to that of Labyrinth: The Computer Game. He considered the game to be Lucasfilm's best, and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals, such as those from Sierra On-Line. A writer for ACE enjoyed the game's animation and depth, but he noted that fans of text-based adventures would dislike the game's simplicity. Entertainment Weekly picked the game as the #20 greatest game available in 1991: "The graphics are merely okay and the music is Nintendo at its tinniest, but Maniac Mansion's plot is enough to overcome these faults. In this command-driven game — adapted from the computer hit — three buddies venture into a sinister haunted mansion and wind up juggling a bunch of wacky story lines". Ports Reviewing the MS-DOS and Atari ST ports, a critic from The Games Machine called Maniac Mansion "an enjoyable romp" that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games. The writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio. Reviewers for The Deseret News lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product "wonderful fun". Computer Gaming Worlds Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining "the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack". Although he faulted the control system's limited options, he hailed it as "one of the most comfortable ever devised". Writing for VideoGames & Computer Entertainment, Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game's plot and premise were typical of the horror genre, but they praised the interface and execution. Reviewing Maniac Mansions Amiga version four years after its release, Simon Byron of The One Amiga praised the game for retaining "charm and humour", but suggested that its art direction had become "tacky" compared to more recent titles. Stephen Bradly of Amiga Format found the game derivative, but encountered "loads of visual humour" in it, adding: "Strangely, it's quite compelling after a while". Michael Labiner of Germany's Amiga Joker considered Maniac Mansion to be one of the best adventure games for the system. He noted minor graphical flaws, such as a limited color palette, but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings. Writing for Datormagazin in Sweden, Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of Maniac Mansion were nearly identical. She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless. Reviewing the NES release, British magazine Mean Machines commended the game's presentation, playability, and replay value. The publication also noted undetailed graphics and "ear-bashing tunes". The magazine's Julian Rignall compared Maniac Mansion to the title Shadowgate, but he preferred the former's controls and lack of "death-without-warning situations". Writers for Germany's Video Games referred to the NES version as a "classic". Co-reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that Maniac Mansion was unlike any other NES adventure game, and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases. Co-reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be "one of the most original representatives of the [adventure game] genre". In retrospective features, Edge magazine called the NES version "somewhat neutered" and GamesTM referred to it as "infamous" and "heavily censored". TV adaptation and game sequel Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of Maniac Mansion, the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990. The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game, which debuted in September of that year. It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States. Based in part on the video game, the series focuses on the Edison family's life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred. Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy. Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production until it differed heavily from the game's original plot. Upon its debut, the adaptation received positive reviews from Variety, Entertainment Weekly and the Los Angeles Times. Time named it one of the year's best new series. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel, given Flaherty's subversive humor. Discussing the series in retrospect, Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game. The series lasted for three seasons; sixty-six episodes were filmed. In the early 1990s, LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer, both of whom had worked on the Monkey Island series, with designing a sequel to Maniac Mansion. Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project's writing. The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics, which Gilbert had originally envisioned for Maniac Mansion. The first game's nonlinear design was discarded, and the team implemented a Chuck Jones-inspired visual style, alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel. Bernard and the Edison family were retained. The sequel Day of the Tentacle was released in 1993, and came with a fully playable copy of Maniac Mansion hidden as an Easter egg within the game. Impact and legacy In 2010, the staff of GamesTM dubbed Maniac Mansion a "seminal" title | Little Shop of Horrors, was included as well. The developers sought to strike a balance between tension and humor with the game's story. Initially, Gilbert and Winnick struggled to choose a gameplay genre for Maniac Mansion. While visiting relatives over Christmas, Gilbert saw his cousin play King's Quest: Quest for the Crown, an adventure game by Sierra On-Line. Although he was a fan of text adventures, this was Gilbert's first experience with a graphic adventure, and he used the holiday to play the game and familiarize himself with the format. As a result, he decided to develop his and Winnick's ideas into a graphic adventure game. Maniac Mansions story and structure were designed before coding commenced. The project's earliest incarnation was a paper-and-pencil board game, in which the mansion's floor plan was used as a game board, and cards represented events and characters. Lines connected the rooms to illustrate pathways by which characters could travel. Strips of cellulose acetate were used to map out the game's puzzles by tracking which items worked together when used by certain characters. Impressed by the map's complexity, Winnick included it in the final game as a poster hung on a wall. Because each character contributes different skills and resources, the pair spent months working on the event combinations that could occur. This extended the game's production time beyond that of previous Lucasfilm Games projects, which almost led to Gilbert's firing. The game's dialogue, written by David Fox, was not created until after programming had begun. Production and SCUMM Gilbert started programming Maniac Mansion in 6502 assembly language, but he quickly decided that the project was too large and complex for this method. He decided that a new game engine would have to be created. Its coding language was initially planned to be Lisp-inspired, but Gilbert opted for one similar to C and Yacc. Lucasfilm employee Chip Morningstar contributed the base code for the engine, which Gilbert then built on. Gilbert hoped to create a "system that could be used on many adventure games, cutting down the time it took to make them". Maniac Mansions first six-to-nine months of production were dedicated largely to engine development. The game was developed around the Commodore 64 home computer, an 8-bit system with only 64 KB of memory. The team wanted to include scrolling screens, but as it was normally impossible to scroll bitmap graphics on the Commodore 64, they had to use lower-detail tile graphics. Winnick gave each character a large head made of three stacked sprites to make them recognizable. Although Gilbert wrote much of the foundational code for Maniac Mansion, the majority of the game's events were programmed by Lucasfilm employee David Fox. Fox was between projects and planned to work on the game only for a month, but he remained with the team for six months. With Gilbert, he wrote the characters' dialog and choreographed the action. Winnick's concept art inspired him to add new elements to the game: for example, Fox allowed the player to place a hamster inside the kitchen's microwave. The team wanted to avoid punishing the player for applying everyday logic in Maniac Mansion. Fox noted that one Sierra game features a scene in which the player, without prior warning, may encounter a game over screen simply by picking up a shard of glass. He characterized such game design as "sadistic", and he commented: "I know that in the real world I can successfully pick up a broken piece of mirror without dying". Because of the project's nonlinear puzzle design, the team struggled to prevent no-win scenarios, in which the player unexpectedly became unable to complete the game. As a result of this problem, Gilbert later explained: "We were constantly fighting against the desire just to rip out all the endings and just go with three characters, or even sometimes just one character". Lucasfilm Games had only one playtester, and many dead-ends went undetected as a result. Further playtesting was provided by Gilbert's uncle, to whom Gilbert mailed a floppy disk of the game's latest version each week. The Maniac Mansion team wanted to retain the structure of a text-based adventure game, but without the standard command-line interface. Gilbert and Winnick were frustrated by the genre's text parsers and frequent game over screens. While in college, Gilbert had enjoyed Colossal Cave Adventure and the games of Infocom, but he disliked their lack of visuals. He found the inclusion of graphics in Sierra On-Line games, such as King's Quest, to be a step in the right direction, but these games still require the player to type, and to guess which commands must be input. In response, Gilbert programmed a point-and-click graphical user interface that displays every possible command. Fox had made a similar attempt to streamline Lucasfilm's earlier Labyrinth: The Computer Game and he conceived the entirety of Maniac Mansions interface, according to Gilbert. Forty input commands were planned at first, but the number was gradually reduced to 12. Gilbert finished the Maniac Mansion engine—which he later named "Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion" (SCUMM)—after roughly one year of work. Although the game was designed for the Commodore 64, the SCUMM engine allowed it to be ported easily to other platforms. After 18 to 24 months of development, Maniac Mansion debuted at the 1987 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago. The game was released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II in October 1987. While previous Lucasfilm Games products had been published by outside companies, Maniac Mansion was self-published. This became a trend at Lucasfilm. The company hired Ken Macklin, an acquaintance of Winnick's, to design the game's packaging artwork. Gilbert and Winnick collaborated with the marketing department to design the back cover. The two also created an insert that includes hints, a backstory, and jokes. An MS-DOS port was released in early 1988, developed in part by Lucasfilm employees Aric Wilmunder and Brad Taylor. Ports for the Amiga, Atari ST and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) followed, with the Amiga and Atari ST ports in 1989 and the NES port in 1990. The 16-bit versions of Maniac Mansion featured a copy protection system requiring the user to enter graphical symbols out of a code book included with the game. This was not present in the Commodore 64 and Apple versions due to lack of disk space, so those instead used an on-disk copy protection. Nintendo Entertainment System version There were two separate versions of the game developed for the NES. The first port was handled and published by Jaleco only in Japan. Released on June 23, 1988, it featured characters redrawn in a cute art style and generally shrunken rooms. No scrolling is present, leading to rooms larger than a single screen to be displayed via flip-screens. Many of the background details are missing, and instead of a save feature a password, over 100 characters long, is required to save progress. In September 1990 Jaleco released an American version of Maniac Mansion as the first NES title developed by Lucasfilm Games in cooperation with Realtime Associates. Generally, this port is regarded as being far closer to the original game than the Japanese effort. Company management was occupied with other projects, and so the port received little attention until employee Douglas Crockford volunteered to direct it. The team used a modified version of the SCUMM engine called "NES SCUMM" for the port. According to Crockford, "[one] of the main differences between the NES and PCs is that the NES can do certain things much faster". The graphics had to be entirely redrawn to match the NES's display resolution. Tim Schafer, who later designed Maniac Mansions sequel Day of the Tentacle, received his first professional credit as a playtester for the NES version of Maniac Mansion. During Maniac Mansions development for the Commodore 64, Lucasfilm had censored profanity in the script: for instance, the early line of dialogue "Don't be a shit head" became "Don't be a tuna head". Additional content was removed from the NES version to make it suitable for a younger audience, and to conform with Nintendo's policies. Jaleco USA president Howie Rubin warned Crockford about |
to keep other hungry actors from pinching their dough. Naturally, you're going to think that's where I got my name from. But that's not so. Grouch bags were worn on manly chests long before there was a Groucho. Groucho's explanation: Groucho himself insisted that he was named for a character in the comic strip Knocko the Monk, which inspired the craze for nicknames ending in "o"; in fact, there was a character in that strip named "Groucho". However, he is the only Marx or Marx associate who defended this theory and, as he is not an unbiased witness, few biographers take the claim seriously. Groucho himself was no help on this point; he was discussing the Brothers' names during his Carnegie Hall concert, and he said of his own, "My name, of course, I never did understand." He goes on to mention the possibility that he was named after his unemployed uncle Julius, who lived with his family. The family believed that he was a rich uncle hiding a fortune, and Groucho claimed that he may have been named after him by the family trying to get into the will. "And he finally died, and he left us his will, and in that will he left three razor blades, an 8-ball, a celluloid dicky, and he owed my father $85 beside." Herbert was not nicknamed by Art Fisher, since he did not join the act until Gummo had departed. As with Groucho, three explanations exist for Herbert's name "Zeppo": Harpo's explanation: Harpo said in Harpo Speaks! that the brothers had named Herbert for Mr. Zippo, a chimpanzee that was part of another performer's act. Herbert found the nickname very unflattering, and when it came time for him to join the act, he put his foot down and refused to be called "Zippo". The brothers compromised on "Zeppo". Chico's explanation: Chico never wrote an autobiography and gave fewer interviews than his brothers, but his daughter Maxine said in The Unknown Marx Brothers that, when the brothers lived in Chicago, a popular style of humor was the "Zeke and Zeb" joke, which made fun of slow-witted Midwesterners in much the same way that Boudreaux and Thibodeaux jokes mock Cajuns and Ole and Lena jokes mock Minnesotans. One day, Chico returned home to find Herbert sitting on the fence. Herbert greeted him by saying "Hi, Zeke!" Chico responded with "Hi, Zeb!" and the name stuck. The brothers thereafter called him "Zeb" and, when he joined the act, they floated the idea of "Zebbo", eventually preferring "Zeppo". Groucho's explanation: In a tape-recorded interview excerpted on The Unknown Marx Brothers, Groucho said that Zeppo was so named because he was born when the first zeppelins started crossing the ocean. He stated this in his Carnegie Hall concert, around 1972. The first zeppelin flew in July 1900, and Herbert was born seven months later in February 1901. However, the first transatlantic zeppelin flight was not until 1924, long after Herbert's birth. Maxine Marx reported in The Unknown Marx Brothers that the brothers listed their real names (Julius, Leonard, Adolph, Milton, and Herbert) on playbills and in programs, and only used the nicknames behind the scenes, until Alexander Woollcott overheard them calling one another by the nicknames. He asked them why they used their real names publicly when they had such wonderful nicknames, and they replied, "That wouldn't be dignified." Woollcott answered with a belly laugh. Woollcott did not meet the Marx Brothers until the premiere of I'll Say She Is, which was their first Broadway show, so this would mean that they used their real names throughout their vaudeville days, and that the name "Gummo" never appeared in print during his time in the act. Other sources reported that the Marx Brothers went by their nicknames during their vaudeville era, but briefly listed themselves by their given names when I'll Say She Is opened because they were worried that a Broadway audience would reject a vaudeville act if they were perceived as low class. Motion pictures Paramount The Marx Brothers' stage shows became popular just as motion pictures were evolving to "talkies". They signed a contract with Paramount Pictures and embarked on their film career at Paramount's studios in New York City's Astoria section. Their first two released films (after an unreleased short silent film titled Humor Risk) were adaptations of the Broadway shows The Cocoanuts (1929) and Animal Crackers (1930). Both were written by George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind. Production then shifted to Hollywood, beginning with a short film that was included in Paramount's twentieth anniversary documentary, The House That Shadows Built (1931), in which they adapted a scene from I'll Say She Is. Their third feature-length film, Monkey Business (1931), was their first movie not based on a stage production. Horse Feathers (1932), in which the brothers satirized the American college system and Prohibition, was their most popular film yet, and won them the cover of Time magazine. It included a running gag from their stage work, in which Harpo produces a ludicrous array of props from inside his coat, including a wooden mallet, a fish, a coiled rope, a tie, a poster of a woman in her underwear, a cup of hot coffee, a sword and (just after Groucho warns him that he "can't burn the candle at both ends") a candle burning at both ends. During this period Chico and Groucho starred in a radio comedy series, Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel. Though the series was short lived, much of the material developed for it was used in subsequent films. The show's scripts and recordings were believed lost until copies of the scripts were found in the Library of Congress in the 1980s. After publication in a book they were performed with Marx Brothers' impersonators for BBC Radio. Their last Paramount film, Duck Soup (1933), directed by the highly regarded Leo McCarey, is the highest rated of the five Marx Brothers films on the American Film Institute's "100 years ... 100 Movies" list. It did not do as well financially as Horse Feathers, but was the sixth-highest grosser of 1933. The film sparked a dispute between the Marxes and the village of Fredonia, New York. "Freedonia" was the name of a fictional country in the script, and the city fathers wrote to Paramount and asked the studio to remove all references to Freedonia because "it is hurting our town's image". Groucho fired back a sarcastic retort asking them to change the name of their town, because "it's hurting our picture". MGM, RKO, and United Artists After expiration of the Paramount contract Zeppo left the act to become an agent. He and brother Gummo went on to build one of the biggest talent agencies in Hollywood, helping the likes of Jack Benny and Lana Turner get their starts. Groucho and Chico did radio, and there was talk of returning to Broadway. At a bridge game with Chico, Irving Thalberg began discussing the possibility of the Marxes joining Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. They signed, now billed as "Groucho, Chico, Harpo, Marx Bros." Unlike the free-for-all scripts at Paramount, Thalberg insisted on a strong story structure that made the brothers more sympathetic characters, interweaving their comedy with romantic plots and non-comic musical numbers, and targeting their mischief-making at obvious villains. Thalberg was adamant that scripts include a "low point", where all seems lost for both the Marxes and the romantic leads. He instituted the innovation of testing the film's script before live audiences before filming began, to perfect the comic timing, and to retain jokes that earned laughs and replace those that did not. Thalberg restored Harpo's harp solos and Chico's piano solos, which had been omitted from Duck Soup. The first Marx Brothers/Thalberg film was A Night at the Opera (1935), a satire on the world of opera, where the brothers help two young singers in love by throwing a production of Il Trovatore into chaos. The film—including its famous scene where an absurd number of people crowd into a tiny stateroom on a ship—was a great success, and was followed two years later by an even bigger hit, A Day at the Races (1937), in which the brothers cause mayhem in a sanitarium and at a horse race. The film features Groucho and Chico's famous "Tootsie Frootsie Ice Cream" sketch. In a 1969 interview with Dick Cavett, Groucho said that the two movies made with Thalberg were the best that they ever produced. Despite the Thalberg films' success, the brothers left MGM in 1937; Thalberg had died suddenly on September 14, 1936, two weeks after filming began on A Day at the Races, leaving the Marxes without an advocate at the studio. After a short experience at RKO (Room Service, 1938), the Marx Brothers returned to MGM and made three more films: At the Circus (1939), Go West (1940) and The Big Store (1941). Prior to the release of The Big Store the team announced they were retiring from the screen. Four years later, however, Chico persuaded his brothers to make two additional films, A Night in Casablanca (1946) and Love Happy (1949), to alleviate his severe gambling debts. Both pictures were released by United Artists. Later years From the 1940s onward Chico and Harpo appeared separately and together in nightclubs and casinos. Chico fronted a big band, the Chico Marx Orchestra (with 17-year-old Mel Tormé as a vocalist). Groucho made several radio appearances during the 1940s and starred in You Bet Your Life, which ran from 1947 to 1961 on NBC radio and television. He authored several books, including Groucho and Me (1959), Memoirs of a Mangy Lover (1964) and The Groucho Letters (1967). Groucho and Chico briefly appeared in a 1957 color short film promoting The Saturday Evening Post entitled "Showdown at Ulcer Gulch", directed by animator Shamus Culhane, Chico's son-in-law. Groucho, Chico, and Harpo worked together (in separate scenes) in The Story of Mankind (1957). In 1959, the three began production of Deputy Seraph, a TV series starring Harpo and Chico as blundering angels, and Groucho (in every third episode) as their boss, the "Deputy Seraph". The project was abandoned when Chico was found to be uninsurable (and incapable of memorizing his lines) due to severe arteriosclerosis. On March 8 of that year, Chico and Harpo starred as bumbling thieves in The Incredible Jewel Robbery, a half-hour pantomimed episode of the General Electric Theater on CBS. Groucho made a cameo appearance — uncredited, because of constraints in his NBC contract — in the last scene, and delivered the only line of dialogue ("We won't talk until we see our lawyer!"). According to a September 1947 article in Newsweek, Groucho, Harpo, Chico and Zeppo all signed to appear as themselves in a biopic entitled The Life and Times of the Marx Brothers. In addition to being a non-fiction biography of the Marxes, the film would have featured the brothers re-enacting much of their previously unfilmed material from both their vaudeville and Broadway eras. The film, had it been made, would have been the first performance by the Brothers as a quartet since 1933. The five brothers made only one television appearance together, in 1957, on an early incarnation of The Tonight Show called Tonight! America After Dark, hosted by Jack Lescoulie. Five years later (October 1, 1962) after Jack Paar's tenure, Groucho made a guest appearance to introduce the Tonight Show's new host, Johnny Carson. Around 1960, the acclaimed director Billy Wilder considered writing and directing a new Marx Brothers' film. Tentatively titled A Day at the U.N., it was to be a comedy of international intrigue set around the United Nations building in New York. Wilder had discussions with Groucho and Gummo, but the project was put on hold because of Harpo's ill-health, and abandoned when Chico died in 1961 when he was 74. Three years later after Chico's passing, Harpo died on September 28, 1964, at the age of 75, following a heart attack one day after heart surgery. In 1966, Filmation produced a pilot for a Marx Brothers' cartoon. Groucho's voice was supplied by Pat Harrington Jr. and other voices were done by Ted Knight and Joe Besser. In 1969, audio excerpts of dialogue from all five of the Marx Brothers' Paramount films were collected and released on an LP album, The Original Voice Tracks from Their Greatest Movies, by Decca Records. The excerpts were interspersed with voice-over introductions by disc jockey and voice actor Gary Owens. The album was praised by Billboard as "a program of zany antics"; the magazine highlighted the excerpts of Groucho, who was "way ahead of his time in spoofing the | The brothers' sketch "Fun in Hi Skule" featured Groucho as a German-accented teacher presiding over a classroom that included students Harpo, Gummo, and Chico. The last version of the school act was titled Home Again and was written by their uncle Al Shean. The Home Again tour reached Flint, Michigan in 1915, where 14-year-old Zeppo joined his four brothers for what is believed to be the only time that all five Marx Brothers appeared together on stage. Gummo then left to serve in World War I, reasoning that "anything is better than being an actor!" Zeppo replaced him in their final vaudeville years and in the jump to Broadway, and then to Paramount films. During World War I, anti-German sentiments were common, and the family tried to conceal its German origin. Mother Minnie learned that farmers were excluded from the draft rolls, so she purchased a poultry farm near Countryside, Illinois — but the brothers soon found that chicken ranching was not in their blood. During this time, Groucho discontinued his "German" stage personality. By this time, "The Four Marx Brothers" had begun to incorporate their unique style of comedy into their act and to develop their characters. Both Groucho's and Harpo's memoirs say that their now-famous on-stage personae were created by Al Shean. Groucho began to wear his trademark greasepaint mustache and to use a stooped walk. Harpo stopped speaking onstage and began to wear a red fright wig and carry a taxi-cab horn. Chico spoke with a fake Italian accent, developed off-stage to deal with neighborhood toughs, while Zeppo adopted the role of the romantic (and "peerlessly cheesy", according to James Agee) straight man. The on-stage personalities of Groucho, Chico, and Harpo were said to have been based on their actual traits. Zeppo, on the other hand, was considered the funniest brother offstage, despite his straight stage roles. He was the youngest and had grown up watching his brothers, so he could fill in for and imitate any of the others when illness kept them from performing. "He was so good as Captain Spaulding [in Animal Crackers] that I would have let him play the part indefinitely, if they had allowed me to smoke in the audience," Groucho recalled. (Zeppo stood in for Groucho in the film version of Animal Crackers. Groucho was unavailable to film the scene in which the Beaugard painting is stolen, so the script was contrived to include a power failure, which allowed Zeppo to play the Spaulding part in near-darkness.) In December 1917 the Marx brothers were noted in an advertisement playing in a musical comedy act "Home Again". By the 1920s, the Marx Brothers had become one of America's favorite theatrical acts, with their sharp and bizarre sense of humor. They satirized high society and human hypocrisy, and they became famous for their improvisational comedy in free-form scenarios. A famous early instance was when Harpo arranged to chase a fleeing chorus girl across the stage during the middle of a Groucho monologue to see if Groucho would be thrown off. However, to the audience's delight, Groucho merely reacted by commenting, "First time I ever saw a taxi hail a passenger". When Harpo chased the girl back in the other direction, Groucho calmly checked his watch and ad-libbed, "The 9:20's right on time. You can set your watch by the Lehigh Valley." The brothers' vaudeville act had made them stars on Broadway under Chico's management and with Groucho's creative direction—first with the musical revue I'll Say She Is (1924–1925) and then with two musical comedies: The Cocoanuts (1925–1926) and Animal Crackers (1928–1929). Playwright George S. Kaufman worked on the last two and helped sharpen the brothers' characterizations. Out of their distinctive costumes, the brothers looked alike, even down to their receding hairlines. Zeppo could pass for a younger Groucho, and played the role of his son in Horse Feathers. A scene in Duck Soup finds Groucho, Harpo, and Chico all appearing in the famous greasepaint eyebrows, mustache, and round glasses while wearing nightcaps. The three are indistinguishable, enabling them to carry off the "mirror scene" perfectly. Origin of the stage names The stage names of the brothers (except Zeppo) were coined by monologist Art Fisher during a poker game in Galesburg, Illinois, based both on the brothers' personalities and Gus Mager's Sherlocko the Monk, a popular comic strip of the day that included a supporting character named "Groucho". As Fisher dealt each brother a card, he addressed them, for the very first time, by the names they kept for the rest of their lives. The reasons behind Chico's and Harpo's stage names are undisputed, and Gummo's is fairly well established. Groucho's and Zeppo's are far less clear. Arthur was named Harpo because he played the harp, and Leonard became Chico (pronounced "Chick-o") because he was, in the slang of the period, a "chicken chaser". ("Chickens"—later "chicks"—was period slang for women. "In England now," said Groucho, "they were called 'birds'.") In his autobiography, Harpo explained that Milton became Gummo because he crept about the theater like a gumshoe detective. Other sources reported that Gummo was the family's hypochondriac, having been the sickliest of the brothers in childhood, and therefore wore rubber overshoes, called gumshoes, in all kinds of weather. Still others reported that Milton was the troupe's best dancer, and dance shoes tended to have rubber soles. Groucho stated that the source of the name was Gummo wearing galoshes. Whatever the details, the name relates to rubber-soled shoes. The reason that Julius was named Groucho is perhaps the most disputed. There are three explanations: Julius's temperament: Maxine, Chico's daughter and Groucho's niece, said in the documentary The Unknown Marx Brothers that Julius was named "Groucho" simply because he was grouchy most or all of the time. Robert B. Weide, a director known for his knowledge of Marx Brothers history, said in Remarks On Marx (a documentary short included with the DVD of A Night at the Opera) that, among the competing explanations, he found this one to be the most believable. Steve Allen said in Funny People that the name made no sense; Groucho might have been impudent and impertinent, but not grouchy—at least not around Allen. However, at the very end of his life, Groucho finally admitted that Fisher had named him Groucho because he was the "moody one". The grouch bag: This explanation appears in Harpo's biography; it was voiced by Chico in a TV appearance included on The Unknown Marx Brothers; and it was offered by George Fenneman, Groucho's sidekick on his TV game show You Bet Your Life. A grouch bag was a small drawstring bag worn around the neck in which a traveler could keep money and other valuables so that it would be very difficult for anyone to steal them. Most of Groucho's friends and associates stated that Groucho was extremely stingy, especially after losing all his money in the 1929 stock market crash, so naming him for the grouch bag may have been a comment on this trait. Groucho insisted that this was not the case in chapter six of his first autobiography: I kept my money in a 'grouch bag'. This was a small chamois bag that actors used to wear around their neck to keep other hungry actors from pinching their dough. Naturally, you're going to think that's where I got my name from. But that's not so. Grouch bags were worn on manly chests long before there was a Groucho. Groucho's explanation: Groucho himself insisted that he was named for a character in the comic strip Knocko the Monk, which inspired the craze for nicknames ending in "o"; in fact, there was a character in that strip named "Groucho". However, he is the only Marx or Marx associate who defended this theory and, as he is not an unbiased witness, few biographers take the claim seriously. Groucho himself was no help on this point; he was discussing the Brothers' names during his Carnegie Hall concert, and he said of his own, "My name, of course, I never did understand." He goes on to mention the possibility that he was named after his unemployed uncle Julius, who lived with his family. The family believed that he was a rich uncle hiding a fortune, and Groucho claimed that he may have been named after him by the family trying to get into the will. "And he finally died, and he left us his will, and in that will he left three razor blades, an 8-ball, a celluloid dicky, and he owed my father $85 beside." Herbert was not nicknamed by Art Fisher, since he did not join the act until Gummo had departed. As with Groucho, three explanations exist for Herbert's name "Zeppo": Harpo's explanation: Harpo said in Harpo Speaks! that the brothers had named Herbert for Mr. Zippo, a chimpanzee that was part of another performer's act. Herbert found the nickname very unflattering, and when it came time for him to join the act, he put his foot down and refused to be called "Zippo". The brothers compromised on "Zeppo". Chico's explanation: Chico never wrote an autobiography and gave fewer interviews than his brothers, but his daughter Maxine said in The Unknown Marx Brothers that, when the brothers lived in Chicago, a popular style of humor was the "Zeke and Zeb" joke, which made fun of slow-witted Midwesterners in much the same way that Boudreaux and Thibodeaux jokes mock Cajuns and Ole and Lena jokes mock Minnesotans. One day, Chico returned home to find Herbert sitting on the fence. Herbert greeted him by saying "Hi, Zeke!" Chico responded with "Hi, Zeb!" and the name stuck. The brothers thereafter called him "Zeb" and, when he joined the act, they floated the idea of "Zebbo", eventually preferring "Zeppo". Groucho's explanation: In a tape-recorded interview excerpted on The Unknown Marx Brothers, Groucho said that Zeppo was so named because he was born when the first zeppelins started crossing the ocean. He stated this in his Carnegie Hall concert, around 1972. The first zeppelin flew in July 1900, and Herbert was born seven months later in February 1901. However, the first transatlantic zeppelin flight was not until 1924, long after Herbert's birth. Maxine Marx reported in The Unknown Marx Brothers that the brothers listed their real names (Julius, Leonard, Adolph, Milton, and Herbert) on playbills and in programs, and only used the nicknames behind the scenes, until Alexander Woollcott overheard them calling one another by the nicknames. He asked them why they used their real names publicly when they had such wonderful nicknames, and they replied, "That wouldn't be dignified." Woollcott answered with a belly laugh. Woollcott did not meet the Marx Brothers until the premiere of I'll Say She Is, which was their first Broadway show, so this would mean that they used their real names throughout their vaudeville days, and that the name "Gummo" never appeared in print during his time in the act. Other sources reported that the Marx Brothers went by their nicknames during their vaudeville era, but briefly listed themselves by their given names when I'll Say She Is opened because they were worried that a Broadway audience would reject a vaudeville act if they were perceived as low class. Motion pictures Paramount The Marx Brothers' stage shows became popular just as motion pictures were evolving to "talkies". They signed a contract with Paramount Pictures and embarked on their film career at Paramount's studios in New York City's Astoria section. Their first two released films (after an unreleased short silent film titled Humor Risk) were adaptations of the Broadway shows The Cocoanuts (1929) and Animal Crackers (1930). Both were written by George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind. Production then shifted to Hollywood, beginning with a short film that was included in Paramount's twentieth anniversary documentary, The House That Shadows Built (1931), in which they adapted a scene from I'll Say She Is. Their third feature-length film, Monkey Business (1931), was their first movie not based on a stage production. Horse Feathers (1932), in which the brothers satirized the American college system and Prohibition, was their most popular film yet, and won them the cover of Time magazine. It included a running gag from their stage work, in which Harpo produces a ludicrous array of props from inside his coat, including a wooden mallet, a fish, a coiled rope, a tie, a poster of a woman in her underwear, a cup of hot coffee, a sword and (just after Groucho warns him that he "can't burn the candle at both ends") a candle burning at both ends. During this period Chico and Groucho starred in a radio comedy series, Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel. Though the series was short lived, much of the material developed for it was used in subsequent films. The show's scripts and recordings were believed lost until copies of the scripts were found in the Library of Congress in the 1980s. After publication in a book they were performed with Marx Brothers' impersonators for BBC Radio. Their last Paramount film, Duck Soup (1933), directed by the highly regarded Leo McCarey, is the highest rated of the five Marx Brothers films on the American Film Institute's "100 years ... 100 Movies" list. It did not do as well financially as Horse Feathers, but was the sixth-highest grosser of 1933. The film sparked a dispute between the Marxes and the village of Fredonia, New York. "Freedonia" was the name of a fictional country in the script, and the city fathers wrote to Paramount and asked the studio to remove all references to Freedonia because "it is hurting our town's image". Groucho fired back a sarcastic retort asking them to change the name of their town, because "it's hurting our picture". MGM, RKO, and United Artists After expiration of the Paramount contract Zeppo left the act to become an agent. He and brother Gummo went on to build one of the biggest talent agencies in Hollywood, helping the likes of Jack Benny and Lana Turner get their starts. Groucho and Chico did radio, and there was talk of returning to Broadway. At a bridge game with Chico, Irving Thalberg began discussing the possibility of the Marxes joining Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. They signed, now billed as "Groucho, Chico, Harpo, Marx Bros." Unlike the free-for-all scripts at Paramount, Thalberg insisted on a strong story structure that made the brothers more sympathetic characters, interweaving their comedy with romantic plots and non-comic musical numbers, and targeting their mischief-making at obvious villains. Thalberg was adamant that scripts include a "low point", where all seems lost for both the Marxes and the romantic leads. He instituted the innovation of testing the film's script before live audiences before filming began, to perfect the comic timing, and to retain jokes that earned laughs and replace those that did not. Thalberg restored Harpo's harp solos and Chico's piano solos, which had been omitted from Duck Soup. The first Marx Brothers/Thalberg film was A Night at the Opera (1935), a satire on the world of opera, where the brothers help two young singers in love by throwing a production of Il Trovatore into chaos. The film—including its famous scene where an absurd number of people crowd into a tiny stateroom on a ship—was a great success, and was followed two years later by an even bigger hit, A Day at the Races (1937), in which the brothers cause mayhem in a sanitarium and at a horse race. The film features Groucho and Chico's famous "Tootsie Frootsie Ice Cream" sketch. In a 1969 interview with Dick Cavett, Groucho said that the two movies made with Thalberg were the best that they ever produced. Despite the Thalberg films' success, the brothers left MGM in 1937; Thalberg had died suddenly on September 14, 1936, two weeks after filming began on A Day at the Races, leaving the Marxes without an advocate at the studio. After a short experience at RKO (Room Service, 1938), the Marx Brothers returned to MGM and made three more films: At the Circus (1939), Go West (1940) and The Big Store (1941). Prior to the release of The Big Store the team announced they were retiring from the screen. Four years later, however, Chico persuaded his brothers to make two additional films, A Night in Casablanca (1946) and Love Happy (1949), to alleviate his severe gambling debts. Both pictures were released by United Artists. Later years From the 1940s onward Chico and Harpo appeared separately and together in nightclubs and casinos. Chico fronted a big band, the Chico Marx Orchestra (with 17-year-old Mel Tormé as a vocalist). Groucho made several radio appearances during the 1940s and starred in You Bet Your Life, which ran from 1947 to 1961 on NBC radio and television. He authored several books, including Groucho and Me (1959), Memoirs of a Mangy Lover (1964) and The Groucho Letters (1967). Groucho and Chico briefly appeared in a 1957 color short film promoting The Saturday Evening Post entitled "Showdown at Ulcer Gulch", directed by animator Shamus Culhane, Chico's son-in-law. Groucho, Chico, and Harpo worked together (in separate scenes) in The Story of Mankind (1957). In 1959, the three began production of Deputy Seraph, a TV series starring Harpo and Chico as blundering angels, and Groucho (in every third episode) as their boss, the "Deputy Seraph". The project was abandoned when Chico was found to be uninsurable (and incapable of memorizing his lines) due to severe arteriosclerosis. On March 8 of that year, Chico and Harpo starred as bumbling thieves in The Incredible Jewel Robbery, a half-hour pantomimed episode of the General Electric Theater on CBS. Groucho made a cameo appearance — uncredited, because of constraints in his NBC contract — in the last scene, and delivered the only line of dialogue ("We won't talk until we see our lawyer!"). According to a September 1947 article in Newsweek, Groucho, Harpo, Chico and Zeppo all signed to appear as themselves in a biopic entitled The Life and Times of the Marx Brothers. In |
at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, resulting in widespread criticism and sparking various internet memes. 2017 – Former Formula One driver Takuma Sato wins his first Indianapolis 500, the first Japanese and Asian driver to do so. Double world champion Fernando Alonso retires from an engine issue in his first entry of the event. Births Pre-1600 1140 – Xin Qiji, Chinese poet, general, and politician (d. 1207) 1371 – John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1419) 1588 – Pierre Séguier, French politician, Lord Chancellor of France (d. 1672) 1589 – Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, French writer (d. 1674) 1601–1900 1663 – António Manoel de Vilhena, Grand Master of the Order of Saint John (d. 1736) 1676 – Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1754) 1692 – Geminiano Giacomelli, Italian composer (d. 1740) 1738 – Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, French physician (d. 1814) 1759 – William Pitt the Younger, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1806) 1763 – Manuel Alberti, Argentinian priest and journalist (d. 1811) 1764 – Edward Livingston, American jurist and politician, 11th United States Secretary of State (d. 1836) 1779 – Thomas Moore, Irish poet and composer (d. 1852) 1807 – Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American paleontologist and geologist (d. 1873) 1818 – P. G. T. Beauregard, American general (d. 1893) 1836 – Friedrich Baumfelder, German pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1916) 1836 – Alexander Mitscherlich, German chemist and academic (d. 1918) 1837 – George Ashlin, Irish architect, co-designed St Colman's Cathedral (d. 1921) 1837 – Tony Pastor, American impresario, variety performer and theatre owner (d. 1908) 1841 – Sakaigawa Namiemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 14th Yokozuna (d. 1887) 1853 – Carl Larsson, Swedish painter and author (d. 1919) 1858 – Carl Richard Nyberg, Swedish inventor and businessman, developed the blow torch (d. 1939) 1872 – Marian Smoluchowski, Polish physicist and mountaineer (d. 1917) 1878 – Paul Pelliot, French sinologist and explorer (d. 1945) 1879 – Milutin Milanković, Serbian mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (d. 1958) 1883 – Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Indian poet and politician (d. 1966) 1883 – Clough Williams-Ellis, English-Welsh architect, designed the Portmeirion Village (d. 1978) 1884 – Edvard Beneš, Czech academic and politician, 2nd and 4th President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1948) 1886 – Santo Trafficante, Sr., Italian-American mobster (d. 1954) 1888 – Kaarel Eenpalu, Estonian journalist and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1942) 1888 – Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, English author and educator (d. 1947) 1888 – Jim Thorpe, American decathlete, football player, and coach (d. 1953) 1889 – Richard Réti, Slovak-Czech chess player and author (d. 1929) 1892 – Minna Gombell, American actress (d. 1973) 1900 – Tommy Ladnier, American trumpet player (d. 1939) 1901–present 1903 – S. L. Kirloskar, Indian businessman, founded Kirloskar Group (d. 1994) 1906 – Henry Thambiah, Sri Lankan lawyer, judge, and diplomat, Sri Lankan High Commissioner to Canada (d. 1997) 1908 – Léo Cadieux, Canadian journalist and politician, 17th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 2005) 1908 – Ian Fleming, English journalist and author, created James Bond (d. 1964) 1909 – Red Horner, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005) 1910 – Georg Gaßmann, German politician, Mayor of Marburg (d. 1987) 1910 – Rachel Kempson, English actress (d. 2003) 1910 – T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975) 1911 – Bob Crisp, South African cricketer (d. 1994) 1911 – Thora Hird, English actress (d. 2003) 1911 – Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian playwright (d. 1986) 1912 – Herman Johannes, Indonesian scientist, academic, and politician (d. 1992) 1912 – Ruby Payne-Scott, Australian physicist and astronomer (d. 1981) 1912 – Patrick White, Australian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990) 1914 – W. G. G. Duncan Smith, English captain and pilot (d. 1996) 1915 – Joseph Greenberg, American linguist and academic (d. 2001) 1916 – Walker Percy, American novelist and essayist (d. 1990) 1917 – Barry Commoner, American biologist, academic, and politician (d. 2012) 1918 – Johnny Wayne, Canadian comedian (d. 1990) 1921 – D. V. Paluskar, Indian Hindustani classical musician (d. 1955) 1921 – Heinz G. Konsalik, German journalist and author (d. 1999) 1921 – Tom Uren, Australian soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 2015) 1922 – Lou Duva, American boxer, trainer, and manager (d. 2017) 1922 – Roger Fisher, American author and academic (d. 2012) 1922 – Tuomas Gerdt, Finnish soldier (d. 2020) 1923 – György Ligeti, Hungarian-Austrian composer and educator (d. 2006) 1923 – N. T. Rama Rao, Indian actor, director, producer, and politician, 10th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (d. 1996) 1924 – Edward du Cann, English naval officer and politician (d. 2017) 1924 – Paul Hébert, Canadian actor (d. 2017) 1925 – Bülent Ecevit, Turkish journalist, scholar, and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2006) 1925 – Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German opera singer and conductor (d. 2012) 1928 – Sally Forrest, American actress and dancer (d. 2015) 1929 – Patrick McNair-Wilson, English politician 1930 – Edward Seaga, American-Jamaican academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2019) 1931 – Carroll Baker, American actress 1931 – Gordon Willis, American cinematographer (d. 2014) 1932 – Tim Renton, Baron Renton of Mount Harry, English politician, Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries (d. 2020) 1933 – John Karlen, American actor (d. 2020) 1933 – Zelda Rubinstein, American actress and activist (d. 2010) 1936 – Claude Forget, Canadian academic and politician 1936 – Ole K. Sara, Norwegian politician (d. 2013) 1936 – Betty Shabazz, American educator and activist (d. 1997) 1938 – Jerry West, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1939 – Maeve Binchy, Irish novelist (d. 2012) 1940 – David William Brewer, English politician, Lord-Lieutenant of Greater London 1940 – Shlomo Riskin, American rabbi and academic, founded the Lincoln Square Synagogue 1941 – Beth Howland, American actress and singer (d. 2015) 1942 – Stanley B. Prusiner, American neurologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate 1943 – Terry Crisp, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1944 – Faith Brown, English actress and singer 1944 – Rudy Giuliani, American lawyer and politician, 107th mayor of New York City 1944 – Gladys Knight, American singer-songwriter and actress 1944 – Sondra Locke, American actress and director (d. 2018) 1944 – Rita MacNeil, Canadian singer and actress (d. 2013) 1944 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003) 1944 – Billy Vera, American singer-songwriter and actor 1945 – Patch Adams, American physician and author, founded the Gesundheit! Institute 1945 – John N. Bambacus, American military veteran (USMC) and politician 1945 – John Fogerty, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1945 – Jean Perrault, Canadian politician, Mayor of Sherbrooke, Quebec 1945 – Helena Shovelton, English physician 1946 – Bruce Alexander, English actor 1946 – Skip Jutze, American baseball player 1946 – Janet Paraskeva, Welsh politician 1946 – K. Satchidanandan, Indian poet and critic 1946 – William Shawcross, English journalist and author 1947 – Zahi Hawass, Egyptian archaeologist and academic 1947 – Lynn Johnston, Canadian author and illustrator 1947 – Leland Sklar, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1948 – Michael Field, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Tasmania 1948 – Pierre Rapsat, Belgian singer and songwriter (d. 2002) 1949 – Martin Kelner, English journalist, author, comedian, singer, actor and radio presenter 1949 – Wendy O. Williams, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress (d. 1998) 1952 – Roger Briggs, American pianist, composer, conductor, and educator 1953 – Pierre Gauthier, Canadian ice hockey player and manager 1954 – João Carlos de Oliveira, Brazilian jumper (d. 1999) 1954 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1988) 1954 – Charles Saumarez Smith, English historian and academic 1954 – | 2003) 1910 – T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975) 1911 – Bob Crisp, South African cricketer (d. 1994) 1911 – Thora Hird, English actress (d. 2003) 1911 – Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian playwright (d. 1986) 1912 – Herman Johannes, Indonesian scientist, academic, and politician (d. 1992) 1912 – Ruby Payne-Scott, Australian physicist and astronomer (d. 1981) 1912 – Patrick White, Australian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990) 1914 – W. G. G. Duncan Smith, English captain and pilot (d. 1996) 1915 – Joseph Greenberg, American linguist and academic (d. 2001) 1916 – Walker Percy, American novelist and essayist (d. 1990) 1917 – Barry Commoner, American biologist, academic, and politician (d. 2012) 1918 – Johnny Wayne, Canadian comedian (d. 1990) 1921 – D. V. Paluskar, Indian Hindustani classical musician (d. 1955) 1921 – Heinz G. Konsalik, German journalist and author (d. 1999) 1921 – Tom Uren, Australian soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 2015) 1922 – Lou Duva, American boxer, trainer, and manager (d. 2017) 1922 – Roger Fisher, American author and academic (d. 2012) 1922 – Tuomas Gerdt, Finnish soldier (d. 2020) 1923 – György Ligeti, Hungarian-Austrian composer and educator (d. 2006) 1923 – N. T. Rama Rao, Indian actor, director, producer, and politician, 10th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (d. 1996) 1924 – Edward du Cann, English naval officer and politician (d. 2017) 1924 – Paul Hébert, Canadian actor (d. 2017) 1925 – Bülent Ecevit, Turkish journalist, scholar, and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2006) 1925 – Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German opera singer and conductor (d. 2012) 1928 – Sally Forrest, American actress and dancer (d. 2015) 1929 – Patrick McNair-Wilson, English politician 1930 – Edward Seaga, American-Jamaican academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2019) 1931 – Carroll Baker, American actress 1931 – Gordon Willis, American cinematographer (d. 2014) 1932 – Tim Renton, Baron Renton of Mount Harry, English politician, Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries (d. 2020) 1933 – John Karlen, American actor (d. 2020) 1933 – Zelda Rubinstein, American actress and activist (d. 2010) 1936 – Claude Forget, Canadian academic and politician 1936 – Ole K. Sara, Norwegian politician (d. 2013) 1936 – Betty Shabazz, American educator and activist (d. 1997) 1938 – Jerry West, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1939 – Maeve Binchy, Irish novelist (d. 2012) 1940 – David William Brewer, English politician, Lord-Lieutenant of Greater London 1940 – Shlomo Riskin, American rabbi and academic, founded the Lincoln Square Synagogue 1941 – Beth Howland, American actress and singer (d. 2015) 1942 – Stanley B. Prusiner, American neurologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate 1943 – Terry Crisp, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1944 – Faith Brown, English actress and singer 1944 – Rudy Giuliani, American lawyer and politician, 107th mayor of New York City 1944 – Gladys Knight, American singer-songwriter and actress 1944 – Sondra Locke, American actress and director (d. 2018) 1944 – Rita MacNeil, Canadian singer and actress (d. 2013) 1944 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003) 1944 – Billy Vera, American singer-songwriter and actor 1945 – Patch Adams, American physician and author, founded the Gesundheit! Institute 1945 – John N. Bambacus, American military veteran (USMC) and politician 1945 – John Fogerty, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1945 – Jean Perrault, Canadian politician, Mayor of Sherbrooke, Quebec 1945 – Helena Shovelton, English physician 1946 – Bruce Alexander, English actor 1946 – Skip Jutze, American baseball player 1946 – Janet Paraskeva, Welsh politician 1946 – K. Satchidanandan, Indian poet and critic 1946 – William Shawcross, English journalist and author 1947 – Zahi Hawass, Egyptian archaeologist and academic 1947 – Lynn Johnston, Canadian author and illustrator 1947 – Leland Sklar, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1948 – Michael Field, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Tasmania 1948 – Pierre Rapsat, Belgian singer and songwriter (d. 2002) 1949 – Martin Kelner, English journalist, author, comedian, singer, actor and radio presenter 1949 – Wendy O. Williams, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress (d. 1998) 1952 – Roger Briggs, American pianist, composer, conductor, and educator 1953 – Pierre Gauthier, Canadian ice hockey player and manager 1954 – João Carlos de Oliveira, Brazilian jumper (d. 1999) 1954 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1988) 1954 – Charles Saumarez Smith, English historian and academic 1954 – Péter Szilágyi, Hungarian conductor and politician (d. 2013) 1954 – John Tory, Canadian lawyer and politician, 65th Mayor of Toronto 1955 – Laura Amy Schlitz, American author and librarian 1955 – Mark Howe, American ice hockey player and coach 1956 – Jerry Douglas, American guitarist and producer 1956 – Jeff Dujon, Jamaican cricketer 1956 – Markus Höttinger, Austrian racing driver (d. 1980) 1956 – Peter Wilkinson, English admiral 1957 – Colin Barnes, English footballer 1957 – Kirk Gibson, American baseball player and manager 1957 – Ben Howland, American basketball player and coach 1959 – Risto Mannisenmäki, Finnish racing driver 1960 – Mark Sanford, American military veteran (USAF) and politician, 115th Governor of South Carolina 1960 – Mary Portas, English journalist and author 1963 – Houman Younessi, Australian-American biologist and academic (d. 2016) 1964 – Jeff Fenech, Australian boxer and trainer 1964 – Armen Gilliam, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011) 1964 – Zsa Zsa Padilla, Filipino singer and actress 1964 – Phil Vassar, American singer-songwriter 1965 – Chris Ballew, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1965 – Mary Coughlan, Irish politician 1966 – Roger Kumble, American director, screenwriter, and playwright 1966 – Miljenko Jergović, Bosnian novelist and journalist 1966 – Gavin Robertson, Australian cricketer 1967 – Glen Rice, American basketball player 1968 – Kylie Minogue, Australian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1969 – Mike DiFelice, American baseball player and manager 1969 – Rob Ford, Canadian politician, 64th Mayor of Toronto (d. 2016) 1970 – Glenn Quinn, American actor (d. 2002) 1971 – Isabelle Carré, French actress and singer 1971 – Ekaterina Gordeeva, Russian figure skater and sportscaster 1971 – Marco Rubio, American lawyer and politician 1972 – Doriva, Brazilian footballer and manager 1972 – Michael Boogerd, Dutch cyclist and manager 1973 – Marco Paulo Faria Lemos, Portuguese footballer and manager 1974 – Hans-Jörg Butt, German footballer 1974 – Misbah-ul-Haq, Pakistani cricketer 1975 – Maura Johnston, American journalist, critic, and academic 1976 – Steven Bell, Australian rugby league player 1976 – Zaza Enden, Georgian-Turkish wrestler, basketball player, and coach 1976 – Roberto Goretti, Italian footballer 1976 – Glenn Morrison, Australian rugby league player and coach 1977 – Elisabeth Hasselbeck, American talk show host and author 1978 – Jake Johnson, American actor 1979 – Abdulaziz al-Omari, Saudi Arabian terrorist, hijacker of American Airlines Flight 11 (d. 2001) 1979 – Ronald Curry, American football player and coach 1980 – Miguel Pérez, Spanish footballer 1980 – Lucy Shuker, English tennis player 1981 – Daniel Cabrera, Dominican-American baseball player 1981 – Eric Ghiaciuc, American football player 1981 – Adam Green, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1982 – Alexa Davalos, French-American actress 1982 – Jhonny Peralta, Dominican-American baseball player 1983 – Steve Cronin, American soccer player 1983 – Humberto Sánchez, Dominican-American baseball player 1983 – Roman Atwood, American YouTube star 1985 – Colbie Caillat, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1985 – Pablo Andrés González, Argentinian footballer 1985 – Kostas Mendrinos, Greek footballer 1985 – Carey Mulligan, English actress and singer 1986 – Berrick Barnes, Australian rugby player 1986 – Bryant Dunston, American-Armenian basketball player 1986 – Seth Rollins, American wrestler 1986 – Ingmar Vos, Dutch decathlete 1987 – T.J. Yates, American football player 1988 – NaVorro Bowman, American football player 1988 – Percy Harvin, American football player 1988 – Craig Kimbrel, American baseball player 1990 – Kyle Walker, English international footballer 1991 – Sharrif Floyd, American football player 1991 – Alexandre Lacazette, French footballer 1991 – Kail Piho, Estonian skier 1993 – Daniel Alvaro, Australian rugby league player 1993 – Bárbara Luz, Portuguese tennis player 1994 – John Stones, English footballer 1998 – Kim Dahyun, South Korean rapper and singer 2000 – Phil Foden, English footballer 2000 |
may be increased by using a lower bit rate for the less complex passages and a higher one for the more complex parts. With some advanced MP3 encoders, it is possible to specify a given quality, and the encoder will adjust the bit rate accordingly. Users that desire a particular "quality setting" that is transparent to their ears can use this value when encoding all of their music, and generally speaking not need to worry about performing personal listening tests on each piece of music to determine the correct bit rate. Perceived quality can be influenced by listening environment (ambient noise), listener attention, and listener training and in most cases by listener audio equipment (such as sound cards, speakers and headphones). Furthermore, sufficient quality may be achieved by a lesser quality setting for lectures and human speech applications and reduces encoding time and complexity. A test given to new students by Stanford University Music Professor Jonathan Berger showed that student preference for MP3-quality music has risen each year. Berger said the students seem to prefer the 'sizzle' sounds that MP3s bring to music. An in-depth study of MP3 audio quality, sound artist and composer Ryan Maguire's project "The Ghost in the MP3" isolates the sounds lost during MP3 compression. In 2015, he released the track "moDernisT" (an anagram of "Tom's Diner"), composed exclusively from the sounds deleted during MP3 compression of the song "Tom's Diner", the track originally used in the formulation of the MP3 standard. A detailed account of the techniques used to isolate the sounds deleted during MP3 compression, along with the conceptual motivation for the project, was published in the 2014 Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference. Bit rate Bitrate is the product of the sample rate and number of bits per sample used to encode the music. CD audio is 44100 samples per second. The number of bits per sample also depends on the number of audio channels. CD is stereo and 16 bits per channel. So, multiplying 44100 by 32 gives 1411200—the bitrate of uncompressed CD digital audio. MP3 was designed to encode this 1411 kbit/s data at 320 kbit/s or less. As less complex passages are detected by MP3 algorithms then lower bitrates may be employed. When using MPEG-2 instead of MPEG-1, MP3 supports only lower sampling rates (16000, 22050 or 24000 samples per second) and offers choices of bitrate as low as 8 kbit/s but no higher than 160 kbit/s. By lowering the sampling rate, MPEG-2 layer III removes all frequencies above half the new sampling rate that may have been present in the source audio. As shown in these two tables, 14 selected bit rates are allowed in MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard: 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256 and 320 kbit/s, along with the 3 highest available sampling frequencies of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz. MPEG-2 Audio Layer III also allows 14 somewhat different (and mostly lower) bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 144, 160 kbit/s with sampling frequencies of 16, 22.05 and 24 kHz which are exactly half that of MPEG-1 MPEG-2.5 Audio Layer III frames are limited to only 8 bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 and 64 kbit/s with 3 even lower sampling frequencies of 8, 11.025, and 12 kHz. On earlier systems that only support the MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard, MP3 files with a bit rate below 32 kbit/s might be played back sped-up and pitched-up. Earlier systems also lack fast forwarding and rewinding playback controls on MP3. MPEG-1 frames contain the most detail in 320 kbit/s mode, the highest allowable bit rate setting, with silence and simple tones still requiring 32 kbit/s. MPEG-2 frames can capture up to 12 kHz sound reproductions needed up to 160 kbit/s. MP3 files made with MPEG-2 don't have 20 kHz bandwidth because of the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem. Frequency reproduction is always strictly less than half of the sampling frequency, and imperfect filters require a larger margin for error (noise level versus sharpness of filter), so an 8 kHz sampling rate limits the maximum frequency to 4 kHz, while a 48 kHz sampling rate limits an MP3 to a maximum 24 kHz sound reproduction. MPEG-2 uses half and MPEG-2.5 only a quarter of MPEG-1 sample rates. For the general field of human speech reproduction, a bandwidth of 5512 Hz is sufficient to produce excellent results (for voice) using the sampling rate of 11025 and VBR encoding from 44100 (standard) WAV file. English speakers average 41–42 kbit/s with -V 9.6 setting but this may vary with amount of silence recorded or the rate of delivery (wpm). Resampling to 12000 (6K bandwidth) is selected by the LAME parameter -V 9.4 Likewise -V 9.2 selects 16000 sample rate and a resultant 8K lowpass filtering. For more information see Nyquist – Shannon. Older versions of LAME and FFmpeg only support integer arguments for the variable bit rate quality selection parameter. The n.nnn quality parameter (-V) is documented at lame.sourceforge.net but is only supported in LAME with the new style VBR variable bit rate quality selector—not average bit rate (ABR). A sample rate of 44.1 kHz is commonly used for music reproduction, because this is also used for CD audio, the main source used for creating MP3 files. A great variety of bit rates are used on the Internet. A bit rate of 128 kbit/s is commonly used, at a compression ratio of 11:1, offering adequate audio quality in a relatively small space. As Internet bandwidth availability and hard drive sizes have increased, higher bit rates up to 320 kbit/s are widespread. Uncompressed audio as stored on an audio-CD has a bit rate of 1,411.2 kbit/s, (16 bit/sample × 44100 samples/second × 2 channels / 1000 bits/kilobit), so the bitrates 128, 160 and 192 kbit/s represent compression ratios of approximately 11:1, 9:1 and 7:1 respectively. Non-standard bit rates up to 640 kbit/s can be achieved with the LAME encoder and the freeformat option, although few MP3 players can play those files. According to the ISO standard, decoders are only required to be able to decode streams up to 320 kbit/s. Early MPEG Layer III encoders used what is now called Constant Bit Rate (CBR). The software was only able to use a uniform bitrate on all frames in an MP3 file. Later more sophisticated MP3 encoders were able to use the bit reservoir to target an average bit rate selecting the encoding rate for each frame based on the complexity of the sound in that portion of the recording. A more sophisticated MP3 encoder can produce variable bitrate audio. MPEG audio may use bitrate switching on a per-frame basis, but only layer III decoders must support it. VBR is used when the goal is to achieve a fixed level of quality. The final file size of a VBR encoding is less predictable than with constant bitrate. Average bitrate is a type of VBR implemented as a compromise between the two: the bitrate is allowed to vary for more consistent quality, but is controlled to remain near an average value chosen by the user, for predictable file sizes. Although an MP3 decoder must support VBR to be standards compliant, historically some decoders have bugs with VBR decoding, particularly before VBR encoders became widespread. The most evolved LAME MP3 encoder supports the generation of VBR, ABR, and even the older CBR MP3 formats. Layer III audio can also use a "bit reservoir", a partially full frame's ability to hold part of the next frame's audio data, allowing temporary changes in effective bitrate, even in a constant bitrate stream. Internal handling of the bit reservoir increases encoding delay. There is no scale factor band 21 (sfb21) for frequencies above approx 16 kHz, forcing the encoder to choose between less accurate representation in band 21 or less efficient storage in all bands below band 21, the latter resulting in wasted bitrate in VBR encoding. Ancillary data The ancillary data field can be used to store user defined data. The ancillary data is optional and the number of bits available is not explicitly given. The ancillary data is located after the Huffman code bits and ranges to where the next frame's main_data_begin points to. Encoder mp3PRO used ancillary data to encode extra information which could improve audio quality when decoded with its own algorithm. Metadata A "tag" in an audio file is a section of the file that contains metadata such as the title, artist, album, track number or other information about the file's contents. The MP3 standards do not define tag formats for MP3 files, nor is there a standard container format that would support metadata and obviate the need for tags. However, several de facto standards for tag formats exist. As of 2010, the most widespread are ID3v1 and ID3v2, and the more recently introduced APEv2. These tags are normally embedded at the beginning or end of MP3 files, separate from the actual MP3 frame data. MP3 decoders either extract information from the tags, or just treat them as ignorable, non-MP3 junk data. Playing and editing software often contains tag editing functionality, but there are also tag editor applications dedicated to the purpose. Aside from metadata pertaining to the audio content, tags may also be used for DRM. ReplayGain is a standard for measuring and storing the loudness of an MP3 file (audio normalization) in its metadata tag, enabling a ReplayGain-compliant player to automatically adjust the overall playback volume for each file. MP3Gain may be used to reversibly modify files based on ReplayGain measurements so that adjusted playback can be achieved on players without ReplayGain capability. Licensing, ownership, and legislation The basic MP3 decoding and encoding technology is patent-free in the European Union, all patents having expired there by 2012 at the latest. In the United States, the technology became substantially patent-free on 16 April 2017 (see below). MP3 patents expired in the US between 2007 and 2017. In the past, many organizations have claimed ownership of patents related to MP3 decoding or encoding. These claims led to a number of legal threats and actions from a variety of sources. As a result, uncertainty about which patents must have been licensed in order to create MP3 products without committing patent infringement in countries that allow software patents was a common feature of the early stages of adoption of the technology. The initial near-complete MPEG-1 standard (parts 1, 2 and 3) was publicly available on 6 December 1991 as ISO CD 11172. In most countries, patents cannot be filed after prior art has been made public, and patents expire 20 years after the initial filing date, which can be up to 12 months later for filings in other countries. As a result, patents required to implement MP3 expired in most countries by December 2012, 21 years after the publication of ISO CD 11172. An exception is the United States, where patents in force but filed prior to 8 June 1995 expire after the later of 17 years from the issue date or 20 years from the priority date. A lengthy patent prosecution process may result in a patent issuing much later than normally expected (see submarine patents). The various MP3-related patents expired on dates ranging from 2007 to 2017 in the United States. Patents for anything disclosed in ISO CD 11172 filed a year or more after its publication are questionable. If only the known MP3 patents filed by December 1992 are considered, then MP3 decoding has been patent-free in the US since 22 September 2015, when , which had a PCT filing in October 1992, expired. If the longest-running patent mentioned in the aforementioned references is taken as a measure, then the MP3 technology became patent-free in the United States on 16 April 2017, when , held and administered by Technicolor, expired. As a result, many free and open-source software projects, such as the Fedora operating system, have decided to start shipping MP3 support by default, and users will no longer have to resort to installing unofficial packages maintained by third party software repositories for MP3 playback or encoding. Technicolor (formerly called Thomson Consumer Electronics) claimed to control MP3 licensing of the Layer 3 patents in many countries, including the United States, Japan, Canada and EU countries. Technicolor had been actively enforcing these patents. MP3 license revenues from Technicolor's administration generated about €100 million for the Fraunhofer Society in 2005. In September 1998, the Fraunhofer Institute sent a letter to several developers of MP3 software stating that a license was required to "distribute and/or sell decoders and/or encoders". The letter claimed that unlicensed products "infringe the patent rights of | programs with more than two channels, up to 5.1 multichannel. An MP3 coded with MPEG-2 results in half of the bandwidth reproduction of MPEG-1 appropriate for piano and singing. A third generation of "MP3" style data streams (files) extended the MPEG-2 ideas and implementation, but was named MPEG-2.5 audio, since MPEG-3 already had a different meaning. This extension was developed at Fraunhofer IIS, the registered patent holders of MP3, by reducing the frame sync field in the MP3 header from 12 to 11 bits. As in the transition from MPEG-1 to MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5 adds additional sampling rates exactly half of those available using MPEG-2. It thus widens the scope of MP3 to include human speech and other applications yet requires only 25% of the bandwidth (frequency reproduction) possible using MPEG-1 sampling rates. While not an ISO recognized standard, MPEG-2.5 is widely supported by both inexpensive Chinese and brand-name digital audio players as well as computer software based MP3 encoders (LAME), decoders (FFmpeg) and players (MPC) adding additional MP3 frame types. Each generation of MP3 thus supports 3 sampling rates exactly half that of the previous generation for a total of 9 varieties of MP3 format files. The sample rate comparison table between MPEG-1, 2 and 2.5 is given later in the article. MPEG-2.5 is supported by LAME (since 2000), Media Player Classic (MPC), iTunes, and FFmpeg. MPEG-2.5 was not developed by MPEG (see above) and was never approved as an international standard. MPEG-2.5 is thus an unofficial or proprietary extension to the MP3 format. It is nonetheless ubiquitous and especially advantageous for low-bit-rate human speech applications. The ISO standard ISO/IEC 11172-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-1 Audio) defined three formats: the MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, Layer II and Layer III. The ISO standard ISO/IEC 13818-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-2 Audio) defined extended version of the MPEG-1 Audio: MPEG-2 Audio Layer I, Layer II and Layer III. MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) should not be confused with MPEG-2 AAC (MPEG-2 Part 7 – ISO/IEC 13818-7). Compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate, because compression ratio depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal. Nevertheless, compression ratios are often published. They may use the Compact Disc (CD) parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2×16 bit), or sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters (48 kHz, 2×16 bit). Compression ratios with this latter reference are higher, which demonstrates the problem with use of the term compression ratio for lossy encoders. Karlheinz Brandenburg used a CD recording of Suzanne Vega's song "Tom's Diner" to assess and refine the MP3 compression algorithm. This song was chosen because of its nearly monophonic nature and wide spectral content, making it easier to hear imperfections in the compression format during playbacks. This particular track has an interesting property in that the two channels are almost, but not completely, the same, leading to a case where Binaural Masking Level Depression causes spatial unmasking of noise artifacts unless the encoder properly recognizes the situation and applies corrections similar to those detailed in the MPEG-2 AAC psychoacoustic model. Some more critical audio excerpts (glockenspiel, triangle, accordion, etc.) were taken from the EBU V3/SQAM reference compact disc and have been used by professional sound engineers to assess the subjective quality of the MPEG Audio formats. LAME is the most advanced MP3 encoder. LAME includes a VBR variable bit rate encoding which uses a quality parameter rather than a bit rate goal. Later versions (2008+) support an n.nnn quality goal which automatically selects MPEG-2 or MPEG-2.5 sampling rates as appropriate for human speech recordings which need only 5512 Hz bandwidth resolution. Going public A reference simulation software implementation, written in the C language and later known as ISO 11172-5, was developed (in 1991–1996) by the members of the ISO MPEG Audio committee in order to produce bit compliant MPEG Audio files (Layer 1, Layer 2, Layer 3). It was approved as a committee draft of ISO/IEC technical report in March 1994 and printed as document CD 11172-5 in April 1994. It was approved as a draft technical report (DTR/DIS) in November 1994, finalized in 1996 and published as international standard ISO/IEC TR 11172-5:1998 in 1998. The reference software in C language was later published as a freely available ISO standard. Working in non-real time on a number of operating systems, it was able to demonstrate the first real time hardware decoding (DSP based) of compressed audio. Some other real time implementations of MPEG Audio encoders and decoders were available for the purpose of digital broadcasting (radio DAB, television DVB) towards consumer receivers and set top boxes. On 7 July 1994, the Fraunhofer Society released the first software MP3 encoder, called l3enc. The filename extension .mp3 was chosen by the Fraunhofer team on 14 July 1995 (previously, the files had been named .bit). With the first real-time software MP3 player WinPlay3 (released 9 September 1995) many people were able to encode and play back MP3 files on their PCs. Because of the relatively small hard drives of the era (≈500–1000 MB) lossy compression was essential to store multiple albums' worth of music on a home computer as full recordings (as opposed to MIDI notation, or tracker files which combined notation with short recordings of instruments playing single notes). As sound scholar Jonathan Sterne notes, "An Australian hacker acquired l3enc using a stolen credit card. The hacker then reverse-engineered the software, wrote a new user interface, and redistributed it for free, naming it "thank you Fraunhofer"". Fraunhofer example implementation A hacker named SoloH discovered the source code of the "dist10" MPEG reference implementation shortly after the release on the servers of the University of Erlangen. He developed a higher-quality version and spread it on the internet. This code started the widespread CD ripping and digital music distribution as MP3 over the internet. Internet distribution In the second half of the 1990s, MP3 files began to spread on the Internet, often via underground pirated song networks. The first known experiment in Internet distribution was organized in the early 1990s by the Internet Underground Music Archive, better known by the acronym IUMA. After some experiments using uncompressed audio files, this archive started to deliver on the native worldwide low-speed Internet some compressed MPEG Audio files using the MP2 (Layer II) format and later on used MP3 files when the standard was fully completed. The popularity of MP3s began to rise rapidly with the advent of Nullsoft's audio player Winamp, released in 1997. In 1998, the first portable solid state digital audio player MPMan, developed by SaeHan Information Systems, which is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea, was released and the Rio PMP300 was sold afterwards in 1998, despite legal suppression efforts by the RIAA. In November 1997, the website mp3.com was offering thousands of MP3s created by independent artists for free. The small size of MP3 files enabled widespread peer-to-peer file sharing of music ripped from CDs, which would have previously been nearly impossible. The first large peer-to-peer filesharing network, Napster, was launched in 1999. The ease of creating and sharing MP3s resulted in widespread copyright infringement. Major record companies argued that this free sharing of music reduced sales, and called it "music piracy". They reacted by pursuing lawsuits against Napster, which was eventually shut down and later sold, and against individual users who engaged in file sharing. Unauthorized MP3 file sharing continues on next-generation peer-to-peer networks. Some authorized services, such as Beatport, Bleep, Juno Records, eMusic, Zune Marketplace, Walmart.com, Rhapsody, the recording industry approved re-incarnation of Napster, and Amazon.com sell unrestricted music in the MP3 format. Design File structure An MP3 file is made up of MP3 frames, which consist of a header and a data block. This sequence of frames is called an elementary stream. Due to the "bit reservoir", frames are not independent items and cannot usually be extracted on arbitrary frame boundaries. The MP3 Data blocks contain the (compressed) audio information in terms of frequencies and amplitudes. The diagram shows that the MP3 Header consists of a sync word, which is used to identify the beginning of a valid frame. This is followed by a bit indicating that this is the MPEG standard and two bits that indicate that layer 3 is used; hence MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3 or MP3. After this, the values will differ, depending on the MP3 file. ISO/IEC 11172-3 defines the range of values for each section of the header along with the specification of the header. Most MP3 files today contain ID3 metadata, which precedes or follows the MP3 frames, as noted in the diagram. The data stream can contain an optional checksum. Joint stereo is done only on a frame-to-frame basis. Encoding and decoding The MP3 encoding algorithm is generally split into four parts. Part 1 divides the audio signal into smaller pieces, called frames, and a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) filter is then performed on the output. Part 2 passes the sample into a 1024-point fast Fourier transform (FFT), then the psychoacoustic model is applied and another MDCT filter is performed on the output. Part 3 quantifies and encodes each sample, known as noise allocation, which adjusts itself in order to meet the bit rate and sound masking requirements. Part 4 formats the bitstream, called an audio frame, which is made up of 4 parts, the header, error check, audio data, and ancillary data. The MPEG-1 standard does not include a precise specification for an MP3 encoder, but does provide example psychoacoustic models, rate loop, and the like in the non-normative part of the original standard. MPEG-2 doubles the number of sampling rates which are supported and MPEG-2.5 adds 3 more. When this was written, the suggested implementations were quite dated. Implementers of the standard were supposed to devise their own algorithms suitable for removing parts of the information from the audio input. As a result, many different MP3 encoders became available, each producing files of differing quality. Comparisons were widely available, so it was easy for a prospective user of an encoder to research the best choice. Some encoders that were proficient at encoding at higher bit rates (such as LAME) were not necessarily as good at lower bit rates. Over time, LAME evolved on the SourceForge website until it became the de facto CBR MP3 encoder. Later an ABR mode was added. Work progressed on true variable bit rate using a quality goal between 0 and 10. Eventually numbers (such as -V 9.600) could generate excellent quality low bit rate voice encoding at only 41 kbit/s using the MPEG-2.5 extensions. During encoding, 576 time-domain samples are taken and are transformed to 576 frequency-domain samples. If there is a transient, 192 samples are taken instead of 576. This is done to limit the temporal spread of quantization noise accompanying the transient (see psychoacoustics). Frequency resolution is limited by the small long block window size, which decreases coding efficiency. Time resolution can be too low for highly transient signals and may cause smearing of percussive sounds. Due to the tree structure of the filter bank, pre-echo problems are made worse, as the combined impulse response of the two filter banks does not, and cannot, provide an optimum solution in time/frequency resolution. Additionally, the combining of the two filter banks' outputs creates aliasing problems that must be handled partially by the "aliasing compensation" stage; however, that creates excess energy to be coded in the frequency domain, thereby decreasing coding efficiency. Decoding, on the other hand, is carefully defined in the standard. Most decoders are "bitstream compliant", which means that the decompressed output that they produce from a given MP3 file will be the same, within a specified degree of rounding tolerance, as the output specified mathematically in the ISO/IEC high standard document (ISO/IEC 11172-3). Therefore, comparison of decoders is usually based on how computationally efficient they are (i.e., how much memory or CPU time they use in the decoding process). Over time this concern has become less of an issue as CPU speeds transitioned from MHz to GHz. Encoder/decoder overall delay is not defined, which means there is no official provision for gapless playback. However, some encoders such as LAME can attach additional metadata that will allow players that can handle it to deliver seamless playback. Quality When performing lossy audio encoding, such as creating an MP3 data stream, there is a trade-off between the amount of data generated and the sound quality of the results. The person generating an MP3 selects a bit rate, which specifies how many kilobits per second of audio is desired. The higher the bit rate, the larger the MP3 data stream will be, and, generally, the closer it will sound to the original recording. With too low a bit rate, compression artifacts (i.e., sounds that were not present in the original recording) may be audible in the reproduction. Some audio is hard to compress because of its randomness and sharp attacks. When this type of audio is compressed, artifacts such as ringing or pre-echo are usually heard. A sample of applause or a triangle instrument with a relatively low bit rate provide good examples of compression artifacts. Most subjective testings of perceptual codecs tend to avoid using these types of sound materials, however, the artifacts generated by percussive sounds are barely perceptible due to the specific temporal masking feature of the 32 sub-band filterbank of Layer II on which the format is based. Besides the bit rate of an encoded piece of audio, the quality of MP3 encoded sound also depends on the quality of the encoder algorithm as well as the complexity of the signal being encoded. As the MP3 standard allows quite a bit of freedom with encoding algorithms, different encoders do feature quite different quality, even with identical bit rates. As an example, in a public listening test featuring two early MP3 encoders set at about 128 kbit/s, one scored 3.66 on a 1–5 scale, while the other scored only 2.22. Quality is dependent on the choice of encoder and encoding parameters. This observation caused a revolution in audio encoding. Early on bitrate was the prime and only consideration. At the time MP3 files were of the very simplest type: they used the same bit rate for the entire file: this process is known as Constant Bit Rate (CBR) encoding. Using a constant bit rate makes encoding simpler and less CPU intensive. However, it is also possible to create files where the bit rate changes throughout the file. These are known as Variable Bit Rate. The bit reservoir and VBR encoding were actually part of the original MPEG-1 standard. The concept behind them is that, in any piece of audio, some sections are easier to compress, such as silence or music containing only a few tones, while others will be more difficult to compress. So, the overall quality of the file may be increased by using a lower bit rate for the less complex passages and a higher one for the more complex parts. With some advanced MP3 encoders, it is possible to specify a given quality, and the encoder will adjust the bit rate accordingly. Users that desire a particular "quality setting" that is transparent to their ears can use this value when encoding all of their music, and generally speaking not need to worry about performing personal listening tests on each piece of music to determine the correct bit rate. Perceived quality can be influenced by listening environment (ambient noise), listener attention, and listener training and in most cases by listener audio equipment (such as sound cards, speakers and headphones). Furthermore, sufficient quality may be achieved by a lesser quality setting for lectures and human speech applications and reduces encoding time and complexity. A test given to new students by Stanford University Music Professor Jonathan Berger showed that student preference for MP3-quality music has risen each year. Berger said the students seem to prefer the 'sizzle' sounds that MP3s bring to music. An in-depth study of MP3 audio quality, sound artist and composer Ryan Maguire's project "The Ghost in the MP3" isolates the sounds lost during MP3 compression. In 2015, he released the track "moDernisT" (an anagram of "Tom's Diner"), composed exclusively from the sounds deleted during MP3 compression of the song "Tom's Diner", the track originally used in the formulation of the MP3 standard. A detailed account of the techniques used to isolate the sounds deleted during MP3 compression, along with the conceptual motivation for the project, was published in the 2014 Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference. Bit rate Bitrate is the product of the sample rate and number of bits per sample used to encode the music. CD audio is 44100 samples per second. The number of bits per sample also depends on the number of audio channels. CD is stereo and 16 bits per channel. So, multiplying 44100 by 32 gives 1411200—the bitrate of uncompressed CD digital audio. MP3 was designed to encode this 1411 kbit/s data at 320 kbit/s or less. As less complex passages are detected by MP3 algorithms then lower bitrates may be employed. When using MPEG-2 instead of MPEG-1, MP3 supports only lower sampling rates (16000, 22050 or 24000 samples per second) and offers choices of bitrate as low as 8 kbit/s but no higher than 160 kbit/s. By lowering the sampling rate, MPEG-2 layer III removes all frequencies above half the new sampling rate that may have been present in the source audio. As shown in these two tables, 14 selected bit rates are allowed in MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard: 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256 and 320 kbit/s, along with the 3 highest available sampling frequencies of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz. MPEG-2 Audio Layer III also allows 14 somewhat different (and mostly lower) bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 144, 160 kbit/s with sampling frequencies of 16, 22.05 and 24 kHz which are exactly half that of MPEG-1 MPEG-2.5 Audio Layer III frames are limited to only 8 bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 and 64 kbit/s with 3 even lower sampling frequencies of 8, 11.025, and 12 kHz. On earlier systems that only support the MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard, MP3 files with a bit rate below 32 kbit/s might be played back sped-up and pitched-up. Earlier systems also lack fast forwarding and rewinding playback controls on MP3. MPEG-1 frames contain the most detail in 320 kbit/s mode, the highest allowable bit rate setting, with silence and simple |
J. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1976) 1902 – Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (d. 1937) 1903 – Maria Reiche, German mathematician and archaeologist (d. 1998) 1904 – Clifton Fadiman, American game show host and author (d. 1999) 1905 – Joseph Cotten, American actor (d. 1994) 1905 – Albert Dubout, French cartoonist, illustrator, painter, and sculptor (d. 1976) 1905 – Abraham Zapruder, American businessman and amateur photographer, filmed the Zapruder film (d. 1970) 1907 – Sukhdev Thapar, Indian activist (d. 1931) 1909 – James Mason, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1984) 1909 – Clara Solovera, Chilean singer-songwriter (d. 1992) 1910 – Constance Cummings, British-based American actress (d. 2005) 1911 – Max Frisch, Swiss playwright and novelist (d. 1991) 1911 – Herta Oberheuser, German physician (d. 1978) 1912 – Arthur Berger, American composer and educator (d. 2003) 1914 – Turk Broda, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972) 1914 – Angus MacLean, Canadian farmer and politician, 25th Premier of Prince Edward Island (d. 2000) 1914 – Norrie Paramor, English composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1979) 1915 – Hilda Bernstein, English-South African author and activist (d. 2006) 1915 – Paul Samuelson, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1915 – Henrik Sandberg, Danish production manager and producer (d. 1993) 1916 – Vera Gebuhr, Danish actress (d. 2014) 1918 – Eddy Arnold, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2008) 1918 – Arthur Jackson, American lieutenant and target shooter (d. 2015) 1918 – Joseph Wiseman, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009) 1920 – Michel Audiard, French director and screenwriter (d. 1985) 1921 – Federico Krutwig, Basque writer, member of ETA and translator (d. 1998) 1922 – Sigurd Ottovich Schmidt, Russian historian and ethnographer (d. 2013) 1922 – Jakucho Setouchi, Japanese nun and author 1923 – Richard Avedon, American sailor and photographer (d. 2004) 1923 – John Lanchbery, English-Australian composer and conductor (d. 2003) 1924 – Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist and zoologist (d. 1971) 1925 – Andrei Eshpai, Russian pianist and composer (d. 2015) 1925 – Mary F. Lyon, English geneticist and biologist (d. 2014) 1925 – Carl Sanders, American soldier, pilot, and politician, 74th Governor of Georgia (d. 2014) 1925 – Roy Stewart, Jamaican-English actor and stuntman (d. 2008) 1926 – Clermont Pépin, Canadian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2006) 1926 – Anthony Shaffer, English author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1926 – Peter Shaffer, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1930 – Jasper Johns, American painter and sculptor 1931 – Ken Venturi, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2013) 1931 – James Fitz-Allen Mitchell, Vincentian politician and agronomist, 2nd Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (d. 2021) 1935 – Don Bragg, American pole vaulter (d. 2019) 1935 – Ted Dexter, Italian-English cricketer (d. 2021) 1935 – Utah Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008) 1935 – Akihiro Miwa, Japanese singer, actor, director, composer, author and drag queen 1936 – Anna Maria Alberghetti, Italian-American actress and singer 1936 – Mart Laga, Estonian basketball player (d. 1977) 1936 – Ralph Steadman, English painter and illustrator 1936 – Paul Zindel, American playwright and novelist (d. 2003) 1937 – Madeleine Albright, Czech-American politician and diplomat, 64th United States Secretary of State 1937 – Karin Krog, Norwegian singer 1937 – Trini Lopez, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 2020) 1938 – Mireille Darc, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1938 – Nancy Garden, American author (d. 2014) 1939 – Dorothy Shirley, English high jumper and educator 1940 – Roger Ailes, American businessman (d. 2017) 1940 – Lainie Kazan, American actress and singer 1940 – Don Nelson, American basketball player and coach 1941 – Jaxon, American illustrator and publisher, co-founded the Rip Off Press (d. 2006) 1942 – Lois Johnson, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1942 – Jusuf Kalla, Indonesian businessman and politician, 10th Vice President of Indonesia 1942 – Doug Lowe, Australian politician, 35th Premier of Tasmania 1942 – K. T. Oslin, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2020) 1943 – Paul Bégin, Canadian lawyer and politician 1943 – Freddie Perren, American songwriter, producer, and conductor (d. 2004) 1944 – Bill Alter, American police officer and politician 1944 – Ulrich Beck, German sociologist and academic (d. 2015) 1945 – Michael Dexter, English hematologist and academic 1945 – Jerry Quarry, American boxer (d. 1999) 1946 – Thadeus Nguyễn Văn Lý, Vietnamese priest and activist 1947 – Graeham Goble, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer 1948 – Kate Bornstein, American author, playwright, performance artist, and gender theorist 1948 – Yutaka Enatsu, Japanese baseball player 1948 – Brian Eno, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1948 – Kathleen Sebelius, American politician, 44th Governor of Kansas 1949 – Frank L. Culbertson Jr., American captain, pilot, and astronaut 1949 – Robert S.J. Sparks, English geologist and academic 1950 – Jim Bacon, Australian politician, 41st Premier of Tasmania (d. 2004) 1950 – Jim Simons, American golfer (d. 2005) 1951 – Dennis Frederiksen, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1951 – Chris Ham, English political scientist and academic 1951 – Frank Wilczek, American mathematician and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1952 – Chazz Palminteri, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – George Brett, American baseball player and coach 1953 – Athene Donald, English physicist and academic 1953 – Mike Oldfield, English-Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1954 – Diana Liverman, English-American geographer and academic 1954 – Caroline Thomson, English journalist and broadcaster 1955 – Mohamed Brahmi, Tunisian politician (d. 2013) 1955 – Lia Vissi, Cypriot singer-songwriter and politician 1956 – Andreas Loverdos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Labour 1956 – Dan Patrick, American television anchor and sportscaster 1956 – Kevin Greenaugh, American nuclear engineer 1957 – Meg Gardiner, American-English author and academic 1957 – Juan José Ibarretxe, Spanish politician 1957 – Kevin Von Erich, American football player and wrestler 1958 – Jason Graae, American musical theater actor 1958 – Ruth Marcus, American journalist 1958 – Ron Simmons, American football player and wrestler 1959 – Khaosai Galaxy, Thai boxer and politician 1959 – Luis Pérez-Sala, Spanish race car driver 1959 – Beverly Jo Scott, American-Belgian singer-songwriter 1960 – Rhonda Burchmore, Australian actress, singer, and dancer 1960 – Rob Bowman, American director and producer 1960 – R. Kuhaneswaran, Sri Lankan politician 1960 – Rimas Kurtinaitis, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1961 – Giselle Fernández, Mexican-American television journalist. 1962 – Lisa Curry, Australian swimmer 1963 – Gavin Nebbeling, South African footballer 1964 – Lars Løkke Rasmussen, Danish lawyer and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Denmark 1965 – André Abujamra, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1965 – Scott Tronc, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Jiří Němec, Czech footballer 1967 – Simen Agdestein, Norwegian chess grandmaster and football player 1967 – Laura Hillenbrand, American journalist and author 1967 – John Smoltz, American baseball player and sportscaster 1967 – Madhuri Dixit, Indian actress 1968 – Cecilia Malmström, Swedish academic and politician, 15th European Commissioner for Trade 1968 – Sophie Raworth, English journalist and broadcaster 1969 – Hideki Irabu, Japanese-American baseball player (d. 2011) 1969 – Emmitt Smith, American football player and sportscaster 1970 – Frank de Boer, Dutch footballer and manager 1970 – Ronald de Boer, Dutch footballer and manager 1970 – Desmond Howard, American football player and sportscaster 1970 – Alison Jackson, English photographer, director, and screenwriter 1970 – Rod Smith, American football player 1970 – Ben Wallace, English captain and politician 1971 – Karin Lušnic, Slovenian tennis player 1972 – Danny Alexander, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Scotland 1972 – David Charvet, French actor and singer 1974 – Vasilis Kikilias, Greek basketball player and politician 1974 – Matthew Sadler, English chess player and author 1974 – Marko Tredup, German footballer and manager 1974 – Ahmet Zappa, American musician and writer 1975 – Ray Lewis, American football player and sportscaster 1975 – Ales Michalevic, Belarusian lawyer and politician 1975 – Janne Seurujärvi, Finnish Sami politician, and the first Sami ever to be elected to the Finnish Parliament. 1976 – Torraye Braggs, American basketball player 1976 – Mark Kennedy, Irish footballer 1976 – Jacek Krzynówek, Polish footballer 1976 – Ryan Leaf, American football player and coach 1976 – Anže Logar, Slovenian politician 1976 – Tyler Walker, American baseball player 1978 – Amy Chow, American gymnast and pediatrician 1978 – Dwayne De Rosario, Canadian soccer player 1978 – Edu, Brazilian | artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus, from the Russian troops. 1919 – The Winnipeg general strike begins. By 11:00, almost the whole working population of Winnipeg had walked off the job. 1919 – Greek occupation of Smyrna. During the occupation, the Greek army kills or wounds 350 Turks; those responsible are punished by Greek commander Aristides Stergiades. 1929 – A fire at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio kills 123. 1932 – In an attempted coup d'état, the Prime Minister of Japan Inukai Tsuyoshi is assassinated. 1933 – All military aviation organizations within or under the control of the RLM of Germany were officially merged in a covert manner to form its Wehrmacht military's air arm, the Luftwaffe. 1940 – is recommissioned. It was originally the USS Squalus. 1940 – World War II: The Battle of the Netherlands: After fierce fighting, the poorly trained and equipped Dutch troops surrender to Germany, marking the beginning of five years of occupation. 1940 – Richard and Maurice McDonald open the first McDonald's restaurant. 1941 – First flight of the Gloster E.28/39 the first British and Allied jet aircraft. 1942 – World War II: In the United States, a bill creating the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) is signed into law. 1943 – Joseph Stalin dissolves the Comintern (or Third International). 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Poljana, the final skirmish in Europe is fought near Prevalje, Slovenia. 1948 – Following the expiration of The British Mandate for Palestine, the Kingdom of Egypt, Transjordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia invade Israel thus starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. 1957 – At Malden Island in the Pacific Ocean, Britain tests its first hydrogen bomb in Operation Grapple. 1963 – Project Mercury: The launch of the final Mercury mission, Mercury-Atlas 9 with astronaut Gordon Cooper on board. He becomes the first American to spend more than a day in space, and the last American to go into space alone. 1970 – President Richard Nixon appoints Anna Mae Hays and Elizabeth P. Hoisington the first female United States Army generals. 1972 – The Ryukyu Islands, under U.S. military governance since its conquest in 1945, reverts to Japanese control. 1974 – Ma'alot massacre: Members of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine attack and take hostages at an Israeli school; a total of 31 people are killed, including 22 schoolchildren. 1988 – Soviet–Afghan War: After more than eight years of fighting, the Soviet Army begins to withdraw 115,000 troops from Afghanistan. 1991 – Édith Cresson becomes France's first female Prime Minister. 1997 – The United States government acknowledges the existence of the "Secret War" in Laos and dedicates the Laos Memorial in honor of Hmong and other "Secret War" veterans. 1997 – The Space Shuttle Atlantis launches on STS-84 to dock with the Russian space station Mir. 2001 – A CSX EMD SD40-2 rolls out of a train yard in Walbridge, Ohio, with 47 freight cars, including some tank cars with flammable chemical, after its engineer fails to reboard it after setting a yard switch. It travels south driverless for 66 miles (106 km) until it was brought to a halt near Kenton. The incident became the inspiration for the 2010 film Unstoppable. 2004 – Arsenal F.C. go an entire league campaign unbeaten in the English Premier League, joining Preston North End F.C with the right to claim the title "The Invincibles". 2008 – California becomes the second U.S. state after Massachusetts in 2004 to legalize same-sex marriage after the state's own Supreme Court rules a previous ban unconstitutional. 2010 – Jessica Watson becomes the youngest person to sail, non-stop and unassisted around the world solo. 2013 – An upsurge in violence in Iraq leaves more than 389 people dead over three days. Births Pre-1600 1397 – Sejong the Great, Korean king of Joseon (d. 1450) 1531 – Maria of Austria, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (d. 1581) 1565 – Hendrick de Keyser, Dutch sculptor and architect (d. 1621) 1567 – Claudio Monteverdi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1643) 1601–1900 1608 – René Goupil, French-American missionary and saint (d. 1642) 1633 – Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, French noble (d. 1707) 1645 – George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, British judge (d. 1689) 1689 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English writer (d. 1762) 1720 – Maximilian Hell, Hungarian priest and astronomer (d. 1792) 1749 – Levi Lincoln Sr., American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Attorney General (d. 1820) 1759 – Maria Theresia von Paradis, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1824) 1770 – Ezekiel Hart, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1843) 1773 – Klemens von Metternich, German-Austrian politician, 1st State Chancellor of the Austrian Empire (d. 1859) 1786 – Dimitris Plapoutas, Greek general and politician (d. 1864) 1803 – Juan Almonte, son of José María Morelos, was a Mexican soldier and diplomat who served as a regent in the Second Mexican Empire (1863-1864) (d. 1869) 1805 – Samuel Carter, English railway solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) (d. 1878) 1808 – Michael William Balfe, Irish composer and conductor (d. 1870) 1817 – Debendranath Tagore, Indian philosopher and author (d. 1905) 1841 – Clarence Dutton, American commander and geologist (d. 1912) 1845 – Élie Metchnikoff, Russian zoologist (d. 1916) 1848 – Viktor Vasnetsov, Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1926) 1854 – Ioannis Psycharis, Ukrainian-French philologist and author (d. 1929) 1856 – L. Frank Baum, American novelist (d. 1919) 1856 – Matthias Zurbriggen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 1917) 1857 – Williamina Fleming, Scottish-American astronomer and academic (d. 1911) 1859 – Pierre Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1906) 1862 – Arthur Schnitzler, Austrian author and playwright (d. 1931) 1863 – Frank Hornby, English businessman and politician, invented Meccano (d. 1936) 1869 – Paul Probst, Swiss target shooter (d. 1945) 1869 – John Storey, Australian politician, 20th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1921) 1873 – Oskari Tokoi, Finnish socialist and the Chairman of the Senate of Finland (d. 1963) 1882 – Walter White, Scottish international footballer (d. 1950) 1890 – Katherine Anne Porter, American short story writer, novelist, and essayist (d. 1980) 1891 – Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright (d. 1940) 1891 – Fritz Feigl, Austrian-Brazilian chemist and academic (d. 1971) 1892 – Charles E. Rosendahl, American admiral (d. 1977) 1892 – Jimmy Wilde, Welsh boxer (d. 1969) 1893 – José Nepomuceno, Filipino filmmaker, founder of Philippine cinema (d. 1959) 1894 – Feg Murray, American hurdler and cartoonist (d. 1973) 1895 – Prescott Bush, American captain, banker, and politician (d. 1972) 1895 – William D. Byron, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1941) 1898 – Arletty, French model, actress, and singer (d. 1992) 1899 – Jean Étienne Valluy, French general (d. 1970) 1900 – Ida Rhodes, American mathematician, pioneer in computer programming (d. 1986) 1901–present 1901 – Xavier Herbert, Australian author (d. 1984) 1901 – Luis Monti, Argentinian-Italian footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1902 – Richard J. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1976) 1902 – Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (d. 1937) 1903 – Maria Reiche, German mathematician and archaeologist (d. 1998) 1904 – Clifton Fadiman, American game show host and author (d. 1999) 1905 – Joseph Cotten, American actor (d. 1994) 1905 – Albert Dubout, French cartoonist, illustrator, painter, and sculptor (d. 1976) 1905 – Abraham Zapruder, American businessman and amateur photographer, filmed the Zapruder film (d. 1970) 1907 – Sukhdev Thapar, Indian activist (d. 1931) 1909 – James Mason, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1984) 1909 – Clara Solovera, Chilean singer-songwriter (d. 1992) 1910 – Constance Cummings, British-based American actress (d. 2005) 1911 – Max Frisch, Swiss playwright and novelist (d. 1991) 1911 – Herta Oberheuser, German physician (d. 1978) 1912 – Arthur Berger, American composer and educator (d. 2003) 1914 – Turk Broda, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972) 1914 – Angus MacLean, Canadian farmer and politician, 25th Premier of Prince Edward Island (d. 2000) 1914 – Norrie Paramor, English composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1979) 1915 – Hilda Bernstein, English-South African author and activist (d. 2006) 1915 – Paul Samuelson, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1915 – Henrik Sandberg, Danish production manager and producer (d. 1993) 1916 – Vera Gebuhr, Danish actress (d. 2014) 1918 – Eddy Arnold, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2008) 1918 – Arthur Jackson, American lieutenant and target shooter (d. 2015) 1918 – Joseph Wiseman, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009) 1920 – Michel Audiard, French director and screenwriter (d. 1985) 1921 – Federico Krutwig, Basque writer, |
of Dinamo Zagreb) and the Delije (fans of Red Star Belgrade). 1992 – Li Hongzhi gives the first public lecture on Falun Gong in Changchun, People's Republic of China. 1995 – Alison Hargreaves, a 33-year-old British mother, becomes the first woman to conquer Everest without oxygen or the help of sherpas. 1996 – Severe thunderstorms and a tornado in Bangladesh kill 600 people. 1998 – Race riots break out in Jakarta, Indonesia, where shops owned by Indonesians of Chinese descent are looted and women raped. 1998 – India carries out two nuclear weapon tests at Pokhran, following the three conducted on May 11. The United States and Japan impose economic sanctions on India. 2005 – Andijan uprising, Uzbekistan; Troops open fire on crowds of protestors after a prison break; at least 187 people were killed according to official estimates. 2006 – São Paulo violence: Rebellions occur in several prisons in Brazil. 2011 – Two bombs explode in the Charsadda District of Pakistan killing 98 people and wounding 140 others. 2012 – Forty-nine dismembered bodies are discovered by Mexican authorities on Mexican Federal Highway 40. 2013 – American physician Kermit Gosnell is found guilty in Pennsylvania of murdering three infants born alive during attempted abortions, involuntary manslaughter of a woman during an abortion procedure, and other charges. 2014 – An explosion at an underground coal mine in southwest Turkey kills 301 miners. Births Pre-1600 1024 – Hugh of Cluny, French abbot and saint (d. 1109) 1179 – Theobald III, Count of Champagne (d. 1201) 1221 – Alexander Nevsky, Russian prince and saint (d. 1263) 1254 – Marie of Brabant, Queen of France (d. 1321) 1453 – Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran, Scottish princess (d. 1488) 1588 – Ole Worm, Danish physician and historian (d. 1654) 1597 – Cornelis Schut, Flemish painter, draughtsman and engraver (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1638 – Richard Simon, French priest and scholar (d. 1712) 1699 – Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1782) 1712 – Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, Danish politician and diplomat (d. 1772) 1713 – Alexis Clairaut, French mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (d. 1765) 1717 – Maria Theresa, Archduchess, Queen, and Empress; Austrian wife of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1780) 1730 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1782) 1735 – Horace Coignet, French violinist and composer (d. 1821) 1742 – Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen (d. 1798) 1753 – Lazare Carnot, French general, mathematician, and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1823) 1792 – Pope Pius IX (d. 1878) 1794 – Louis Léopold Robert, French painter (d. 1835) 1795 – Gérard Paul Deshayes, French geologist and chronologist (d. 1875) 1804 – Per Gustaf Svinhufvud af Qvalstad, Swedo-Finnish treasurer of Tavastia province, manor host, and paternal grandfather of President P. E. Svinhufvud (d. 1866) 1811 – Juan Bautista Ceballos, President of Mexico (1853) (d. 1859) 1822 – Francis, Duke of Cádiz (d. 1902) 1830 – Zebulon Baird Vance, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of North Carolina (d. 1894) 1832 – Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and author (d. 1864) 1840 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1897) 1842 – Arthur Sullivan, English composer (d. 1900) 1853 – Vaiben Louis Solomon, Australian politician, 21st Premier of South Australia (d. 1908) 1856 – Tom O'Rourke, American boxer and manager (d. 1938) 1857 – Ronald Ross, Indian-English physician and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932) 1868 – Sumner Paine, American target shooter (d. 1904) 1869 – Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Turkish writer (d. 1944) 1877 – Robert Hamilton, Scottish international footballer (d. 1948) 1881 – Lima Barreto, Brazilian journalist and author (d. 1922) 1881 – Joe Forshaw, American runner (d. 1964) 1882 – Georges Braque, French painter and sculptor (d. 1963) 1883 – Georgios Papanikolaou, Greek-American pathologist, invented the pap smear (d. 1962) 1884 – Oskar Rosenfeld, Jewish-Austrian writer and Holocaust victim (d.1944) 1885 – Mikiel Gonzi, Maltese archbishop (d. 1984) 1887 – Lorna Hodgkinson, Australian educator and educational psychologist (d. 1951) 1888 – Inge Lehmann, Danish seismologist and geophysicist (d. 1993) 1894 – Ásgeir Ásgeirsson, Icelandic politician, 2nd President of Iceland (d. 1972) 1895 – Nandor Fodor, Hungarian-American psychologist, parapsychologist, and author (d. 1964) 1901–present 1901 – Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (d. 1975) 1904 – Louis Duffus, Australian-South African cricketer and journalist (d. 1984) 1905 – Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Indian lawyer and politician, 5th President of India (d. 1977) 1907 – Daphne du Maurier, English novelist and playwright (d. 1989) 1908 – Eugen Kapp, Estonian composer and educator (d. 1996) 1909 – Ken Darby, American composer and conductor (d. 1992) 1911 – Robert Middleton, American actor (d. 1977) 1911 – Maxine Sullivan, American singer and actress (d. 1987) 1912 – Gil Evans, Canadian-American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1988) 1912 – Judah Nadich, American colonel and rabbi (d. 2007) 1913 – Robert Dorning, English actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1989) 1913 – Theo Helfrich, German racing driver (d. 1978) 1913 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (d. 1980) 1914 – Joe Louis, American boxer (d. 1981) 1914 – Johnnie Wright, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011) 1914 – Antonia Ferrín Moreiras, Spanish mathematician, academic, and astronomer (d. 2009) 1916 – Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (d. 2004) 1918 – Balasaraswati, Indian dancer and instructor (d. 1984) 1918 – Gwyn Howells, Australian public servant (d. 1997) 1920 – Gareth Morris, English flute player (d. 2007) 1922 – Michael Ainsworth, English cricketer (d. 1978) 1922 – Otl Aicher, German graphic designer and typographer (d. 1991) 1922 – Bea Arthur, American actress and singer (d. 2009) 1923 – Ruth Adler Schnee, German-American textile designer and interior designer 1924 – Theodore Mann, American director and producer (d. 2012) 1924 – Harry Schwarz, South African anti-apartheid leader, lawyer, and Ambassador (d. 2010) 1927 – Archie Scott Brown, Scottish race car driver (d. 1958) 1927 – Fred Hellerman, American folk singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2016) 1927 – Herbert Ross, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2001) 1928 – Enrique Bolaños, Nicaraguan politician, President of Nicaragua (d. 2021) 1928 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1929 – John Galvin, American general (d. 2015) 1930 – Mike Gravel, American lieutenant and politician (d. 2021) 1930 – José Jiménez Lozano, Spanish journalist and author (d. 2020) 1930 – Vernon Shaw, Dominican politician, 5th President of Dominica (d. 2013) 1931 – Jim Jones, American cult leader, founder of the Peoples Temple (d. 1978) 1931 – Sydney Lipworth, South African-English lawyer, businessman, and philanthropist 1933 – John Roseboro, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1934 – Ehud Netzer, Israeli archaeologist, architect, and academic (d. 2010) 1934 – Leon Wagner, American baseball player and actor (d. 2004) 1935 – Dominic Cossa, American opera singer 1935 – Jan Saudek, Czech photographer and painter 1935 – Kája Saudek, Czech author and illustrator (d. 2015) 1936 – Bill Rompkey, Canadian educator and politician (d. 2017) 1937 – Trevor Baylis, English inventor, invented the wind-up radio (d. 2018) 1937 – Roch Carrier, Canadian librarian and author 1937 – Zohra Lampert, American actress 1937 – Beverley Owen, American actress (d. 2019) 1937 – Roger Zelazny, American author and poet (d. 1995) 1938 – Giuliano Amato, Italian academic and politician, 48th Prime Minister of Italy 1938 – Laurent Beaudoin, Canadian businessman 1938 – Anna Cropper, British actress (d. 2007) 1938 – Francine Pascal, American author and playwright 1938 – Buck Taylor, American actor 1939 – Hildrun Claus, German long jumper 1939 – Peter Frenkel, German race walker and coach 1939 – Harvey Keitel, American actor 1940 – Bruce Chatwin, English author (d. 1989) 1940 – Kōkichi Tsuburaya, Japanese runner (d. 1968) 1941 – Senta Berger, Austrian actress 1941 – Joe Brown, English singer and musician 1941 – Jody Conradt, American basketball player and coach 1941 – Ritchie Valens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1959) 1942 – Leighton Gage, American author (d. 2013) 1942 – Roger Young, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1943 – Anthony Clarke, Baron Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony, English lawyer and judge 1943 – Kurt Trampedach, Danish painter and sculptor (d. 2013) 1943 – Mary Wells, American singer-songwriter (d. 1992) 1944 – Sir Crispin Agnew, 11th Baronet, Scottish explorer, lawyer, and judge 1944 – Robert L. Crawford Jr., American actor 1944 – Carolyn Franklin, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1988) 1944 – Armistead Maupin, American author, screenwriter, and actor 1945 – Lasse Berghagen, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1945 – Magic Dick, American blues-rock harmonica, trumpet, and saxophone player 1945 – Lou Marini, American saxophonist and composer 1946 – Tim Pigott-Smith, English actor and author (d. 2017) 1946 – Jean Rondeau, French race car driver and constructor (d. 1985) 1946 – Marv Wolfman, American author 1947 – Charles Baxter, American novelist, essayist, and poet 1947 – Edgar Burcksen, Dutch-American film editor 1948 – Sheila Jeffreys, English-Australian political scientist, author, and academic 1948 – Dean Meminger, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013) 1949 – Jane Glover, English conductor and scholar 1949 – Dale Snodgrass, United States Naval Aviator and air show performer (d. 2021) 1949 – Zoë Wanamaker, American-British actress 1949 – Philip Kruse, Norwegian trumpeter and orchestra leader 1950 – Andy Cunningham, English actor (d. 2011) 1950 – Danny Kirwan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018) 1950 – Joe Johnston, American film director and effects artist 1950 – Manning Marable, American author and academic (d. 2011) 1950 – Bobby Valentine, American baseball player and manager 1950 – Stevie Wonder, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1951 – Rosie Boycott, English journalist and author 1951 – Sharon Sayles Belton, American politician, 45th Mayor of Minneapolis 1951 – Anand Modak, Indian composer and director (d. 2014) 1951 – Herman Philipse, Dutch philosopher and academic 1951 – Selina Scott, English journalist, producer, and author 1951 – Paul Thompson, English drummer 1952 – John Kasich, American politician, 69th Governor of Ohio 1952 – Mary Walsh, Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter 1952 – Londa Schiebinger, American academic and author 1953 – Zlatko Burić, Croat-Danish actor 1953 – Gerry Sutcliffe, English politician, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household 1953 – David Voelker, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1953 – Harm Wiersma, Dutch draughts player and politician 1953 – Ruth A. David, American electrical engineer 1954 – Johnny Logan, Australian-Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Richard Madeley, English journalist and author 1956 – Fred Melamed, American actor 1956 – Kailash Vijayvargiya, National General Secretary of Bhartiya Janta Party 1957 – Alan Ball, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1957 – David Hill, English organist and conductor 1957 – Mar Roxas, Filipino economist and politician, 24th Filipino Secretary of the Interior 1958 – Anthony Ray Parker, American actor 1961 – Siobhan Fallon Hogan, American actress 1961 – Dennis Rodman, American basketball player, wrestler, and actor 1962 – Paul Burstow, English politician 1962 – Nick Hurd, English businessman and politician, Minister for Civil Society 1963 – Andrea Leadsom, English politician 1963 – Wally Masur, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster 1964 – Stephen Colbert, American comedian and talk show host 1964 – Chris Maitland, English drummer 1964 – Tom Verica, American actor, television director, and producer 1965 – José Antonio Delgado, Venezuelan mountaineer (d. 2006) 1965 – Tasmin Little, English violinist and educator 1965 – János Marozsán, Hungarian footballer 1965 – Hikari Ōta, Japanese comedian and actor 1965 – José Rijo, Dominican baseball player 1965 – Lari White, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2018) 1966 – Alison Goldfrapp, English singer-songwriter and producer 1966 – Darius Rucker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Tish Cyrus, American actress and film producer 1967 – Shon Greenblatt, American actor 1967 – Tommy Gunn, pornographic actor 1967 – Chuck Schuldiner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) 1967 – Melanie Thornton, American-German singer (d. 2001) 1968 – Miguel Ángel Blanco, Spanish politician (d. 1997) 1968 – Susan Floyd, American actress 1968 – Scott Morrison, Australian politician, 30th Prime Minister of Australia 1968 – PMD, American rapper 1968 – Dmitriy Shevchenko, Russian discus thrower and coach 1969 – Buckethead, American guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Nikos Aliagas, French-Greek journalist and television host 1970 – Doug Evans, American football player 1970 – Robert Maćkowiak, Polish sprinter 1971 – Imogen Boorman, English actress and martial artist 1971 – Rob Fredrickson, American football player 1971 – Espen Lind, Norwegian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1971 – Tom Nalen, American football player and sportscaster 1972 – Stefaan Maene, Belgian swimmer 1972 – Darryl Sydor, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1972 – Pieta van Dishoeck, Dutch rower 1973 – Eric Lewis, American pianist 1973 – Bridgett Riley, American boxer and stuntwoman 1975 – Jamie Allison, Canadian ice hockey player 1975 – Cristian Bezzi, Italian rugby player and coach 1975 – Brian Geraghty, American actor 1976 – Mark Delaney, Welsh footballer and manager 1976 – Trajan Langdon, American basketball player and scout 1976 – Ana Popović, Serbian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Magdalena Walach, Polish actress 1977 – Ilse DeLange, Dutch singer-songwriter 1977 – Anthony Q. Farrell, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter 1977 – Robby Hammock, American baseball player and coach 1977 – Neil Hopkins, American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1977 – James | Ganryū Island. Kojiro dies at the end. 1619 – Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after being convicted of treason. 1654 – Venetian fleet under Admiral Cort Adeler beats Turkish. 1779 – War of the Bavarian Succession: Russian and French mediators at the Congress of Teschen negotiate an end to the war. In the agreement Austria receives the part of its territory that was taken from it (the Innviertel). 1780 – The Cumberland Compact is signed by leaders of the settlers in the Cumberland River area of what would become the U.S. state of Tennessee, providing for democratic government and a formal system of justice. 1804 – Forces sent by Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli to retake Derna from the Americans attack the city. 1830 – Ecuador gains its independence from Gran Colombia. 1846 – Mexican–American War: The United States declares war on the Federal Republic of Mexico following a dispute over the American annexation of the Republic of Texas and a Mexican military incursion. 1861 – American Civil War: Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom issues a "proclamation of neutrality" which recognizes the Confederacy as having belligerent rights. 1861 – The Great Comet of 1861 is discovered by John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales, Australia. 1861 – Pakistan's (then a part of British India) first railway line opens, from Karachi to Kotri. 1862 – The , a steamer and gunship, steals through Confederate lines and is passed to the Union, by a southern slave, Robert Smalls, who later was officially appointed as captain, becoming the first black man to command a United States ship. 1888 – With the passage of the Lei Áurea ("Golden Law"), Empire of Brazil abolishes slavery. 1901–present 1912 – The Royal Flying Corps, the forerunner of the Royal Air Force, is established in the United Kingdom. 1917 – Three children report the first apparition of Our Lady of Fátima in Fátima, Portugal. 1940 – World War II: Germany's conquest of France begins as the German army crosses the Meuse. Winston Churchill makes his "blood, toil, tears, and sweat" speech to the House of Commons. 1941 – World War II: Yugoslav royal colonel Dragoljub Mihailović starts fighting against German occupation troops, beginning the Serbian resistance. 1943 – World War II: Operations Vulcan and Strike force the surrender of the last Axis troops in Tunisia. 1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The Kfar Etzion massacre is committed by Arab irregulars, the day before the declaration of independence of the state of Israel on May 14. 1950 – The inaugural Formula One World Championship race takes place at Silverstone Circuit. The race was won by Giuseppe Farina, who would go on to become the inaugural champion that year. 1951 – The 400th anniversary of the founding of the National University of San Marcos is commemorated by the opening of the first large-capacity stadium in Peru. 1952 – The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India, holds its first sitting. 1954 – The anti-National Service Riots, by Chinese middle school students in Singapore, take place. 1958 – During a visit to Caracas, Venezuela, Vice President Richard Nixon's car is attacked by anti-American demonstrators. 1958 – May 1958 crisis: A group of French military officers lead a coup in Algiers demanding that a government of national unity be formed with Charles de Gaulle at its head in order to defend French control of Algeria. 1958 – Ben Carlin becomes the first (and only) person to circumnavigate the world by amphibious vehicle, having travelled over by sea and by land during a ten-year journey. 1960 – Hundreds of University of California, Berkeley students congregate for the first day of protest against a visit by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. 1967 – Dr. Zakir Husain becomes the third President of India. He is the first Muslim President of the Indian Union. He holds this position until August 24, 1969. 1969 – May 13 Incident involving sectarian violence in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 1971 – Over 900 unarmed Bengali Hindus are murdered in the Demra massacre. 1972 – Faulty electrical wiring ignites a fire underneath the Playtown Cabaret in Osaka, Japan. Blocked exits and non-functional elevators lead to 118 fatalities, with many victims leaping to their deaths. 1972 – The Troubles: A car bombing outside a crowded pub in Belfast sparks a two-day gun battle involving the Provisional IRA, Ulster Volunteer Force and British Army. Seven people are killed and over 66 injured. 1980 – An F3 tornado hits Kalamazoo County, Michigan. President Jimmy Carter declares it a federal disaster area. 1981 – Mehmet Ali Ağca attempts to assassinate Pope John Paul II in St. Peter's Square in Rome. The Pope is rushed to the Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic to undergo emergency surgery and survives. 1985 – Police bombed MOVE headquarters in Philadelphia, killing six adults and five children, and destroying the homes of 250 city residents. 1989 – Large groups of students occupy Tiananmen Square and begin a hunger strike. 1990 – The Dinamo–Red Star riot took place at Maksimir Stadium in Zagreb, Croatia between the Bad Blue Boys (fans of Dinamo Zagreb) and the Delije (fans of Red Star Belgrade). 1992 – Li Hongzhi gives the first public lecture on Falun Gong in Changchun, People's Republic of China. 1995 – Alison Hargreaves, a 33-year-old British mother, becomes the first woman to conquer Everest without oxygen or the help of sherpas. 1996 – Severe thunderstorms and a tornado in Bangladesh kill 600 people. 1998 – Race riots break out in Jakarta, Indonesia, where shops owned by Indonesians of Chinese descent are looted and women raped. 1998 – India carries out two nuclear weapon tests at Pokhran, following the three conducted on May 11. The United States and Japan impose economic sanctions on India. 2005 – Andijan uprising, Uzbekistan; Troops open fire on crowds of protestors after a prison break; at least 187 people were killed according to official estimates. 2006 – São Paulo violence: Rebellions occur in several prisons in Brazil. 2011 – Two bombs explode in the Charsadda District of Pakistan killing 98 people and wounding 140 others. 2012 – Forty-nine dismembered bodies are discovered by Mexican authorities on Mexican Federal Highway 40. 2013 – American physician Kermit Gosnell is found guilty in Pennsylvania of murdering three infants born alive during attempted abortions, involuntary manslaughter of a woman during an abortion procedure, and other charges. 2014 – An explosion at an underground coal mine in southwest Turkey kills 301 miners. Births Pre-1600 1024 – Hugh of Cluny, French abbot and saint (d. 1109) 1179 – Theobald III, Count of Champagne (d. 1201) 1221 – Alexander Nevsky, Russian prince and saint (d. 1263) 1254 – Marie of Brabant, Queen of France (d. 1321) 1453 – Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran, Scottish princess (d. 1488) 1588 – Ole Worm, Danish physician and historian (d. 1654) 1597 – Cornelis Schut, Flemish painter, draughtsman and engraver (d. 1655) 1601–1900 1638 – Richard Simon, French priest and scholar (d. 1712) 1699 – Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1782) 1712 – Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, Danish politician and diplomat (d. 1772) 1713 – Alexis Clairaut, French mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (d. 1765) 1717 – Maria Theresa, Archduchess, Queen, and Empress; Austrian wife of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1780) 1730 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1782) 1735 – Horace Coignet, French violinist and composer (d. 1821) 1742 – Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen (d. 1798) 1753 – Lazare Carnot, French general, mathematician, and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1823) 1792 – Pope Pius IX (d. 1878) 1794 – Louis Léopold Robert, French painter (d. 1835) 1795 – Gérard Paul Deshayes, French geologist and chronologist (d. 1875) 1804 – Per Gustaf Svinhufvud af Qvalstad, Swedo-Finnish treasurer of Tavastia province, manor host, and paternal grandfather of President P. E. Svinhufvud (d. 1866) 1811 – Juan Bautista Ceballos, President of Mexico (1853) (d. 1859) 1822 – Francis, Duke of Cádiz (d. 1902) 1830 – Zebulon Baird Vance, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of North Carolina (d. 1894) 1832 – Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and author (d. 1864) 1840 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1897) 1842 – Arthur Sullivan, English composer (d. 1900) 1853 – Vaiben Louis Solomon, Australian politician, 21st Premier of South Australia (d. 1908) 1856 – Tom O'Rourke, American boxer and manager (d. 1938) 1857 – Ronald Ross, Indian-English physician and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932) 1868 – Sumner Paine, American target shooter (d. 1904) 1869 – Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Turkish writer (d. 1944) 1877 – Robert Hamilton, Scottish international footballer (d. 1948) 1881 – Lima Barreto, Brazilian journalist and author (d. 1922) 1881 – Joe Forshaw, American runner (d. 1964) 1882 – Georges Braque, French painter and sculptor (d. 1963) 1883 – Georgios Papanikolaou, Greek-American pathologist, invented the pap smear (d. 1962) 1884 – Oskar Rosenfeld, Jewish-Austrian writer and Holocaust victim (d.1944) 1885 – Mikiel Gonzi, Maltese archbishop (d. 1984) 1887 – Lorna Hodgkinson, Australian educator and educational psychologist (d. 1951) 1888 – Inge Lehmann, Danish seismologist and geophysicist (d. 1993) 1894 – Ásgeir Ásgeirsson, Icelandic politician, 2nd President of Iceland (d. 1972) 1895 – Nandor Fodor, Hungarian-American psychologist, parapsychologist, and author (d. 1964) 1901–present 1901 – Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (d. 1975) 1904 – Louis Duffus, Australian-South African cricketer and journalist (d. 1984) 1905 – Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Indian lawyer and politician, 5th President of India (d. 1977) 1907 – Daphne du Maurier, English novelist and playwright (d. 1989) 1908 – Eugen Kapp, Estonian composer and educator (d. 1996) 1909 – Ken Darby, American composer and conductor (d. 1992) 1911 – Robert Middleton, American actor (d. 1977) 1911 – Maxine Sullivan, American singer and actress (d. 1987) 1912 – Gil Evans, Canadian-American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1988) 1912 – Judah Nadich, American colonel and rabbi (d. 2007) 1913 – Robert Dorning, English actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1989) 1913 – Theo Helfrich, German racing driver (d. 1978) 1913 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (d. 1980) 1914 – Joe Louis, American boxer (d. 1981) 1914 – Johnnie Wright, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011) 1914 – Antonia Ferrín Moreiras, Spanish mathematician, academic, and astronomer (d. 2009) 1916 – Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (d. 2004) 1918 – Balasaraswati, Indian dancer and instructor (d. 1984) 1918 – Gwyn Howells, Australian public servant (d. 1997) 1920 – Gareth Morris, English flute player (d. 2007) 1922 – Michael Ainsworth, English cricketer (d. 1978) 1922 – Otl Aicher, German graphic designer and typographer (d. 1991) 1922 – Bea Arthur, American actress and singer (d. 2009) 1923 – Ruth Adler Schnee, German-American textile designer and interior designer 1924 – Theodore Mann, American director and producer (d. 2012) 1924 – Harry Schwarz, South African anti-apartheid leader, lawyer, and Ambassador (d. 2010) 1927 – Archie Scott Brown, Scottish race car driver (d. 1958) 1927 – Fred Hellerman, American folk singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2016) 1927 – Herbert Ross, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2001) 1928 – Enrique Bolaños, Nicaraguan politician, President of Nicaragua (d. 2021) 1928 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1929 – John Galvin, American general (d. 2015) 1930 – Mike Gravel, American lieutenant and politician (d. 2021) 1930 – José Jiménez Lozano, Spanish journalist and author (d. 2020) 1930 – Vernon Shaw, Dominican politician, 5th President of Dominica (d. 2013) 1931 – Jim Jones, American cult leader, founder of the Peoples Temple (d. 1978) 1931 – Sydney Lipworth, South African-English lawyer, businessman, and philanthropist 1933 – John Roseboro, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002) 1934 – Ehud Netzer, Israeli archaeologist, architect, and academic (d. 2010) 1934 – Leon Wagner, American baseball player and actor (d. 2004) 1935 – Dominic Cossa, American opera singer 1935 – Jan Saudek, Czech photographer and painter 1935 – Kája Saudek, Czech author and illustrator (d. 2015) 1936 |
Velasco, Texas. 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Jackson takes place. 1868 – Boshin War: The Battle of Utsunomiya Castle ends as former Tokugawa shogunate forces withdraw northward. 1870 – The first game of rugby in New Zealand is played in Nelson between Nelson College and the Nelson Rugby Football Club. 1878 – The last witchcraft trial held in the United States begins in Salem, Massachusetts, after Lucretia Brown, an adherent of Christian Science, accused Daniel Spofford of attempting to harm her through his mental powers. 1879 – The first group of 463 Indian indentured laborers arrives in Fiji aboard the . 1901–present 1900 – Opening of World Amateur championship at the Paris Exposition Universelle, also known as Olympic Games. 1913 – Governor of New York William Sulzer approves the charter for the Rockefeller Foundation, which begins operations with a $100 million donation from John D. Rockefeller. 1915 – The May 14 Revolt takes place in Lisbon, Portugal. 1918 – Cape Town Mayor, Sir Harry Hands, inaugurates the Two-minute silence. 1931 – Five unarmed civilians are killed in the Ådalen shootings, as the Swedish military is called in to deal with protesting workers. 1935 – The Constitution of the Philippines is ratified by a popular vote. 1939 – Lina Medina becomes the youngest confirmed mother in medical history at the age of five. 1940 – World War II: Rotterdam, Netherlands is bombed by the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany despite a ceasefire, killing about 900 people and destroying the historic city center. 1943 – World War II: A Japanese submarine sinks off the coast of Queensland. 1948 – Israel is declared to be an independent state and a provisional government is established. Immediately after the declaration, Israel is attacked by the neighboring Arab states, triggering the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. 1951 – Trains run on the Talyllyn Railway in Wales for the first time since preservation, making it the first railway in the world to be operated by volunteers. 1953 – Approximately 7,100 brewery workers in Milwaukee perform a walkout, marking the start of the 1953 Milwaukee brewery strike. 1955 – Cold War: Eight Communist bloc countries, including the Soviet Union, sign a mutual defense treaty called the Warsaw Pact. 1961 – Civil rights movement: A white mob twice attacks a Freedom Riders bus near Anniston, Alabama, before fire-bombing the bus and attacking the civil rights protesters who flee the burning vehicle. 1970 – Andreas Baader is freed from custody by Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin and others, a pivotal moment in the formation of the Red Army Faction. 1973 – Skylab, the United States' first space station, is launched. 1977 – A Dan-Air Boeing 707 leased to IAS Cargo Airlines crashes on approach to Lusaka International Airport in Lusaka, Zambia, killing six people. 1980 – Salvadoran Civil War: the Sumpul River massacre occurs in Chalatenango, El Salvador. 1988 – Carrollton bus collision: A drunk driver traveling the wrong way on Interstate 71 near Carrollton, Kentucky hits a converted school bus carrying a church youth group. Twenty-seven die in the crash and ensuing fire. 2004 – The Constitutional Court of South Korea overturns the impeachment of President Roh Moo-hyun. 2004 – Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4815 crashes into the Amazon rainforest during approach to Eduardo Gomes International Airport in Manaus, Brazil, killing 33 people. 2008 – Battle of Piccadilly Gardens in Manchester city centre between Zenit supporters and Rangers supporters and the Greater Manchester Police, 39 policemen injured, one police-dog injured and 39 arrested. 2010 – Space Shuttle Atlantis launches on the STS-132 mission to deliver the first shuttle-launched Russian ISS component — Rassvet. This was originally slated to be the final launch of Atlantis, before Congress approved STS-135. 2012 – Agni Air Flight CHT crashes in Nepal after a failed go-around, killing 15 people. Births Pre-1600 1316 – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1378) 1553 – Margaret of Valois (d. 1615) 1574 – Francesco Rasi, Italian singer-songwriter, theorbo player, and poet (d. 1621) 1592 – Alice Barnham, wife of statesman Francis Bacon (d. 1650) 1601–1900 1630 – Katakura Kagenaga, Japanese samurai (d. 1681) 1652 – Johann Philipp Förtsch, German composer (d. 1732) 1657 – Sambhaji, Indian emperor (d. 1689) 1666 – Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia (d. 1732) 1679 – Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1764) 1699 – Hans Joachim von Zieten, Prussian general (d. 1786) 1701 – William Emerson, English mathematician and academic (d. 1782) 1710 – Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden (d. 1771) 1725 – Ludovico Manin, the last Doge of Venice (d. 1802) 1727 – Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (d. 1788) 1737 – George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, Irish-English politician and diplomat, Governor of Grenada (d. 1806) 1752 – Timothy Dwight IV, American minister, theologian, and academic (d. 1817) 1752 – Albrecht Thaer, German agronomist and author (d. 1828) 1761 – Samuel Dexter, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of War, 3rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1816) 1771 – Robert Owen, Welsh businessman and social reformer (d. 1858) 1771 – Thomas Wedgwood, English photographer (d. 1805) 1781 – Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer, German historian and academic (d. 1873) 1794 – Fanny Imlay, daughter of British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (d. 1816) 1814 – Charles Beyer, German-English engineer, co-founded Beyer, Peacock & Company (d. 1876) 1817 – Alexander Kaufmann, German poet and educator (d. 1893) 1820 – James Martin, Irish-Australian politician, 6th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1886) 1830 – Antonio Annetto Caruana, Maltese archaeologist and author (d. 1905) 1832 – Rudolf Lipschitz, German mathematician and academic (d. 1903) 1851 – Anna Laurens Dawes, American author and suffragist (d. 1938) 1852 – Henri Julien, Canadian illustrator (d. 1908) 1863 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (d. 1932) 1867 – Kurt Eisner, German journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Bavaria (d. 1919) 1868 – Magnus Hirschfeld, German physician and sexologist (d. 1935) 1869 – Arthur Rostron, English captain (d. 1940) 1872 – Elia Dalla Costa, Italian cardinal (d. 1961) 1878 – J. L. Wilkinson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1964) 1879 – Fred Englehardt, American jumper (d. 1942) 1880 – Wilhelm List, German field marshal (d. 1971) 1881 – Lionel Hill, Australian politician, 30th Premier of South Australia (d. 1963) 1881 – George Murray Hulbert, American judge and politician (d. 1950) 1885 – Otto Klemperer, German composer and conductor (d. 1973) 1887 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (d. 1943) 1888 – Archie Alexander, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1958) 1893 – Louis Verneuil, French actor and playwright (d. 1952) 1897 – Sidney Bechet, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1959) 1897 – Ed Ricketts, American biologist and ecologist (d. 1948) 1899 – Charlotte Auerbach, German-Scottish folklorist, geneticist, and zoologist (d. 1994) 1899 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (d. 1993) 1899 – Earle Combs, American baseball player and coach (d. 1976) 1900 – Hal Borland, American journalist and author (d. 1978) 1900 – Walter Rehberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1957) 1900 – Cai Chang, Chinese first leader of All-China Women's Federation (d. 1990) 1900 – Leo Smit, Dutch pianist and composer (d. 1943) 1900 – Edgar Wind, German-English historian, author, and academic (d. 1971) 1901–present 1901 – Robert Ritter, German psychologist and physician (d. 1951) 1903 – Billie Dove, American actress (d. 1997) 1904 – Hans Albert Einstein, Swiss-American engineer and educator (d. 1973) 1904 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician and anesthesiologist (d. 1961) 1905 – Jean Daniélou, French cardinal and theologian (d. 1974) 1905 – Herbert Morrison, American soldier and journalist (d. 1989) 1905 – Antonio Berni, Argentinian painter, illustrator, and engraver (d. 1981) 1907 – Ayub Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 2nd President of Pakistan (d. 1974) 1907 – Hans von der Groeben, German journalist and diplomat (d. 2005) 1908 – Betty Jeffrey, Australian nurse and author (d. 2000) 1909 – Godfrey Rampling, English sprinter and colonel (d. 2009) 1910 – Ken Viljoen, South African cricketer (d. 1974) 1910 – Ne Win, Prime Minister and President of Burma (d. 2002) 1914 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani journalist, poet, and politician (d. 1983) 1914 – William Tutte, British codebreaker and mathematician (d. 2002) 1916 – Robert F. Christy, Canadian-American physicist and astronomer (d. 2012) 1916 – Lance Dossor, English-Australian pianist and educator (d. 2005) 1916 – Marco Zanuso, Italian architect and designer (d. 2001) 1917 – Lou Harrison, American composer and critic (d. 2003) 1917 – Norman Luboff, American composer and conductor (d. 1987) 1919 – Solange Chaput-Rolland, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2001) 1919 – John Hope, American soldier and meteorologist (d. 2002) 1921 – Richard Deacon, American actor (d. 1984) 1922 – Franjo Tuđman, Yugoslav historian; later 1st President of Croatia (d. 1999) 1923 – Adnan Pachachi, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2019) 1923 – Mrinal Sen, Bangladeshi-Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1925 – Sophie Kurys, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1925 – Patrice Munsel, American soprano and actress (d. 2016) 1925 – Boris Parsadanian, Armenian-Estonian violinist and composer (d. 1997) 1925 – Al Porcino, American trumpet player (d. 2013) 1925 – Ninian Sanderson, Scottish race car driver (d. 1985) 1926 – Eric Morecambe, English comedian and actor (d. 1984) 1927 – Herbert W. Franke, Austrian scientist and author 1928 – Dub Jones, American R&B bass singer (d. 2000) 1928 – Frederik H. Kreuger, Dutch engineer, author, and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Brian Macdonald, Canadian dancer and choreographer (d. 2014) 1929 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author (d. 2013) 1929 – Henry McGee, English actor and singer (d. 2006) 1929 – Gump Worsley, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2007) 1930 – William James, Australian general and physician (d. 2015) 1931 – Alvin Lucier, American composer and academic (d. 2021) 1932 – Robert Bechtle, American lithographer and painter (d. 2020) 1933 – Siân Phillips, Welsh actress and singer 1935 – Ethel Johnson, American professional wrestler (d. 2018) 1935 – Rudi Šeligo, Slovenian playwright and politician (d. 2004) 1936 – Bobby Darin, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1973) 1936 – Dick Howser, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1987) 1938 – Robert Boyd, English pediatrician and academic 1939 – Rupert Neudeck, German journalist and humanitarian (d. 2016) 1939 – Troy Shondell, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016) 1940 – Chay Blyth, Scottish sailor and rower 1940 – H. Jones, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1982) 1940 – George Mathewson, Scottish banker and businessman 1941 – Ada den Haan, Dutch swimmer 1942 – Valeriy Brumel, Russian high jumper (d. 2003) 1942 – Byron Dorgan, American lawyer and politician 1942 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English businessman and politician (d. 2014) 1942 – Tony Pérez, Cuban-American baseball player and manager 1942 – Malise Ruthven, Irish author and academic 1943 – Jack Bruce, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014) 1943 – L. Denis Desautels, Canadian accountant and civil servant 1943 – Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, Icelandic academic and politician, 5th President of Iceland 1943 – Derek Leckenby, English pop-rock guitarist (d. 1994) 1943 – Richard Peto, English statistician and epidemiologist 1944 – Gene Cornish, Canadian-American guitarist 1944 – George Lucas, American director, producer, and screenwriter, founded Lucasfilm 1944 – David Kelly, Welsh scientist (d. 2003) 1945 – Francesca Annis, English actress 1945 – George Nicholls, English rugby player 1945 – Yochanan Vollach, Israeli footballer 1946 – Sarah Hogg, Viscountess Hailsham, English economist and journalist 1947 – Al Ciner, American pop-rock guitarist 1947 – Ana Martín, Mexican actress, singer, producer and former model (Miss Mexico 1963) 1948 – Timothy Stevenson, English lawyer and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire 1948 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-English cricketer and coach (d. 2007) 1949 – Sverre Årnes, Norwegian author, screenwriter, and director 1949 – Walter Day, American game designer and businessman, founded Twin Galaxies 1949 – Johan Schans, Dutch swimmer 1949 – Klaus-Peter Thaler, German cyclist 1951 – Jay Beckenstein, American saxophonist 1952 – David Byrne, Scottish singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1952 – Michael Fallon, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Defence 1952 – Orna Grumberg, Israeli computer scientist and academic 1952 – Raul Mälk, Estonian politician, 22nd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1952 – Wim Mertens, Belgian composer, countertenor vocalist, pianist, guitarist, and musicologist. 1952 – Donald R. McMonagle, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1952 – Robert Zemeckis, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Tom Cochrane, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Hywel Williams, Welsh politician 1955 – Marie Chouinard, Canadian dancer and choreographer 1955 – Alasdair Fraser, Scottish fiddler 1955 – Peter Kirsten, South African cricketer and | – George Murray Hulbert, American judge and politician (d. 1950) 1885 – Otto Klemperer, German composer and conductor (d. 1973) 1887 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (d. 1943) 1888 – Archie Alexander, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1958) 1893 – Louis Verneuil, French actor and playwright (d. 1952) 1897 – Sidney Bechet, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1959) 1897 – Ed Ricketts, American biologist and ecologist (d. 1948) 1899 – Charlotte Auerbach, German-Scottish folklorist, geneticist, and zoologist (d. 1994) 1899 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (d. 1993) 1899 – Earle Combs, American baseball player and coach (d. 1976) 1900 – Hal Borland, American journalist and author (d. 1978) 1900 – Walter Rehberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1957) 1900 – Cai Chang, Chinese first leader of All-China Women's Federation (d. 1990) 1900 – Leo Smit, Dutch pianist and composer (d. 1943) 1900 – Edgar Wind, German-English historian, author, and academic (d. 1971) 1901–present 1901 – Robert Ritter, German psychologist and physician (d. 1951) 1903 – Billie Dove, American actress (d. 1997) 1904 – Hans Albert Einstein, Swiss-American engineer and educator (d. 1973) 1904 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician and anesthesiologist (d. 1961) 1905 – Jean Daniélou, French cardinal and theologian (d. 1974) 1905 – Herbert Morrison, American soldier and journalist (d. 1989) 1905 – Antonio Berni, Argentinian painter, illustrator, and engraver (d. 1981) 1907 – Ayub Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 2nd President of Pakistan (d. 1974) 1907 – Hans von der Groeben, German journalist and diplomat (d. 2005) 1908 – Betty Jeffrey, Australian nurse and author (d. 2000) 1909 – Godfrey Rampling, English sprinter and colonel (d. 2009) 1910 – Ken Viljoen, South African cricketer (d. 1974) 1910 – Ne Win, Prime Minister and President of Burma (d. 2002) 1914 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani journalist, poet, and politician (d. 1983) 1914 – William Tutte, British codebreaker and mathematician (d. 2002) 1916 – Robert F. Christy, Canadian-American physicist and astronomer (d. 2012) 1916 – Lance Dossor, English-Australian pianist and educator (d. 2005) 1916 – Marco Zanuso, Italian architect and designer (d. 2001) 1917 – Lou Harrison, American composer and critic (d. 2003) 1917 – Norman Luboff, American composer and conductor (d. 1987) 1919 – Solange Chaput-Rolland, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2001) 1919 – John Hope, American soldier and meteorologist (d. 2002) 1921 – Richard Deacon, American actor (d. 1984) 1922 – Franjo Tuđman, Yugoslav historian; later 1st President of Croatia (d. 1999) 1923 – Adnan Pachachi, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2019) 1923 – Mrinal Sen, Bangladeshi-Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1925 – Sophie Kurys, American baseball player (d. 2013) 1925 – Patrice Munsel, American soprano and actress (d. 2016) 1925 – Boris Parsadanian, Armenian-Estonian violinist and composer (d. 1997) 1925 – Al Porcino, American trumpet player (d. 2013) 1925 – Ninian Sanderson, Scottish race car driver (d. 1985) 1926 – Eric Morecambe, English comedian and actor (d. 1984) 1927 – Herbert W. Franke, Austrian scientist and author 1928 – Dub Jones, American R&B bass singer (d. 2000) 1928 – Frederik H. Kreuger, Dutch engineer, author, and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Brian Macdonald, Canadian dancer and choreographer (d. 2014) 1929 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author (d. 2013) 1929 – Henry McGee, English actor and singer (d. 2006) 1929 – Gump Worsley, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2007) 1930 – William James, Australian general and physician (d. 2015) 1931 – Alvin Lucier, American composer and academic (d. 2021) 1932 – Robert Bechtle, American lithographer and painter (d. 2020) 1933 – Siân Phillips, Welsh actress and singer 1935 – Ethel Johnson, American professional wrestler (d. 2018) 1935 – Rudi Šeligo, Slovenian playwright and politician (d. 2004) 1936 – Bobby Darin, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1973) 1936 – Dick Howser, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1987) 1938 – Robert Boyd, English pediatrician and academic 1939 – Rupert Neudeck, German journalist and humanitarian (d. 2016) 1939 – Troy Shondell, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016) 1940 – Chay Blyth, Scottish sailor and rower 1940 – H. Jones, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1982) 1940 – George Mathewson, Scottish banker and businessman 1941 – Ada den Haan, Dutch swimmer 1942 – Valeriy Brumel, Russian high jumper (d. 2003) 1942 – Byron Dorgan, American lawyer and politician 1942 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English businessman and politician (d. 2014) 1942 – Tony Pérez, Cuban-American baseball player and manager 1942 – Malise Ruthven, Irish author and academic 1943 – Jack Bruce, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014) 1943 – L. Denis Desautels, Canadian accountant and civil servant 1943 – Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, Icelandic academic and politician, 5th President of Iceland 1943 – Derek Leckenby, English pop-rock guitarist (d. 1994) 1943 – Richard Peto, English statistician and epidemiologist 1944 – Gene Cornish, Canadian-American guitarist 1944 – George Lucas, American director, producer, and screenwriter, founded Lucasfilm 1944 – David Kelly, Welsh scientist (d. 2003) 1945 – Francesca Annis, English actress 1945 – George Nicholls, English rugby player 1945 – Yochanan Vollach, Israeli footballer 1946 – Sarah Hogg, Viscountess Hailsham, English economist and journalist 1947 – Al Ciner, American pop-rock guitarist 1947 – Ana Martín, Mexican actress, singer, producer and former model (Miss Mexico 1963) 1948 – Timothy Stevenson, English lawyer and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire 1948 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-English cricketer and coach (d. 2007) 1949 – Sverre Årnes, Norwegian author, screenwriter, and director 1949 – Walter Day, American game designer and businessman, founded Twin Galaxies 1949 – Johan Schans, Dutch swimmer 1949 – Klaus-Peter Thaler, German cyclist 1951 – Jay Beckenstein, American saxophonist 1952 – David Byrne, Scottish singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1952 – Michael Fallon, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Defence 1952 – Orna Grumberg, Israeli computer scientist and academic 1952 – Raul Mälk, Estonian politician, 22nd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1952 – Wim Mertens, Belgian composer, countertenor vocalist, pianist, guitarist, and musicologist. 1952 – Donald R. McMonagle, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1952 – Robert Zemeckis, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1953 – Tom Cochrane, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Hywel Williams, Welsh politician 1955 – Marie Chouinard, Canadian dancer and choreographer 1955 – Alasdair Fraser, Scottish fiddler 1955 – Peter Kirsten, South African cricketer and rugby player 1955 – Dennis Martínez, Nicaraguan baseball player and coach 1955 – Jens Sparschuh, German author and playwright 1956 – Hazel Blears, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government 1956 – Steve Hogarth, English singer-songwriter and keyboardist 1958 – Christine Brennan, American journalist and author 1958 – Chris Evans, English-Australian politician, 26th Australian Minister for Employment 1958 – Rudy Pérez, Cuban-born American composer and music producer 1958 – Wilma Rusman, Dutch runner 1959 – Carlisle Best, Barbadian cricketer 1959 – Patrick Bruel, French actor, singer, and poker player 1959 – Markus Büchel, Liechtensteiner politician, 9th Prime Minister of Liechtenstein (d. 2013) 1959 – Robert Greene, American author and translator 1959 – John Holt, American football player (d. 2013) 1959 – Rick Vaive, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1959 – Heather Wheeler, English politician 1960 – Anne Clark, English singer-songwriter and poet 1960 – Alec Dankworth, English bassist and composer 1960 – Frank Nobilo, New Zealand golfer 1960 – Ronan Tynan, Irish tenor 1961 – David Quantick, English journalist and critic 1961 – Tommy Rogers, American wrestler (d. 2015) 1961 – Tim Roth, English actor and director 1961 – Alain Vigneault, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1962 – Ian Astbury, English-Canadian singer-songwriter 1962 – C.C. DeVille, American guitarist, songwriter, and actor 1962 – Danny Huston, Italian-American actor and director 1963 – Pat Borders, American baseball player and coach 1963 – David Yelland, English journalist and author 1964 – James M. Kelly, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1964 – Suzy Kolber, American sportscaster and producer 1964 – Alan McIndoe, Australian rugby league player 1964 – Eric Peterson, American guitarist and songwriter 1965 – Eoin Colfer, Irish author 1966 – Marianne Denicourt, French actress, director, and screenwriter 1966 – Mike Inez, American rock bass player and songwriter 1966 – Fab Morvan, French singer-songwriter, dancer and model 1966 – Raphael Saadiq, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1967 – Natasha Kaiser-Brown, American sprinter and coach 1967 – Tony Siragusa, American football player and journalist 1968 – Mary DePiero, Canadian diver 1969 – Stéphane Adam, French footballer 1969 – Cate Blanchett, Australian actress 1969 – Sabine Schmitz, German race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2021) 1969 – Henry Smith, English politician 1969 – Danny Wood, American singer-songwriter, record producer, and choreographer 1971 – Deanne Bray, American actress 1971 – Sofia Coppola, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Martin Reim, Estonian footballer and manager 1972 – Kirstjen |
colonizer of East Timor until 1976). 2011 – Mamata Banerjee is sworn in as the Chief Minister of West Bengal, the first woman to hold this post. 2012 – At least 27 people are killed and 50 others injured when a 6.0-magnitude earthquake strikes northern Italy. 2013 – An EF5 tornado strikes the Oklahoma City suburb of Moore, killing 24 people and injuring 377 others. 2016 – The government of Singapore authorised the controversial execution of convicted murderer Kho Jabing for the murder of a Chinese construction worker despite the international pleas for clemency, notably from Amnesty International and the United Nations. 2019 – The International System of Units (SI): The base units are redefined, making the international prototype of the kilogram obsolete. Births Pre-1600 1315 – Bonne of Luxembourg, first wife of John II of France (d. 1349) 1470 – Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal, poet, and scholar (d. 1547) 1505 – Levinus Lemnius, Dutch writer (d. 1568) 1531 – Thado Minsaw of Ava, Viceroy of Ava (d. 1584) 1537 – Hieronymus Fabricius, Italian anatomist (d. 1619) 1575 – Robert Heath, English judge and politician (d. 1649) 1601–1900 1664 – Andreas Schlüter, German sculptor and architect (d. 1714) 1726 – Francis Cotes, English painter and academic (d. 1770) 1759 – William Thornton, Virgin Islander-American architect, designed the United States Capitol (d. 1828) 1769 – Andreas Vokos Miaoulis, Greek admiral and politician (d. 1835) 1772 – Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet, English inventor and politician, developed Congreve rockets (d. 1828) 1776 – Simon Fraser, American-Canadian fur trader and explorer (d. 1862) 1795 – Pedro María de Anaya, Mexican soldier. President (1847–1848) (d. 1854) 1799 – Honoré de Balzac, French novelist and playwright (d. 1850) 1806 – John Stuart Mill, English economist, civil servant, and philosopher (d. 1873) 1811 – Alfred Domett, English-New Zealand poet and politician, 4th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1887) 1818 – William Fargo, American businessman and politician, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1881) 1822 – Frédéric Passy, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912) 1824 – Cadmus M. Wilcox, Confederate States Army general (d. 1890) 1825 – Antoinette Brown Blackwell, the first woman to be ordained as a mainstream Protestant minister in the U.S. (d. 1921) 1830 – Hector Malot, French author (d. 1907) 1838 – Jules Méline, French lawyer and politician, 65th Prime Minister of France (d. 1925) 1851 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor, invented the Gramophone record (d. 1929) 1854 – George Prendergast, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Victoria (d. 1937) 1856 – Henri-Edmond Cross, French Neo-Impressionist painter (d. 1910) 1860 – Eduard Buchner, German chemist, zymologist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917) 1875 – Hendrik Offerhaus, Dutch rower (d. 1953) 1877 – Pat Leahy, Irish-American jumper (d. 1927) 1879 – Hans Meerwein, German chemist (d. 1965) 1882 – Sigrid Undset, Danish-Norwegian novelist, essayist, and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949) 1883 – Faisal I of Iraq (d. 1933) 1886 – Ali Sami Yen, Turkish footballer and manager, founded the Galatasaray Sports Club (d. 1951) 1894 – Chandrashekarendra Saraswati, Indian guru and scholar (d. 1994) 1895 – R. J. Mitchell, English engineer, designed the Supermarine Spitfire and Supermarine S.6B (d. 1937) 1897 – Diego Abad de Santillán, Spanish economist and author (d. 1983) 1897 – Malcolm Nokes, English hammer and discus thrower (d. 1986) 1898 – Eduard Ole, Estonian painter (d. 1995) 1899 – Aleksandr Deyneka, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1969) 1899 – John Marshall Harlan II, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1971) 1900 – Sumitranandan Pant, Indian poet and author (d. 1977) 1901–present 1901 – Max Euwe, Dutch chess player, mathematician, and author (d. 1981) 1901 – Doris Fleeson, American journalist (d. 1970) 1904 – Margery Allingham, English author of detective fiction (d. 1966) 1906 – Giuseppe Siri, Italian cardinal (d. 1989) 1907 – Carl Mydans, American photographer and journalist (d. 2004) 1908 – Henry Bolte, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Victoria (d. 1990) 1908 – Louis Daquin, French actor and director (d. 1980) 1908 – Francis Raymond Fosberg, American botanist and author (d. 1993) 1908 – James Stewart, American actor (d. 1997) 1911 – Gardner Fox, American author (d. 1986) 1911 – Annie M. G. Schmidt, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1995) 1913 – Teodoro Fernández, Peruvian footballer (d. 1996) 1913 – William Redington Hewlett, American engineer, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (d. 2001) 1913 – Carlos J. Gradin, Argentine Archaeologist (d. 2002) 1915 – Peter Copley, English actor (d. 2008) 1915 – Moshe Dayan, Israeli general and politician, 5th Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1981) 1915 – Joff Ellen, Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999) 1916 – Owen Chadwick, English rugby player, historian, and academic (d. 2015) 1916 – Alexey Maresyev, Russian soldier and pilot (d. 2001) 1916 – Ondina Valla, Italian sprinter and hurdler (d. 2006) 1917 – Tony Cliff, Israeli-English author and activist (d. 2000) 1917 – Guy Favreau, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 28th Canadian Minister of Justice (d. 1967) 1918 – Alexandra Boyko, Russian tank commander (d. 1996) 1918 – Edward B. Lewis, American biologist, geneticist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1919 – George Gobel, American comedian (d. 1991) 1920 – John Cruickshank, Scottish lieutenant and banker, Victoria Cross recipient 1921 – Wolfgang Borchert, German author and playwright (d. 1947) 1921 – Hal Newhouser, American baseball player and scout (d. 1998) 1921 – Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (d. 2021) 1921 – Hao Wang, Chinese-American logician, philosopher, and mathematician (d. 1995) 1922 – Ted Hinton, Northern Irish international footballer (d. 1988) 1923 – Edith Fellows, American actress (d. 2011) 1923 – Sam Selvon, Trinidad-born writer (d. 1994) 1924 – David Chavchavadze, English-American CIA officer and author (d. 2014) 1924 – Zelmar Michelini, Uruguayan journalist and politician (d. 1976) 1925 – Alexei Tupolev, Russian engineer, designed the Tupolev Tu-144 (d. 2001) 1926 – Bob Sweikert, American race car driver (d. 1956) 1927 – Bud Grant, American football player and coach 1927 – David Hedison, American actor (d. 2019) 1927 – Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (d. 2016) 1929 – Gilles Loiselle, Canadian politician and diplomat, 33rd Canadian Minister of Finance 1930 – Sam Etcheverry, American football player and coach (d. 2009) 1931 – Ken Boyer, American baseball player and manager (d. 1982) 1931 – Louis Smith, American trumpeter (d. 2016) 1933 – Constance Towers, American actress and singer 1935 – José Mujica, Uruguayan guerrilla leader and politician, 40th President of Uruguay 1936 – Anthony Zerbe, American actor 1937 – Dave Hill, American golfer (d. 2011) 1937 – Derek Lampe, English footballer 1939 – Balu Mahendra, Sri Lankan-Indian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1940 – Shorty Long, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1969) 1940 – Stan Mikita, Slovak-Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2018) 1940 – Sadaharu Oh, Japanese-Taiwanese baseball player and manager 1941 – Goh Chok Tong, Singaporean politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Singapore 1941 – John Strasberg, American actor and teacher 1942 – Raymond Chrétien, Canadian lawyer and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States 1942 – Lynn Davies, Welsh sprinter and long jumper 1942 – Carlos Hathcock, American sergeant and sniper (d. 1999) 1942 – Frew McMillan, South African tennis player 1943 – Albano Carrisi, Italian singer, actor, and winemaker 1943 – Deryck Murray, Trinidadian cricketer 1944 – Joe Cocker, English singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1944 – Boudewijn de Groot, Indonesian-Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Keith Fletcher, English cricketer and manager 1944 – Dietrich Mateschitz, Austrian businessman, co-founded Red Bull GmbH 1945 – Vladimiro Montesinos, Peruvian intelligence officer 1946 – Cher, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1946 – Bobby Murcer, American baseball player, coach, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2008) 1947 – Steve Currie, English bass player (d. 1981) 1947 – Greg Dyke, English journalist and academic 1949 – Robert Morin, Canadian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter 1949 – Michèle Roberts, English author and poet 1949 – Dave Thomas, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1950 – Andy Johns, English-American engineer and producer (d. 2013) 1950 – Reinaldo Merlo, Argentinian footballer and coach 1950 – Jane Parker-Smith, English organist (d. 2020) 1951 – Thomas Akers, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut 1951 – Christie Blatchford, Canadian newspaper columnist, journalist and broadcaster (d. 2020) 1951 – Mike Crapo, American lawyer and politician 1952 – Roger Milla, Cameroonian footballer and manager 1952 – Michael Wills, English politician, British Minister of Justice 1953 – | politician, 4th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1887) 1818 – William Fargo, American businessman and politician, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1881) 1822 – Frédéric Passy, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912) 1824 – Cadmus M. Wilcox, Confederate States Army general (d. 1890) 1825 – Antoinette Brown Blackwell, the first woman to be ordained as a mainstream Protestant minister in the U.S. (d. 1921) 1830 – Hector Malot, French author (d. 1907) 1838 – Jules Méline, French lawyer and politician, 65th Prime Minister of France (d. 1925) 1851 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor, invented the Gramophone record (d. 1929) 1854 – George Prendergast, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Victoria (d. 1937) 1856 – Henri-Edmond Cross, French Neo-Impressionist painter (d. 1910) 1860 – Eduard Buchner, German chemist, zymologist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917) 1875 – Hendrik Offerhaus, Dutch rower (d. 1953) 1877 – Pat Leahy, Irish-American jumper (d. 1927) 1879 – Hans Meerwein, German chemist (d. 1965) 1882 – Sigrid Undset, Danish-Norwegian novelist, essayist, and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949) 1883 – Faisal I of Iraq (d. 1933) 1886 – Ali Sami Yen, Turkish footballer and manager, founded the Galatasaray Sports Club (d. 1951) 1894 – Chandrashekarendra Saraswati, Indian guru and scholar (d. 1994) 1895 – R. J. Mitchell, English engineer, designed the Supermarine Spitfire and Supermarine S.6B (d. 1937) 1897 – Diego Abad de Santillán, Spanish economist and author (d. 1983) 1897 – Malcolm Nokes, English hammer and discus thrower (d. 1986) 1898 – Eduard Ole, Estonian painter (d. 1995) 1899 – Aleksandr Deyneka, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1969) 1899 – John Marshall Harlan II, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1971) 1900 – Sumitranandan Pant, Indian poet and author (d. 1977) 1901–present 1901 – Max Euwe, Dutch chess player, mathematician, and author (d. 1981) 1901 – Doris Fleeson, American journalist (d. 1970) 1904 – Margery Allingham, English author of detective fiction (d. 1966) 1906 – Giuseppe Siri, Italian cardinal (d. 1989) 1907 – Carl Mydans, American photographer and journalist (d. 2004) 1908 – Henry Bolte, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Victoria (d. 1990) 1908 – Louis Daquin, French actor and director (d. 1980) 1908 – Francis Raymond Fosberg, American botanist and author (d. 1993) 1908 – James Stewart, American actor (d. 1997) 1911 – Gardner Fox, American author (d. 1986) 1911 – Annie M. G. Schmidt, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1995) 1913 – Teodoro Fernández, Peruvian footballer (d. 1996) 1913 – William Redington Hewlett, American engineer, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (d. 2001) 1913 – Carlos J. Gradin, Argentine Archaeologist (d. 2002) 1915 – Peter Copley, English actor (d. 2008) 1915 – Moshe Dayan, Israeli general and politician, 5th Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1981) 1915 – Joff Ellen, Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999) 1916 – Owen Chadwick, English rugby player, historian, and academic (d. 2015) 1916 – Alexey Maresyev, Russian soldier and pilot (d. 2001) 1916 – Ondina Valla, Italian sprinter and hurdler (d. 2006) 1917 – Tony Cliff, Israeli-English author and activist (d. 2000) 1917 – Guy Favreau, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 28th Canadian Minister of Justice (d. 1967) 1918 – Alexandra Boyko, Russian tank commander (d. 1996) 1918 – Edward B. Lewis, American biologist, geneticist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1919 – George Gobel, American comedian (d. 1991) 1920 – John Cruickshank, Scottish lieutenant and banker, Victoria Cross recipient 1921 – Wolfgang Borchert, German author and playwright (d. 1947) 1921 – Hal Newhouser, American baseball player and scout (d. 1998) 1921 – Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (d. 2021) 1921 – Hao Wang, Chinese-American logician, philosopher, and mathematician (d. 1995) 1922 – Ted Hinton, Northern Irish international footballer (d. 1988) 1923 – Edith Fellows, American actress (d. 2011) 1923 – Sam Selvon, Trinidad-born writer (d. 1994) 1924 – David Chavchavadze, English-American CIA officer and author (d. 2014) 1924 – Zelmar Michelini, Uruguayan journalist and politician (d. 1976) 1925 – Alexei Tupolev, Russian engineer, designed the Tupolev Tu-144 (d. 2001) 1926 – Bob Sweikert, American race car driver (d. 1956) 1927 – Bud Grant, American football player and coach 1927 – David Hedison, American actor (d. 2019) 1927 – Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (d. 2016) 1929 – Gilles Loiselle, Canadian politician and diplomat, 33rd Canadian Minister of Finance 1930 – Sam Etcheverry, American football player and coach (d. 2009) 1931 – Ken Boyer, American baseball player and manager (d. 1982) 1931 – Louis Smith, American trumpeter (d. 2016) 1933 – Constance Towers, American actress and singer 1935 – José Mujica, Uruguayan guerrilla leader and politician, 40th President of Uruguay 1936 – Anthony Zerbe, American actor 1937 – Dave Hill, American golfer (d. 2011) 1937 – Derek Lampe, English footballer 1939 – Balu Mahendra, Sri Lankan-Indian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1940 – Shorty Long, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1969) 1940 – Stan Mikita, Slovak-Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2018) 1940 – Sadaharu Oh, Japanese-Taiwanese baseball player and manager 1941 – Goh Chok Tong, Singaporean politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Singapore 1941 – John Strasberg, American actor and teacher 1942 – Raymond Chrétien, Canadian lawyer and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States 1942 – Lynn Davies, Welsh sprinter and long jumper 1942 – Carlos Hathcock, American sergeant and sniper (d. 1999) 1942 – Frew McMillan, South African tennis player 1943 – Albano Carrisi, Italian singer, actor, and winemaker 1943 – Deryck Murray, Trinidadian cricketer 1944 – Joe Cocker, English singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1944 – Boudewijn de Groot, Indonesian-Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Keith Fletcher, English cricketer and manager 1944 – Dietrich Mateschitz, Austrian businessman, co-founded Red Bull GmbH 1945 – Vladimiro Montesinos, Peruvian intelligence officer 1946 – Cher, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1946 – Bobby Murcer, American baseball player, coach, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2008) 1947 – Steve Currie, English bass player (d. 1981) 1947 – Greg Dyke, English journalist and academic 1949 – Robert Morin, Canadian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter 1949 – Michèle Roberts, English author and poet 1949 – Dave Thomas, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1950 – Andy Johns, English-American engineer and producer (d. 2013) 1950 – Reinaldo Merlo, Argentinian footballer and coach 1950 – Jane Parker-Smith, English organist (d. 2020) 1951 – Thomas Akers, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut 1951 – Christie Blatchford, Canadian newspaper columnist, journalist and broadcaster (d. 2020) 1951 – Mike Crapo, American lawyer and politician 1952 – Roger Milla, Cameroonian footballer and manager 1952 – Michael Wills, English politician, British Minister of Justice 1953 – Robert Doyle, Australian educator and politician, 103rd Lord Mayor of Melbourne 1954 – David Paterson, American lawyer and politician, 55th Governor of New York 1954 – Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway, Scottish lawyer and judge 1955 – Steve George, American keyboard player and songwriter 1955 – Zbigniew Preisner, Polish composer and producer 1956 – Ingvar Ambjørnsen, Norwegian-German author and critic 1956 – Gerry Peyton, English born Irish international footballer and coach 1956 – Douglas Preston, American journalist and author 1957 – Yoshihiko Noda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 62nd Prime Minister of Japan 1958 – Ron Reagan, American journalist and radio host 1958 – Jane Wiedlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1959 – Susan Cowsill, American singer-songwriter 1960 – Tony Goldwyn, American actor and director 1961 – Clive Allen, English international footballer and manager 1961 – Nick Heyward, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1963 – David Wells, American baseball player and sportscaster 1964 – Kōichirō Genba, Japanese politician, 80th Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs 1964 – Edin Osmanović, Slovenian footballer, coach, and manager 1964 – Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer, English journalist and author 1965 – Ted Allen, American television host and author 1965 – Stu Grimson, Canadian ice hockey player, sportscaster, and lawyer 1966 – Dan Abrams, American journalist and author 1967 – Graham Brady, English politician 1967 – Gabriele Muccino, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Timothy Olyphant, American actor and producer 1969 – Road Dogg, American wrestler, producer, and soldier 1970 – Terrell Brandon, American basketball player 1970 – Louis Theroux, Singaporean-English journalist and producer 1971 – Šárka Kašpárková, Czech triple jumper and coach 1971 – Tony Stewart, American race car driver 1972 – Michael Diamond, Australian shooter 1972 – Christophe Dominici, French rugby player (d. 2020) 1972 – Busta Rhymes, American rapper, producer, and actor 1973 – Nathan Long, Australian rugby league player 1974 – Allison Amend, American novelist and short story writer 1974 – Shiboprosad Mukherjee, Indian film director, writer and actor 1975 – Juan Minujín, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter 1976 – Ramón Hernández, Venezuelan-American baseball player 1976 – Tomoya Satozaki, Japanese baseball player 1977 – Matt Czuchry, American actor 1977 – Leo Franco, Argentinian footballer 1977 – Angela Goethals, American actress 1977 – Stirling Mortlock, Australian rugby player 1977 – Vesa Toskala, Finnish ice hockey player 1978 – Hristos Banikas, Greek chess player 1978 – Pavla Hamáčková-Rybová, Czech pole vaulter 1978 – Nils Schumann, German runner 1979 – Andrew Scheer, Canadian politician, 28th Leader of the Conservative Party of Canada 1979 – Jayson Werth, American baseball player 1980 – Austin Kearns, American baseball player 1980 – Kassim Osgood, American football player 1981 – Iker Casillas, Spanish footballer 1981 – Rachel Platten, American singer and songwriter 1981 – Lindsay Taylor, American basketball player 1981 – Mark Winterbottom, Australian race car driver 1982 – Petr Čech, Czech footballer 1982 – Imran Farhat, Pakistani cricketer 1982 – Jessica Raine, English actress 1982 – Daniel Ribeiro, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter 1983 – Óscar Cardozo, Paraguayan footballer 1983 – Matt Langridge, English rower 1984 – Mauro Rafael da Silva, Brazilian footballer 1984 – Patrick Ewing, Jr., American basketball player 1984 – Keith Grennan, American football player 1985 – Chris Froome, Kenyan-English cyclist 1985 – Brendon Goddard, Australian footballer 1986 – Dexter Blackstock, English footballer 1986 – Stéphane Mbia, Cameroonian footballer 1986 – Jiřina Svobodová, Czech pole vaulter 1987 – Mike Havenaar, Japanese footballer 1987 – Julian Wright, American basketball player 1988 – Joel Moon, Australian rugby league player 1989 – Siosia Vave, Australian-Tongan rugby league player 1991 – Bastian Baker, Swiss singer, songwriter, and performer 1991 – Emre Colak, Turkish footballer 1992 – Cate Campbell, Malawian-Australian swimmer 1992 – Jack Gleeson, Irish actor 1992 – Enes Kanter, Turkish basketball player 1993 – Caroline Zhang, American figure skater 1996 – Brian Kelly, Australian rugby league player 1998 – Jamie Chadwick, English race car driver 1998 – Nam Nguyen, Canadian figure skater Deaths Pre-1600 685 – Ecgfrith of Northumbria (b. 645) 794 – Æthelberht II, king of East Anglia 965 – Gero the Great, Saxon ruler (b.c. 900) 1062 – Bao Zheng, Chinese magistrate and mayor of Kaifeng (b. 999) 1277 – Pope John XXI (b. 1215) 1285 – John I of Cyprus (b. 1259) 1291 – Sufi Saint Sayyid Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari 1366 – Maria of Calabria, Empress of Constantinople (b. 1329) 1444 – Bernardino of Siena, Italian-Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1380) 1449 – Álvaro Vaz de Almada, 1st Count of Avranches 1449 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (b. 1392) 1501 – Columba of Rieti, Italian Dominican tertiary Religious Sister (b. 1467) 1503 – Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b. 1463) 1506 – Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer, discovered the Americas (b. 1451) 1550 – Ashikaga Yoshiharu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1510) 1579 – Isabella Markham, English courtier (b. 1527) 1601–1900 1622 – Osman II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1604) 1645 – Shi Kefa, Chinese general and calligrapher (b. 1601) 1648 – Władysław IV Vasa, Polish son of Sigismund III Vasa (b. 1595) 1677 – George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, Spanish-English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1612) 1713 – Thomas Sprat, English bishop (b. 1635) 1717 – John Trevor, Welsh lawyer and politician, 102nd Speaker of the House of Commons (b. 1637) 1722 – Sébastien Vaillant, French botanist and mycologist (b. 1669) 1732 – Thomas Boston, Scottish author and educator (b. 1676) 1782 – William Emerson, English mathematician and academic (b. 1701) 1793 – Charles Bonnet, Swiss botanist and biologist (b. 1720) 1812 – Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, Austrian archbishop (b. 1732) 1834 – Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, French general (b. 1757) 1841 – Joseph Blanco White, Spanish poet and theologian (b. 1775) 1864 – John Clare, English poet (b. 1793) 1873 – George-Étienne Cartier, Canadian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 9th Premier of East Canada (b. 1814) 1880 – Ana Néri, |
the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. As guns became heavier and able to take more powerful gunpowder charges, they needed to be placed lower in the ship, closer to the water line. Gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501, only about a decade before the Mary Rose was built. This made broadsides – coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship – possible, at least in theory, for the first time in history. Naval tactics throughout the 16th century and well into the 17th century focused on countering the oar-powered galleys that were armed with heavy guns in the bow, facing forwards, which were aimed by turning the entire ship against its target. Combined with inefficient gunpowder and the difficulties inherent in firing accurately from moving platforms, this meant that boarding remained the primary tactic for decisive victory throughout the 16th century. Bronze and iron guns As the Mary Rose was built and served during a period of rapid development of heavy artillery, her armament was a mix of old designs and innovations. The heavy armament was a mix of older-type wrought iron and cast bronze guns, which differed considerably in size, range and design. The large iron guns were made up of staves or bars welded into cylinders and then reinforced by shrinking iron hoops and breech loaded and equipped with simpler gun-carriages made from hollowed-out elm logs with only one pair of wheels, or without wheels entirely. The bronze guns were cast in one piece and rested on four-wheel carriages which were essentially the same as those used until the 19th century. The breech-loaders were cheaper to produce and both easier and faster to reload, but could take less powerful charges than cast bronze guns. Generally, the bronze guns used cast iron shot and were more suited to penetrate hull sides while the iron guns used stone shot that would shatter on impact and leave large, jagged holes, but both could also fire a variety of ammunition intended to destroy rigging and light structure or injure enemy personnel. The majority of the guns were small iron guns with short range that could be aimed and fired by a single person. The two most common are the bases, breech-loading swivel guns, most likely placed in the castles, and hailshot pieces, small muzzle-loaders with rectangular bores and fin-like protrusions that were used to support the guns against the railing and allow the ship structure to take the force of the recoil. Though the design is unknown, there were two top pieces in a 1546 inventory (finished after the sinking) which were probably similar to a base, but placed in one or more of the fighting tops. The ship went through several changes in her armament throughout her career, most significantly accompanying her "rebuilding" in 1536 (see below), when the number of anti-personnel guns was reduced and a second tier of carriage-mounted long guns fitted. There are three inventories that list her guns, dating to 1514, 1540 and 1546. Together with records from the armoury at the Tower of London, these show how the configuration of guns changed as gun-making technology evolved and new classifications were invented. In 1514, the armament consisted mostly of anti-personnel guns like the larger breech-loading iron murderers and the small serpentines, demi-slings and stone guns. Only a handful of guns in the first inventory were powerful enough to hole enemy ships, and most would have been supported by the ship's structure rather than resting on carriages. The inventories of both the Mary Rose and the Tower had changed radically by 1540. There were now the new cast bronze cannons, demi-cannons, culverins and sakers and the wrought iron port pieces (a name that indicated they fired through ports), all of which required carriages, had longer range and were capable of doing serious damage to other ships. The analysis of the 1514 inventory combined with hints of structural changes in the ship both indicate that the gunports on the main deck were indeed a later addition. Various types of ammunition could be used for different purposes: plain spherical shot of stone or iron smashed hulls, spiked bar shot and shot linked with chains would tear sails or damage rigging, and canister shot packed with sharp flints produced a devastating shotgun effect. Trials made with replicas of culverins and port pieces showed that they could penetrate wood the same thickness of the Mary Rose's hull planking, indicating a stand-off range of at least 90 m (295 ft). The port pieces proved particularly efficient at smashing large holes in wood when firing stone shot and were a devastating anti-personnel weapon when loaded with flakes or pebbles. Hand-held weapons To defend against being boarded, Mary Rose carried large stocks of melee weapons, including pikes and bills; 150 of each kind were stocked on the ship according to the Anthony Roll, a figure confirmed roughly by the excavations. Swords and daggers were personal possessions and not listed in the inventories, but the remains of both have been found in great quantities, including the earliest dated example of a British basket-hilted sword. A total of 250 longbows were carried on board, and 172 of these have so far been found, as well as almost 4,000 arrows, bracers (arm guards) and other archery-related equipment. Longbow archery in Tudor England was mandatory for all able adult men, and despite the introduction of field artillery and handguns, they were used alongside new missile weapons in great quantities. On the Mary Rose, the longbows could only have been drawn and shot properly from behind protective panels in the open waist or from the top of the castles as the lower decks lacked sufficient headroom. There were several types of bows of various size and range. Lighter bows would have been used as "sniper" bows, while the heavier design could possibly have been used to shoot fire arrows. The inventories of both 1514 and 1546 also list several hundred heavy darts and lime pots that were designed to be thrown onto the deck of enemy ships from the fighting tops, although no physical evidence of either of these weapon types has been identified. Of the 50 handguns listed in the Anthony Roll, the complete stocks of five matchlock muskets and fragments of another eleven have been found. They had been manufactured mainly in Italy, with some originating from Germany. Found in storage were several gunshields, a rare type of firearm consisting of a wooden shield with a small gun fixed in the middle. Crew Throughout her 33-year career, the crew of the Mary Rose changed several times and varied considerably in size. It would have a minimal skeleton crew of 17 men or fewer in peacetime and when she was "laid up in ordinary" (in reserve). The average wartime manning would have been about 185 soldiers, 200 sailors, 20–30 gunners and an assortment of other specialists such as surgeons, trumpeters and members of the admiral's staff, for a total of 400–450 men. When taking part in land invasions or raids, such as in the summer of 1512, the number of soldiers could have swelled to just over 400 for a combined total of more than 700. Even with the normal crew size of around 400, the ship was quite crowded, and with additional soldiers would have been extremely cramped. Little is known of the identities of the men who served on the Mary Rose, even when it comes to the names of the officers, who would have belonged to the gentry. Two admirals and four captains (including Edward and Thomas Howard, who served both positions) are known through records, as well as a few ship masters, pursers, master gunners and other specialists. Forensic science has been used by artists to create reconstructions of faces of eight crew members, and the results were publicised in May 2013. In addition, researchers have extracted DNA from remains in the hopes of identifying origins of crew, and potentially living descendants. Of the vast majority of the crewmen, soldiers, sailors and gunners alike, nothing has been recorded. The only source of information for these men has been through osteological analysis of the human bones found at the wrecksite. An approximate composition of some of the crew has been conjectured based on contemporary records. The Mary Rose would have carried a captain, a master responsible for navigation, and deck crew. There would also have been a purser responsible for handling payments, a boatswain, the captain's second in command, at least one carpenter, a pilot in charge of navigation, and a cook, all of whom had one or more assistants (mates). The ship was also staffed by a barber-surgeon who tended to the sick and wounded, along with an apprentice or mate and possibly also a junior surgeon. The only positively identified person who went down with the ship was Vice-Admiral George Carew. McKee, Stirland and several other authors have also named Roger Grenville, father of Richard Grenville of the Elizabethan-era Revenge, captain during the final battle, although the accuracy of the sourcing for this has been disputed by maritime archaeologist Peter Marsden. The bones of a total of 179 people were found during the excavations of the Mary Rose, including 92 "fairly complete skeletons", more or less complete collections of bones associated with specific individuals. Analysis of these has shown that crew members were all male, most of them young adults. Some were no more than 11–13 years old, and the majority (81%) under 30. They were mainly of English origin and, according to archaeologist Julie Gardiner, they most likely came from the West Country; many following their aristocratic masters into maritime service. There were also a few people from continental Europe. An eyewitness testimony right after the sinking refers to a survivor who was a Fleming, and the pilot may very well have been French. Analysis of oxygen isotopes in teeth indicates that some were also of southern European origin. At least one crewmember was of African ancestry. In general they were strong, well-fed men, but many of the bones also reveal tell-tale signs of childhood diseases and a life of grinding toil. The bones also showed traces of numerous healed fractures, probably the result of on-board accidents. There are no extant written records of the make-up of the broader categories of soldiers and sailors, but since the Mary Rose carried some 300 longbows and several thousand arrows there had to be a considerable proportion of longbow archers. Examination of the skeletal remains has found that there was a disproportionate number of men with a condition known as os acromiale, affecting their shoulder blades. This condition is known among modern elite archery athletes and is caused by placing considerable stress on the arm and shoulder muscles, particularly of the left arm that is used to hold the bow to brace against the pull on the bowstring. Among the men who died on the ship it was likely that some had practised using the longbow since childhood, and served on board as specialist archers. A group of six skeletons was found grouped close to one of the 2-tonne bronze culverins on the main deck near the bow. Fusing of parts of the spine and ossification, the growth of new bone, on several vertebrae evidenced all but one of these crewmen to have been strong, well-muscled men who had been engaged in heavy pulling and pushing, the exception possibly being a "powder monkey" not involved in heavy work. These have been tentatively classified as members of a complete gun crew, all having died at their battle station. Military career First French war The Mary Rose first saw battle in 1512, in a joint naval operation with the Spanish against the French. The English were to meet the French and Breton fleets in the English Channel while the Spanish attacked them in the Bay of Biscay and then attack Gascony. The 35-year-old Sir Edward Howard was appointed Lord High Admiral in April and chose the Mary Rose as his flagship. His first mission was to clear the seas of French naval forces between England to the northern coast of Spain to allow for the landing of supporting troops near the French border at Fuenterrabia. The fleet consisted of 18 ships, among them the large ships the Regent and the Peter Pomegranate, carrying over 5,000 men. Howard's expedition led to the capture of twelve Breton ships and a four-day raiding tour of Brittany where English forces successfully fought against local forces and burned numerous settlements. The fleet returned to Southampton in June where it was visited by King Henry. In August the fleet sailed for Brest where it encountered a joint, but ill-coordinated, French-Breton fleet at the battle of St. Mathieu. The English with one of the great ships in the lead (according to Marsden the Mary Rose) battered the French ships with heavy gunfire and forced them to retreat. The Breton flagship Cordelière put up a fight and was boarded by the 1,000-ton Regent. By accident or through the unwillingness of the Breton crew to surrender, the powder magazine of the Cordelière caught fire and blew up in a violent explosion, setting fire to the Regent and eventually sinking her. About 180 English crew members saved themselves by throwing themselves into the sea and only a handful of Bretons survived, only to be captured. The captain of the Regent, 600 soldiers and sailors, the High Admiral of France and the steward of the town of Morlaix were killed in the incident, making it the focal point of several contemporary chronicles and reports. On , the English burnt 27 French ships, captured another five and landed forces near Brest to raid and take prisoners, but storms forced the fleet back to Dartmouth in Devon and then to Southampton for repairs. In early 1513, the Mary Rose was once more chosen by Howard as the flagship for an expedition against the French. Before seeing action, she took part in a race against other ships where she was deemed to be one of the most nimble and the fastest of the great ships in the fleet (see details under "Sails and rigging"). On , Howard's force arrived off Brest only to see a small enemy force join with the larger force in the safety of Brest harbour and its fortifications. The French had recently been reinforced by a force of galleys from the Mediterranean, which sank one English ship and seriously damaged another. Howard landed forces near Brest, but made no headway against the town and was by now getting low on supplies. Attempting to force a victory, he took a small force of small oared vessels on a daring frontal attack on the French galleys on . Howard himself managed to reach the ship of French admiral, Prégent de Bidoux, and led a small party to board it. The French fought back fiercely and cut the cables that attached the two ships, separating Howard from his men. It left him at the mercy of the soldiers aboard the galley, who instantly killed him. Demoralised by the loss of its admiral and seriously short of food, the fleet returned to Plymouth. Thomas Howard, elder brother of Edward, was assigned the new Lord Admiral, and was set to the task of arranging another attack on Brittany. The fleet was not able to mount the planned attack because of adverse winds and great difficulties in supplying the ships adequately and the Mary Rose took up winter quarters in Southampton. In August the Scots joined France in war against England, but were dealt a crushing defeat at the Battle of Flodden on 1513. A follow-up attack in early 1514 was supported by a naval force that included the Mary Rose, but without any known engagements. The French and English mounted raids on each other throughout that summer, but achieved little, and both sides were by then exhausted. By autumn the war was over and a peace treaty was sealed by the marriage of Henry's sister, Mary, to French king Louis XII. After the peace Mary Rose was placed in the reserves, "in ordinary". She was laid up for maintenance along with her sister ship the Peter Pomegranate in July 1514. In 1518 she received a routine repair and caulking, waterproofing with tar and oakum (old rope fibres) and was then assigned a small skeleton crew who lived on board the ship until 1522. She served briefly on a mission with other warships to "scour the seas" in preparation for Henry VIII's journey across the Channel to the summit with the French king Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 1520. Second French war In 1522, England was once again at war with France because of a treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The plan was for an attack on two fronts with an English thrust in northern France. The Mary Rose participated in the escort transport of troops in June 1522, and by the Breton port of Morlaix was captured. The fleet sailed home and the Mary Rose berthed for the winter in Dartmouth. The war raged on until 1525 and saw the Scots join the French side. Though Charles Brandon came close to capturing Paris in 1523, there was little gained either against France or Scotland throughout the war. With the defeat of the French army and capture of Francis I by Charles V's forces at the Battle of Pavia on 1525, the war was effectively over without any major gains or major victories for the English side. Maintenance and "in ordinary" The Mary Rose was kept in reserve from 1522 to 1545. She was once more caulked and repaired in 1527 in a newly dug dock at Portsmouth and her longboat was repaired and trimmed. Little documentation about the Mary Rose between 1528 and 1539 exists. A document written by Thomas Cromwell in 1536 specifies that the Mary Rose and six other ships were "made new" during his service under the king, though it is unclear which years he was referring to and what "made new" actually meant. A later document from January 1536 by an anonymous author states that the Mary Rose and other ships were "new made", and dating of timbers from the ship confirms some type of repair being done in 1535 or 1536. This would have coincided with the controversial dissolution of the monasteries that resulted in a major influx of funds into the royal treasury. The nature and extent of this repair is unknown. Many experts, including Margaret Rule, the project leader for the raising of the Mary Rose, have assumed that it meant a complete rebuilding from clinker planking to carvel planking, and that it was only after 1536 that the ship took on the form that it had when it sank and that was eventually recovered in the 20th century. Marsden has speculated that it could even mean that the Mary Rose was originally built in a style that was closer to 15th-century ships, with a rounded, rather than square, stern and without the main deck gunports. Third French war Henry's complicated marital situation and his high-handed dissolution of the monasteries angered the Pope and Catholic rulers throughout Europe, which increased England's diplomatic isolation. In 1544 Henry had agreed to attack France together with Emperor Charles V, and English forces captured Boulogne at great cost in September, but soon England was left in the lurch after Charles had achieved his objectives and brokered a separate peace. In May 1545, the French had assembled a large fleet in the estuary of the Seine with the intent to land troops on English soil. The estimates of the size of the fleet varied considerably; between 123 and 300 vessels according to French sources; and up to 226 sailing ships and galleys according to the chronicler Edward Hall. In addition to the massive fleet, 50,000 troops were assembled at Havre de Grâce (modern-day Le Havre). An English force of 160 ships and 12,000 troops under Viscount Lisle was ready at Portsmouth by early June, before the French were ready to set sail, and an ineffective pre-emptive strike was made in the middle of the month. In early July the huge French force under the command of Admiral Claude d'Annebault set sail for England and entered the Solent unopposed with 128 ships on . The English had around 80 ships with which to oppose the French, including the flagship Mary Rose. But since they had virtually no heavy galleys, the vessels that were at their best in sheltered waters like the Solent, the English fleet promptly retreated into Portsmouth harbour. Battle of the Solent The English were becalmed in port and unable to manoeuvre. On 1545, the French galleys advanced on the immobilised English fleet, and initially threatened to destroy a force of 13 small galleys, or "rowbarges", the only ships that were able to move against them without a wind. The wind picked up and the sailing ships were able to go on the offensive before the oared vessels were overwhelmed. Two of the largest ships, the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose, led the attack on the French galleys in the Solent. Early in the battle something went wrong. While engaging the French galleys the Mary Rose suddenly heeled (leaned) heavily over to her starboard (right) side and water rushed in through the open gunports. The crew was powerless to correct the sudden imbalance, and could only scramble for the safety of the upper deck as the ship began to sink rapidly. As she leaned over, equipment, ammunition, supplies and storage containers shifted and came loose, adding to the general chaos. The massive port side brick oven in the galley collapsed completely and the huge 360-litre (90 gallon) copper cauldron was thrown onto the orlop deck above. Heavy guns came free and slammed into the opposite side, impeding escape or crushing men beneath them. For those who were not injured or killed outright by moving objects, there was little time to reach safety, especially for the men who were manning the guns on the main deck or fetching ammunition and supplies in the hold. The companionways that connected the decks with one another would have become bottlenecks for fleeing men, something indicated by the positioning of many of the skeletons recovered from the wreck. What turned the sinking into a major tragedy was the anti-boarding netting that covered the upper decks in the waist (the midsection of the ship) and the sterncastle. With the exception of the men who were stationed in the tops in the masts, most of those who managed to get up from below deck were trapped under the netting; they would have been in view of the surface, and their colleagues above, but with little or no chance to break through, and were dragged down with the ship. Out of a crew of at least 400, fewer than 35 escaped, a casualty rate of over 90%. Causes of sinking Contemporary accounts Many accounts of the sinking have been preserved that describe the incident, but the only confirmed eyewitness account is the testimony of a surviving Flemish crewman written down by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador François van der Delft in a letter dated . According to the unnamed Fleming, the ship had fired all of its guns on one side and was turning to present the guns on the other side to the enemy ship, when she was caught in a strong gust of wind, heeled and took in water through the open gunports. In a letter to William Paget dated , former Lord High Admiral John Russel claimed that the ship had been lost because of "rechenes and great negligence". Three years after the sinking, the Hall's Chronicle gave the reason for the sinking as being caused by "to[o] much foly ... for she was laden with much ordinaunce, and the portes left open, which were low, & the great ordinaunce unbreached, so that when the ship should turne, the water entered, and sodainly she sanke." Later accounts repeat the explanation that the ship heeled over while going about and that the ship was brought down because of the open gunports. A biography of Peter Carew, brother of George Carew, written by John Hooker sometime after 1575, gives the same reason for the sinking, but adds that insubordination among the crew was to blame. The biography claims that George Carew noted that the Mary Rose showed signs of instability as soon as her sails were raised. George's uncle Gawen Carew had passed by with his own ship the Matthew Gonson during the battle to inquire about the situation of his nephew's ship. In reply he was told "that he had a sorte of knaves whom he could not rule". Contrary to all other accounts, Martin du Bellay, a French cavalry officer who was present at the battle, stated that the Mary Rose had been sunk by French guns. Modern theories The most common explanation for the sinking among modern historians is that the ship was unstable for a number of reasons. When a strong gust of wind hit the sails at a critical moment, the open gunports proved fatal, the ship flooded and quickly foundered. Coates offered a variant of this hypothesis, which explains why a ship which served for several decades without sinking, and which even fought in actions in the rough seas off Brittany, unexpectedly foundered: the ship had accumulated additional weight over the years in service and finally become unseaworthy. That the ship was turning after firing all the cannons on one side has been questioned by Marsden after examination of guns recovered in both the 19th and 20th centuries; guns from both sides were found still loaded. This has been interpreted to mean that something else could have gone wrong since it is assumed that an experienced crew would not have failed to secure the gunports before making a potentially risky turn. The most recent surveys of the ship indicate that the ship was modified late in her career and have lent support to the idea that the Mary Rose was altered too much to be properly seaworthy. Marsden has suggested that the weight of additional heavy guns would have increased her draught so much that the waterline was less than one metre (c. 3 feet) from the gunports on the main deck. Peter Carew's claim of insubordination has been given support by James Watt, former Medical Director-General of the Royal Navy, based on records of an epidemic of dysentery in Portsmouth which could have rendered the crew incapable of handling the ship properly, while historian Richard Barker has suggested that the crew actually knew that the ship was an accident waiting to happen, at which they balked and refused to follow orders. Marsden has noted that the Carew biography is in some details inconsistent with the sequence of events reported by both French and English eyewitnesses. It also reports that there were 700 men on board, an unusually high number. The distance in time to the event it describes may mean that it was embellished to add a dramatic touch. The report of French galleys sinking the Mary Rose as stated by Martin du Bellay has been described as "the account of a courtesan" by naval historian Maurice de Brossard. Du Bellay and his two brothers were close to king Francis I and du Bellay had much to gain from portraying the sinking as a French victory. English sources, even if biased, would have nothing to gain from portraying the sinking as the result of crew incompetence rather than conceding a victory to the much-feared gun galleys. Dominic Fontana, a geographer at the University of Portsmouth, has voiced support for du Bellay's version of the sinking based on the battle as it is depicted in the Cowdray Engraving, and modern GIS analysis of the modern scene of the battle. By plotting the fleets and calculating the conjectured final manoeuvres of the Mary Rose, Fontana reached the | in July 1511. She was then towed to London and fitted with rigging and decking, and supplied with armaments. Other than the structural details needed to sail, stock and arm the Mary Rose, she was also equipped with flags, banners and streamers (extremely elongated flags that were flown from the top of the masts) that were either painted or gilded. Constructing a warship of the size of the Mary Rose was a major undertaking, requiring vast quantities of high-quality material. For a state-of-the-art warship, these materials were primarily oak. The total amount of timber needed for the construction can only be roughly calculated since only about one third of the ship still exists. One estimate for the number of trees is around 600 mostly large oaks, representing about 16 hectares (40 acres) of woodland. The huge trees that had been common in Europe and the British Isles in previous centuries were by the 16th century quite rare, which meant that timbers were brought in from all over southern England. The largest timbers used in the construction were of roughly the same size as those used in the roofs of the largest cathedrals in the High Middle Ages. An unworked hull plank would have weighed over 300 kg (660 lb), and one of the main deck beams would have weighed close to three-quarters of a tonne. Naming The common explanation for the ship's name was that it was inspired by Henry VIII's favourite sister, Mary Tudor, Queen of France, and the rose as the emblem of the Tudors. According to the historians David Childs, David Loades and Peter Marsden, no direct evidence of naming the ship after the King's sister exists. It was far more common at the time to give ships pious Christian names, a long-standing tradition in Western Europe, or to associate them with their royal patrons. Names like Grace Dieu (Hallelujah) and Holighost (Holy Spirit) had been common since the 15th century and other Tudor navy ships had names like the Regent and Three Ostrich Feathers (referring to the crest of the Prince of Wales). The Virgin Mary is a more likely candidate for a namesake, and she was also associated with the Rosa Mystica (mystic rose). The name of the sister ship of the Mary Rose, the Peter Pomegranate, is believed to have been named in honour of Saint Peter, and the badge of the Queen Catharine of Aragon, a pomegranate. According to Childs, Loades and Marsden, the two ships, which were built around the same time, were named in honour of the king and queen, respectively. Design The Mary Rose was substantially rebuilt in 1536. The 1536 rebuilding turned a ship of 500 tons into one of 700 tons, and added an entire extra tier of broadside guns to the old carrack-style structure. By consequence, modern research is based mostly on interpretations of the concrete physical evidence of this version of the Mary Rose. The construction of the original design from 1509 is less known. The Mary Rose was built according to the carrack-style with high "castles" fore and aft with a low waist of open decking in the middle. The hull has what is called a tumblehome shape, which reflects the ship's use as a platform for heavy guns: above the waterline, the hull gradually narrows to center the weight of the higher guns, and to make boarding more difficult. Since only part of the hull has survived, it is not possible to determine many of the basic dimensions with any great accuracy. The moulded breadth, the widest point of the ship roughly above the waterline, was about 12 metres (39 ft) and the keel about 32 metres (105 ft), although the ship's overall length is uncertain. The hull had four levels separated by three decks. Because the terminology for these was not yet standardised in the 16th century, the terms used here are those that were applied by the Mary Rose Trust. The hold lay furthest down in the ship, right above the bottom planking and below the waterline. This is where the galley was situated and the food was cooked. Directly aft of the galley was the mast step, a rebate in the centre-most timber of the keelson, right above the keel, which supported the main mast, and next to it the main bilge pump. To increase the stability of the ship, the hold was where the ballast was placed and much of the supplies were kept. Right above the hold was the orlop, the lowest deck. Like the hold, it was partitioned and was also used as a storage area for everything from food to spare sails. Above the orlop lay the main deck, which housed the heaviest guns. The side of the hull on the main deck level had seven gunports on each side fitted with heavy lids that would have been watertight when closed. This was also the highest deck that was caulked and waterproof. Along the sides of the main deck there were cabins under the forecastle and aftercastle which have been identified as belonging to the carpenter, barber-surgeon, pilot and possibly also the master gunner and some of the officers. The top deck in the hull structure was the upper deck (or weather deck) which was exposed to the elements in the waist. It was a dedicated fighting deck without any known partitions and a mix of heavy and light guns. Over the open waist, the upper deck was entirely covered with a boarding net, a coarse netting that served as a defence measure against boarding. Though very little of the upper deck has survived, it has been suggested that it housed the main living quarters of the crew underneath the aftercastle. A drain located in this area has been identified as a possible "piss-dale", a general urinal to complement the regular toilets which would probably have been located in the bow. The castles of the Mary Rose had additional decks, but since almost nothing of them survives, their design has had to be reconstructed from historical records. Contemporary ships of equal size were consistently listed as having three decks in both castles. Although speculative, this layout is supported by the illustration in the Anthony Roll and the gun inventories. During the early stages of excavation of the wreck, it was believed that the ship had originally been built with clinker (or clench) planking, a technique in which the hull consisted of overlapping planks that bore the structural strength of the ship. Cutting gunports into a clinker-built hull would have meant weakening the ship's structural integrity, and it was assumed that she was later rebuilt to accommodate a hull with carvel edge-to-edge planking with a skeletal structure to support a hull perforated with gunports. Later examination indicates that the clinker planking is not present throughout the ship; only the outer structure of the sterncastle is built with overlapping planking, though not with a true clinker technique. Sails and rigging Although only the lower fittings of the rigging survive, a 1514 inventory and the only known contemporary depiction of the ship from the Anthony Roll have been used to determine how the propulsion system of the Mary Rose was designed. Nine, or possibly ten, sails were flown from four masts and a bowsprit: the foremast had two square sails and the mainmast three; the mizzen mast had a lateen sail and a small square sail; the bonaventure mizzen had at least one lateen sail and possibly also a square sail; and the bowsprit flew a small square spritsail. According to the Anthony Roll illustration (see top of this section), the yards (the spars from which the sails were set) on the foremast and mainmast were also equipped with sheerhooks – twin curved blades sharpened on the inside – that were intended to cut an enemy ship's rigging during boarding actions. The sailing capabilities of the Mary Rose were commented on by her contemporaries and were once even put to the test. In March 1513 a contest was arranged off The Downs, west of Kent, in which she raced against nine other ships. She won the contest, and Admiral Edward Howard described her enthusiastically as "the noblest ship of sayle [of any] gret ship, at this howr, that I trow [believe] be in Cristendom". Several years later, while sailing between Dover and The Downs, Vice-Admiral William Fitzwilliam noted that both the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose performed very well, riding steadily in rough seas and that it would have been a "hard chose" between the two. Modern experts have been more sceptical of her sailing qualities, believing that ships at this time were almost incapable of sailing close to the wind, and describing the handling of the Mary Rose as being like "a wet haystack". Armament The Mary Rose represented a transitional ship design in naval warfare. Since ancient times, war at sea had been fought much as on land: with melee weapons and bows and arrows, only on floating wooden platforms rather than battlefields. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. As guns became heavier and able to take more powerful gunpowder charges, they needed to be placed lower in the ship, closer to the water line. Gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501, only about a decade before the Mary Rose was built. This made broadsides – coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship – possible, at least in theory, for the first time in history. Naval tactics throughout the 16th century and well into the 17th century focused on countering the oar-powered galleys that were armed with heavy guns in the bow, facing forwards, which were aimed by turning the entire ship against its target. Combined with inefficient gunpowder and the difficulties inherent in firing accurately from moving platforms, this meant that boarding remained the primary tactic for decisive victory throughout the 16th century. Bronze and iron guns As the Mary Rose was built and served during a period of rapid development of heavy artillery, her armament was a mix of old designs and innovations. The heavy armament was a mix of older-type wrought iron and cast bronze guns, which differed considerably in size, range and design. The large iron guns were made up of staves or bars welded into cylinders and then reinforced by shrinking iron hoops and breech loaded and equipped with simpler gun-carriages made from hollowed-out elm logs with only one pair of wheels, or without wheels entirely. The bronze guns were cast in one piece and rested on four-wheel carriages which were essentially the same as those used until the 19th century. The breech-loaders were cheaper to produce and both easier and faster to reload, but could take less powerful charges than cast bronze guns. Generally, the bronze guns used cast iron shot and were more suited to penetrate hull sides while the iron guns used stone shot that would shatter on impact and leave large, jagged holes, but both could also fire a variety of ammunition intended to destroy rigging and light structure or injure enemy personnel. The majority of the guns were small iron guns with short range that could be aimed and fired by a single person. The two most common are the bases, breech-loading swivel guns, most likely placed in the castles, and hailshot pieces, small muzzle-loaders with rectangular bores and fin-like protrusions that were used to support the guns against the railing and allow the ship structure to take the force of the recoil. Though the design is unknown, there were two top pieces in a 1546 inventory (finished after the sinking) which were probably similar to a base, but placed in one or more of the fighting tops. The ship went through several changes in her armament throughout her career, most significantly accompanying her "rebuilding" in 1536 (see below), when the number of anti-personnel guns was reduced and a second tier of carriage-mounted long guns fitted. There are three inventories that list her guns, dating to 1514, 1540 and 1546. Together with records from the armoury at the Tower of London, these show how the configuration of guns changed as gun-making technology evolved and new classifications were invented. In 1514, the armament consisted mostly of anti-personnel guns like the larger breech-loading iron murderers and the small serpentines, demi-slings and stone guns. Only a handful of guns in the first inventory were powerful enough to hole enemy ships, and most would have been supported by the ship's structure rather than resting on carriages. The inventories of both the Mary Rose and the Tower had changed radically by 1540. There were now the new cast bronze cannons, demi-cannons, culverins and sakers and the wrought iron port pieces (a name that indicated they fired through ports), all of which required carriages, had longer range and were capable of doing serious damage to other ships. The analysis of the 1514 inventory combined with hints of structural changes in the ship both indicate that the gunports on the main deck were indeed a later addition. Various types of ammunition could be used for different purposes: plain spherical shot of stone or iron smashed hulls, spiked bar shot and shot linked with chains would tear sails or damage rigging, and canister shot packed with sharp flints produced a devastating shotgun effect. Trials made with replicas of culverins and port pieces showed that they could penetrate wood the same thickness of the Mary Rose's hull planking, indicating a stand-off range of at least 90 m (295 ft). The port pieces proved particularly efficient at smashing large holes in wood when firing stone shot and were a devastating anti-personnel weapon when loaded with flakes or pebbles. Hand-held weapons To defend against being boarded, Mary Rose carried large stocks of melee weapons, including pikes and bills; 150 of each kind were stocked on the ship according to the Anthony Roll, a figure confirmed roughly by the excavations. Swords and daggers were personal possessions and not listed in the inventories, but the remains of both have been found in great quantities, including the earliest dated example of a British basket-hilted sword. A total of 250 longbows were carried on board, and 172 of these have so far been found, as well as almost 4,000 arrows, bracers (arm guards) and other archery-related equipment. Longbow archery in Tudor England was mandatory for all able adult men, and despite the introduction of field artillery and handguns, they were used alongside new missile weapons in great quantities. On the Mary Rose, the longbows could only have been drawn and shot properly from behind protective panels in the open waist or from the top of the castles as the lower decks lacked sufficient headroom. There were several types of bows of various size and range. Lighter bows would have been used as "sniper" bows, while the heavier design could possibly have been used to shoot fire arrows. The inventories of both 1514 and 1546 also list several hundred heavy darts and lime pots that were designed to be thrown onto the deck of enemy ships from the fighting tops, although no physical evidence of either of these weapon types has been identified. Of the 50 handguns listed in the Anthony Roll, the complete stocks of five matchlock muskets and fragments of another eleven have been found. They had been manufactured mainly in Italy, with some originating from Germany. Found in storage were several gunshields, a rare type of firearm consisting of a wooden shield with a small gun fixed in the middle. Crew Throughout her 33-year career, the crew of the Mary Rose changed several times and varied considerably in size. It would have a minimal skeleton crew of 17 men or fewer in peacetime and when she was "laid up in ordinary" (in reserve). The average wartime manning would have been about 185 soldiers, 200 sailors, 20–30 gunners and an assortment of other specialists such as surgeons, trumpeters and members of the admiral's staff, for a total of 400–450 men. When taking part in land invasions or raids, such as in the summer of 1512, the number of soldiers could have swelled to just over 400 for a combined total of more than 700. Even with the normal crew size of around 400, the ship was quite crowded, and with additional soldiers would have been extremely cramped. Little is known of the identities of the men who served on the Mary Rose, even when it comes to the names of the officers, who would have belonged to the gentry. Two admirals and four captains (including Edward and Thomas Howard, who served both positions) are known through records, as well as a few ship masters, pursers, master gunners and other specialists. Forensic science has been used by artists to create reconstructions of faces of eight crew members, and the results were publicised in May 2013. In addition, researchers have extracted DNA from remains in the hopes of identifying origins of crew, and potentially living descendants. Of the vast majority of the crewmen, soldiers, sailors and gunners alike, nothing has been recorded. The only source of information for these men has been through osteological analysis of the human bones found at the wrecksite. An approximate composition of some of the crew has been conjectured based on contemporary records. The Mary Rose would have carried a captain, a master responsible for navigation, and deck crew. There would also have been a purser responsible for handling payments, a boatswain, the captain's second in command, at least one carpenter, a pilot in charge of navigation, and a cook, all of whom had one or more assistants (mates). The ship was also staffed by a barber-surgeon who tended to the sick and wounded, along with an apprentice or mate and possibly also a junior surgeon. The only positively identified person who went down with the ship was Vice-Admiral George Carew. McKee, Stirland and several other authors have also named Roger Grenville, father of Richard Grenville of the Elizabethan-era Revenge, captain during the final battle, although the accuracy of the sourcing for this has been disputed by maritime archaeologist Peter Marsden. The bones of a total of 179 people were found during the excavations of the Mary Rose, including 92 "fairly complete skeletons", more or less complete collections of bones associated with specific individuals. Analysis of these has shown that crew members were all male, most of them young adults. Some were no more than 11–13 years old, and the majority (81%) under 30. They were mainly of English origin and, according to archaeologist Julie Gardiner, they most likely came from the West Country; many following their aristocratic masters into maritime service. There were also a few people from continental Europe. An eyewitness testimony right after the sinking refers to a survivor who was a Fleming, and the pilot may very well have been French. Analysis of oxygen isotopes in teeth indicates that some were also of southern European origin. At least one crewmember was of African ancestry. In general they were strong, well-fed men, but many of the bones also reveal tell-tale signs of childhood diseases and a life of grinding toil. The bones also showed traces of numerous healed fractures, probably the result of on-board accidents. There are no extant written records of the make-up of the broader categories of soldiers and sailors, but since the Mary Rose carried some 300 longbows and several thousand arrows there had to be a considerable proportion of longbow archers. Examination of the skeletal remains has found that there was a disproportionate number of men with a condition known as os acromiale, affecting their shoulder blades. This condition is known among modern elite archery athletes and is caused by placing considerable stress on the arm and shoulder muscles, particularly of the left arm that is used to hold the bow to brace against the pull on the bowstring. Among the men who died on the ship it was likely that some had practised using the longbow since childhood, and served on board as specialist archers. A group of six skeletons was found grouped close to one of the 2-tonne bronze culverins on the main deck near the bow. Fusing of parts of the spine and ossification, the growth of new bone, on several vertebrae evidenced all but one of these crewmen to have been strong, well-muscled men who had been engaged in heavy pulling and pushing, the exception possibly being a "powder monkey" not involved in heavy work. These have been tentatively classified as members of a complete gun crew, all having died at their battle station. Military career First French war The Mary Rose first saw battle in 1512, in a joint naval operation with the Spanish against the French. The English were to meet the French and Breton fleets in the English Channel while the Spanish attacked them in the Bay of Biscay and then attack Gascony. The 35-year-old Sir Edward Howard was appointed Lord High Admiral in April and chose the Mary Rose as his flagship. His first mission was to clear the seas of French naval forces between England to the northern coast of Spain to allow for the landing of supporting troops near the French border at Fuenterrabia. The fleet consisted of 18 ships, among them the large ships the Regent and the Peter Pomegranate, carrying over 5,000 men. Howard's expedition led to the capture of twelve Breton ships and a four-day raiding tour of Brittany where English forces successfully fought against local forces and burned numerous settlements. The fleet returned to Southampton in June where it was visited by King Henry. In August the fleet sailed for Brest where it encountered a joint, but ill-coordinated, French-Breton fleet at the battle of St. Mathieu. The English with one of the great ships in the lead (according to Marsden the Mary Rose) battered the French ships with heavy gunfire and forced them to retreat. The Breton flagship Cordelière put up a fight and was boarded by the 1,000-ton Regent. By accident or through the unwillingness of the Breton crew to surrender, the powder magazine of the Cordelière caught fire and blew up in a violent explosion, setting fire to the Regent and eventually sinking her. About 180 English crew members saved themselves by throwing themselves into the sea and only a handful of Bretons survived, only to be captured. The captain of the Regent, 600 soldiers and sailors, the High Admiral of France and the steward of the town of Morlaix were killed in the incident, making it the focal point of several contemporary chronicles and reports. On , the English burnt 27 French ships, captured another five and landed forces near Brest to raid and take prisoners, but storms forced the fleet back to Dartmouth in Devon and then to Southampton for repairs. In early 1513, the Mary Rose was once more chosen by Howard as the flagship for an expedition against the French. Before seeing action, she took part in a race against other ships where she was deemed to be one of the most nimble and the fastest of the great ships in the fleet (see details under "Sails and rigging"). On , Howard's force arrived off Brest only to see a small enemy force join with the larger force in the safety of Brest harbour and its fortifications. The French had recently been reinforced by a force of galleys from the Mediterranean, which sank one English ship and seriously damaged another. Howard landed forces near Brest, but made no headway against the town and was by now getting low on supplies. Attempting to force a victory, he took a small force of small oared vessels on a daring frontal attack on the French galleys on . Howard himself managed to reach the ship of French admiral, Prégent de Bidoux, and led a small party to board it. The French fought back fiercely and cut the cables that attached the two ships, separating Howard from his men. It left him at the mercy of the soldiers aboard the galley, who instantly killed him. Demoralised by the loss of its admiral and seriously short of food, the fleet returned to Plymouth. Thomas Howard, elder brother of Edward, was assigned the new Lord Admiral, and was set to the task of arranging another attack on Brittany. The fleet was not able to mount the planned attack because of adverse winds and great difficulties in supplying the ships adequately and the Mary Rose took up winter quarters in Southampton. In August the Scots joined France in war against England, but were dealt a crushing defeat at the Battle of Flodden on 1513. A follow-up attack in early 1514 was supported by a naval force that included the Mary Rose, but without any known engagements. The French and English mounted raids on each other throughout that summer, but achieved little, and both sides were by then exhausted. By autumn the war was over and a peace treaty was sealed by the marriage of Henry's sister, Mary, to French king Louis XII. After the peace Mary Rose was placed in the reserves, "in ordinary". She was laid up for maintenance along with her sister ship the Peter Pomegranate in July 1514. In 1518 she received a routine repair and caulking, waterproofing with tar and oakum (old rope fibres) and was then assigned a small skeleton crew who lived on board the ship until 1522. She served briefly on a mission with other warships to "scour the seas" in preparation for Henry VIII's journey across the Channel to the summit with the French king Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 1520. Second French war In 1522, England was once again at war with France because of a treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The plan was for an attack on two fronts with an English thrust in northern France. The Mary Rose participated in the escort transport of troops in June 1522, and by the Breton port of Morlaix was captured. The fleet sailed home and the Mary Rose berthed for the winter in Dartmouth. The war raged on until 1525 and saw the Scots join the French side. Though Charles Brandon came close to capturing Paris in 1523, there was little gained either against France or Scotland throughout the war. With the defeat of the French army and capture of Francis I by Charles V's forces at the Battle of Pavia on 1525, the war was effectively over without any major gains or major victories for the English side. Maintenance and "in ordinary" The Mary Rose was kept in reserve from 1522 to 1545. She was once more caulked and repaired in 1527 in a newly dug dock at Portsmouth and her longboat was repaired and trimmed. Little documentation about the Mary Rose between 1528 and 1539 exists. A document written by Thomas Cromwell in 1536 specifies that the Mary Rose and six other ships were "made new" during his service under the king, though it is unclear which years he was referring to and what "made new" actually meant. A later document from January 1536 by an anonymous author states that the Mary Rose and other ships were "new made", and dating of timbers from the ship confirms some type of repair being done in 1535 or 1536. This would have coincided with the controversial dissolution of the monasteries that resulted in a major influx of funds into the royal treasury. The nature and extent of this repair is unknown. Many experts, including Margaret Rule, the project leader for the raising of the Mary Rose, have assumed that it meant a complete rebuilding from clinker planking to carvel planking, and that it was only after 1536 that the ship took on the form that it had when it sank and that was eventually recovered in the 20th century. Marsden has speculated that it could even mean that the Mary Rose was originally built in a style that was closer to 15th-century ships, with a rounded, rather than square, stern and without the main deck gunports. Third French war Henry's complicated marital situation and his high-handed dissolution of the monasteries angered the Pope and Catholic rulers throughout Europe, which increased England's diplomatic isolation. In 1544 Henry had agreed to attack France together with Emperor Charles V, and English forces captured Boulogne at great cost in September, but soon England was left in the lurch after Charles had achieved his objectives and brokered a separate peace. In May 1545, the French had assembled a large fleet in the estuary of the Seine with the intent to land troops on English soil. The estimates of the size of the fleet varied considerably; between 123 and 300 vessels according to French sources; and up to 226 sailing ships and galleys according to the chronicler Edward Hall. In addition to the massive fleet, 50,000 troops were assembled at Havre de Grâce (modern-day Le Havre). An English force of 160 ships and 12,000 troops under Viscount Lisle was ready at Portsmouth by early June, before the French were ready to set sail, and an ineffective pre-emptive strike was made in the middle of the month. In early July the huge French force under the command of Admiral Claude d'Annebault set sail for England and entered the Solent unopposed with 128 ships on . The English had around 80 ships with which to oppose the French, including the flagship Mary Rose. But since they had virtually no heavy galleys, the vessels that were at their best in sheltered waters like the Solent, the English fleet promptly retreated into Portsmouth harbour. Battle of the Solent The English were becalmed in port and unable to manoeuvre. On 1545, the French galleys advanced on the immobilised English fleet, and initially threatened to destroy a force of 13 small galleys, or "rowbarges", the only ships that were able to move against them without a wind. The wind picked up and the sailing ships were able to go on the offensive before the oared vessels were overwhelmed. Two of the largest ships, the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose, led the attack on the French galleys in the Solent. Early in the battle something went wrong. While engaging the French galleys the Mary Rose suddenly heeled (leaned) heavily over to her starboard (right) side and water rushed in through the open gunports. The crew was powerless to correct the sudden imbalance, and could only scramble for the safety of the upper deck as the ship began to sink rapidly. As she leaned over, equipment, ammunition, supplies and storage containers shifted and came loose, adding to the general chaos. The massive port side brick oven in the galley collapsed completely and the huge 360-litre (90 gallon) copper cauldron was thrown onto the orlop deck above. Heavy guns came free and slammed into the opposite side, impeding escape or crushing men beneath them. For those who were not injured or killed outright by moving objects, there was little time to reach safety, especially for the men who were manning the guns on the main deck or fetching ammunition and supplies in the hold. The companionways that connected the decks with one another would have become bottlenecks for fleeing men, something indicated by the positioning of many of the skeletons recovered from the wreck. What turned the sinking into a major tragedy was the anti-boarding netting that covered the upper decks in the waist (the midsection of the ship) and the sterncastle. With the exception of the men who were stationed in the tops in the masts, most of those who managed to get up from below deck were trapped under the netting; they would have been in view of the surface, and their colleagues above, but with little or no chance to break through, and were dragged down with the ship. Out of a crew of at least 400, fewer than 35 escaped, a casualty rate of over 90%. Causes of sinking Contemporary accounts Many accounts of the sinking have been preserved that describe the incident, but the only confirmed eyewitness account is the testimony of a surviving Flemish crewman written down by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador François van der Delft in a letter dated . According to the unnamed Fleming, the ship had fired all of its guns on one side and was turning to present the guns on the other side to the enemy ship, when she was caught in a strong gust of wind, heeled and took in water through the open gunports. In a letter to William Paget dated , former Lord High Admiral John Russel claimed that the ship had been lost because of "rechenes and great negligence". Three years after the sinking, the Hall's Chronicle gave the reason for the sinking as being caused by "to[o] much foly ... for she was laden with much ordinaunce, and the portes left open, which were low, & the great ordinaunce unbreached, so that when the ship should turne, the water entered, and sodainly she sanke." Later accounts repeat the explanation that the ship heeled over while going about and that the ship was brought down because of the open gunports. A biography of Peter Carew, brother of George Carew, written by John Hooker sometime after 1575, gives the same reason for the sinking, but adds that insubordination among the crew was to blame. The biography claims that George Carew noted that the Mary Rose showed signs of instability as soon as her sails were raised. George's uncle Gawen Carew had passed by with his own ship the Matthew Gonson during the battle to inquire about the situation of his nephew's ship. In reply he was told "that he had a sorte of knaves whom he could not rule". Contrary to all other accounts, Martin du Bellay, a French cavalry officer who was present at the battle, stated that the Mary Rose had been sunk by French guns. Modern theories The most common explanation for the sinking among modern historians is that the ship was unstable for a number of reasons. When a strong gust of wind hit the sails at a critical moment, the open gunports proved fatal, the ship flooded and quickly foundered. Coates offered a variant of this hypothesis, which explains why a ship which served for several decades without sinking, and which even fought in actions in the rough seas off Brittany, unexpectedly foundered: the ship had accumulated additional weight over the years in service and finally become unseaworthy. That the ship was turning after firing all the cannons on one side has been questioned by Marsden after examination of guns recovered in both the 19th and 20th centuries; guns from both sides were found still loaded. This has been interpreted to mean that something else could have gone wrong since it is assumed that an experienced crew would not have failed to secure the gunports before making a potentially risky turn. The most recent surveys of the ship indicate that the ship was modified late in her career and have lent support to the idea that the Mary Rose was altered too much to be properly seaworthy. Marsden has suggested that the weight of additional heavy guns would have increased her draught so much that the waterline was less than one metre (c. 3 feet) from the gunports on the main deck. Peter Carew's claim of insubordination has been given support by James Watt, former Medical Director-General of the Royal Navy, based on records of an epidemic of dysentery in Portsmouth which could have rendered the crew incapable of handling the ship properly, while historian Richard Barker has suggested that the crew actually knew that the ship was an accident waiting to happen, at which they balked and refused to follow orders. Marsden has noted that the Carew biography is in some details inconsistent with the sequence of events reported by both French and English eyewitnesses. It also reports that there were 700 men on board, an unusually high number. The distance in time to the event it describes may mean that it was embellished to add a dramatic touch. The report of French galleys sinking the Mary Rose as stated by Martin du Bellay has been described as "the account of a courtesan" by naval historian Maurice de Brossard. Du Bellay and his two brothers were close to king Francis I and du Bellay had much to gain from portraying the sinking as a French victory. English sources, even if biased, would have nothing to gain from portraying the sinking as the result of crew incompetence rather than conceding a victory to the much-feared gun galleys. Dominic Fontana, a geographer at the University of Portsmouth, has voiced support for du Bellay's version of the sinking based on the battle as it is depicted in the Cowdray Engraving, and modern GIS analysis of the modern scene of the battle. By plotting the fleets and calculating the conjectured final manoeuvres of the Mary Rose, Fontana reached the conclusion that the ship had been hit low in the hull by the galleys and was destabilised after taking in water. He has interpreted the final heading of the ship straight due north as a failed attempt to reach the shallows at Spitbank only a few hundred metres away. This theory has been given partial support by Alexzandra Hildred, one of the experts who has worked with the Mary Rose, though she has suggested that the close proximity to Spitbank could also indicate that the sinking occurred while trying to make a hard turn to avoid running aground. Experiments In 2000, the Channel 4 television programme What Sank the Mary Rose? attempted to investigate the causes suggested for her sinking by means of experiments with scale models of the ship and metal weights to simulate the presence of troops on the upper decks. Initial tests showed that the ship was able to make the turn described by eyewitnesses without capsizing. In later tests, a fan was used to create a breeze similar to the one reported to have suddenly sprung up on the day of the sinking as the Mary Rose went to make the turn. As the model made the turn, the breeze in the upper works forced it to heel more than at calm, forcing the main deck gun ports below the |
a small speed boost. Mario Kart 8 introduces 200cc mode, anti-gravity racing, ATVs, uploading highlights to YouTube, up to four local players in Grand Prix races, downloadable content, HD graphics, and the Koopalings, Baby Rosalina, Pink Gold Peach, Tanooki Mario, Cat Peach, Villager Isabelle from Animal Crossing, and Link from The Legend of Zelda as playable characters. Mario Kart 8 Deluxe adds the Inklings from Splatoon, an alternate skin for Link that depicts his Breath of the Wild appearance, and "Renegade Roundup", a new battle mode similar to cops and robbers. Mario Kart Tour is the Mario Kart debut on non-Nintendo devices, and introduces a points-based system for certain racing actions. It introduces Peachette, Pauline, Hammer Bro (and their boomerang, fire, and ice versions), Monty Mole, Captain Toad, Dixie Kong, Kamek, Nabbit, King Bob-omb, Meowser, and many alternate outfits for characters. The alternate outfits are rare items. It introduces Frenzy Mode, gacha and loot box mechanics, and continuously-renewing character outfits and karts. Character-specific items and increased item probabilities have been re-added. It reintroduces the Mega Mushroom. Mario Kart Live: Home Circuit uses a combination of augmented reality (AR), remote-controlled karts, and cameras, to create tracks using markers in the physical world, on which onscreen opponents are raced. Characters Mario Kart mainly features characters from the Mario franchise, such as Mario, Luigi, Peach, Toad, Yoshi, Bowser, and Donkey Kong. The Mario Kart Arcade GP series features Bandai Namco characters from the Pac-Man and Tamagotchi series. Mario Kart: Double Dash!! introduced a number of characters to the series that are partners to the more common characters, such as Waluigi and Diddy Kong. Some of these would appear in future instalments. The DLC for Mario Kart 8 added Link from The Legend of Zelda, and Villager (male and female) and Isabelle from Animal Crossing. Mario Kart 8 Deluxe has 42 playable characters, including the Inklings from Splatoon. Mario Kart Tour features 128 characters, the most of any Mario game, and is the first Mario Kart to include Peachette, Pauline, Hammer Bro (and their boomerang, fire, and ice versions), Monty Mole, Dixie Kong, Kamek, Nabbit, and King Bob-omb. Courses Many recurring course themes are based on the Mario franchise, such as Bowser's Castle. Unique courses inspired by the Mushroom Kingdom include Rainbow Road, above a city or in space. Each game after Super Mario Kart includes at least 16 original courses and up to 6 original battle arenas. Each game's tracks are divided into four "cups" (except Mario Kart: Super Circuit, which has five), or groups in which the player has to have the highest overall ranking to win. They are the Mushroom Cup, the Flower Cup, the Star Cup, and the Special Cup (and the lightning cup in Mario Kart: Super Circuit). Most courses can be done in three laps, except in the original game where all circuits required five laps to finish, the unlockable tracks in Mario Kart: Super Circuit, seven in Mario Kart: Double Dash!! when racing on Baby Park, and two in Mario Kart: Double Dash!! when racing on Wario Colosseum, 5 laps in Mario Kart DS when racing on GCN Baby Park, 1 lap split into 3 parts in Mario Kart 7 when racing on Maka Wuhu (Wuhu Mountain Loop in PAL regions), Wuhu Loop (Wuhu Island Loop in PAL regions), and Rainbow Road, 1 lap split into 3 parts in Mario Kart 8 and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe when racing on Mount Wario, N64 Rainbow Road, and Big Blue, 7 laps in Mario Kart 8 and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe when racing on GCN Baby Park, and in Mario Kart Tour, where all tracks are two laps. The first game to feature courses from previous games was Mario Kart: Super Circuit, which contained all of the tracks from the original SNES game. Starting with Mario Kart DS, each entry in the series has featured sixteen "nitro" (brand new courses introduced for said game) and sixteen "retro" tracks (reappearing courses from previous Mario Kart games) (not including DLC tracks and games from Mario Kart 8 Deluxe), spread across four cups each with four races. The four Retro Grand Prix cups are the Shell Cup, the Banana Cup, the Leaf Cup, and the Lightning Cup. In Mario Kart 8, sixteen additional tracks are available across two downloadable packages, eight for each package downloaded, including seven retro courses, four original courses, and five courses based on other Nintendo franchises, including Excitebike, F-Zero, The Legend of Zelda, and Animal Crossing divided into four additional cups; the Egg Cup, the Triforce Cup, the Crossing Cup, and the Bell Cup. Mario Kart Tour introduced courses themed from places around the world including New York City, Tokyo, Singapore, Paris, London, Los Angeles, Berlin, Vancouver and Sydney, and variant courses raced in reverse, with additional ramps and elevation, and a combination of the two. Additional courses are set to arrive to Mario Kart 8 Deluxe, with the first of six waves set to include 8 tracks from other games in the series, including Coconut Mall from Mario Kart Wii and several tracks from Mario Kart Tour Modes Each game has a variety of modes. The following five modes recur most often in the series: Grand Prix – Players compete in various "cups," of four courses each (five in Super Mario Kart) with difficulty levels based on the size of the engine, larger engines meaning faster speeds. Before Mario Kart 8 there were four difficulties: 50cc, 100cc, 150cc, and Mirror Mode (courses that see their tracks flipped horizontally; played on 100cc in Mario Kart 64, but 150cc in all other games with Mirror Mode). Mario Kart 8 added a fifth difficulty level: 200cc. Players earn points according to their finishing position in each race and the placement order gets carried over to the next race as the new starting grid. At the end of the cup, the top three players with the most points overall will receive a trophy in bronze, | – Players compete in various "cups," of four courses each (five in Super Mario Kart) with difficulty levels based on the size of the engine, larger engines meaning faster speeds. Before Mario Kart 8 there were four difficulties: 50cc, 100cc, 150cc, and Mirror Mode (courses that see their tracks flipped horizontally; played on 100cc in Mario Kart 64, but 150cc in all other games with Mirror Mode). Mario Kart 8 added a fifth difficulty level: 200cc. Players earn points according to their finishing position in each race and the placement order gets carried over to the next race as the new starting grid. At the end of the cup, the top three players with the most points overall will receive a trophy in bronze, silver, and gold. This was renamed to Mario GP in Mario Kart 64 and Mario Kart: Super Circuit and then to Grand Prix from Mario Kart: Double Dash!! onwards. Time Trials – The player races alone in order to finish any course in the fastest time possible. The best time is then saved as a ghost, which the player can race against in later trials. Mario Kart: Double Dash!! introduced Staff Ghosts, which are ghosts set by members of the Nintendo development team. This was renamed to T.Trials in Mario Kart 64 and then back to Time Trials from Mario Kart: Super Circuit onwards. Match Race – Multiple human players race on any course with customized rules such as team racing and item frequency. Mario Kart: Super Circuit has a similar Quick Run mode for only one player. This was renamed to VS in Mario Kart 64, then to VS. in Mario Kart: Super Circuit, then to Versus in Mario Kart: Double Dash!!, then back to VS from Mario Kart DS to Mario Kart Wii, and then to VS Race from Mario Kart 8 onwards. Battle – Multiple human players use in-game offensive items (shells, etc.) to battle each other in a closed arena. In the most used battle type, balloon battle, each player starts with three balloons and loses one per hit; the last player with at least one balloon wins. Various battle types have been added to the series, and single-player battles with CPU controlled players. Since Mario Kart Wii, there is a time limit for each battle. For Mario Kart 8, the battles take place on race courses. Mario Kart 8 Deluxe reintroduces dedicated arenas. Online Multiplayer – Players compete in races and battles through online services, such as Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, Nintendo Network, and Nintendo Switch Online. Players can share Time Trial ghosts, and participate in tournaments. In races and battles, players are matched by VR (VS Rating) and BR (Battle Rating) respectively, which is a number between 0 and 99,999 (9,999 in Mario Kart Wii). Players gain or lose points based on performance in a race or battle. The game attempts to match players with a similar rating. Games Console Arcade Mario Kart Arcade GP (2005, developed by Namco) Mario Kart Arcade GP 2 (2007, developed by Namco Bandai Games) Mario Kart Arcade GP DX (2013, developed by Namco Bandai Games) Mario Kart Arcade GP VR (2017, developed by Bandai Namco Studios) Mobile Mario Kart Tour (2019) Canceled games VB Mario Kart was scheduled for the Virtual Boy in 1995. It was revealed in a 2000 issue of German gaming magazine The Big N, but was canceled early in development prior to its official announcement due to the Virtual Boy's commercial failure. Merchandise The Mario Kart series has had a range of merchandise. This includes a slot car racer series based on Mario Kart DS, which comes with Mario and Donkey Kong figures and Wario and Luigi are separate. A line of radio-controlled karts are controlled by Game Boy Advance-shaped controllers, and feature Mario, Donkey Kong, and Yoshi. There are additional, larger karts which are radio-controlled by a GameCube-shape controller. Many racer figurines have been made. Sound Drops were inspired by Mario Kart Wii with eight sounds including the Spiny shell and the Item Box. A land-line telephone features Mario holding a lightning bolt while seated in his kart. K'Nex released Mario Kart Wii, Mario Kart 7, and Mario Kart 8 sets. LINE has released an animated sticker set with 24 stickers based on Mario Kart 8 and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe. Nintendo's own customer rewards program Club Nintendo released a Mario Kart 8 soundtrack, a Mario Kart Wii-themed stopwatch, and three gold trophies modeled after those in Mario Kart 7. Before Club Nintendo, a Mario Kart 64 soundtrack was offered by mail. In 2014, McDonald's released Mario Kart 8 toys with Happy Meals. In 2018, Monopoly Gamer features a Mario Kart themed board game with courses from Mario Kart 8 serving as properties, ten playable characters as tokens, (Mario, Luigi, Peach, Toad, Donkey Kong, Shy Guy, Metal Mario, Rosalina, Bowser, and Yoshi) and a special die with power-ups. In 2019, Hot Wheels released Mario Kart sets of cars and tracks. In 2020, for the Super Mario Bros. 35th Anniversary, Cold Stone Creamery released Mario themed desserts including a Rainbow Road themed ice cream cake, from September 30 to December 15. Reception The Mario Kart series is critically acclaimed. Nintendo Power named it one of the greatest multiplayer experiences, citing the diversity in game modes and the entertainment value. Guinness World Records listed six records set by the Mario Kart series, including "First Console Kart Racing Game", "Best Selling Racing Game", and "Longest Running Kart Racing Franchise". Guinness World Records ranked Super Mario Kart number 1 of the top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy. Super Mario Kart was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame in 2019. Sales Like the Super Mario series, the Mario Kart series is a commercial success with over 164.43 million copies sold in total. It is currently the most successful racing game franchise of all time. Super Mario Kart is the fourth best-selling Super Nintendo Entertainment System game with 8.76 million copies sold. Mario Kart 64 is the second best-selling game for the Nintendo 64 (behind Super Mario 64), at 9.87 million copies. Mario Kart: Double Dash is the second best-selling GameCube game (next to Super Smash Bros. Melee) with 6.96 million copies sold. Mario Kart Wii is the second best-selling in the series (after 8 deluxe) and is the second best-selling Wii game (next to Wii Sports) at 37.38 million copies. Mario Kart 8 is the best-selling Wii U game at 8.45 million total copies sold. It was the fastest-selling Wii U game with 1.2 million copies shipped in North America and Europe combined on its first few days since launch, until Super Smash Bros. for Wii U. The enhanced port for the Nintendo Switch, Mario Kart 8 Deluxe, is the fastest-selling game in the series with 459,000 units sold in the United States in one day of its launch. It is the highest-selling Nintendo Switch game with a total of 43.35 million copies worldwide, outperforming the Wii U version. Both versions have a combined total of 51.81 million copies sold, making it the best-selling game in the series. The handheld games are commercial successes. Mario Kart: Super Circuit is the fourth best-selling Game Boy Advance game at 5.9 million copies. The second portable game, Mario Kart DS, is the third best-selling Nintendo DS game and the best-selling portable game in the series with a total of 23.60 million copies. Mario Kart 7 is the |
using separately designed sub-components Modular function deployment, a method in systems engineering and product development Module, a measure of a gear's pitch Ontology modularization, a methodological principle in ontology engineering Computer software Modular programming, a software design technique Loadable kernel module an object file that contains code to extend the running kernel Environment Modules, a software tool designed to help users manage their UNIX or Linux shell environment Modula-2 or Modula-3, programming languages which stress the use of modules Computer hardware Computer module, an early packaging technique that combined several electronic components to produce a single logic element Memory module, a physical "stick" of RAM, an essential piece of computer hardware Multi-chip module, a modern technique that combines several complex computer chips into a single larger unit Science and mathematics Module (mathematics) over a ring, a generalization of vector | systems engineering and product development Module, a measure of a gear's pitch Ontology modularization, a methodological principle in ontology engineering Computer software Modular programming, a software design technique Loadable kernel module an object file that contains code to extend the running kernel Environment Modules, a software tool designed to help users manage their UNIX or Linux shell environment Modula-2 or Modula-3, programming languages which stress the use of modules Computer hardware Computer module, an early packaging technique that combined several electronic components to produce a single logic element Memory module, a physical "stick" of RAM, an essential piece of computer hardware Multi-chip module, a modern technique that combines several complex computer chips into a single larger unit Science and mathematics Module (mathematics) over a ring, a generalization of vector spaces Modular lattice a kind of |
2000) 1930 – Tommy Bryant, American bassist (d. 1982) 1930 – Keith Davis, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019) 1930 – Malcolm Fraser, Australian politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2015) 1932 – Inese Jaunzeme, Latvian javelin thrower and surgeon (d. 2011) 1932 – Leonidas Vasilikopoulos, Greek admiral and intelligence chief (d. 2014) 1933 – Maurice André, French trumpet player (d. 2012) 1933 – Yevgeny Minayev, Russian weightlifter (d. 1993) 1934 – Jocasta Innes, Chinese-English journalist and author (d. 2013) 1934 – Bob Northern, American horn player and bandleader (d.2020) 1934 – Bengt I. Samuelsson, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1935 – Terry Lightfoot, English clarinet player and bandleader (d. 2013) 1936 – Günter Blobel, Polish-American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018) 1938 – Lee "Shot" Williams, American singer (d. 2011) 1939 – Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist, composer, and conductor 1940 – Tony Sheridan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1941 – Martin Carthy, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1941 – Bobby Cox, American baseball player and manager 1941 – Ambrose Greenway, 4th Baron Greenway, English photographer and politician 1941 – Ronald Isley, American singer-songwriter and producer 1942 – David Hunt, Baron Hunt of Wirral, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales 1942 – John Konrads, Australian swimmer (d. 2021) 1942 – Danny Ongais, American race car driver 1943 – Vincent Crane, English pianist and composer (d. 1989) 1943 – John Dalton, English bass player 1943 – Hilton Valentine, English guitarist and songwriter (d. 2021) 1944 – Haleh Afshar, Baroness Afshar, Iranian-English academic and politician 1944 – Marcie Blane, American singer 1944 – Janet Dailey, American author and entrepreneur (d. 2013) 1944 – Mary Robinson, Irish lawyer and politician, President of Ireland 1945 – Ernst Messerschmid, German physicist and astronaut 1945 – Richard Hatch, American actor, writer, and producer (d. 2017) 1946 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013) 1946 – Wayne Roycroft, Australian equestrian rider and coach 1947 – Bill Champlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Linda Laubenstein, American physician and academic (d. 1992) 1947 – İlber Ortaylı, Turkish historian and academic 1948 – Elizabeth Buchan, English author and critic 1948 – Joe Camilleri, Maltese-Australian singer-songwriter and saxophonist 1948 – Jonathan Hyde, Australian-English actor 1948 – Denis MacShane, Scottish journalist and politician, UK Minister of State for Europe 1948 – Leo Sayer, English-Australian singer-songwriter and musician 1949 – Andrew Neil, Scottish journalist and academic 1949 – Denis O'Connor, British police officer 1949 – Rosalind Plowright, English soprano 1950 – Will Hutton, English economist and journalist 1951 – Al Franken, American actor, screenwriter, and politician 1951 – Adrian Hardiman, Irish lawyer and judge (d. 2016) 1952 – Mr. T, American actor and wrestler 1953 – Nora Aunor, Filipino actress and recording artist 1953 – Jim Devine, British politician 1954 – D. B. S. Jeyaraj, Sri Lankan-Canadian journalist and blogger 1954 – Janice Karman, American film producer, record producer, singer, and voice actress 1954 – Marc Ribot, American guitarist and composer 1955 – Paul Barber, English field hockey player 1955 – Stan Lynch, American drummer, songwriter, and producer 1957 – James Bailey, American basketball player 1957 – Nadine Dorries, English nurse and politician 1957 – Judge Reinhold, American actor and producer 1957 – Renée Soutendijk, Dutch actress 1958 – Christian Audigier, French fashion designer (d. 2015) 1958 – Muffy Calder, Canadian-Scottish computer scientist and academic 1958 – Michael Crick, English journalist and author 1958 – Naeem Khan, Indian-American fashion designer 1958 – Jefery Levy, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Nick Cassavetes, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1959 – Abdulla Yameen, Maldivian politician, 6th President of the Maldives 1960 – Jeffrey Dahmer, American serial killer (d. 1994) 1960 – Kent Hrbek, American baseball player and sportscaster 1960 – Mohanlal, Indian actor 1960 – Mark Ridgway, Australian cricketer 1960 – Vladimir Salnikov, Russian swimmer 1962 – David Crumb, American composer and educator 1963 – Richard Appel, American screenwriter and producer 1963 – Patrick Grant, American musician and producer 1963 – David Lonsdale, English actor 1964 – Pete Sandoval, Salvadoran-American drummer 1963 – Kevin Shields, American-Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1963 – Dave Specter, American guitarist 1963 – Laurie Spina, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1964 – Danny Bailey, English footballer and coach 1965 – Josh Richman, American actor and producer 1966 – Lisa Edelstein, American actress and playwright 1966 – Tatyana Ledovskaya, Belarusian hurdler 1967 – Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2007) 1968 – Ilmar Raag, Estonian director, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Matthias Ungemach, German-Australian rower 1968 – Julie Vega, Filipino actress and singer (d. 1985) 1969 – Pierluigi Brivio, Italian footballer 1969 – Georgiy Gongadze, Georgian-Ukrainian journalist and director (d. 2000) 1969 – Masayo Kurata, Japanese voice actress and singer 1969 – George LeMieux, American lawyer and politician 1969 – Brian Statham, Rhodesian born English footballer and manager 1970 – Brigita Bukovec, Slovenian hurdler 1970 – Dorsey Levens, American football player and sportscaster 1970 – Pauline Menczer, Australian surfer 1970 – Carl Veart, Australian footballer and coach 1972 – The Notorious B.I.G., American rapper (d. 1997) 1973 – Stewart Cink, American golfer 1973 – Noel Fielding, English comedian, musician and television presenter 1974 – Brad Arthur, Australian rugby league coach 1974 – Fairuza Balk, American actress 1974 – Aditi Gowitrikar, Indian model, actress, and physician, Mrs. World 2001 1974 – Havoc, American rapper and producer 1975 – Anthony Mundine, Australian rugby league player and boxer 1976 – Stuart Bingham, English snooker player 1976 – Abderrahim Goumri, Moroccan runner (d. 2013) 1976 – Deron Miller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1977 – Quinton Fortune, South African international footballer and coach 1977 – Michael Fuß, German footballer 1977 – Ricky Williams, American football player and coach 1978 – Max B, American rapper and songwriter 1978 – Briana Banks, German-American porn actress and model 1978 – Jamaal Magloire, Canadian basketball player and coach 1979 – Damián Ariel Álvarez, Argentinian-Mexican footballer 1979 – Jamie Hepburn, Scottish politician, Minister for Sport, Health Improvement and Mental Health 1979 – James Clancy Phelan, Australian author and academic 1979 – Scott Smith, American mixed martial artist 1979 – Sonja Vectomov, Czech musician/composer 1980 – Gotye, Belgian-Australian singer-songwriter 1981 – Craig Anderson, American ice hockey player 1981 – Edson Buddle, American soccer player 1981 – Josh Hamilton, American baseball player 1981 – Maximilian Mutzke, German singer-songwriter 1981 – Anna Rogowska, Polish pole vaulter 1983 – Līga Dekmeijere, Latvian tennis player 1983 – Deidson Araújo Maia, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Kaori Shimizu, Japanese voice actress and singer 1984 – Brandon Fields, American football player 1984 – Sara Goller, German volleyball player 1984 – Syamsul Yusof, Malaysian actor, film director, scriptwriter, film producer, rapper and singer 1985 – Mutya Buena, English singer-songwriter 1985 – Alison Carroll, English gymnast, model, and actress 1985 – Mark Cavendish, Manx cyclist 1985 – Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (d. 2012) 1985 – Isa Guha, English cricketer and sportscaster 1985 – Lucie Hradecká, Czech tennis player 1985 – Kano, English rapper, producer, and actor 1985 – Dušan Kuciak, Slovak footballer 1985 – Heath L'Estrange, Australian rugby league player 1985 – Andrew Miller, American baseball player 1986 – Mario Mandžukić, Croatian footballer 1986 – Myra, American singer and actress 1986 – Eder Sánchez, Mexican race walker 1986 – Park Sojin, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer 1986 – Greg Stewart, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Beau Falloon, Australian rugby league player 1988 – Claire Cashmore, English Paralympic swimmer 1988 – Park Gyu-ri, South Korean singer 1988 – Jonny Howson, English footballer 1988 – Kaire Leibak, Estonian triple jumper 1989 – Emily Robins, New Zealand actress and singer 1989 – Hal Robson-Kanu, Welsh footballer 1990 – Kierre Beckles, Barbadian athlete 1990 – Rene Krhin, Slovenian footballer 1991 – Guilherme, Brazilian footballer 1992 – Hutch Dano, American actor 1992 – Lisa Evans, Scottish footballer 1992 – Philipp Grüneberg, German footballer 1992 – Olivia Olson, American singer and actress 1993 – Grete Gaim, Estonian biathlete 1993 – Luke Garbutt, English footballer 1993 – Lynn Williams, American soccer player 1994 – Tom Daley, English diver 1995 – Katharina Andresen, Norwegian heiress and equestrian 1995 – Diego Loyzaga, Filipino actor 1996 – Josh Allen, American football player 1996 – Indy de Vroome, Dutch tennis player 1996 – Karen Khachanov, Russian tennis player 1997 – Ivan De Santis, Italian footballer 1997 – Sisca Folkertsma, Dutch footballer 1997 – Viktoria Petryk, Ukrainian singer-songwriter 1997 – Kevin Quinn, American actor and singer Deaths Pre-1600 252 – Sun Quan, Chinese emperor of Eastern Wu (b. 182) 954 – Feng Dao, Chinese prince and chancellor (b. 882) 987 – Louis V, king of West Francia (b. c. 966) 1075 – Richeza of Poland, queen of Hungary (b. 1013) 1086 – Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman and poet (b. 1021) 1237 – Olaf the Black, Manx son of Godred II Olafsson 1254 – Conrad IV, king of Germany (b. 1228) 1416 – Anna of Celje, queen consort of Poland (b. 1386) 1471 – Henry VI, king of England (b. 1421) 1481 – Christian I, king of Denmark (b. 1426) 1512 – Pandolfo Petrucci, Italian ruler (b. 1452) 1524 – Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1443) 1542 – Hernando de Soto, Spanish-American explorer (b. 1496) 1563 – Martynas Mažvydas, Lithuanian writer (b. 1510) 1601–1900 1607 – John Rainolds, English scholar and academic (b. 1549) 1619 – Hieronymus Fabricius, Italian anatomist (b. 1537) 1639 – Tommaso Campanella, Italian astrologer, theologian, and poet (b. 1568) 1647 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch poet and playwright (b. 1581) 1650 – James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, Scottish general and politician (b. 1612) 1664 – Elizabeth Poole, English settler, founded Taunton, Massachusetts (b. 1588) 1670 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (b. 1586) 1686 – Otto von Guericke, German physicist and inventor of the Magdeburg Hemispheres (b. 1602) 1690 – John Eliot, English-American minister and missionary (b. 1604) 1719 – Pierre Poiret, French mystic and philosopher (b. 1646) 1724 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1661) 1742 – Lars Roberg, Swedish physician and academic (b. 1664) 1762 – Alexander Joseph Sulkowski, Polish and Saxon general (b. 1695) 1771 – Christopher Smart, English actor, playwright, and poet (b. 1722) 1786 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele, German-Swedish chemist and pharmacist (b. 1742) 1790 – Thomas Warton, English poet and critic (b. 1728) 1810 – Chevalier d'Eon, French diplomat and spy (b. 1728) 1829 – Sikandar Jah, 3rd Nizam (b. 1768) 1844 – Giuseppe Baini, Italian priest and composer (b. 1775) 1858 – José de la Riva Agüero, Peruvian soldier and politician, 1st President of Peru and 2nd President of North Peru (b. 1783) 1862 – John Drew, Irish-American actor and manager (b. 1827) 1879 – Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and commander (b. 1848) 1894 – Émile Henry, French anarchist (b. 1872) 1894 – August Kundt, German physicist and academic (b. 1839) 1895 – Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1819) 1901–present 1901 – Joseph Olivier, French rugby player (b. 1874) 1911 – Williamina Fleming, Scottish-American astronomer and academic (b. 1857) 1915 – Leonid Gobyato, Russian general and engineer (b. 1875) 1919 – Evgraf Fedorov, Russian mathematician, crystallographer, and mineralogist (b. 1853) 1920 – Venustiano Carranza, Mexican politician, 54th President of Mexico (b. 1859) 1925 – Hidesaburō Ueno, Japanese agriculturalist, guardian of Hachikō (b. 1871) 1926 – Ronald Firbank, English-Italian author (b. 1886) 1929 – Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1847) 1932 – Marcel Boulenger, French fencer and author (b. 1873) 1935 – Jane Addams, American activist and author, co-founded Hull House, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860) 1935 – Hugo de Vries, Dutch botanist and geneticist (b. 1848) 1940 – Billy Minter, English footballer and manager (b. 1888) 1949 – Klaus Mann, German-American novelist, playwright, and critic (b. 1906) 1952 – John Garfield, American actor (b. 1913) 1956 – Harry Bensley, English businessman and adventurer (b. 1877) 1957 – Alexander Vertinsky, Ukrainian-Russian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (b. 1889) 1964 – James Franck, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882) 1965 – Marguerite Bise, French chef (b. 1898) 1965 – Geoffrey de Havilland, English pilot and engineer, designed the de Havilland Mosquito (b. 1882) 1968 – Doris Lloyd, English actress (b. 1896) 1970 – E. L. Grant Watson, English-Australian biologist and author (b. 1885) 1973 – Vaughn Monroe, American singer, trumpet player, bandleader, and actor (b. 1911) 1973 – Ivan Konev, Soviet Marshal and general (b. 1897) 1981 – Raymond McCreesh, PIRA volunteer (b. 1957) 1981 – Patsy O'Hara, INLA volunteer (b. 1957) 1983 – Kenneth Clark, English historian and author (b. 1903) 1984 – Ann Little, American actress (b. 1891) 1988 – Sammy Davis Sr., American actor and dancer (b. 1900) 1991 – Lino Brocka, Filipino director and screenwriter (b. 1939) 1991 – Rajiv Gandhi, Indian politician, 6th Prime Minister of India (b. 1944) 1995 – Les Aspin, American captain and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Defense (b. 1938) 1996 – Paul Delph, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1957) 1996 – Lash LaRue, American actor and producer (b. 1917) 1996 – Villem Raam, Estonian art historian, art critic and conservator (b. 1910) 1998 – Robert Gist, American actor and director (b. 1917) 2000 – Barbara Cartland, English author (b. 1901) 2000 – John Gielgud, English actor (b. 1904) 2000 – Mark R. Hughes, American businessman, founded Herbalife (b. 1956) 2002 – Niki de Saint Phalle, French-American sculptor and painter (b. 1930) 2003 – Alejandro de Tomaso, Argentinian-Italian race car driver and businessman, founded De Tomaso (b. 1928) 2003 – Frank D. White, American captain, banker, and politician, 41st Governor of Arkansas (b. 1933) 2005 – Deborah Berger, American outsider artist (b. 1956) 2005 – Stephen Elliott, American actor (b. 1918) 2005 – Howard Morris, American actor and director (b. 1919) 2006 – Spencer Clark, American race car driver (b. 1987) 2006 – Katherine Dunham, American dancer, choreographer, and author (b. 1909) 2006 – Cherd Songsri, Thai director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1931) 2006 – Billy Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929) 2012 – Eddie Blazonczyk, American singer-songwriter (b. 1941) 2012 – Otis Clark, American butler and preacher, survivor of the Tulsa race riot (b. 1903) 2012 – Constantine of Irinoupolis, Metropolitan of Irinoupolis and Primate of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA (b. 1936) 2012 – Roman Dumbadze, Georgian commander (b. 1964) 2012 – Douglas Rodríguez, Cuban boxer (b. 1950) 2012 – Bill Stewart, American football player and coach (b. 1952) 2012 – Alan Thorne, Australian anthropologist and academic (b. 1939) 2013 – Count Christian of Rosenborg, member of the Danish royal family (b. 1942) 2013 – Frank Comstock, American trombonist, composer, and conductor (b. 1922) 2013 – Cot Deal, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923) 2013 – Mohammad Khaled Hossain, Bangladeshi mountaineer (b. 1979) 2013 – Leonard Marsh, American businessman, co-founded Snapple (b. 1933) 2013 – Bob Thompson, American pianist and composer (b. 1924) 2013 – Dominique Venner, French journalist and historian (b. 1935) 2013 – David Voelker, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1953) 2014 – Tunku Annuar, Malaysian son of Badlishah of Kedah (b. 1939) 2014 – Evelyn Blackmon, American businesswoman and politician (b. 1924) 2014 – Johnny Gray, American baseball player (b. 1926) 2014 – Jaime Lusinchi, Venezuelan physician and politician, President of Venezuela (b. 1924) 2014 – Alireza Soleimani, Iranian wrestler (b. 1956) 2015 – Annarita Sidoti, Italian race walker (b. 1969) 2015 – Twinkle, English singer-songwriter (b. 1948) 2015 – Jassem Al-Kharafi, Kuwaiti businessman and politician, 8th Kuwaiti Speaker of the National Assembly (b. 1940) 2015 | actor (d. 1988) 1916 – Tinus Osendarp, Dutch sprinter and police officer (d. 2002) 1916 – Harold Robbins, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997) 1917 – Raymond Burr, Canadian-American actor and director (d. 1993) 1918 – Anthony Steel, English actor and singer (d. 2001) 1919 – George P. Mitchell, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1920 – Bill Barber, American tuba player and educator (d. 2007) 1920 – Forrest White, American businessman, co-founded the Music Man Company (d. 1994) 1921 – Sandy Douglas, English computer scientist and academic, designed OXO (d. 2010) 1921 – Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989) 1923 – Vernon Biever, American photographer (d. 2010) 1923 – Armand Borel, Swiss-American mathematician and academic (d. 2003) 1923 – Ara Parseghian, American football player and coach (d. 2017) 1923 – Dorothy Hewett, Australian feminist poet, novelist and playwright (d. 2002) 1923 – Evelyn Ward, American actress (d. 2012) 1924 – Peggy Cass, American actress, comedian, and game show panelist (d. 1999) 1926 – Robert Creeley, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2005) 1927 – Kay Kendall, English actress and comedian (d. 1959) 1927 – Péter Zwack, Hungarian businessman and diplomat (d. 2012) 1928 – Tom Donahue, American radio host and producer (d. 1975) 1928 – Alice Drummond, American actress (d. 2016) 1929 – Larance Marable, American drummer (d. 2012) 1929 – Robert Welch, English silversmith and industrial designer (d. 2000) 1930 – Tommy Bryant, American bassist (d. 1982) 1930 – Keith Davis, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019) 1930 – Malcolm Fraser, Australian politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2015) 1932 – Inese Jaunzeme, Latvian javelin thrower and surgeon (d. 2011) 1932 – Leonidas Vasilikopoulos, Greek admiral and intelligence chief (d. 2014) 1933 – Maurice André, French trumpet player (d. 2012) 1933 – Yevgeny Minayev, Russian weightlifter (d. 1993) 1934 – Jocasta Innes, Chinese-English journalist and author (d. 2013) 1934 – Bob Northern, American horn player and bandleader (d.2020) 1934 – Bengt I. Samuelsson, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1935 – Terry Lightfoot, English clarinet player and bandleader (d. 2013) 1936 – Günter Blobel, Polish-American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018) 1938 – Lee "Shot" Williams, American singer (d. 2011) 1939 – Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist, composer, and conductor 1940 – Tony Sheridan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1941 – Martin Carthy, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1941 – Bobby Cox, American baseball player and manager 1941 – Ambrose Greenway, 4th Baron Greenway, English photographer and politician 1941 – Ronald Isley, American singer-songwriter and producer 1942 – David Hunt, Baron Hunt of Wirral, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales 1942 – John Konrads, Australian swimmer (d. 2021) 1942 – Danny Ongais, American race car driver 1943 – Vincent Crane, English pianist and composer (d. 1989) 1943 – John Dalton, English bass player 1943 – Hilton Valentine, English guitarist and songwriter (d. 2021) 1944 – Haleh Afshar, Baroness Afshar, Iranian-English academic and politician 1944 – Marcie Blane, American singer 1944 – Janet Dailey, American author and entrepreneur (d. 2013) 1944 – Mary Robinson, Irish lawyer and politician, President of Ireland 1945 – Ernst Messerschmid, German physicist and astronaut 1945 – Richard Hatch, American actor, writer, and producer (d. 2017) 1946 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013) 1946 – Wayne Roycroft, Australian equestrian rider and coach 1947 – Bill Champlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1947 – Linda Laubenstein, American physician and academic (d. 1992) 1947 – İlber Ortaylı, Turkish historian and academic 1948 – Elizabeth Buchan, English author and critic 1948 – Joe Camilleri, Maltese-Australian singer-songwriter and saxophonist 1948 – Jonathan Hyde, Australian-English actor 1948 – Denis MacShane, Scottish journalist and politician, UK Minister of State for Europe 1948 – Leo Sayer, English-Australian singer-songwriter and musician 1949 – Andrew Neil, Scottish journalist and academic 1949 – Denis O'Connor, British police officer 1949 – Rosalind Plowright, English soprano 1950 – Will Hutton, English economist and journalist 1951 – Al Franken, American actor, screenwriter, and politician 1951 – Adrian Hardiman, Irish lawyer and judge (d. 2016) 1952 – Mr. T, American actor and wrestler 1953 – Nora Aunor, Filipino actress and recording artist 1953 – Jim Devine, British politician 1954 – D. B. S. Jeyaraj, Sri Lankan-Canadian journalist and blogger 1954 – Janice Karman, American film producer, record producer, singer, and voice actress 1954 – Marc Ribot, American guitarist and composer 1955 – Paul Barber, English field hockey player 1955 – Stan Lynch, American drummer, songwriter, and producer 1957 – James Bailey, American basketball player 1957 – Nadine Dorries, English nurse and politician 1957 – Judge Reinhold, American actor and producer 1957 – Renée Soutendijk, Dutch actress 1958 – Christian Audigier, French fashion designer (d. 2015) 1958 – Muffy Calder, Canadian-Scottish computer scientist and academic 1958 – Michael Crick, English journalist and author 1958 – Naeem Khan, Indian-American fashion designer 1958 – Jefery Levy, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1959 – Nick Cassavetes, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1959 – Abdulla Yameen, Maldivian politician, 6th President of the Maldives 1960 – Jeffrey Dahmer, American serial killer (d. 1994) 1960 – Kent Hrbek, American baseball player and sportscaster 1960 – Mohanlal, Indian actor 1960 – Mark Ridgway, Australian cricketer 1960 – Vladimir Salnikov, Russian swimmer 1962 – David Crumb, American composer and educator 1963 – Richard Appel, American screenwriter and producer 1963 – Patrick Grant, American musician and producer 1963 – David Lonsdale, English actor 1964 – Pete Sandoval, Salvadoran-American drummer 1963 – Kevin Shields, American-Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1963 – Dave Specter, American guitarist 1963 – Laurie Spina, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1964 – Danny Bailey, English footballer and coach 1965 – Josh Richman, American actor and producer 1966 – Lisa Edelstein, American actress and playwright 1966 – Tatyana Ledovskaya, Belarusian hurdler 1967 – Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2007) 1968 – Ilmar Raag, Estonian director, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Matthias Ungemach, German-Australian rower 1968 – Julie Vega, Filipino actress and singer (d. 1985) 1969 – Pierluigi Brivio, Italian footballer 1969 – Georgiy Gongadze, Georgian-Ukrainian journalist and director (d. 2000) 1969 – Masayo Kurata, Japanese voice actress and singer 1969 – George LeMieux, American lawyer and politician 1969 – Brian Statham, Rhodesian born English footballer and manager 1970 – Brigita Bukovec, Slovenian hurdler 1970 – Dorsey Levens, American football player and sportscaster 1970 – Pauline Menczer, Australian surfer 1970 – Carl Veart, Australian footballer and coach 1972 – The Notorious B.I.G., American rapper (d. 1997) 1973 – Stewart Cink, American golfer 1973 – Noel Fielding, English comedian, musician and television presenter 1974 – Brad Arthur, Australian rugby league coach 1974 – Fairuza Balk, American actress 1974 – Aditi Gowitrikar, Indian model, actress, and physician, Mrs. World 2001 1974 – Havoc, American rapper and producer 1975 – Anthony Mundine, Australian rugby league player and boxer 1976 – Stuart Bingham, English snooker player 1976 – Abderrahim Goumri, Moroccan runner (d. 2013) 1976 – Deron Miller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1977 – Quinton Fortune, South African international footballer and coach 1977 – Michael Fuß, German footballer 1977 – Ricky Williams, American football player and coach 1978 – Max B, American rapper and songwriter 1978 – Briana Banks, German-American porn actress and model 1978 – Jamaal Magloire, Canadian basketball player and coach 1979 – Damián Ariel Álvarez, Argentinian-Mexican footballer 1979 – Jamie Hepburn, Scottish politician, Minister for Sport, Health Improvement and Mental Health 1979 – James Clancy Phelan, Australian author and academic 1979 – Scott Smith, American mixed martial artist 1979 – Sonja Vectomov, Czech musician/composer 1980 – Gotye, Belgian-Australian singer-songwriter 1981 – Craig Anderson, American ice hockey player 1981 – Edson Buddle, American soccer player 1981 – Josh Hamilton, American baseball player 1981 – Maximilian Mutzke, German singer-songwriter 1981 – Anna Rogowska, Polish pole vaulter 1983 – Līga Dekmeijere, Latvian tennis player 1983 – Deidson Araújo Maia, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Kaori Shimizu, Japanese voice actress and singer 1984 – Brandon Fields, American football player 1984 – Sara Goller, German volleyball player 1984 – Syamsul Yusof, Malaysian actor, film director, scriptwriter, film producer, rapper and singer 1985 – Mutya Buena, English singer-songwriter 1985 |
Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than "reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions". The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective "than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines". However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting "significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets". In addition, they concluded that low-ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high-ability students. Features Joeran Beel and Stefan Langer conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps. They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications SciPlore MindMapping (now Docear) and MindMeister. Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean=2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about three words (median). However, there were exceptions. One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained ~7,500 words. The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant | records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235–1315) also used such techniques. The semantic network was developed in the late 1950s as a theory to understand human learning and developed further by Allan M. Collins and M. Ross Quillian during the early 1960s. Mind maps are similar in structure to concept maps, developed by learning experts in the 1970s, but differ in that mind maps are simplified by focusing around a single central key concept. Popularization Buzan's specific approach, and the introduction of the term "mind map", arose during a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called Use Your Head. In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree-like structure. Buzan says the idea was inspired by Alfred Korzybski's general semantics as popularized in science fiction novels, such as those of Robert A. Heinlein and A. E. van Vogt. He argues that while "traditional" outlines force readers to scan left to right and top to bottom, readers actually tend to scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion. Buzan's treatment also uses then-popular assumptions about the functions of cerebral hemispheres in order to explain the claimed increased effectiveness of mind mapping over other forms of note making. Differences from other visualizations Concept maps: Mind maps differ from concept maps in that mind maps are based on a radial hierarchy (tree structure) denoting relationships with a central concept, whereas concept maps can be more free-form, based on connections between concepts in more diverse patterns. Also, concept maps typically have text labels on the links between nodes. However, either can be part of a larger personal knowledge base system. Modeling graphs or graphical modeling languages: There is no rigorous right or wrong with mind maps, which rely on the arbitrariness of mnemonic associations to aid people's information organization and memory. In contrast, a modeling graph such as a UML diagram structures elements using a precise standardized iconography to aid the design of systems. Research Effectiveness Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80% of the students thought "mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science". Other studies also report some subjective positive effects on the use of mind maps. Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than "reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions". The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective "than |
unidentified matross at Woolwich had achieved a rate of fire of 59 shots in 59 and a half seconds. Also in 1775, a breech-loading volley gun, similar to the later mitrailleuse, was invented by a Frenchman called Du Perron which was capable of discharging 24 barrels 10 times a minute for a total rate of fire of 240 shots per minute. In 1776, a gun capable of charging and discharging itself 120 times in a minute was invented in England by an inventor from the county of Westmoreland. In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a "new improved gun", which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds; unlike older repeaters using complex lever-action mechanisms, it used a simpler system of superposed loads, and was loaded with a single large paper cartridge. Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high. In 1788 a Swiss soldier invented a machine worked by 10 men capable of discharging 300 balls in 3 minutes. In 1790, a former officer in the French military known as Joseph-François-Louis Grobert invented a 'ballistic machine' or 'pyroballistic machine' with multiple barrels operated by 4 men and a continuous rotational movement capable of firing 360 rifle shots a minute in a variety of calibers. In 1792, a French artist known as Renard invented a piece of ordnance that could be operated by one man and fired 90 shots a minute. 19th century In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapid-firing weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, mostly volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double-barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun, though the Nock gun used the otherwise-undesirable "chain fire" phenomenon (where multiple chambers are ignited at once) to propagate a spark from a single flintlock mechanism to multiple barrels. Pepperbox pistols also did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple manually operated barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared cylinder and linked advancing the cylinder to cocking the hammer. However, these were still manually operated. In 1821, a muzzle-loading repeating cannon capable of firing 30 shots in 6 minutes or 5 shots per minute was demonstrated in England by the French-American 'Fire King' Ivan Ivanitz Chabert. It was worked by a 'wheel', fed by paper cartridges from a store attached to the cannon and ignited using a match from a match-holder somewhere else on the cannon. In 1828, a swivel gun which didn't need cleaning or muzzle-loading and was capable of being made to any dimensions and used as an ordinary cannon at a moment's notice and firing 40 shots a minute was invented by a native of Ireland. In France, in 1831, a mechanic from the Vosges department invented a lever-operated cannon that could fire 100 shots a minute. In 1832, a machine capable of firing 500 rifle shots a minute was devised by Hamel, a French mechanic. In the mid-1830s, a machine gun was designed by John Steuble (Swiss), who tried to sell it to the Russian, English and French governments. The English and Russian governments showed interest but the former refused to pay Steuble, who later sued them for this transgression, and the latter tried to imprison him. The French government showed interest at first and while they noted that mechanically there was nothing wrong with Steuble's invention they turned him down, stating that the machine both lacked novelty and could not be usefully employed by the army. The gun was reportedly breech-loading, fed by cartridges from some kind of hopper and could fire 34 barrels of one-inch calibre 4 or 6 times for a total of 136 or 204 shots a minute. It was mentioned in a biography of William Lyon Mackenzie that in 1839 a Detroit-based inventor was working on a cannon that could be fired 50 to 60 times in a minute. In 1842, Dr. Thomson, an American, invented a cannon that used some kind of revolving cylinder and could be fired 50 times in as many seconds. In 1846, Mr. Francis Dixon, an American, invented a cannon that loaded, primed and discharged itself through the use of a brake at a rate of fire of 30 to 40 shots a minute. A variation of it was worked by clockwork-like machinery and could be made to move by itself a certain distance along rails before firing 10 times and returning to its original position. Also in 1846, in Canada, inventor Simeon 'Larochelle' Gautron, invented a cannon that was similar to a wooden model of a repeating cannon he constructed in 1836 but for which he had made a number of improvements since then which could be fired 10 or 12 times in a minute when the typical muzzle-loading cannon of the day could be fired at only a fraction of that speed, and an English newspaper reporting on it claimed it could be fired up to 60 times in the same period of time, and clean itself after every shot. It was worked by a crank, could be worked by one man when the typical cannon of the day required twelve or more, was fed by paper cartridges from a revolving cylinder and used separate percussion caps for ignition. Larochelle tried to interest the Canadian military in his invention but was turned down for reasons of complexity and expense which, while it drew some criticism from the French language Canadian press, led to the inventor discontinuing development of it in favour of more profitable activities. A model of Larochelle's cannon is still on display at the Musee National des Beaux-Arts du Quebec. In 1847, a short description of a prototype electrically ignited mechanical machine gun was published in Scientific American by J.R. Nichols. The model described is small in scale and works by rotating a series of barrels vertically so that it is feeding at the top from a 'tube' or hopper and could be discharged immediately at any elevation after having received a charge, according to the author. In 1848, the Italian Cesare Rosaglio announced his invention of a machine gun capable of being operated by a single man and firing 300 rifle shots a minute or 12,000 in an hour after taking into account the time needed to reload the 'tanks' of ammunition. In June 1851, a model of a 'war engine' allegedly capable of firing 10,000 ball cartridges in 10 minutes was demonstrated by a British inventor called Francis McGetrick. In 1852, a rotary cannon using a unique form of wheellock ignition was demonstrated by Delany, an Irish immigrant to America. In 1854, a British patent for a mechanically operated machine gun was filed by Henry Clarke. This weapon used multiple barrels arranged side by side, fed by a revolving cylinder that was in turn fed by hoppers, similar to the system used by Nichols. The gun could be fired by percussion or electricity, according to the author. Unlike other mechanically operated machine guns of the era, this weapon didn't use any form of self-contained cartridge, with firing being carried out by separate percussion caps. In the same year, water cooling was proposed for machine guns by Henry Bessemer, along with a water cleaning system, though he later abandoned this design. In his patent, Bessemer describes a hydropneumatic delayed-blowback-operated, fully automatic cannon. Part of the patent also refers to a steam-operated piston to be used with firearms but the bulk of the patent is spent detailing the former system. In America, a patent for a machine gun type weapon was filed by John Andrus Reynolds in 1855. Another early American patent for a manually operated machine gun with a blowback-operated cocking mechanism was filed by C. E. Barnes in 1856. In France and Britain, a mechanically operated machine gun was patented in 1856 by Frenchman Francois Julien. This weapon was a cannon that fed from a type of open-ended tubular magazine, only using rollers and an endless chain in place of springs. The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a "coffee-mill gun" because of its resemblance to a coffee mill, was invented by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War. The weapon featured mechanized loading using a hand crank linked to a hopper above the weapon. The weapon featured a single barrel and fired through the turning of the same crank; it operated using paper cartridges fitted with percussion caps and inserted into metal tubes that acted as chambers; it was therefore functionally similar to a revolver. The weapon was demonstrated to President Lincoln in 1861. He was so impressed with the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500 apiece. The Union Army eventually purchased a total of 54 of the weapons. However, due to antiquated views of the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use. The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling, was the first to offer controlled, sequential fire with mechanical loading. The design's key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a hand-operated crank for sequential high-speed firing. It first saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian war and North-West Rebellion. Many were sold to other armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used into the early 20th century until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or canister shot. The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position, which increased the vulnerability of their crews. Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke, making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century. Gatling guns were targeted by artillery they could not reach, and their crews were targeted by snipers they could not see. The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires, since against poorly equipped indigenous armies it did not face such threats. In 1864, in the aftermath of the Second Schleswig War, Denmark started a program intended to develop a gun that used the recoil of a fired shot to reload the firearm though a working model wouldn't be produced until 1888. In 1870, a Lt. D. H. Friberg of the Swedish army patented a fully automatic recoil-operated firearm action and may have produced firing prototypes of a derived design around 1882: this was the forerunner to the 1907 Kjellman machine gun, though, due to rapid residue buildup from the use of black powder, Friberg's design was not a practical weapon. Also in 1870, the Bavarian regiment of the Prussian army used a unique mitrailleuse style weapon in the Franco-Prussian war. The weapon was made up of four barrels placed side by side that replaced the manual loading of the French mitrailleuse with a mechanical loading system featuring a hopper containing 41 cartridges at the breech of each barrel. Although it was used effectively at times, mechanical difficulties hindered its operation and it was ultimately abandoned shortly after the war ended (de). Maxim and World War I The first practical self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884 by Sir Hiram Maxim. The Maxim machine gun used the recoil power of the previously fired bullet to reload rather than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs such as the Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons. Maxim also introduced the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the barrel, to reduce overheating. Maxim's gun was widely adopted, and derivative designs were used on all sides during the First World War. The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns. First World War combat experience demonstrated the military importance of the machine gun. The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919. Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP 18) as well as lighter machine guns (the first light machine gun deployed in any significant number being the Madsen machine gun, with the Chauchat and Lewis gun soon following) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns. The biggest single cause of casualties in World War I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation. Another fundamental development occurring before and during the war was the incorporation by gun designers of machine gun auto-loading mechanisms into handguns, giving rise to semi-automatic pistols such as the Borchardt (1890s), automatic machine pistols and later submachine | the round from firing before it is seated properly. Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears. When a sear is in place, it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion. Some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear. Other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber. Almost all machine guns have a "safety" sear, which simply keeps the trigger from engaging. History The first successful machine-gun designs were developed in the mid-19th century. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly mechanical loading, first appeared in the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; as discussed above, this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well. While technical use of the term "machine gun" has varied, the modern definition used by the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute of America is "a fully automatic firearm that loads, fires and ejects continuously when the trigger is held to the rear until the ammunition is exhausted or pressure on the trigger is released." This definition excludes most early manually operated repeating arms the Gatling gun and such as volley guns like the Nordenfelt gun. Medieval The first known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were medieval organ guns, while the first to have the ability to fire multiple shots from a single barrel without a full manual reload were revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s. One is a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580. Another is a revolving arquebus, produced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597. 17th century True repeating long arms were difficult to manufacture prior to the development of the unitary firearm cartridge; nevertheless, lever-action repeating rifles such as the Kalthoff repeater and Cookson repeater were made in small quantities in the 17th century. Perhaps the earliest examples of predecessors to the modern machine gun are to be found in East Asia. According to the Wu-Pei-Chih, a booklet examining Chinese military equipment produced during the first quarter of the 17th century, the Chinese army had in its arsenal the 'Po-Tzu Lien-Chu-P'ao' or 'string-of-100-bullets cannon'. This was a repeating cannon fed by a hopper containing balls which fired its charges sequentially. The way it worked was similar to the Perkins steam gun of 1824 or the Beningfield electrolysis gun of 1845 only slow-burning gunpowder was used as the propelling force in place of steam or the gases produced by electrolysis. Another repeating gun was produced by a Chinese commoner, Dai Zi, in the late 17th century. This weapon was also hopper-fed and never went into mass production. In 1655, a way of loading, aiming and shooting up to 6 wall muskets 60 times in a minute for a total rate of fire of 360 shots per minute was mentioned in The Century of Inventions by Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester, though, like all the inventions mentioned in the book, it is uncertain if it was ever built. It is sometimes claimed (i.e. in George Morgan Chinn's the Machine Gun) that in 1663 the first mention of the automatic principle of machine guns was in a paper presented to the Royal Society of England by Palmer, an Englishman who described a volley gun capable of being operated by either recoil or gas. However, no one has been able to find this paper in recent times and all references to a multi-shot weapon by a Palmer during this period appear to be referring to a somewhat more common Kalthoff repeater or Lorenzoni-system gun. Despite this, there is a reference in 1663 to at least the concept of a genuine automatic gun that was presented to Prince Rupert, though its type and method of operation are unknown. 18th century Another early revolving gun was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called "The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a manually operated 1.25 in. (32 mm) caliber, flintlock cannon with a revolver cylinder able to fire 6–11 rounds before reloading by swapping out the cylinder, intended for use on ships. It was one of the earliest weapons to be referred to as a machine gun, being called such in 1722, though its operation does not match the modern usage of the term. According to Puckle, it was able to fire round bullets at Christians and square bullets at Turks. However, it was a commercial failure and was not adopted or produced in any meaningful quantity. In 1737, it was mentioned that Jacob de Weinholtz, a Dane who was serving in the Portuguese army, had invented a cannon capable of firing 20 to 30 shots a minute though requiring 15 people to work it. The cannons were brought along with a Portuguese fleet sent to India to take part in a colonial war in the 1740s. Also in 1737 it was mentioned that a German engineer had invented a 10-pounder cannon capable of firing 20 times in a minute. In 1740, a cannon able to shoot 11 times per minute was developed by a Frenchman called Chevalier de Benac. Meanwhile, not long after in England, in 1747 a cannon able to simultaneously charge and discharge itself 20 times in a minute was invented by James Allis and presented to the Royal Society of England. In 1750, in Denmark a Prussian known as Captain Steuben of the Train of Artillery invented a breech-loading cannon worked by 4 people and fed by paper cartridges capable of firing 24 times in a minute and demonstrated it to the King of Denmark along with some other high-ranking officials in the same year. In 1764, Frenchman Ange Goudar wrote in his work The Chinese Spy that he had assisted in Paris in the proofing of a 'great gun' capable of firing 60 times in a minute. In 1773, another cannon capable of firing 23 or 24 times in a minute and cleaning itself after every shot was invented by Thomas Desaguliers. In 1775, it was mentioned that in England two large cannons invented by an unidentified matross at Woolwich had achieved a rate of fire of 59 shots in 59 and a half seconds. Also in 1775, a breech-loading volley gun, similar to the later mitrailleuse, was invented by a Frenchman called Du Perron which was capable of discharging 24 barrels 10 times a minute for a total rate of fire of 240 shots per minute. In 1776, a gun capable of charging and discharging itself 120 times in a minute was invented in England by an inventor from the county of Westmoreland. In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a "new improved gun", which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds; unlike older repeaters using complex lever-action mechanisms, it used a simpler system of superposed loads, and was loaded with a single large paper cartridge. Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high. In 1788 a Swiss soldier invented a machine worked by 10 men capable of discharging 300 balls in 3 minutes. In 1790, a former officer in the French military known as Joseph-François-Louis Grobert invented a 'ballistic machine' or 'pyroballistic machine' with multiple barrels operated by 4 men and a continuous rotational movement capable of firing 360 rifle shots a minute in a variety of calibers. In 1792, a French artist known as Renard invented a piece of ordnance that could be operated by one man and fired 90 shots a minute. 19th century In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapid-firing weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, mostly volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double-barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun, though the Nock gun used the otherwise-undesirable "chain fire" phenomenon (where multiple chambers are ignited at once) to propagate a spark from a single flintlock mechanism to multiple barrels. Pepperbox pistols also did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple manually operated barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared cylinder and linked advancing the cylinder to cocking the hammer. However, these were still manually operated. In 1821, a muzzle-loading repeating cannon capable of firing 30 shots in 6 minutes or 5 shots per minute was demonstrated in England by the French-American 'Fire King' Ivan Ivanitz Chabert. It was worked by a 'wheel', fed by paper cartridges from a store attached to the cannon and ignited using a match from a match-holder somewhere else on the cannon. In 1828, a swivel gun which didn't need cleaning or muzzle-loading and was capable of being made to any dimensions and used as an ordinary cannon at a moment's notice and firing 40 shots a minute was invented by a native of Ireland. In France, in 1831, a mechanic from the Vosges department invented a lever-operated cannon that could fire 100 shots a minute. In 1832, a machine capable of firing 500 rifle shots a minute was devised by Hamel, a French mechanic. In the mid-1830s, a machine gun was designed by John Steuble (Swiss), who tried to sell it to the Russian, English and French governments. The English and Russian governments showed interest but the former refused to pay Steuble, who later sued them for this transgression, and the latter tried to imprison him. The French government showed interest at first and while they noted that mechanically there was nothing wrong with Steuble's invention they turned him down, stating that the machine both lacked novelty and could not be usefully employed by the army. The gun was reportedly breech-loading, fed by cartridges from some kind of hopper and could fire 34 barrels of one-inch calibre 4 or 6 times for a total of 136 or 204 shots a minute. It was mentioned in a biography of William Lyon Mackenzie that in 1839 a Detroit-based inventor was working on a cannon that could be fired 50 to 60 times in a minute. In 1842, Dr. Thomson, an American, invented a cannon that used some kind of revolving cylinder and could be fired 50 times in as many seconds. In 1846, Mr. Francis Dixon, an American, invented a cannon that loaded, primed and discharged itself through the use of a brake at a rate of fire of 30 to 40 shots a minute. A variation of it was worked by clockwork-like machinery and could be made to move by itself a certain distance along rails before firing 10 times and returning to its original position. Also in 1846, in Canada, inventor Simeon 'Larochelle' Gautron, invented a cannon that was similar to a wooden model of a repeating cannon he constructed in 1836 but for which he had made a number of improvements since then which could be fired 10 or 12 times in a minute when the typical muzzle-loading cannon of the day could be fired at only a fraction of that speed, and an English newspaper reporting on it claimed it could be fired up to 60 times in the same period of time, and clean itself after every shot. It was worked by a crank, could be worked by one man when the typical cannon of the day required twelve or more, was fed by paper cartridges from a revolving cylinder and used separate percussion caps for ignition. Larochelle tried to interest the Canadian military in his invention but was turned down for reasons of complexity and expense which, while it drew some criticism from the French language Canadian press, led to the inventor discontinuing development of it in favour of more profitable activities. A model of Larochelle's cannon is still on display at the Musee National des Beaux-Arts du Quebec. In 1847, a short description of a prototype electrically ignited mechanical machine gun was published in Scientific American by J.R. Nichols. The model described is small in scale and works by rotating a series of barrels vertically so that it is feeding at the top from a 'tube' or hopper and could be discharged immediately at any elevation after having received a charge, according to the author. In 1848, the Italian Cesare Rosaglio announced his invention of a machine gun capable of being operated by a single man and firing 300 rifle shots a |
can be placed on the Railroad spaces. This edition was adapted for the U.K. market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK After the initial US release, critiques of some of the rules caused the company to issue revisions and clarifications on their website. Monopoly Here and Now The US edition of Monopoly Here and Now was released in September 2006. This edition features top landmarks across the US. The properties were decided by votes over the Internet in the spring of 2006. Monetary values are multiplied by 10,000 (e.g., one collects $2,000,000 instead of $200 for passing GO and pays that much for Income Tax (or 10% of their total, as this edition was launched prior to 2008), each player starts with $15,000,000 instead of $1,500, etc.). Also, the Chance and Community Chest cards are updated, the Railroads are replaced by Airports (Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles International, New York City's JFK, and Atlanta's Hartsfield–Jackson), and the Utilities (Electric Company and Water Works) are replaced by Service Providers (Internet Service Provider and Cell Phone Service Provider). The houses and hotels are blue and silver, not green and red as in most editions of Monopoly. The board uses the traditional US layout; the cheapest properties are purple, not brown, and "Interest on Credit Card Debt" replaces "Luxury Tax". Despite the updated Luxury Tax space, and the Income Tax space no longer using the 10% option, this edition uses paper Monopoly money, and not an electronic banking unit like the Here and Now World Edition. However, a similar edition of Monopoly, the Electronic Banking edition, does feature an electronic banking unit and bank cards, as well as a different set of tokens. Both Here and Now and Electronic Banking feature an updated set of tokens from the Atlantic City edition. One landmark, Texas Stadium, has been demolished and no longer exists. Another landmark, Jacobs Field, still exists, but was renamed Progressive Field in 2008. In 2015, in honor of the game's 80th birthday, Hasbro held an online vote to determine which cities would make it into an updated version of Here and Now. This second edition is more a spin-off as the winning condition has changed to completing a passport instead of bankrupting opponents. Community Chest is replaced with Here and Now cards, while the Here and Now space replaced the railroads. Houses and hotels have been removed. Hasbro released a World edition with the top voted cities from all around the world, as well as at least a Here and Now edition with the voted-on U.S. cities. Monopoly Empire Monopoly Empire has uniquely branded tokens and places based on popular brands. Instead of buying properties, players buy popular brands one by one and slide their billboards onto their Empire towers. Instead of building houses and hotels, players collect rent from their rivals based on their tower height. The first player to fill their tower with billboards wins. Every space on the board is a brand name, such as Xbox, Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Samsung. Monopoly Token Madness This version of Monopoly contains an extra eight golden tokens. That includes a penguin, a television, a race car, a Mr. Monopoly emoji, a rubber duck, a watch, a wheel and a bunny slipper. Monopoly Jackpot During the game, players travel around the gameboard buying properties and collecting rent. If they land on a Chance space, or roll the Chance icon on a die, they can spin the Chance spinner to try to make more money. Players may hit the "Jackpot", go bankrupt, or be sent to Jail. The player who has the most cash when the bank crashes wins. Monopoly: Ultimate Banking Edition In this version, there is no cash. The Monopoly Ultimate Banking game features an electronic ultimate banking piece with touch technology. Players can buy properties instantly and set rents by tapping. Each player has a bankcard and their cash is tracked by the Ultimate Banking unit. It can scan the game's property cards and boost or crash the market. Event cards and Location spaces replace Chance and Community Chest cards. On an Event Space, rents may be raised or lowered, a player may earn or lose money, or someone could be sent to Jail. Location Spaces allow players to pay and move to any property space on the gameboard. Monopoly Voice Banking In this version, there are no cash or cards. Voice Banking allows the player to respond by voice to the Top Hat. The hat responds by purchasing properties, paying rent, and making buildings. Ms. Monopoly Ms. Monopoly is a feminist-oriented version of the game released in 2019, giving bonuses to female players. Monopoly Deal Monopoly Deal is a card game derived from the board-game Monopoly introduced in 2008, produced and sold by Cartamundi under a license from Hasbro. Players attempt to collect three complete sets of cards representing the properties from the original board game, either by playing them directly, stealing them from other players, swapping cards with other players, or collecting them as rent for other properties they already own. The cards in the 110-card deck represent properties and wild cards, various denominations of Monopoly money used to pay rent, and special action cards which can either be played for their effects or banked as money instead. Equipment All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. A standard set of Monopoly pieces includes: Cards A deck of thirty-two Chance and Community Chest cards (sixteen each) which players draw when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them. Deeds A title deed for each property is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rents depending on how developed the property is. Properties include: Four railroads, players collect $25 rent if they own one railroad; $50 for two; $100 for three; $200 for all four. These are usually replaced by railroad stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly. Twenty-two streets divided into eight color groups of two or three streets; a player must own all of a color group to build houses or hotels. Once achieved, color group properties must be improved or "broken down" evenly. See the section on Rules. Two utilities, rent is four times the dice value if one utility is owned, but ten times if both are owned. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations. Some country editions have a fixed rent for utilities; for example, the Italian editions has a L. 2,000 ($20) rent if one utility is owned, or L. 10,000 ($100) if both are owned. The purchase price for properties varies from $60 to $400 on a U.S. Standard Edition set. Dice A pair of six-sided dice is included, with a "speed die" added for variation in 2007. The 1999 Millennium Edition featured two jewel-like dice which were the subject of a lawsuit from Michael Bowling, owner of dice maker Crystal Caste. Hasbro lost the suit in 2008 and had to pay $446,182 in royalties. Subsequent printings of the game reverted to normal six-sided dice. Houses and hotels 32 houses and 12 hotels made of wood or plastic (the original and current Deluxe Edition have wooden houses and hotels; the current "base set" uses plastic buildings). Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed. In most editions, houses are green and hotels red. Money Older U.S. standard editions of the game included a total of $15,140 in the following denominations: 20 $100 bills (beige) 20 $500 bills (orange) 30 $50 bills (blue) 40 $1 bills (white) 40 $10 bills (yellow) 40 $5 bills (pink) 50 $20 bills (green) Newer (September 2008 and later) U.S. editions provide a total of $20,580—30 of each denomination instead. The colors of some of the bills are also changed: $10s are now blue instead of yellow, $20s are a brighter green than before, and $50s are now purple instead of blue. Each player begins the game with their token on the Go square, and $1,500 (or 1,500 of a localized currency) in play money ($2,500 with the Speed Die). Before September 2008, the money was divided with greater numbers of 20 and 10-dollar bills. Since then, the U.S. version has taken on the British version's initial cash distributions. Although the U.S. version is indicated as allowing eight players, the cash distribution shown above is not possible with all eight players since it requires 32 $100 bills and 40 $1 bills. However, the amount of cash contained in the game is enough for eight players with a slight alteration of bill distribution. International currencies Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 "Spielmark" in eight denominations (abbreviated as "M."), and later used seven denominations of the Deutsche Mark ("DM."). In the classic Italian game, each player received L. 350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but L. 50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two. Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1,500. The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency. Both Spanish editions (the Barcelona and Madrid editions) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version. Extra currency According to the Parker Brothers rules, Monopoly money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money it may issue as much as needed "by merely writing on any ordinary paper". However, Hasbro's published Monopoly rules make no mention of this. Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand. One such site has created a $1,000 bill; while a $1,000 bill can be found in Monopoly: The Mega Edition and Monopoly: The Card Game, both published by Winning Moves Games, this note is not a standard denomination for classic versions of Monopoly. Electronic banking In several countries there is also a version of the game that features electronic banking. Instead of receiving paper money, each player receives a plastic bank card that is inserted into a calculator-like electronic device that keeps track of the player's balance. Besides demonstrating the dangers of land rents and monopolies, Lizzie Magie also intended this game for children to learn how to add and subtract through the usage of paper money. However, now with the new innovations of credit cards implemented in these games, many consumers are worried that this purpose of the game is ruined. Tokens Classic Each player is represented by a small metal or plastic token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two six-sided dice. The number of tokens (and the tokens themselves) have changed over the history of the game with many appearing in special editions only, and some available with non-game purchases. After prints with wood tokens in 1937, a set of eight tokens was introduced. Two more were added in late 1937, and tokens changed again in 1942. During World War II, the game tokens were switched back to wood. Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden pawns identical to those that Sorry! had. Many of the early tokens were created by companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets. The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game Conflict (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled for Monopoly usage. By 1943, there were ten tokens which included the Battleship, Boot, Cannon, Horse and rider, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow. These tokens remained the same until the late 1990s, when Parker Brothers was sold to Hasbro. In 1998, a Hasbro advertising campaign asked the public to vote on a new playing piece to be added to the set. The candidates were a bag of money, a bi-plane, and a piggy bank. The bag ended up winning 51 percent of the vote compared to the other two which failed to go above 30%. This new token was added to the set in 1999 bringing the number of tokens to eleven. Another 1998 campaign poll asked people which monopoly token was their favorite. The most popular was the Race Car at 18% followed by the Dog (16%), Cannon (14%) and Top Hat (10%). The least favorite in the poll was the Wheelbarrow at 3% followed by Thimble (7%) and the Iron (7%). The Cannon, and Horse and rider were both retired in 2000 with no new tokens taking their place. Another retirement came in 2007 with the sack of money that brought down the total token count to eight again. In 2013, a similar promotional campaign was launched encouraging the public to vote on one of several possible new tokens to replace an existing one. The choices were a guitar, a diamond ring, a helicopter, a robot, and a cat. This new campaign was different than the one in 1998 as one piece was retired and replaced with a new one. Both were chosen by a vote that ran on Facebook from January 8 to February 5, 2013. The cat took the top spot with 31% of the vote over the iron which was replaced. In January 2017, Hasbro placed the line of tokens in the regular edition with another vote which included a total of 64 options. The eight playable tokens at the time included the Battleship, Boot, Cat, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow. By March 17, 2017, Hasbro retired three additional tokens, namely the thimble, wheelbarrow, and boot; these were replaced by a penguin, a Tyrannosaurus and a rubber duck. Special editions Over the years Hasbro has released tokens for special or collector's editions of the game. One of the first tokens to come out included a Steam locomotive which was only released in Deluxe Editions. A Director's Chair token was released in 2011 in limited edition copies of Under the Boardwalk: The Monopoly Story. Shortly after the 2013 Facebook voting campaign, a limited-edition Golden Token set was released exclusively at various national retailers, such as Target in the U.S., and Tesco in the U.K. The set contained the Battleship, Boot, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat and Wheelbarrow as well as the iron's potential replacements. These replacement tokens included the cat, the guitar, the diamond ring, the helicopter, and the robot. Hasbro released a 64-token limited edition set in 2017 called Monopoly Signature Token Collection to include all of the candidates that were not chosen in the vote held that year. Rules Official rules Each player starts with $1,500 in their bank. Players take turns in order with the initial player determined by chance before the game. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the dice and advancing a piece clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares. If a player rolls doubles, they roll again after completing that portion of their turn. A player who rolls three consecutive sets of doubles on one turn has been "caught speeding" and is immediately sent to jail instead of moving the amount shown on the dice for the third roll. A player who lands on or passes the Go space collects $200 from the bank. Players who land on either Income Tax or Luxury Tax pay the indicated amount to the bank. In older editions of the game, two options were given for Income Tax: either pay a flat fee of $200 or 10% of total net worth (including the current values of all the properties and buildings owned). No calculation could be made before the choice, and no latitude was given for reversing an unwise decision. In 2008, the calculation option was removed from the official rules, and simultaneously the Luxury Tax was increased to $100 from its original $75. No reward or penalty is given for landing on Free Parking. Properties can only be developed once a player owns all the properties in that color group. They then must be developed equally. A house must be built on each property of that color before a second can be built. Each property within a group must be within one house level of all the others within that group. Chance/Community Chest If a player lands on a Chance or Community Chest space, they draw the top card from the respective deck and follow its instructions. This may include collecting or paying money to the bank or another player or moving to a different space on the board. Two types of cards that involve jail, "Go to Jail" and "Get Out of Jail Free", are explained below. Jail A player is sent to jail for doing any of the following: Landing directly on the "Go to Jail" space Throwing three consecutive doubles in one turn Drawing a "Go to Jail" card from Chance or Community Chest When a player is sent to jail, they move directly to the Jail space and their turn ends ("Do not pass Go. Do not collect $200."). If an ordinary dice roll (not one of the above events) ends with the player's token on the Jail corner, they are "Just Visiting" and can move ahead on their next turn without incurring any penalty whatsoever. If a player is in jail, they do not take a normal turn and must either pay a fine of $50 to be released, use a Chance or Community Chest Get Out of Jail Free card, or attempt to roll doubles on the dice. If a player fails to roll doubles, they lose their turn. Failing to roll doubles for three consecutive turns requires the player to either pay the $50 fine or use a Get Out of Jail Free card, after which they move ahead according to the total rolled. Players in jail may not buy properties directly from the bank since they are unable to move. This does not impede any other transaction, meaning they can engage in, for example, mortgaging properties, selling/trading properties to other players, buying/selling houses and hotels, collecting rent, and bidding on property auctions. A player who rolls doubles to leave jail does not roll again; however, if the player pays the fine or uses a card to get out and then rolls doubles, they do take another turn. Properties If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, they can buy the property for its listed purchase price. If they decline this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder, including the player who declined to buy. If the property landed on is already owned and unmortgaged, they must pay the owner a given rent; the amount depends on whether the property is part of a set or its level of development. Players may trade properties or sell them to other players at any time in any deal that is mutually agreed upon, with the exception that properties with buildings may not be traded or sold. When a player owns all the properties in a color group and none of them are mortgaged, they may develop them during their turn or in between other player's turns. Development involves buying miniature houses or hotels from the bank and placing them on the property spaces; this must be done uniformly across the group. Therefore, a second house cannot be built on any property within a group until all of them have one house. Once the player owns an entire group, they can collect double rent for any undeveloped properties within it. Although houses and hotels cannot be built on railroads or utilities, the given rent increases if a player owns more than one of either type. If there is a housing shortage (more demand for houses to be built than what remains in the bank), then a housing auction is conducted to determine who will get to purchase each house. Mortgaging Properties can also be mortgaged, although all developments on a monopoly must be sold before any property of that color can be mortgaged or traded. The player receives half the purchase price from the bank for each mortgaged property. This must be repaid with 10% interest to clear the mortgage. Houses and hotels can be sold back to the bank for half their purchase price. Players cannot collect rent on mortgaged properties and may not give improved property away to others; however, trading mortgaged properties is allowed. The player receiving the mortgaged property must immediately pay the bank the mortgage price plus 10% or pay just the 10% amount and keep the property mortgaged; if the player chooses the latter, they must pay the 10% again when they pay off the mortgage. Bankruptcy A player who cannot pay what they owe is bankrupt and eliminated from the game. If the bankrupt player owes the bank, they must turn all their assets over to the bank, who then auctions off their properties (if they have any), except buildings. If the debt is owed to another player instead, all assets are given to that opponent, except buildings which must be returned to the bank. The new owner must either pay off any mortgages held by the bank on such properties received or pay a fee of 10% of the mortgaged value to the bank if they choose to leave the properties mortgaged. The winner is the remaining player left after all of the others have gone bankrupt. In a 2-player game, if a player goes bankrupt to the other player or the bank, the game is over and there is no need for the bank to conduct the auction. The winning player only then needs to pay the final fees from the property transfer in the event of a tournament where each dollar in net assets actually matters. If a player runs out of money but still has assets that can be converted to cash, they can do so by selling buildings, mortgaging properties, or trading with other players. To avoid bankruptcy the player must be able to raise enough cash to pay the full amount owed. A player cannot choose to go bankrupt; if there is any way to pay what they owe, even by returning all their buildings at a loss, mortgaging all their real estate and giving up all their cash, even knowing they are likely going bankrupt the next time, they must do so. Official Short Game rules From 1936, the rules booklet included with each Monopoly set contained a short section at the end providing rules for making the game shorter, including dealing out two Title Deed cards to each player before starting the game, by setting a time limit or by ending the game after the second player goes bankrupt. A later version of the rules included this variant, along with the time limit game, in the main rules booklet, omitting the last, the second bankruptcy method, as a third short game. House rules Many house rules have emerged for the game throughout its history. Well-known is the "Free Parking jackpot rule", where all the money collected from Income Tax, Luxury Tax, Chance and Community Chest goes to the center of the board instead of the bank. Many people add $500 to start each pile of Free Parking money, guaranteeing a minimum payout. When a player lands on Free Parking, they may take the money. Another rule is that if a player lands directly on Go, they collect double the amount, or $400, instead of $200. Other commonly-used house rules include eliminating property auctions if a player declines to buy or cannot afford an unowned property on which they land, awarding additional money for rolling "snake eyes", allowing a player to loan money to another player, or enabling someone to grant rent immunity to someone else. Since these rules provide additional cash to players regardless of their property management choices, they can lengthen the game considerably and limit the role of strategy. Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. In 2014, Hasbro determined five popular house rules by public Facebook vote, and released a "House Rules Edition" of the board game. Rules selected include a "Free Parking" house rule without additional money and forcing players to traverse the board once before buying properties. Strategy According to Jim Slater in The Mayfair Set, the Orange property group is the best to own because players land on them more often, as a result of the Chance cards "Go to Jail", "Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall)", "Advance to Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station)" and "Go Back Three Spaces". In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square) (Red), New York Avenue (Vine Street) (Orange), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) (brown), Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) (brown), Park Place (Park Lane) (blue), and Oriental Avenue (The Angel, Islington) (light blue) are the least-landed-upon properties. Among the property groups, the Railroads are most frequently landed upon, as no other group has four properties; Orange has the next highest frequency, followed by Red. According to Business Insider, the best way to get the most out of every property is through houses and hotels. In order to do so, the player must have all the corresponding properties of the color set. Three houses allows the player to make all the money they spent on the houses back and earn even more as players land on those properties. Trading Trading is a vital strategy in order to accumulate all the properties in a color set. Obtaining all the properties in a specific color set enables the player to buy houses and hotels which increase the rent another player has to pay when they land on the property. According to Slate, players trade to speed up the process and secure a win. Building at least 3 houses on each property allows the player to break even once at least one player lands on this property. End game One common criticism of Monopoly is that although it has carefully defined termination conditions, it may take an unlimited amount of time to reach them. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers, is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but Monopoly could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In Monopoly you kept going around and around." Hasbro states that the longest game of Monopoly ever played lasted 70 days. Related games Add-ons Numerous add-ons have been produced for Monopoly, sold independently from the game both before its commercialization and after, with three official ones discussed below: Stock Exchange The original Stock Exchange add-on was published by Capitol Novelty Co. of Rensselaer, New York in early 1936. It was marketed as an add-on for Monopoly, Finance, or Easy Money games. Shortly after Capitol Novelty introduced Stock Exchange, Parker Brothers bought it from them then marketed their own, slightly redesigned, version as an add-on specifically for their "new" Monopoly game; the Parker Brothers version was available in June 1936. The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange". The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and re-released in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck). A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the U.S.), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. Playmaster Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, is an electronic device that keeps track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur; for example when a player lands on | the rules booklet included with each Monopoly set contained a short section at the end providing rules for making the game shorter, including dealing out two Title Deed cards to each player before starting the game, by setting a time limit or by ending the game after the second player goes bankrupt. A later version of the rules included this variant, along with the time limit game, in the main rules booklet, omitting the last, the second bankruptcy method, as a third short game. House rules Many house rules have emerged for the game throughout its history. Well-known is the "Free Parking jackpot rule", where all the money collected from Income Tax, Luxury Tax, Chance and Community Chest goes to the center of the board instead of the bank. Many people add $500 to start each pile of Free Parking money, guaranteeing a minimum payout. When a player lands on Free Parking, they may take the money. Another rule is that if a player lands directly on Go, they collect double the amount, or $400, instead of $200. Other commonly-used house rules include eliminating property auctions if a player declines to buy or cannot afford an unowned property on which they land, awarding additional money for rolling "snake eyes", allowing a player to loan money to another player, or enabling someone to grant rent immunity to someone else. Since these rules provide additional cash to players regardless of their property management choices, they can lengthen the game considerably and limit the role of strategy. Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. In 2014, Hasbro determined five popular house rules by public Facebook vote, and released a "House Rules Edition" of the board game. Rules selected include a "Free Parking" house rule without additional money and forcing players to traverse the board once before buying properties. Strategy According to Jim Slater in The Mayfair Set, the Orange property group is the best to own because players land on them more often, as a result of the Chance cards "Go to Jail", "Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall)", "Advance to Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station)" and "Go Back Three Spaces". In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square) (Red), New York Avenue (Vine Street) (Orange), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) (brown), Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) (brown), Park Place (Park Lane) (blue), and Oriental Avenue (The Angel, Islington) (light blue) are the least-landed-upon properties. Among the property groups, the Railroads are most frequently landed upon, as no other group has four properties; Orange has the next highest frequency, followed by Red. According to Business Insider, the best way to get the most out of every property is through houses and hotels. In order to do so, the player must have all the corresponding properties of the color set. Three houses allows the player to make all the money they spent on the houses back and earn even more as players land on those properties. Trading Trading is a vital strategy in order to accumulate all the properties in a color set. Obtaining all the properties in a specific color set enables the player to buy houses and hotels which increase the rent another player has to pay when they land on the property. According to Slate, players trade to speed up the process and secure a win. Building at least 3 houses on each property allows the player to break even once at least one player lands on this property. End game One common criticism of Monopoly is that although it has carefully defined termination conditions, it may take an unlimited amount of time to reach them. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers, is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but Monopoly could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In Monopoly you kept going around and around." Hasbro states that the longest game of Monopoly ever played lasted 70 days. Related games Add-ons Numerous add-ons have been produced for Monopoly, sold independently from the game both before its commercialization and after, with three official ones discussed below: Stock Exchange The original Stock Exchange add-on was published by Capitol Novelty Co. of Rensselaer, New York in early 1936. It was marketed as an add-on for Monopoly, Finance, or Easy Money games. Shortly after Capitol Novelty introduced Stock Exchange, Parker Brothers bought it from them then marketed their own, slightly redesigned, version as an add-on specifically for their "new" Monopoly game; the Parker Brothers version was available in June 1936. The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange". The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and re-released in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck). A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the U.S.), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. Playmaster Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, is an electronic device that keeps track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur; for example when a player lands on a railroad it plays "I've Been Working on the Railroad", and a police car's siren sounds when a player goes to Jail. Get Out of Jail and Free Parking Minigames In 2009, Hasbro released two minigames that can be played as stand-alone games or combined with the Monopoly game. In Get Out of Jail, the goal is to manipulate a spade under a jail cell to flick out various colored prisoners. The game can be used as an alternative to rolling doubles to get out of jail. In Free Parking, players attempt to balance taxis on a wobbly board. The Free Parking add-on can also be used with the Monopoly game. When a player lands on the Free Parking, the player can take the Taxi Challenge, and if successful, can move to any space on the board. Speed Die First included in Winning Moves' Monopoly: The Mega Edition variant, this third, six-sided die is rolled with the other two, and accelerates game-play when in use. In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version (also called the Speed Die Edition) of Monopoly with the same die (originally in blue, later in red). Its faces are: 1, 2, 3, two "Mr. Monopoly" sides, and a bus. The numbers behave as normal, adding to the other two dice, unless a "triple" is rolled, in which case the player can move to any space on the board. If "Mr. Monopoly" is rolled while there are unowned properties, the player advances forward to the nearest one. Otherwise, the player advances to the nearest property on which rent is owed. In the Monopoly: Mega Edition, rolling the bus allows the player to take the regular dice move, then either take a bus ticket or move to the nearest draw card space. Mega rules specifies that triples do not count as doubles for going to jail as the player does not roll again. Used in a regular edition, the bus (properly "get off the bus") allows the player to use only one of the two numbered dice or the sum of both, thus a roll of 1, 5, and bus would let the player choose between moving 1, 5, or 6 spaces. The Speed Die is used throughout the game in the "Mega Edition", while in the "Regular Edition" it is used by any player who has passed GO at least once. In these editions it remains optional, although use of the Speed Die was made mandatory for use in the 2009 U.S. and World Monopoly Championship, as well as the 2015 World Championship. Spin-offs Parker Brothers and its licensees have also sold several spin-offs of Monopoly. These are not add-ons, as they do not function as an addition to the Monopoly game, but are simply additional games with the flavor of Monopoly: Advance to Boardwalk board game (1985): Focusing mainly on building the most hotels along the Boardwalk. Don't Go to Jail: Dice game originally released by Parker Brothers; roll combinations of dice to create color groups for points before rolling the words "GO" "TO" and "JAIL" (which forfeits all earned points for the turn). Monopoly Express: A deluxe, travel edition re-release of Don't Go To Jail, replacing the word dice with "Officer Jones" dice and adding an eleventh die, Houses & Hotels, and a self-contained game container/dice roller & keeper. In 2021, this game was re-released as Monopoly DICED!, with the same elements and gameplay, but in a square container rather than the round one used for the Express version. Express Monopoly card game (1994 U.S., 1995 U.K.): Released by Hasbro/Parker Brothers and Waddingtons in the U.K., now out of print. Basically a rummy-style card game based on scoring points by completing color group sections of the game-board. Free Parking card game (1988) A more complex card game released by Parker Brothers, with several similarities to the card game Mille Bornes. Uses cards to either add time to parking meters, or spend the time doing activities to earn points. Includes a deck of Second Chance cards that further alter game-play. Two editions were made; minor differences in card art and Second Chance cards in each edition. Monopoly: The Card Game (2000) an updated card game released by Winning Moves Games under license from Hasbro. Similar, but decidedly more complex, game-play to the Express Monopoly card game. Monopoly City: Game-play retains similar flavor but has been made significantly more complex in this version. The traditional properties are replaced by "districts" mapped to the previously underutilized real estate in the centre of the board. Monopoly Deal: The most recent card game version of Monopoly. Players attempt to complete three property groups by playing property, cash & event cards. Monopoly Junior board game (first published 1990, multiple variations since): A simplified version of the original game for young children. Monopoly Town by Parker Brothers / Hasbro (2008) a young children's game of racing designed to help them learn to count. The Mad Magazine Game (1979): Gameplay is similar, but the goals and directions often opposite to those of Monopoly; the object is for players to lose all of their money. Monopoly for Sore Losers Monopoly for Sore Losers is a spin-off of Monopoly. It was published in 2020 by Hasbro and, according to the box, "creates—and celebrates—sore losers". Its main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of a sore loser mechanic, which allows players to temporarily assume control of a special token that protects them from most negative effects of landing on board spaces—at their opponents' expense. Equipment The game equipment for Monopoly for Sore Losers includes the following: The board Six tokens (the battleship, race car, penguin, T. rex, dog and cat), which have all been altered in appearance so that they are in a negative situation (for instance, the battleship is sinking and the car has one of its front wheels clamped) One large Mr. Monopoly token, which is assembled before gameplay begins. It is used as part of the sore loser mechanic. 6 reference cards explaining the sore loser mechanics (these are dealt out to each player before the game begins) 26 title deed cards (this is two less than in standard Monopoly, as in this game the utilities are no longer properties, but instead serve as additional tax spaces) 32 Chance and Community Chest cards, themed around the sore loser mechanics 32 houses and 12 hotels The dice 30 sore loser coins, which are red circular pieces of cardboard with Mr. Monopoly's face on each. These are used as part of the sore loser mechanic. The money A game guide Gameplay differences from regular Monopoly During the initial roll to determine turn order, the player with the lowest total goes first. The main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of the sore loser mechanic. Each player is given 2 sore loser coins upon the start of the game, and the remainder are placed in the centre of the board. A player collects a sore loser coin from the Bank if they have to do any of the following: Pay rent to another player Pay taxes and bills to the Bank Go to jail for any reason Land on a property that they own Draw a Chance or Community Chest card that instructs them to collect a coin If a player lands on Free Parking, they are allowed to steal a sore loser coin from another player. Sore loser coins may be involved in trades. A player may not collect a sore loser coin if they have four, which is the maximum. At the beginning of their turn, a player with four sore loser coins, may, if they want to, cash them in by placing them in the centre of the board. That player then takes the Mr. Monopoly token and replaces their token with the Mr. Monopoly token—their normal token being placed in the centre of the board. Whilst a player is Mr. Monopoly, they cannot collect sore loser coins, and the actions they take when landing on spaces are altered: If Mr. Monopoly lands on a property owned by another player, that player pays Mr. Monopoly's owner the rent for that property, the amount determied by the property's development. They also take one sore loser coin. If Mr. Monopoly rolls three consecutive doubles, he does not go to jail—he moves and continues his turn. If Mr. Monopoly lands on a tax or bill space, his owner collects the money specified on the space from the Bank. If Mr. Monopoly lands on the Go to Jail space, his owner selects one other player to go to jail in their place, and Mr. Monopoly remains on the Go to Jail space. If Mr. Monopoly lands on Free Parking, his owner selects one player to return a sore loser coin to the Bank instead of stealing it. Whenever any player, including Mr. Monopoly's owner, rolls doubles, Mr. Monopoly's owner is allowed to place one free house on any street on the board. The property selected for this free house does not need to be owned by Mr. Monopoly, nor does it need to be part of a complete set, and placing doubles houses unevenly is also allowed. However, Mr. Monopoly's owner may not place this free house on a street that already has four houses, nor may they upgrade to a hotel. Buildings are permanent—unlike in standard Monopoly they may not be sold. If a property with buildings on it is traded away, the buildings remain and start providing rent to the new owner. If Mr. Monopoly's dice roll makes him land on the same space as another player, the Mr. Monopoly token is placed over that other player's token, and Mr. Monopoly's owner is allowed to steal one property from the player he landed on—said property must not be part of a complete set. If a property with buildings on it is stolen, the buildings remain on the property and start providing rent to Mr. Monopoly's owner. In addition, whilst a player is under Mr. Monopoly, they are trapped—their turn will be skipped until Mr. Monopoly moves, but said players can still take part in auctions and trade. If Mr. Monopoly lands on the Jail space, he covers both the Jail and Just Visiting spaces, trapping other players on both. If a player becomes Mr. Monopoly whilst on the same space as another player, that other player is not trapped, a property may not be stolen, and the other player is allowed to roll and move as normal. If a player becomes Mr. Monopoly whilst in jail, they are automatically released and may roll and move as normal. Once Mr. Monopoly is in play, if another player cashes in their sore loser coins to become him, the old owner restores their normal token to the space they are on, and Mr. Monopoly is transferred to the space of the new owner, whose token is placed in the centre of the board. If a player goes bankrupt, their sore loser coins are returned to the centre of the board. The game is ended through one of two means—either all but one player goes bankrupt, as in standard Monopoly, or all of the properties have been purchased. If the latter happens, the players must make their way back to Go—when they get there they must stop, even if they have spaces to move remaining—and collect $200 as with a normal pass. Mr. Monopoly's owner is not allowed to steal a property when they land on Go for the final time. Once all of the players are back at Go they collect rent from all of their properties, according to full colour sets and development, and after that the player with the most capital is the winner. Video games Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the Monopoly Junior spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g., Commodore 64, Macintosh, Windows-based PC, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo Entertainment System, iPad, Genesis, Super NES, etc.), two spin-off computer games have been created. An electronic hand-held version was marketed from 1997 to 2001. Monopoly: The iPhone game designed by Electronic Arts. Monopoly Millionaires: The Facebook game designed by Playfish. Monopoly Streets: A video game played for the Xbox 360, Wii, and PlayStation 3. The video game includes properties now played on a street. Monopoly Tycoon: A game where players build businesses on the properties they own. Monopoly Plus: A game for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 with high definition graphics. Monopoly: The mobile game on iOS and Android devices designed by Marmalade Game Studios. Gambling games Monopoly-themed slot machines and lotteries have been produced by WMS Gaming in conjunction with International Game Technology for land-based casinos.WagerWorks, who have the online rights to Monopoly, have created online Monopoly themed games. London's Gamesys Group have also developed Monopoly-themed gambling games. The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a Monopoly trivia and chance game. There was also a live, online version of Monopoly. Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers. When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board. This version takes far longer to play than board-game Monopoly, with one game lasting 24 hours. Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game. Play-by-mail game Mail Games Inc. created a play-by-mail game (PBM) version of Monopoly, reviewed in the August–September 1990 issue of White Wolf Magazine. The PBM version was similar to the board game, although compared to many PBM games it was relatively simple. The game moderator processed players' turn orders simultaneously, but alternated the order that players' turns were initiated to allow sequential transactions as in the board game. Media Commercial promotions The McDonald's Monopoly game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, United Kingdom and United States. Television game show A short-lived Monopoly game show aired on Saturday evenings from June 16 to September 1, 1990, on ABC. The show was produced by Merv Griffin and hosted by Mike Reilly. The show was paired with a summer-long Super Jeopardy! tournament, which also aired during this period on ABC. From 2010 to 2014, The Hub aired the game show Family Game Night with Todd Newton. For the first two seasons, teams earned cash in the form of "Monopoly Crazy Cash Cards" from the "Monopoly Crazy Cash Corner", which was then inserted to the "Monopoly Crazy Cash Machine" at the end of the show. In addition, beginning with Season 2, teams won "Monopoly Party Packages" for winning the individual games. For Season 3, there was a Community Chest. Each card on Mr. Monopoly had a combination of three colors. Teams used the combination card to unlock the chest. If it was the right combination, they advanced to the Crazy Cash Machine for a brand-new car. For the show's fourth season, a new game was added called Monopoly Remix, featuring Park Place and Boardwalk, as well as Income Tax and Luxury Tax. To honor the game's 80th anniversary, a game show in syndication on March 28, 2015, called Monopoly Millionaires' Club was launched. It was connected with a multi-state lottery game of the same name and hosted by comedian Billy Gardell from Mike & Molly. The game show was filmed at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino and at Bally's Las Vegas in Las Vegas, with players having a chance to win up to $1,000,000. However, the lottery game connected with the game show (which provided the contestants) went through multiple complications and variations, and the game show last aired at the end of April 2016. Films In November 2008, Ridley Scott was announced to direct Universal Pictures' film version of the game, based on a script written by Pamela Pettler. The film was being co-produced by Hasbro's Brian Goldner as part of a deal with Hasbro to develop movies based on the company's line of toys and games. The story was being developed by author Frank Beddor. However, Universal eventually halted development in February 2012 then opted out of the agreement and the rights reverted to Hasbro. In October 2012, Hasbro announced a new partnership with production company Emmett/Furla Films, and said they would develop a live-action version of Monopoly, along with Action Man and Hungry Hungry Hippos. Emmett/Furla/Oasis dropped out of the production of this satire version that was to be directed by Ridley Scott. In July 2015, Hasbro announced that Lionsgate will distribute a Monopoly film with Andrew Niccol writing the film as a family-friendly action adventure film co-financed and produced by Lionsgate and Hasbro's Allspark Pictures. In January 2019, it was announced that Allspark Pictures would now be producing an untitled Monopoly film in conjunction with Kevin Hart's company HartBeat Productions and The Story Company. Hart is attached to star in the film and Tim Story is attached to direct. No logline or writer for this iteration of the long-gestating project has been announced. The documentary Under the Boardwalk: The MONOPOLY Story, covering the history and players of the game, won an Audience Award for Best Documentary at the 2010 Anaheim International Film Festival. The film played theatrically in the U.S. beginning in March 2011 and was released on Amazon and iTunes on February 14, 2012. The television version of the film won four regional Emmy Awards from the Pacific Southwest Chapter of NATAS. The film is directed by Kevin Tostado and narrated by Zachary Levi. Tournaments U.S. National Championship Until 1999, U.S. entrants had to win a state/district/territory competition to represent that state/district/territory at the once every four-year national championship. The 1999 U.S. National Tournament had 50 contestants—49 State Champions (Oklahoma was not represented) and the reigning national champion. Qualifying for the National Championship has been online since 2003. For the 2003 Championship, qualification was limited to the first fifty people who correctly completed an online quiz. Out of concerns that such methods of qualifying might not always ensure a competition of the best players, the 2009 Championship qualifying was expanded to include an online multiple-choice quiz (a score of 80% or better was required to advance); followed by an online five-question essay test; followed by a two-game online tournament at Pogo.com. The process was to have produced a field of 23 plus one: Matt McNally, the 2003 national champion, who received a bye and was not required to qualify. However, at the end of the online tournament, there was an eleven-way tie for the last six spots. The decision was made to invite all of those who had tied for said spots. In fact, two of those who had tied and would have otherwise been eliminated, Dale Crabtree of Indianapolis, Indiana, and Brandon Baker, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, played in the final game and finished third and fourth respectively. The 2009 Monopoly U.S. National Championship was held on April 14–15 in Washington, D.C. In his first tournament ever, Richard Marinaccio, an attorney from Sloan, New York (a suburb of Buffalo), prevailed over a field that included two previous champions to be crowned the 2009 U.S. National Champion. In addition to the title, Marinaccio took home $20,580—the amount of money in the bank of the board game—and competed in the 2009 World Championship in Las Vegas, Nevada, on October 21–22, where he finished in third place. In 2015, Hasbro used a competition that was held solely online to determine who would be the U.S. representative to compete at the 2015 Monopoly World Championship. Interested players took a twenty-question quiz on Monopoly strategy and rules and submitted a hundred-word essay on how to win a Monopoly tournament. Hasbro then selected Brian Valentine of Washington, D.C., to be the U.S. representative. World Championship Hasbro conducts a worldwide Monopoly tournament. The first Monopoly World Championships took place in Grossinger's Resort in New York, in November 1973, but they did not include competitors from outside the United States until 1975. It has been aired in the United States by ESPN. In 2009, forty-one players competed for the title of Monopoly World Champion and a cash prize of $20,580 (USD)—the total amount of Monopoly money in the current Monopoly set used in the tournament. The most recent World Championship took place September 2015 in Macau. Italian Nicolò Falcone defeated the defending world champion and players from twenty-six other countries. A World Championship had been planned for 2021, but Hasbro has cancelled it due to the Coronavirus pandemic. Variants Because Monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, Monopoly has seen many variant games. The game is licensed in 103 countries and printed in thirty-seven languages. Most of the variants are exact copies of the Monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. National boards have been released as well. Over the years, many specialty Monopoly editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide. Two well known "families" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced. Several published games like Monopoly include: Anti-Monopoly, one of several games that are a sort of Monopoly backwards. The name of this game led to legal action between Anti-Monopolys creator, Ralph Anspach, and the owners of Monopoly. Business, a Monopoly-like game not associated with Hasbro. In this version the "properties" to be bought are cities of India; Chance and Community Chest reference lists of results printed in the center of the board, keyed to the dice roll; and money is represented by counters, not paper. Dostihy a sázky, a variant sold in Czechoslovakia. This game comes from the authoritarian communist era (1948–1989), when private business was abolished and mortgages did not exist, so the monopoly theme was changed to a horse racing theme. Ghettopoly, released in 2003, was the subject of considerable outrage upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes. Hasbro sought and received an injunction against Ghettopoly's designer. Make Your Own -OPOLY: This game allows players considerable freedom in customizing the board, money, and rules. Matador: The unlicensed Danish version from BRIO with a round board instead of the square one, cars instead of tokens and includes breweries and ferries to buy. The game also has candy and a popular TV series Matador named after it. Turism, a variant sold in Romania. Kleptopoly, released in 2017 where users can be like Jho Low. Inspired by the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal. Monopoly for Millennials, released by Hasbro in 2018. Other unlicensed editions include: BibleOpoly, HomoNoPolis and Petropolis, among others. Games by locale or theme There have been a large number of localized editions, broken down here by region: List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: Africa and Asia (including the Middle East and South-East Asia but excluding Russia and Turkey) List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: Europe (including Russia and Turkey) List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: North America (including Central America but excluding the United States of America) List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: Oceania (Australia and New Zealand) List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: South America List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: USA (including the United States of America and all editions based on commercial brands) Unauthorized and parody games This list is of unauthorized, unlicensed games based on Monopoly: Ghettopoly Middopoly Memeopolis (Android app) World editions In 2008, Hasbro released Monopoly Here and Now: The World Edition. This world edition features top locations of the world. The locations were decided by votes over the Internet. The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008. Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote thanks to a spontaneous, large-scale mobilization of support started by its citizens. The new game uses its own currency unit, the Monopolonian (a game-based take on the Euro; designated by M). The game uses said unit in millions and thousands. As seen below, there is no dark purple color-group, as that is replaced by brown, as in the European version of the game. It is also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and three other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China. No other countries are represented by more than one city. Of the 68 cities listed on Hasbro Inc.'s website for the vote, Jerusalem was chosen as one of the 20 cities to be featured in the newest Monopoly World Edition. Before the vote took place, a Hasbro employee in the London office eliminated the country signifier "Israel" after the city, in response to pressure from pro-Palestinian advocacy groups. After the Israeli government protested, Hasbro Inc. issued a statement that read: "It was a bad decision, one that we rectified relatively quickly. This is a game. We never wanted to enter into any political debate. We apologize to our Monopoly fans." A similar online vote was held in early 2015 for an updated version of the game. The resulting board should be released worldwide in late 2015. Lima, Peru, won the vote and will hold the Boardwalk space. Deluxe editions Hasbro sells a Deluxe Edition, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the Deluxe Edition include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and |
by a sforzato chord immediately before it, followed by silence. An example of this is remarked in the part of the film when Frankie confronts Gypo looking at his reward for arrest poster. Steiner uses minor "Mickey Mousing" techniques in the film. Through this score, Steiner showed the potential of film music, as he attempted the show the internal struggles inside of Gypo's mind through the mixing of different themes such as the Irish "Circassian Circle", the "blood-money" motif, and Frankie's theme. The score concludes with an original "Sancta Maria" by Steiner. Some writers have erroneously referred to the cue as featuring Franz Schubert's "Ave Maria". In 1937, Steiner was hired by Frank Capra to conduct Dimitri Tiomkin's score for Lost Horizon (1937) as a safeguard in case Steiner needed to rewrite the score by an inexperienced Tiomkin; however, according to Hugo Friedhofer, Tiomkin specifically asked for Steiner, preferring him over the film studio's then music director. Selznick set up his own production company in 1936 and recruited Steiner to write the scores for his next three films. Composing for Warner Bros. (1937–1953) In April 1937, Steiner left RKO and signed a long-term contract with Warner Bros.; he would, however, continue to work for Selznick. The first film he scored for Warner Bros. was The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936). Steiner became a mainstay at Warner Bros., scoring 140 of their films over the next 30 years alongside Hollywood stars such as Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, Humphrey Bogart, and James Cagney. Steiner frequently worked with composer Hugo Friedhofer who was hired as an orchestrator for Warner Bros; Friedholfer would orchestrate more than 50 of Steiner's pieces during his career. In 1938, Steiner wrote and arranged the first "composed for film" piece, Symphony Moderne which a character plays on the piano and later plays as a theme in Four Daughters (1938) and is performed by a full orchestra in Four Wives (1939). In 1939, Steiner was borrowed from Warner Bros. by Selznick to compose the score for Gone with the Wind (1939), which became one of Steiner's most notable successes. Steiner was the only composer Selznick considered for scoring the film. Steiner was given only three months to complete the score, despite composing twelve more film scores in 1939, more than he would in any other year of his career. Because Selznick was concerned Steiner wouldn't have enough time to finish the score, he had Franz Waxman write an additional score in the case the Steiner didn't finish. To meet the deadline, Steiner sometimes worked for 20-hours straight, assisted by doctor-administered Benzedrine to stay awake. When the film was released, it was the longest film score ever composed, nearly three hours. The composition consisted of 16 main themes and nearly 300 musical segments. Due to the score's length, Steiner had help from four orchestrators and arrangers, including Heinz Roemheld, to work on the score. Selznick had asked Steiner to use only pre-existing classical music to help cut down on cost and time, but Steiner tried to convince him that filling the picture with swatches of classic concert music or popular works would not be as effective as an original score, which could be used to heighten the emotional content of scenes. Steiner ignored Selznick's wishes and composed an entirely new score. Selznick's opinion about using original scoring may have changed due to the overwhelming reaction to the film, nearly all of which contained Steiner's music. A year later, he even wrote a letter emphasizing the value of original film scores. The most well known of Steiner's themes for the score is the "Tara" theme for the O'Hara family plantation. Steiner explains Scarlett's deep-founded love for her home is why "the 'Tara' theme begins and ends with the picture and permeates the entire score". The film went on to win ten Academy Awards, although not for Best Original Score, which instead went to Herbert Stothart for The Wizard of Oz. The score of Gone with the Wind is ranked #2 by AFI as the second greatest American film score of all time. Now, Voyager would be the film score for which Steiner would win his second Academy Award. Kate Daubney attributes the success of this score to Steiner's ability to "[balance] the scheme of thematic meaning with the sound of the music." Steiner used motifs and thematic elements in the music to emphasize the emotional development of the narrative. After finishing Now, Voyager (1942), Steiner was hired to score the music for Casablanca (1942). Steiner would typically wait until the film was edited before scoring it, and after watching Casablanca, he decided the song "As Time Goes By" by Herman Hupfeld wasn't an appropriate addition to the movie and he wanted to replace it with a song of his own composition; however, Ingrid Bergman had just cut her hair short in preparation for filming For Whom the Bell Tolls (1943), so she couldn't re-film the section with Steiner's song. Stuck with "As Time Goes By", Steiner embraced the song and made it the center theme of his score. Steiner's score for Casablanca was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture, losing to The Song of Bernadette (1943). Steiner received his third and final Oscar in 1944 for Since You Went Away (1944). Steiner actually first composed the theme from Since You Went Away while helping counterbalance Franz Waxman's moody score for Rebecca. Producer David O. Selznick liked the theme so much, he asked Steiner to include it in Since You Went Away. In 1947, Max married Leonette Blair. Steiner also found success with the film noir genre. The Big Sleep, Mildred Pierce, and The Letter were his best film noir scores of the 1940s. The Letter is set in Singapore, the tale of murder begins with the loud main musical theme during the credits, which sets the tense and violent mood of the film. The main theme characterizes Leslie, the main character, by her tragic passion. The main theme is heard in the confrontation between Leslie and the murdered man's wife in the Chinese shop. Steiner portrays this scene through the jangling of wind chimes which crescendos as the wife emerges through opium smoke. The jangling continues until the wife asks Leslie to take off her shawl, after which the theme blasts indicating the breaking point of emotions of these women. Steiner's score for The Letter was nominated for the 1941 Academy Award for Best Original Score, losing to Walt Disney's Pinocchio. In the score for The Big Sleep, Steiner uses musical thematic characterization for the characters in the film. The theme for Philip Marlowe (Humphrey Bogart) is beguiling and ironic, with a playful grace note at the end of the motif, portrayed mixed between major and minor. At the end of the film, his theme is played fully in major chords and finishes by abruptly ending the chord as the film terminates (this was an unusual film music practice in Hollywood at the time). According to Christopher Palmer, the love theme for Bogart's Philip and Lauren Bacall's Vivian is one of Steiner's strongest themes. Steiner uses the contrast of high strings and low strings and brass to emphasize Philip's feelings for Vivian opposed with the brutality of the criminal world.In 1947, Steiner scored a film noir Western, Pursued. Steiner had more success with the Western genre of film, writing the scores for over twenty large-scale Westerns, most with epic-inspiring scores "about empire building and progress", like Dodge City (1939), The Oklahoma Kid (1939), and Virginia City (1940). Dodge City, starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland, is a good example of Steiner's handling of typical scenes of the Western genre. Steiner used a "lifting, loping melody" which reflected the movement and sounds of wagons, horses, and cattle. Steiner showed a love for combining Westerns and romance, as he did in They Died with Their Boots On (1941), also starring Flynn and de Havilland. The Searchers (1956) is, today, considered his greatest Western. Later works (1953–1965) Although his contract ended in 1953, Steiner returned to Warner Bros. in 1958 and scored several films such as Band of Angels, Marjorie Morningstar, and John Paul Jones, and later ventured into television. Steiner still preferred large orchestras and leitmotif techniques during this part of his career. Steiner's pace slowed significantly in the mid-1950s, and he began freelancing. In 1954, RCA Victor asked Steiner to prepare and conduct an orchestral suite of music from Gone with the Wind for a special LP, which was later issued on CD. There are also acetates of Steiner conducting the Warner Brothers studio orchestra in music from many of his film scores. Composer Victor Young and Steiner were good friends, and Steiner completed the film score for China Gate, because Young had died before he could finish it. The credit frame reads: "Music by Victor Young, extended by his old friend, Max Steiner." There are numerous soundtrack recordings of Steiner's music as soundtracks, collections, and recordings by others. Steiner wrote into his seventies, ailing and near blind, but his compositions "revealed a freshness and fertility of invention." A theme for A Summer Place in 1959, written when Steiner was 71, became one of Warner Brothers' biggest hit-tunes for years and a re-recorded pop standard. This memorable instrumental theme spent nine weeks at #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in 1960 (in an instrumental cover version by Percy Faith). Steiner continued to score films produced by Warner until the mid-sixties. In 1963, Steiner began writing his autobiography. Although it was completed, it was never published, and is the only source available on Steiner's childhood. A copy of the manuscript resides with the rest of the Max Steiner Collection at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. Steiner scored his last piece in 1965; however, he claimed he would have scored more films had he been offered the opportunity. His lack of work in the last years of his life was due to Hollywood's decreased interest in his scores caused by new film producers and new taste in film music. Another contribution to his declining career was his failing eyesight and deteriorating health, which caused him to reluctantly retire. Tony Thomas cited Steiner's last score as, "a weak coda to a mighty career." Steiner died of congestive heart failure in Hollywood, aged 83. He is entombed in the Great Mausoleum at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. Methods of composing Music as background to dialogue In the early days of sound, producers avoided underscoring music behind dialogue, feeling the audience would wonder where the music was coming from. As a result, Steiner noted, "They began to add a little music here and there to support love scenes or silent sequences." But in scenes where music might be expected, such as a nightclub, ballroom, or theater, the orchestra fit in more naturally and was used often. In order to justify the addition of music in scenes where it wasn't expected, music was integrated into the scene through characters or added more conspicuously. For example, a shepherd boy might play a flute along with the orchestra heard in the background, or a random, wandering violinist might follow around a couple during a love scene; however, because half of the music was recorded on the set, Steiner says it led to a great deal of inconvenience and cost when scenes were later edited, because the score would often be ruined. As recording technology improved during this period, he was able to record the music synced to the film and could change the score after the film was edited. Steiner explains his own typical method of scoring: Steiner often followed his instincts and his own reasoning in creating film scores. For example, when he chose to go against Selznick's instruction to use classical music for Gone with the Wind. Steiner stated: Scores from the classics were sometimes harmful to a picture, especially when they drew unwanted attention to themselves by virtue of their familiarity. For example, films like 2001: A Space Odyssey, The Sting, and Manhattan, had scores with recognizable tunes instead of having a preferred "subliminal" effect. Steiner, was among the first to acknowledge the need for original scores for each film. Steiner felt knowing when to start and stop was the hardest part of proper scoring, since incorrect placement of music can speed up a scene meant to be slow and vice versa: "Knowing the difference is what makes a film composer." He also notes that many composers, contrary to his own technique, would fail to subordinate the music to the film: Click tracks Although some scholars cite Steiner as the inventor of the click track technique, he, along with Roy Webb were only the first to use the technique in film scoring. Carl W. Stalling and Scott Bradley used the technique first, in cartoon music. The click-track allows the composer to sync music and film together more precisely. The technique involves punching holes into the soundtrack film based on the mathematics of metronome speed. As the holes pass through a projector, the orchestra and conductor can hear the clicking sound through headphones, allowing them to record the music along the exact timing of the film. This technique allowed conductors and orchestras to match the music with perfection to the timing of the film, eliminating the previous necessity to cut off or stop music in the middle of recording as had been done previously. Popularized by Steiner in film music, this technique allowed Steiner to "catch the action", creating sounds for small details on screen. In fact, Steiner reportedly spent more of his time matching the action to the music than composing the melodies and motifs, as creating and composing came easy to him. Leitmotifs With Steiner's background in his European musical training largely consisting of operas and operettas and his experience with stage music, he brought with him a slew of old-fashioned techniques he contributed to the development of the Hollywood film score. Although Steiner has been called, "the man who invented modern film music", he himself claimed that, "the idea originated with Richard Wagner ... If Wagner had lived in this century, he would have been the No. 1 film composer." Wagner was the inventor of the leitmotif, and this influenced Steiner's composition. In his music, Steiner relied heavily on leitmotifs. He would also quote pre-existing, recognizable melodies in his scores, such as national anthems. Steiner was known and often criticized for his use of Mickey Mousing or "catching the action". This technique is characterized by the precise matching of music with the actions or gestures on screen. Steiner was criticized for using this technique too frequently. For example, in Of Human Bondage, Steiner created a limping effect with his music whenever the clubfooted character walked. One of the important principles that guided Steiner whenever possible was his rule: Every character should have a theme. "Steiner creates a musical picture that tells us all we need to know about the character." To accomplish this, Steiner synchronized the music, the narrative action, and the leitmotif as a structural framework for his compositions. A good example of how the characters and the music worked together is best exemplified by his score for The Glass Menagerie (1950): For the physically crippled heroine, Laura, Steiner had to "somehow capture in sound her escape from the tawdriness of reality into her make-believe world of glass figures ... The result is tone-colour of an appropriately glassy quality; ... a free use of vibraphone, celesta, piano, glockenspiel and triangle enhances the fragility and beauty of the sound." For Laura's well-traveled soldier brother: "Tom's theme has a big-city blues-type resonance. It is also rich and warm ... [and] tells us something of Tom's good-hearted nature." For Jim, Laura's long-awaited 'gentleman caller' who soon transforms her life: Steiner's "clean-limbed melody reflects his likeableness and honesty ... Elements of Jim's theme are built into the dance-band music at the 'Paradise' as he assures her of her essential beauty and begins successfully to counter her deep-seated inferiority complex. Upon their return home, the music darkens the scene in preparation for Jim's disclosure that he is already committed to another girl." Another film which exemplifies the synchronizing of character and music is The Fountainhead (1949): The character of Roark, an idealist architect (played by Gary Cooper): In the same way that Steiner created a theme for each character in a film, Steiner's music developed themes to express emotional aspects of general scenes which originally lacked emotional content. For example: King Kong (1933): The music told the story of what was happening in the film. It expressed Kong's "feelings of tenderness towards his helpless victim." The music underscores feelings that the camera simply cannot express. The score of the film showed "the basic power of music to terrorize and to humanize." The Letter (1940), starring Bette Davis: The music of this film creates an atmosphere of "tropical tension and violence" by "blasting the credits fortissimo across the theater." Steiner's score emphasizes the tragic and passionate themes of the film. The Big Sleep (1946): The music of this film "darkens to match" the changing atmosphere of the film. It creates a claustrophobic feeling by including high strings "pitted rhythmically" against low strings and brass. The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948): Steiner uses the music to intensify the anguish of Bogart and Holt, when they are left to dig a mine in the hot sun. The music "assumes the character of a fiercely protesting funeral march." The timing of the music caves in as the mind caves in on Bogart. The music also serves to emphasize the theme of greed. It "tells us the nature of the thoughts flashing through Holt's mind as he stands outside the ruined mine;" however, when the warm tones of the music rise again, it reflects Holt's goodness as he saves Bogart from the collapsed mine. This "climax is marked by a grandioso statement of the theme on full orchestra." Realistic and background music When adding a music score to a picture, Steiner used a "spotting process" in which he and the director of the film would watch the film in its entirety and discuss where underscoring of diegetic music would begin and end. Another technique Steiner used was the mixing of realistic and background music. For example, a character humming to himself is realistic music, and the orchestra might play his tune, creating a background music effect that ties into | for Harms Music Publishing which quickly led him to jobs orchestrating stage musicals. Broadway music (1914–1929) In New York, Max Steiner quickly acquired employment and worked for fifteen years as a musical director, arranger, orchestrator, and conductor of Broadway productions. These productions include operettas and musicals written by Victor Herbert, Jerome Kern, Vincent Youmans, and George Gershwin, among others. Steiner's credits include: George White's Scandals (1922) (director), Peaches (1923) (composer), and Lady, Be Good (1924) (conductor and orchestrator). At twenty-seven years old, Steiner became Fox Film's musical director in 1915. At the time, there was no specially written music for films and Steiner told studio founder William Fox his idea to write an original score for The Bondman (1916). Fox agreed and they put together a 110-piece orchestra to accompany the screenings. During his time working on Broadway, he married Audree van Lieu on April 27, 1927. They divorced on December 14, 1933. In 1927, Steiner orchestrated and conducted Harry Tierney's Rio Rita. Tierney himself later requested RKO Pictures in Hollywood hire Steiner to work in their music production departments. William LeBaron, RKO's head of production, traveled to New York to watch Steiner conduct and was impressed by Steiner and his musicians, who each played several instruments. Eventually, Steiner became a Hollywood asset. Steiner's final production on Broadway was Sons O' Guns in 1929. Scoring for RKO (1929–1937) By request of Harry Tierney, RKO hired Max Steiner as an orchestrator and his first film job consisted of composing music for the main and end titles and occasional "on screen" music. According to Steiner, the general opinion of filmmakers during the time was that film music was a "necessary evil", and would often slow down production and release of the film after it was filmed. Steiner's first job was for the film Dixiana; however, after a while, RKO decided to let him go, feeling they were not using him. His agent found him a job as a musical director on an operetta in Atlantic City. Before he left RKO, they offered him a month to month contract as the head of the music department with promise of more work in the future and he agreed. Because the few composers in Hollywood were unavailable, Steiner composed his first film score for Cimarron. The score was well received and was partially credited for the success of the film. He turned down several offers to teach film scoring technique in Moscow and Peking in order to stay in Hollywood. In 1932, Steiner was asked by David O. Selznick, the new producer at RKO, to add music to Symphony of Six Million. Steiner composed a short segment; Selznick liked it so much that he asked him to compose the theme and underscoring for the entire picture. Selznick was proud of the film, feeling it gave a realistic view of Jewish family life and tradition. "Music until then had not been used very much for underscoring". Steiner "pioneered the use of original composition as background scoring for films". The successful scoring in Symphony of Six Million was a turning point for Steiner's career and for the film industry. After the underscoring of Symphony of Six Million, a third to half of the success of most films was "attributed to the extensive use of music." The score for King Kong (1933) became Steiner's breakthrough and represented a paradigm shift in the scoring of fantasy and adventure films. The score was an integral part of the film, because it added realism to an unrealistic film plot. The studio's bosses were initially skeptical about the need for an original score; however, since they disliked the film's contrived special effects, they let Steiner try to improve the film with music. The studio suggested using old tracks in order to save on the cost of the film; however, King Kong producer Merian C. Cooper asked Steiner to score the film and said he would pay for the orchestra. Steiner took advantage of this offer and used an eighty-piece orchestra, explaining the film "was made for music". According to Steiner, "it was the kind of film that allowed you to do anything and everything, from weird chords and dissonances to pretty melodies." Steiner additionally scored the wild tribal music which accompanied the ceremony to sacrifice Ann to Kong. He wrote the score in two weeks and the music recording cost around $50,000. The film became a "landmark of film scoring", as it showed the power music has to manipulate audience emotions. Steiner constructed the score on Wagnerian leitmotif principle, which calls for special themes for leading characters and concepts. The theme of the monster is recognizable as a descending three-note chromatic motif. After the death of King Kong, the Kong theme and the Fay Wray theme converge, underlining the "Beauty and the Beast" type relationship between the characters. The music in the film's finale helped express the tender feelings Kong had for the woman without the film having to explicitly state it. The majority of the music is heavy and loud, but some of the music is a bit lighter. For example, when the ship sails into Skull Island, Steiner keeps the music calm and quiet with a small amount of texture in the harps to help characterize the ship as it cautiously moves through the misty waters. Steiner received a bonus from his work, as Cooper credited 25 percent of the film's success to the film score. Before he died, Steiner admitted King Kong was one of his favorite scores. King Kong quickly made Steiner one of the most respected names in Hollywood. He continued as RKO's music director for two more years, until 1936. Max married Louise Klos, a harpist, in 1936. They had a son, Ron, together and they divorced in 1946. Steiner composed, arranged and conducted another 55 films, including most of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers' dance musicals. Additionally, Steiner wrote a sonata used in Katharine Hepburn's first film, Bill of Divorcement (1932). RKO producers, including Selznick, often came to him when they had problems with films, treating him as if he were a music "doctor". Steiner was asked to compose a score for Of Human Bondage (1934), which originally lacked music. He added musical touches to significant scenes. Director John Ford called on Steiner to score his film, The Lost Patrol (1934), which lacked tension without music. John Ford hired Steiner again to compose for his next film, The Informer (1935), before Ford began production of the film. Ford even asked his screenwriter to meet with Steiner during the writing phase to collaborate. This was unusual for Steiner who typically refused to compose a score from anything earlier than a rough cut of the film. Because Steiner scored the music before and during film production, Ford would sometimes shoot scenes in synchronization with the music Steiner composed rather than the usual practice of film composers synchronizing music to the film's scenes. Consequently, Steiner directly influenced the development of the protagonist, Gypo. Victor McLaglen, who played Gypo, rehearsed his walking in order to match the fumbling leitmotif Steiner had created for Gypo. This unique film production practice was successful; the film was nominated for six Academy Awards and won four, including Steiner's first Academy Award for Best Scoring. This score helped to exemplify Steiner's ability to encompass the essence of a film in a single theme. The main title of the film's soundtrack has three specific aspects. First, the heavy-march-like theme helps to describe the oppressive military and main character Gypo's inevitable downfall. Second, the character's theme is stern and sober and puts the audience into the correct mood for the film. Finally, the theme of the music contains some Irish folk song influences which serves to better characterize the Irish historical setting and influence of the film. The theme is not heard consistently throughout the film and serves rather as a framework for the other melodic motifs heard throughout different parts of the film. The score for this film is made up of many different themes which characterize the different personages and situations in the film. Steiner helps portray the genuine love Katie has for the main character Gypo. In one scene, Katie calls after Gypo as a solo violin echos the falling cadence of her voice. In another scene, Gypo sees an advertisement for a steamship to America and instead of the advertisement, sees himself holding Katie's hand on the ship. Wedding bells are heard along with organ music and he sees Katie wearing a veil and holding a bouquet. In a later scene, the Katie theme plays as a drunk Gypo sees a beautiful woman at the bar, insinuating he had mistaken her for Katie. Other musical themes included in the film score are an Irish folk song on French horns for Frankie McPhilip, a warm string theme for Dan and Gallagher and Mary McPhillip, and a sad theme on English horn with harp for the blind man.The most important motif in the film is the theme of betrayal relating to how Gypo betrays his friend Frankie: the "blood-money" motif. The theme is heard as the Captain throws the money on the table after Frankie is killed. The theme is a four note descending tune on harp; the first interval is the tritone. As the men are deciding who will be the executioner, the motif is repeated quietly and perpetually to establish Gypo's guilt and the musical motif is synchronized with the dripping of water in the prison. As it appears in the end of the film, the theme is played at a fortissimo volume as Gypo staggers into the church, ending the climax with the clap of the cymbals, indicating Gypo's penitence, no longer needing to establish his guilt. Silent film mannerisms are still seen in Steiner's composition such as when actions or consequences are accompanied by a sforzato chord immediately before it, followed by silence. An example of this is remarked in the part of the film when Frankie confronts Gypo looking at his reward for arrest poster. Steiner uses minor "Mickey Mousing" techniques in the film. Through this score, Steiner showed the potential of film music, as he attempted the show the internal struggles inside of Gypo's mind through the mixing of different themes such as the Irish "Circassian Circle", the "blood-money" motif, and Frankie's theme. The score concludes with an original "Sancta Maria" by Steiner. Some writers have erroneously referred to the cue as featuring Franz Schubert's "Ave Maria". In 1937, Steiner was hired by Frank Capra to conduct Dimitri Tiomkin's score for Lost Horizon (1937) as a safeguard in case Steiner needed to rewrite the score by an inexperienced Tiomkin; however, according to Hugo Friedhofer, Tiomkin specifically asked for Steiner, preferring him over the film studio's |
the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury. Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and 0.8 Mercury years past sunrise. Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above. Mercury attains inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as near as to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within is in 2679, and to within in 4487, but it will not be closer to Earth than until 28,622. Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity. Essentially because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is the closest planet to the Earth, and—in that measure—it is the closest planet to each of the other planets in the Solar System. Longitude convention The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, as described above. However, when this area was first visited, by , this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian. Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude. The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury. The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the MESSENGER project uses an east-positive convention. Spin-orbit resonance For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly still in Mercury's sky. The rare 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit, acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass distribution. In a circular orbit there is no such variance, so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g., Earth–Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along the "center-body" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the "longest" axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to point always at the center. However, with noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion. The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days. A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days. Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets. This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity. However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20 (more likely, 10) million years after its formation. Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant perihelion interaction with Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1% chance that the planet will collide with Venus within the next five billion years. Advance of perihelion In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller 'corpuscules') might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation. (Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever found. The perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth, or 574.10±0.65 arcseconds per century relative to the inertial ICRF. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds (1.5436°) per century. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being mediated by the curvature of spacetime. The effect is small: just 42.98 arcseconds per century for Mercury; it therefore requires a little over twelve million orbits for a full excess turn. Similar, but much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.62 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.84 for Earth, 1.35 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus. Habitability There may be scientific support, based on studies reported in March 2020, for considering that parts of the planet Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps that life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet. Observation Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between −2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and +7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior conjunction. The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet. The mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89 while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight. Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse. Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth. It is "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun, except its new phase during a transit. Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase. Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance. The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous. Nonetheless, the brightest (full phase) appearance of Mercury is an essentially impossible time for practical observation, because of the extreme proximity of the Sun. Mercury is best observed at the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively. At both of these times Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion. At greatest western elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and at greatest eastern elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset. Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern. This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In both of these cases, the angle at which the planet's orbit intersects the horizon is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before sunrise in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter from southern mid-latitudes, such as Argentina and South Africa. An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet during daylight hours when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be found easily, even when using telescopes with apertures. However, great care must be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage. This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g. on autumn evenings). Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail. The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was , which mapped about 45% of its surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which after three Mercury flybys between 2008 and 2009, attained orbit around Mercury on March 17, 2011, to study and map the rest of the planet. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun. Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions in a year makes up a seven-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the seventh year Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven years before. Observation history Ancient astronomers The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC. The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU\U4.UD ("the jumping planet"). Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology. The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses. He suggested that no transits had been observed either because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or because the transits were too infrequent. In ancient China, Mercury was known as "the Hour Star" (Chen-xing ). It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Five Phases system of metaphysics. Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "water star" (), based on the Five elements. Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday. The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and Wednesday. The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld. In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical calculations. In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. (Note that most such medieval reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots.) In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Ground-based telescopic research The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Galileo in the early 17th century. Although he observed phases when he looked at Venus, his telescope was not powerful enough to see the phases of Mercury. In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited around the Sun. A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737 is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133. The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map. In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet. Three years later, radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the 300-meter Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period was about 59 days. The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations. Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance. Data from subsequently confirmed this view. This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not "wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions. Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters. Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, recent technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5 meter | During this time Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon. An unusual crater with radiating troughs has been discovered that scientists called "the spider". It was later named Apollodorus. Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity. According to International Astronomical Union (IAU) rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is named. The largest known crater is Caloris Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km. The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric mountainous ring ~2 km tall surrounding the impact crater. The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they are volcanic lava flows induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode. Overall, 46 impact basins have been identified. A notable basin is the 400 km wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km diameter rim. Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts. Plains There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury. Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km in diameter. Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to the lunar maria. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins. All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket. Compressional features One unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains. As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults. The scarps can reach lengths of 1000 km and heights of 3 km. These compressional features can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent. Mapping of the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~1 to 7 km. Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6–3.7 billion years ago. Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the range of a few km, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter discovered that similar but smaller thrust faults exist on the Moon. Volcanism There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes. 51 pyroclastic deposits have been identified, where 90% of them are found within impact craters. A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval. A "rimless depression" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km in diameter. It is thus a "compound volcano". The vent floors are at least 1 km below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit. Scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system but reported that it could be of the order of a billion years. Surface conditions and exosphere The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from at the most extreme places: 0°N, 0°W, or 180°W. It never rises above 180 K at the poles, due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. The subsolar point reaches about 700 K during perihelion (0°W or 180°W), but only 550 K at aphelion (90° or 270°W). On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m−2). Although the daylight temperature at the surface of Mercury is generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the global average. This creates a cold trap where ice can accumulate. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles. Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers think it was the most likely. The icy regions are estimated to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior or deposition by impacts of comets. Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium and others at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH−, and H3O+ was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind. Sodium, potassium and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980–1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke. In 2008, magnesium was discovered by MESSENGER. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface. On November 29, 2012, NASA confirmed that images from MESSENGER had detected that craters at the north pole contained water ice. MESSENGER principal investigator Sean Solomon is quoted in The New York Times estimating the volume of the ice to be large enough to "encase Washington, D.C., in a frozen block two and a half miles deep". Magnetic field and magnetosphere Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by , it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's. The magnetic-field strength at Mercury's equator is about . Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar. Unlike Earth's, Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis. Measurements from both the and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable. It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal heating effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect. Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface. Observations taken by the spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere. During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's magnetic field can be extremely "leaky". The spacecraft encountered magnetic "tornadoes" – twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space – that were up to wide or a third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic flux tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field. The MESSENGER observations showed the reconnection rate is ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER. Orbit, rotation, and longitude Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from . It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete an orbit. The diagram illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. In the diagram, the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun. This varying distance to the Sun leads to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger than the Moon's on Earth. Combined with a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance of the planet's rotation around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature. The resonance makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days. Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all eight known solar planets. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun, which is in May or November. This occurs about every seven years on average. Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees. This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon. At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular |
US in 1975. In the US, it was selected in 2011 as the second-best comedy of all time in the ABC special Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time behind Airplane! In the UK, readers of Total Film magazine in 2000 ranked it the fifth-greatest comedy film of all time; a similar poll of Channel 4 viewers in 2006 placed it sixth. Plot In AD 932, King Arthur and his squire, Patsy, travel Britain searching for men to join the Knights of the Round Table. Along the way, Arthur debates whether swallows could carry coconuts, passes through a town infected with the Black Death, recounts receiving Excalibur from the Lady of the Lake to two anarcho-syndicalist peasants, defeats the Black Knight and observes an impromptu witch trial. He recruits Sir Bedevere the Wise, Sir Lancelot the Brave, Sir Galahad the Pure, Sir Robin the Not-Quite-So-Brave-as-Sir-Lancelot and Sir Not-Appearing-In-This-Film, along with their squires and Robin's minstrels. Arthur leads the knights to Camelot, but, after a musical number, changes his mind, deeming it "a silly place". As they turn away, God appears and orders Arthur to find the Holy Grail. Arthur and his knights arrive at a castle occupied by French soldiers, who claim to have the Grail and taunt the Britons, driving them back with a barrage of barnyard animals. Bedevere concocts a plan to sneak in using a Trojan Rabbit, but no one hides inside it, and the Britons are forced to flee when it is flung back at them. Arthur decides the knights should go their separate ways to search for the Grail. A modern-day historian filming a documentary on the Arthurian legends is killed by an unknown knight on horseback, triggering a police investigation. On the knights' travels, Arthur and Bedevere are given directions by an old man and attempt to satisfy the strange requests of the dreaded Knights Who Say "Ni!". Sir Robin avoids a fight with a Three-Headed Knight by running away while the heads are arguing. Sir Galahad is led by a grail-shaped beacon to Castle Anthrax, which is full of young women, but is unwillingly "rescued" by Lancelot. Lancelot receives an arrow-shot note from Swamp Castle. Believing the note is from a lady being forced to marry against her will, he storms the castle and slaughters several members of the wedding party, only to discover the note was from an effeminate prince. Arthur and his knights regroup and are joined by three new knights, as well as Brother Maynard and his monk brethren. They meet Tim the Enchanter, who directs them to a cave where the location of the Grail is said to be written. The entrance to the cave is guarded by the Rabbit of Caerbannog. Underestimating it, the knights attack, but the Rabbit easily kills Sirs Bors, Gawain and Ector. Arthur uses the "Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch", provided by Brother Maynard, to destroy the creature. Inside the cave, they find an inscription from Joseph of Arimathea, directing them to Castle Aarrgh. An animated cave monster devours Brother Maynard, but Arthur and the knights escape after the animator unexpectedly suffers a fatal heart attack. The knights approach the Bridge of Death, where the bridge-keeper challenges them to answer three questions to pass, or else be cast into the Gorge of Eternal Peril. Lancelot easily answers the simple questions and crosses. Robin is defeated by an unexpectedly difficult question, and Galahad fails an easy one; both are magically flung into the gorge. When the bridge-keeper poses an obscure question about swallows to Arthur, he asks the bridge-keeper to clarify what he means; the bridge-keeper cannot answer and is thrown into the gorge. Arthur and Bedevere cannot find Lancelot, unaware that he has been arrested by police investigating the historian's death. The pair reach Castle Aarrgh, but find it occupied by the French soldiers. After being repelled by showers of manure, they summon an army of knights and prepare to assault the castle. As the army charges, the police arrive, arrest Arthur and Bedevere and break the camera, ending the film. Cast Graham Chapman as Arthur, King of the Britons Chapman also plays the hiccuping guard and the middle head of the Three-Headed Giant, as well as providing the voice of God. John Cleese as Sir Lancelot the Brave Cleese also plays the Black Knight, French Taunter, and Tim the Enchanter, among other roles. Terry Gilliam as Patsy, Arthur's Servant Gilliam also plays the Soothsaying Bridgekeeper and Sir Bors, among other roles, and appears as himself as the Weak-Hearted Animator. Eric Idle as Sir Robin the Not-Quite-So-Brave-as-Sir-Lancelot Idle also plays Lancelot's squire Concorde, Roger the Shrubber, and Brother Maynard, among other roles. Terry Jones as Sir Bedevere the Wise Jones also plays Prince Herbert and the left head of the Three-Headed Giant, among other roles. Michael Palin as Sir Galahad the Pure Palin also plays the Leader of the Knights Who Say Ni, Lord of Swamp Castle, Dennis, and the right head of the Three-Headed Giant, among other roles, and provides the voice of the film's narrator. Connie Booth as Miss Islington, the Witch Carol Cleveland as Zoot and Dingo, identical twin sisters Neil Innes as the Leader of Robin's Minstrels, among other roles Bee Duffell as the Old Crone John Young as Frank the Historian Rita Davies as Frank's Wife Avril Stewart as Dr. Piglet Sally Kinghorn as Dr. Winston Sandy Johnson as a Knight Who Says Ni Julian Doyle as Police Sergeant Roy Forge Smith as Inspector End Of Film Maggie Weston as Page Turner Charles Knode as Camp Guard Production Development Fifteen months before the BBC visited the set in May 1974, the Monty Python troupe assembled the first version of the screenplay. When half of the resulting material was set in the Middle Ages, and half was set in the present day, the group opted to focus on the Middle Ages, revolving on the legend of the Holy Grail. By the fourth or fifth version of their screenplay, the story was complete, and the cast joked that the fact that the Grail was never retrieved would be "a big let-down ... a great anti-climax". Graham Chapman said a challenge was incorporating scenes that did not fit the Holy Grail motif. Neither Terry Gilliam nor Terry Jones had directed a film before, and described it as a learning experience in which they would learn to make a film by making an entire full-length film. The cast humorously described the novice directing style as employing the level of mutual disrespect always found in Monty Python's work. A 2021 tweet by Eric Idle revealed that the film was financed by eight investors: Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull's Ian Anderson, Holy Grail co-producer Michael White, Heartaches (a cricket team founded by lyricist Tim Rice), and three record companies including Charisma Records, the record label that released Python's early comedy albums. The investors contributed the entire original budget of £175,350 (about $410,000 in 1974). He added that this group also received a cut of the proceeds from the 2005 musical Spamalot. According to Terry Gilliam, the Pythons turned to rock stars like Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin for finance as the studios refused to fund the film and rock stars saw it as "a good tax write-off" due to the top rate of UK income tax being "as high as 90%" at the time. It has also been said by Gilliam that Elton John, financed the Holy Grail. Although a 2022 tweet from Eric Idle has stated that this is not true Filming Monty Python and the Holy Grail was mostly shot on location in Scotland, particularly around Doune Castle, Glen Coe, and the privately owned Castle Stalker. The many castles seen throughout the film were mainly either Doune Castle shot from different angles or hanging miniatures. There are several exceptions to this: the very first exterior shot of a castle at the beginning of the film is Kidwelly Castle | the original film's respective producer and co-director, John Goldstone and Terry Gilliam. Disc two also includes two scenes from the film's Japanese dub, literally translated back into English through subtitles. "The Quest for the Holy Grail Locations", hosted by Palin and Jones, shows places in Scotland used for the setting titled as "England 932 A.D." (as well as the two Pythons purchasing a copy of their own script as a guide). Also included is a who's who page, advertising galleries and sing-alongs. A "Collector's Edition" DVD release additionally included a book of the screenplay, a limited-edition film cell/senitype, and limited-edition art cards. A 35th-anniversary edition on Blu-ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012. Special features include "The Holy Book of Days," a second-screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu-ray to enhance its viewing, lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam, outtakes and extended scenes with Python member and the movie's co-director Terry Jones. On the special edition DVD, the studio logos, opening credits and a brief portion of the opening scene of 1961 British Film Dentist on the Job is added to the start of the film. The clip ends with a spluttering, unseen "projectionist" realising he has played the wrong film. A "slide" then appears urging the audience to wait one moment please while the operator changes reels. Reception Contemporary reviews were mixed. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote in a favourable review that the film had "some low spots," but had gags which were "nonstop, occasionally inspired and should not be divulged, though it's not giving away too much to say that I particularly liked a sequence in which the knights, to gain access to an enemy castle, come up with the idea of building a Trojan rabbit." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times was also positive, writing that the film, "like Mad comics, is not certain to please every taste. But its youthful exuberance and its rousing zaniness are hard not to like. As a matter of fact, the sense of fun is dangerously contagious." Penelope Gilliatt of The New Yorker called the film "often recklessly funny and sometimes a matter of comic genius." Other reviews were less enthusiastic. Variety wrote that the storyline was "basically an excuse for set pieces, some amusing, others overdone." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two-and-a-half stars, writing that he felt "it contained about 10 very funny moments and 70 minutes of silence. Too many of the jokes took too long to set up, a trait shared by both Blazing Saddles and Young Frankenstein. I guess I prefer Monty Python in chunks, in its original, television revue format." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called the film "a fitfully amusing spoof of the Arthurian legends" but "rather poky" in tempo, citing the running gag of Swedish subtitles in the opening credits as an example of how the Pythons "don't know when to let go of any shtik". Geoff Brown of The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote in a mixed review that "the team's visual buffooneries and verbal rigamaroles (some good, some bad, but mostly indifferent) are piled on top of each other with no attention to judicious timing or structure, and a form which began as a jaunty assault on the well-made revue sketch and an ingenious misuse of television's fragmented style of presentation, threatens to become as unyielding and unfruitful as the conventions it originally attacked." Legacy The film's reputation grew over time. In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted Holy Grail the fifth-greatest comedy film of all time. The next Python film, Life of Brian, was ranked first. A 2006 poll of Channel 4 viewers on the 50 Greatest Comedy Films saw Holy Grail placed in sixth place (with Life of Brian again topping the list). In 2011, an ABC prime-time special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People. Holy Grail was selected as the second best comedy after Airplane!. In 2016, Empire magazine ranked Holy Grail 18th in their list of the 100 best British films (Life of Brian was ranked 2nd), their entry stating, "Elvis ordered a print of this comedy classic and watched it five times. If it's good enough for the King, it's good enough for you." In a 2017 interview at Indiana University in Bloomington, John Cleese expressed disappointment with the film's conclusion. "'The ending annoys me the most'", he said after a screening of the film on the Indiana campus, adding that "'It ends the way it does because we couldn't think of any other way'". However, scripts for the film and notebooks that are among Michael Palin's private archive, which he donated to the British Library in 2017, do document at least one alternate ending that the troupe considered: "a battle between the knights of Camelot, the French, and the Killer Rabbit of Caerbannog". Due to the film's small production budget, that idea or a "much pricier option" was discarded by the Pythons in favour of the ending with "King Arthur getting arrested", which Palin deemed "'cheaper'" and "'funnier'". Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes offers a 97% approval rating from reviews of 78 critics, with an average rating of 8.46/10. The consensus reads, "A cult classic as gut-bustingly hilarious as it is blithely ridiculous, Monty Python and the Holy Grail has lost none of its exceedingly silly charm." Spamalot In 2005, the film was adapted as a Tony Award-winning Broadway musical, Spamalot. Written primarily by Idle, the show has more of an overarching plot and leaves out certain portions of the movie due to difficulties in rendering certain effects on stage. Nonetheless, many of the jokes from the film are present in the show. In 2013, the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, the film's producer, over royalties for the derivative work, Spamalot. They owed a combined £800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater. To help cover the cost |
this mutation does not result in any phenotypic effects, then it is called silent, but not all synonymous substitutions are silent. (There can also be silent mutations in nucleotides outside of the coding regions, such as the introns, because the exact nucleotide sequence is not as crucial as it is in the coding regions, but these are not considered synonymous substitutions.) A nonsynonymous substitution replaces a codon with another codon that codes for a different amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is modified. Nonsynonymous substitutions can be classified as nonsense or missense mutations: A missense mutation changes a nucleotide to cause substitution of a different amino acid. This in turn can render the resulting protein nonfunctional. Such mutations are responsible for diseases such as Epidermolysis bullosa, sickle-cell disease, and SOD1-mediated ALS. On the other hand, if a missense mutation occurs in an amino acid codon that results in the use of a different, but chemically similar, amino acid, then sometimes little or no change is rendered in the protein. For example, a change from AAA to AGA will encode arginine, a chemically similar molecule to the intended lysine. In this latter case the mutation will have little or no effect on phenotype and therefore be neutral. A nonsense mutation is a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a nonsense codon in the transcribed mRNA, and possibly a truncated, and often nonfunctional protein product. This sort of mutation has been linked to different diseases, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (See Stop codon.) By effect on function Loss-of-function mutations, also called inactivating mutations, result in the gene product having less or no function (being partially or wholly inactivated). When the allele has a complete loss of function (null allele), it is often called an amorph or amorphic mutation in the Muller's morphs schema. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often recessive. Exceptions are when the organism is haploid, or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called haploinsufficiency). Gain-of-function mutations, also called activating mutations, change the gene product such that its effect gets stronger (enhanced activation) or even is superseded by a different and abnormal function. When the new allele is created, a heterozygote containing the newly created allele as well as the original will express the new allele; genetically this defines the mutations as dominant phenotypes. Several of Muller's morphs correspond to gain of function, including hypermorph (increased gene expression) and neomorph (novel function). In December 2017, the U.S. government lifted a temporary ban implemented in 2014 that banned federal funding for any new "gain-of-function" experiments that enhance pathogens "such as Avian influenza, SARS and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome or MERS viruses." Dominant negative mutations (also called antimorphic mutations) have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a dominant or semi-dominant phenotype. In humans, dominant negative mutations have been implicated in cancer (e.g., mutations in genes p53, ATM, CEBPA and PPARgamma). Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene, located on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin-1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Marfan syndrome is also an example of dominant negative mutation and haploinsufficiency. Hypomorphs, after Mullerian classification, are characterized by altered gene products that acts with decreased gene expression compared to the wild type allele. Usually, hypomorphic mutations are recessive, but haploinsufficiency causes some alleles to be dominant. Neomorphs are characterized by the control of new protein product synthesis. Lethal mutations are mutations that lead to the death of the organisms that carry the mutations. A back mutation or reversion is a point mutation that restores the original sequence and hence the original phenotype. By effect on fitness (harmful, beneficial, neutral mutations) In genetics, it is sometimes useful to classify mutations as either harmful or beneficial (or neutral): A harmful, or deleterious, mutation decreases the fitness of the organism. Many, but not all mutations in essential genes are harmful (if a mutation does not change the amino acid sequence in an essential protein, it is harmless in most cases). A beneficial, or advantageous mutation increases the fitness of the organism. Examples are mutations that lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria (which are beneficial for bacteria but usually not for humans). A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism. Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the molecular clock. In the neutral theory of molecular evolution, neutral mutations provide genetic drift as the basis for most variation at the molecular level. In animals or plants, most mutations are neutral, given that the vast majority of their genomes is either non-coding or consists of repetitive sequences that have no obvious function ("junk DNA"). Large-scale quantitative mutagenesis screens, in which thousands of millions of mutations are tested, invariably find that a larger fraction of mutations has harmful effects but always returns a number of beneficial mutations as well. For instance, in a screen of all gene deletions in E. coli, 80% of mutations were negative, but 20% were positive, even though many had a very small effect on growth (depending on condition). Note that gene deletions involve removal of whole genes, so that point mutations almost always have a much smaller effect. In a similar screen in Streptococcus pneumoniae, but this time with transposon insertions, 76% of insertion mutants were classified as neutral, 16% had a significantly reduced fitness, but 6% were advantageous. This classification is obviously relative and somewhat artificial: a harmful mutation can quickly turn into a beneficial mutations when conditions change. Also, there is a gradient from harmful/beneficial to neutral, as many mutations may have small and mostly neglectable effects but under certain conditions will become relevant. Also, many traits are determined by hundreds of genes (or loci), so that each locus has only a minor effect. For instance, human height is determined by hundreds of genetic variants ("mutations") but each of them has a very minor effect on height, apart from the impact of nutrition. Height (or size) itself may be more or less beneficial as the huge range of sizes in animal or plant groups shows. Distribution of fitness effects (DFE) Attempts have been made to infer the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) using mutagenesis experiments and theoretical models applied to molecular sequence data. DFE, as used to determine the relative abundance of different types of mutations (i.e., strongly deleterious, nearly neutral or advantageous), is relevant to many evolutionary questions, such as the maintenance of genetic variation, the rate of genomic decay, the maintenance of outcrossing sexual reproduction as opposed to inbreeding and the evolution of sex and genetic recombination. DFE can also be tracked by tracking the skewness of the distribution of mutations with putatively severe effects as compared to the distribution of mutations with putatively mild or absent effect. In summary, the DFE plays an important role in predicting evolutionary dynamics. A variety of approaches have been used to study the DFE, including theoretical, experimental and analytical methods. Mutagenesis experiment: The direct method to investigate the DFE is to induce mutations and then measure the mutational fitness effects, which has already been done in viruses, bacteria, yeast, and Drosophila. For example, most studies of the DFE in viruses used site-directed mutagenesis to create point mutations and measure relative fitness of each mutant. In Escherichia coli, one study used transposon mutagenesis to directly measure the fitness of a random insertion of a derivative of Tn10. In yeast, a combined mutagenesis and deep sequencing approach has been developed to generate high-quality systematic mutant libraries and measure fitness in high throughput. However, given that many mutations have effects too small to be detected and that mutagenesis experiments can detect only mutations of moderately large effect; DNA sequence analysis can provide valuable information about these mutations. Molecular sequence analysis: With rapid development of DNA sequencing technology, an enormous amount of DNA sequence data is available and even more is forthcoming in the future. Various methods have been developed to infer the DFE from DNA sequence data. By examining DNA sequence differences within and between species, we are able to infer various characteristics of the DFE for neutral, deleterious and advantageous mutations. To be specific, the DNA sequence analysis approach allows us to estimate the effects of mutations with very small effects, which are hardly detectable through mutagenesis experiments. One of the earliest theoretical studies of the distribution of fitness effects was done by Motoo Kimura, an influential theoretical population geneticist. His neutral theory of molecular evolution proposes that most novel mutations will be highly deleterious, with a small fraction being neutral. Hiroshi Akashi more recently proposed a bimodal model for the DFE, with modes centered around highly deleterious and neutral mutations. Both theories agree that the vast majority of novel mutations are neutral or deleterious and that advantageous mutations are rare, which has been supported by experimental results. One example is a study done on the DFE of random mutations in vesicular stomatitis virus. Out of all mutations, 39.6% were lethal, 31.2% were non-lethal deleterious, and 27.1% were neutral. Another example comes from a high throughput mutagenesis experiment with yeast. In this experiment it was shown that the overall DFE is bimodal, with a cluster of neutral mutations, and a broad distribution of deleterious mutations. Though relatively few mutations are advantageous, those that are play an important role in evolutionary changes. Like neutral mutations, weakly selected advantageous mutations can be lost due to random genetic drift, but strongly selected advantageous mutations are more likely to be fixed. Knowing the DFE of advantageous mutations may lead to increased ability to predict the evolutionary dynamics. Theoretical work on the DFE for advantageous mutations has been done by John H. Gillespie and H. Allen Orr. They proposed that the distribution for advantageous mutations should be exponential under a wide range of conditions, which, in general, has been supported by experimental studies, at least for strongly selected advantageous mutations. In general, it is accepted that the majority of mutations are neutral or deleterious, with advantageous mutations being rare; however, the proportion of types of mutations varies between species. This indicates two important points: first, the proportion of effectively neutral mutations is likely to vary between species, resulting from dependence on effective population size; second, the average effect of deleterious mutations varies dramatically between species. In addition, the DFE also differs between coding regions and noncoding regions, with the DFE of noncoding DNA containing more weakly selected mutations. By inheritance In multicellular organisms with dedicated reproductive cells, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to descendants through their reproductive cells, and somatic mutations (also called acquired mutations), which involve cells outside the dedicated reproductive group and which are not usually transmitted to descendants. Diploid organisms (e.g., humans) contain two copies of each gene—a paternal and a maternal allele. Based on the occurrence of mutation on each chromosome, we may classify mutations into three types. A wild type or homozygous non-mutated organism is one in which neither allele is mutated. A heterozygous mutation is a mutation of only one allele. A homozygous mutation is an identical mutation of both the paternal and maternal alleles. Compound heterozygous mutations or a genetic compound consists of two different mutations in the paternal and maternal alleles. Germline mutation A germline mutation in the reproductive cells of an individual gives rise to a constitutional mutation in the offspring, that is, a mutation that is present in every cell. A constitutional mutation can also occur very soon after fertilisation, or continue from a previous constitutional mutation in a parent. A germline mutation can be passed down through subsequent generations of organisms. The distinction between germline and somatic mutations is important in animals that have a dedicated germline to produce reproductive cells. However, it is of little value in understanding the effects of mutations in plants, which lack a dedicated germline. The distinction is also blurred in those animals that reproduce asexually through mechanisms such as budding, because the cells that give rise to the daughter organisms also give rise to that organism's germline. A new germline mutation not inherited from either parent is called a de novo mutation. Somatic mutation A change in the genetic structure that is not inherited from a parent, and also not passed to offspring, is called a somatic mutation. Somatic mutations are not inherited by an organism's offspring because they do not affect the germline. However, they are passed down to all the progeny of a mutated cell within the same organism during mitosis. A major section of an organism therefore might carry the same mutation. These types of mutations are usually prompted by environmental causes, such as ultraviolet radiation or any exposure to certain harmful chemicals, and can cause diseases including cancer. With plants, some somatic mutations can be propagated without the need for seed production, for example, by grafting and stem cuttings. These type of mutation have led to new types of fruits, such as the "Delicious" apple and the "Washington" navel orange. Human and mouse somatic cells have a mutation rate more than ten times higher than the germline mutation rate for both species; mice have a higher rate of both somatic and germline mutations per cell division than humans. The disparity in mutation rate between the germline and somatic tissues likely reflects the greater importance of genome maintenance in the germline than in the soma. Special classes Conditional mutation is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive" conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition). These mutations are non-autonomous, as their manifestation depends upon presence of certain conditions, as opposed to other mutations which appear autonomously. The permissive conditions may be temperature, certain chemicals, light or mutations in other parts of the genome. In vivo mechanisms like transcriptional switches can create conditional mutations. For instance, association of Steroid Binding Domain can create a transcriptional switch that can change the expression of a gene based on the presence of a steroid ligand. Conditional mutations have applications in research as they allow control over gene expression. This is especially useful studying diseases in adults by allowing expression after a certain period of growth, thus eliminating the deleterious effect of gene expression seen during stages of development in model organisms. DNA Recombinase systems like Cre-Lox recombination used in association with promoters that are activated under certain conditions can generate conditional mutations. Dual Recombinase technology can be used to induce multiple conditional mutations to study the diseases which manifest as a result of simultaneous mutations in multiple genes. Certain inteins have been identified which splice only at certain permissive temperatures, leading to improper protein synthesis and thus, loss-of-function mutations at other temperatures. Conditional mutations may also be used in genetic studies associated with ageing, as the expression can be changed after a certain time period in the organism's lifespan. Replication timing quantitative trait loci affects DNA replication. Nomenclature In order to categorize a mutation as such, the "normal" sequence must be obtained from the DNA of a "normal" or "healthy" organism (as opposed to a "mutant" or "sick" one), it should be identified and reported; ideally, it should be made publicly available for a straightforward nucleotide-by-nucleotide comparison, and agreed upon by the scientific community or by a group of expert geneticists and biologists, who have the responsibility of establishing the standard or so-called "consensus" sequence. This step requires a tremendous scientific effort. Once the consensus sequence is known, the mutations in a genome can be pinpointed, described, and classified. The committee of the Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) has developed the standard human sequence variant nomenclature, which should be used by researchers and DNA diagnostic centers to generate unambiguous mutation descriptions. In principle, this nomenclature can also be used to describe mutations in other organisms. The nomenclature specifies the type of mutation and base or amino acid changes. Nucleotide substitution (e.g., 76A>T) – The number is the position of the nucleotide from the 5' end; the first letter represents the wild-type nucleotide, and the second letter represents the nucleotide that replaced the wild type. In the given example, the adenine at the 76th position was replaced by a thymine. If it becomes necessary to differentiate between mutations in genomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA, and RNA, a simple convention is used. For example, if the 100th base of a nucleotide sequence mutated from G to C, then it would be written as g.100G>C if the mutation occurred in genomic DNA, m.100G>C if the mutation occurred in mitochondrial DNA, or r.100g>c if the mutation occurred in RNA. Note that, for mutations in RNA, the nucleotide code is written in lower case. Amino acid substitution (e.g., D111E) – The first letter is the one letter code of the wild-type amino acid, the number is the position of the amino acid from the N-terminus, and the second letter is the one letter code of the amino acid present in the mutation. Nonsense mutations are represented with an X for the second amino acid (e.g. D111X). Amino acid deletion (e.g., ΔF508) – The Greek letter Δ (delta) indicates a deletion. The letter refers to the amino acid present in the wild type and the number is the position from the N terminus of the amino acid were it to be present as in | thymine is a normal DNA base. Slipped strand mispairing – Denaturation of the new strand from the template during replication, followed by renaturation in a different spot ("slipping"). This can lead to insertions or deletions. Replication slippage Error-prone replication bypass There is increasing evidence that the majority of spontaneously arising mutations are due to error-prone replication (translesion synthesis) past DNA damage in the template strand. In mice, the majority of mutations are caused by translesion synthesis. Likewise, in yeast, Kunz et al. found that more than 60% of the spontaneous single base pair substitutions and deletions were caused by translesion synthesis. Errors introduced during DNA repair Although naturally occurring double-strand breaks occur at a relatively low frequency in DNA, their repair often causes mutation. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is a major pathway for repairing double-strand breaks. NHEJ involves removal of a few nucleotides to allow somewhat inaccurate alignment of the two ends for rejoining followed by addition of nucleotides to fill in gaps. As a consequence, NHEJ often introduces mutations. Induced mutation Induced mutations are alterations in the gene after it has come in contact with mutagens and environmental causes. Induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused by: Chemicals Hydroxylamine Base analogs (e.g., Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)) Alkylating agents (e.g., N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU). These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrast, a base analog can mutate the DNA only when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA. Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions, transversions, or deletions. Agents that form DNA adducts (e.g., ochratoxin A) DNA intercalating agents (e.g., ethidium bromide) DNA crosslinkers Oxidative damage Nitrous acid converts amine groups on A and C to diazo groups, altering their hydrogen bonding patterns, which leads to incorrect base pairing during replication. Radiation Ultraviolet light (UV) (including non-ionizing radiation). Two nucleotide bases in DNA—cytosine and thymine—are most vulnerable to radiation that can change their properties. UV light can induce adjacent pyrimidine bases in a DNA strand to become covalently joined as a pyrimidine dimer. UV radiation, in particular longer-wave UVA, can also cause oxidative damage to DNA. Ionizing radiation. Exposure to ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation, can result in mutation, possibly resulting in cancer or death. Whereas in former times mutations were assumed to occur by chance, or induced by mutagens, molecular mechanisms of mutation have been discovered in bacteria and across the tree of life. As S. Rosenberg states, "These mechanisms reveal a picture of highly regulated mutagenesis, up-regulated temporally by stress responses and activated when cells/organisms are maladapted to their environments—when stressed—potentially accelerating adaptation." Since they are self-induced mutagenic mechanisms that increase the adaptation rate of organisms, they have some times been named as adaptive mutagenesis mechanisms, and include the SOS response in bacteria, ectopic intrachromosomal recombination and other chromosomal events such as duplications. Classification of types By effect on structure The sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. Mutations in the structure of genes can be classified into several types. Large-scale mutations Large-scale mutations in chromosomal structure include: Amplifications (or gene duplications) or repetition of a chromosomal segment or presence of extra piece of a chromosome broken piece of a chromosome may become attached to a homologous or non-homologous chromosome so that some of the genes are present in more than two doses leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them. Deletions of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions. Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct fusion genes (e.g., bcr-abl). Large scale changes to the structure of chromosomes called chromosomal rearrangement that can lead to a decrease of fitness but also to speciation in isolated, inbred populations. These include: Chromosomal translocations: interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes. Chromosomal inversions: reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment. Non-homologous chromosomal crossover. Interstitial deletions: an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes. For example, cells isolated from a human astrocytoma, a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the Fused in Glioblastoma (FIG) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase (ROS), producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS). The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes oncogenic transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells). Loss of heterozygosity: loss of one allele, either by a deletion or a genetic recombination event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles. Small-scale mutations Small-scale mutations affect a gene in one or a few nucleotides. (If only a single nucleotide is affected, they are called point mutations.) Small-scale mutations include: Insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. They are usually caused by transposable elements, or errors during replication of repeating elements. Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter splicing of the mRNA (splice site mutation), or cause a shift in the reading frame (frameshift), both of which can significantly alter the gene product. Insertions can be reversed by excision of the transposable element. Deletions remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions, these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene. In general, they are irreversible: Though exactly the same sequence might, in theory, be restored by an insertion, transposable elements able to revert a very short deletion (say 1–2 bases) in any location either are highly unlikely to exist or do not exist at all. Substitution mutations, often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single nucleotide for another. These changes are classified as transitions or transversions. Most common is the transition that exchanges a purine for a purine (A ↔ G) or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). A transition can be caused by nitrous acid, base mispairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as BrdU. Less common is a transversion, which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). An example of a transversion is the conversion of adenine (A) into a cytosine (C). Point mutations are modifications of single base pairs of DNA or other small base pairs within a gene. A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality). As discussed below, point mutations that occur within the protein coding region of a gene may be classified as synonymous or nonsynonymous substitutions, the latter of which in turn can be divided into missense or nonsense mutations. By impact on protein sequence The effect of a mutation on protein sequence depends in part on where in the genome it occurs, especially whether it is in a coding or non-coding region. Mutations in the non-coding regulatory sequences of a gene, such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers, can alter levels of gene expression, but are less likely to alter the protein sequence. Mutations within introns and in regions with no known biological function (e.g. pseudogenes, retrotransposons) are generally neutral, having no effect on phenotype – though intron mutations could alter the protein product if they affect mRNA splicing. Mutations that occur in coding regions of the genome are more likely to alter the protein product, and can be categorized by their effect on amino acid sequence: A frameshift mutation is caused by insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can disrupt the reading frame, or the grouping of the codons, resulting in a completely different translation from the original. The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is. (For example, the code CCU GAC UAC CUA codes for the amino acids proline, aspartic acid, tyrosine, and leucine. If the U in CCU was deleted, the resulting sequence would be CCG ACU ACC UAx, which would instead code for proline, threonine, threonine, and part of another amino acid or perhaps a stop codon (where the x stands for the following nucleotide).) By contrast, any insertion or deletion that is evenly divisible by three is termed an in-frame mutation. A point substitution mutation results in a change in a single nucleotide and can be either synonymous or nonsynonymous. A synonymous substitution replaces a codon with another codon that codes for the same amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is not modified. Synonymous mutations occur due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code. If this mutation does not result in any phenotypic effects, then it is called silent, but not all synonymous substitutions are silent. (There can also be silent mutations in nucleotides outside of the coding regions, such as the introns, because the exact nucleotide sequence is not as crucial as it is in the coding regions, but these are not considered synonymous substitutions.) A nonsynonymous substitution replaces a codon with another codon that codes for a different amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is modified. Nonsynonymous substitutions can be classified as nonsense or missense mutations: A missense mutation changes a nucleotide to cause substitution of a different amino acid. This in turn can render the resulting protein nonfunctional. Such mutations are responsible for diseases such as Epidermolysis bullosa, sickle-cell disease, and SOD1-mediated ALS. On the other hand, if a missense mutation occurs in an amino acid codon that results in the use of a different, but chemically similar, amino acid, then sometimes little or no change is rendered in the protein. For example, a change from AAA to AGA will encode arginine, a chemically similar molecule to the intended lysine. In this latter case the mutation will have little or no effect on phenotype and therefore be neutral. A nonsense mutation is a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a nonsense codon in the transcribed mRNA, and possibly a truncated, and often nonfunctional protein product. This sort of mutation has been linked to different diseases, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (See Stop codon.) By effect on function Loss-of-function mutations, also called inactivating mutations, result in the gene product having less or no function (being partially or wholly inactivated). When the allele has a complete loss of function (null allele), it is often called an amorph or amorphic mutation in the Muller's morphs schema. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often recessive. Exceptions are when the organism is haploid, or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called haploinsufficiency). Gain-of-function mutations, also called activating mutations, change the gene product such that its effect gets stronger (enhanced activation) or even is superseded by a different and abnormal function. When the new allele is created, a heterozygote containing the newly created allele as well as the original will express the new allele; genetically this defines the mutations as dominant phenotypes. Several of Muller's morphs correspond to gain of function, including hypermorph (increased gene expression) and neomorph (novel function). In December 2017, the U.S. government lifted a temporary ban implemented in 2014 that banned federal funding for any new "gain-of-function" experiments that enhance pathogens "such as Avian influenza, SARS and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome or MERS viruses." Dominant negative mutations (also called antimorphic mutations) have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a dominant or semi-dominant phenotype. In humans, dominant negative mutations have been implicated in cancer (e.g., mutations in genes p53, ATM, CEBPA and PPARgamma). Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene, located on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin-1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix. Marfan syndrome is also an example of dominant negative mutation and haploinsufficiency. Hypomorphs, after Mullerian classification, are characterized by altered gene products that acts with decreased gene expression compared to the wild type allele. Usually, hypomorphic mutations are recessive, but haploinsufficiency causes some alleles to be dominant. Neomorphs are characterized by the control of new protein product synthesis. Lethal mutations are mutations that lead to the death of the organisms that carry the mutations. A back mutation or reversion is a point mutation that restores the original sequence and hence the original phenotype. By effect on fitness (harmful, beneficial, neutral mutations) In genetics, it is sometimes useful to classify mutations as either harmful or beneficial (or neutral): A harmful, or deleterious, mutation decreases the fitness of the organism. Many, but not all mutations in essential genes are harmful (if a mutation does not change the amino acid sequence in an essential protein, it is harmless in most cases). A beneficial, or advantageous mutation increases the fitness of the organism. Examples are mutations that lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria (which are beneficial for bacteria but usually not for humans). A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism. Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the molecular clock. In the neutral theory of molecular evolution, neutral mutations provide genetic drift as the basis for most variation at the molecular level. In animals or plants, most mutations are neutral, given that the vast majority of their genomes is either non-coding or consists of repetitive sequences that have no obvious function |
is an area of the cerebral cortex that includes only four cortical layers instead of six. Microgyria are believed by some to be part of the genetic lack of prenatal development which is a cause of, or one of the causes of, dyslexia. Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that language centers in dyslexic | A microgyrus is an area of the cerebral cortex that includes only four cortical layers instead of six. Microgyria are believed by some to be part of the genetic lack of prenatal development which is a cause of, or one of the causes of, dyslexia. Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that language centers in dyslexic brains showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias |
reduce tariffs globally, non-tariff barriers to trade have assumed a greater importance in neomercantilism. History Mercantilism became the dominant school of economic thought in Europe throughout the late Renaissance and the early-modern period (from the 15th to the 18th centuries). Evidence of mercantilistic practices appeared in early-modern Venice, Genoa, and Pisa regarding control of the Mediterranean trade in bullion. However, the empiricism of the Renaissance, which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately, marked mercantilism's birth as a codified school of economic theories. The Italian economist and mercantilist Antonio Serra is considered to have written one of the first treatises on political economy with his 1613 work, A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Mercantilism in its simplest form is bullionism, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money-supply. Fiat money and floating exchange rates have since rendered specie concerns irrelevant. In time, industrial policy supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for "infant" industries or the promotion of the mutual growth of countries through national industrial specialization. England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England, 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of Queen Elizabeth (reigned 1558–1603) to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the Trade and Navigation Acts in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping. Elizabeth's efforts organized national resources sufficiently in the defense of England against the far larger and more powerful Spanish Empire, and in turn, paved the foundation for establishing a global empire in the 19th century. Authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include Gerard de Malynes ( 1585–1641) and Thomas Mun (1571–1641), who first articulated the Elizabethan system (England's Treasure by Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade is the Rule of Our Treasure), which Josiah Child ( 1630/31 – 1699) then developed further. Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around mercantilism in the 17th century. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (Intendant général, 1661–1665; Contrôleur général des finances, 1661–1683) best articulated this French mercantilism. French economic policy liberalized greatly under Napoleon (in power from 1799 to 1814/1815) Many nations applied the theory, notably France. King Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715) followed the guidance of Jean Baptiste Colbert, his Controller-General of Finances from 1665 to 1683. It was determined that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and of everyone else. Mercantilist economic policies aimed to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare, and theorists charged the state with looking for ways to strengthen the economy and to weaken foreign adversaries. In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late-18th century after the East India Company annexed the Mughal Bengal, a major trading nation, and the establishment of the British India through the activities of the East India Company, in light of the arguments of Adam Smith (1723–1790) and of the classical economists. The British Parliament's repeal of the Corn Laws under Robert Peel in 1846 symbolized the emergence of free trade as an alternative system. Theory Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but historians proved quick to adopt it. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The word "mercantilism" came into English from German in the early-19th century. The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. Smith saw the English merchant Thomas Mun (1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement. Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart's Principles of Political Economy, published in 1767. Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?) and, in France, Jean Bodin and Colbert. Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters. The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick, one of the pioneers of Cameralism, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy in his Austria Over All, If She Only Will of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism: That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing. That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials. That a large, working population be encouraged. That all exports of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation. That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible. That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver. That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished [in the home country]. That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver. That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home. Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism "a rent-seeking society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies. Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets. One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of subsistence". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption. Extra money, free time, and education for the lower classes were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy. The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger markets and armies. Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of physiocracy, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it. Policies Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted. The policies have included: High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods. Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations. Monopolizing markets with staple ports. Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments. Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships, as per, for example, the Navigation Acts. Subsidies on exports. Promoting manufacturing and industry through research or direct subsidies. Limiting wages. Maximizing the use of domestic resources. Restricting domestic consumption through non-tariff barriers to trade. Aztec Empire Pochteca (singular pochtecatl) were professional, long-distance traveling merchants in the Aztec Empire. The trade or commerce was referred to as pochtecayotl. Within the empire, the pochteca performed three primary duties: market management, international trade, and acting as market intermediaries domestically. They were a small but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders, and were often employed as spies due to their extensive travel and knowledge of the empire. The pochteca are the subject of Book 9 of the Florentine Codex (1576), compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún. Pochteca occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. They were responsible for providing the materials that the Aztec nobility used to display their wealth, which were often obtained from foreign sources. The pochteca also acted as agents for the nobility, selling the surplus tribute that had been bestowed on the noble and warrior elite and also sourcing rare goods or luxury items. The pochteca traded the excess tribute (food, garments, feathers and slaves) in the marketplace or carried it to other areas to exchange for trade goods. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of these merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. Trading expeditions often left their districts late in the evening, and their wealth was only revealed within their private guildhalls. Although politically and economically powerful, the pochteca strove to avoid undue attention. The merchants followed their own laws in their own calpulli, and venerating their god, Yacatecuhtli, "The Lord Who Guides" and Lord of the Vanguard an aspect of Quetzalcoatl. Eventually the merchants were elevated to the rank of the warriors of the military orders. France Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion. Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced. To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field. New France France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially New France. It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Great Britain In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–60). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial. With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other European powers. The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports | published Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement. Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart's Principles of Political Economy, published in 1767. Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?) and, in France, Jean Bodin and Colbert. Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters. The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick, one of the pioneers of Cameralism, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy in his Austria Over All, If She Only Will of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism: That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing. That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials. That a large, working population be encouraged. That all exports of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation. That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible. That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver. That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished [in the home country]. That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver. That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home. Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism "a rent-seeking society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies. Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets. One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of subsistence". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption. Extra money, free time, and education for the lower classes were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy. The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger markets and armies. Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of physiocracy, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it. Policies Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted. The policies have included: High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods. Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations. Monopolizing markets with staple ports. Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments. Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships, as per, for example, the Navigation Acts. Subsidies on exports. Promoting manufacturing and industry through research or direct subsidies. Limiting wages. Maximizing the use of domestic resources. Restricting domestic consumption through non-tariff barriers to trade. Aztec Empire Pochteca (singular pochtecatl) were professional, long-distance traveling merchants in the Aztec Empire. The trade or commerce was referred to as pochtecayotl. Within the empire, the pochteca performed three primary duties: market management, international trade, and acting as market intermediaries domestically. They were a small but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders, and were often employed as spies due to their extensive travel and knowledge of the empire. The pochteca are the subject of Book 9 of the Florentine Codex (1576), compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún. Pochteca occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. They were responsible for providing the materials that the Aztec nobility used to display their wealth, which were often obtained from foreign sources. The pochteca also acted as agents for the nobility, selling the surplus tribute that had been bestowed on the noble and warrior elite and also sourcing rare goods or luxury items. The pochteca traded the excess tribute (food, garments, feathers and slaves) in the marketplace or carried it to other areas to exchange for trade goods. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of these merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. Trading expeditions often left their districts late in the evening, and their wealth was only revealed within their private guildhalls. Although politically and economically powerful, the pochteca strove to avoid undue attention. The merchants followed their own laws in their own calpulli, and venerating their god, Yacatecuhtli, "The Lord Who Guides" and Lord of the Vanguard an aspect of Quetzalcoatl. Eventually the merchants were elevated to the rank of the warriors of the military orders. France Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion. Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced. To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field. New France France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially New France. It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. Great Britain In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–60). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial. With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other European powers. The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish, or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses to benefit the government. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on the Royal Navy, which both protected the colonies of Britain but was vital in capturing the colonies of other European powers. British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts removed foreign merchants from being involved England's domestic trade. British policies in their American colonies led to friction with the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, and mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other European powers and enforcing bans on smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution. Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game, with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Overall, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on Britain, helping to transform the nation into the world's dominant trading power and a global hegemon. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "wastelands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists believed that to maximize a nation's power, all land and resources had to be used to their highest and best use, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of The Fens. Other countries The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in Central Europe and Scandinavia after the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), with Christina of Sweden, Jacob Kettler of Courland, and Christian IV of Denmark being notable proponents. The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace Mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe. Spain benefited from mercantilism early on as it brought a large amount of precious metals such as gold and silver into their treasury by way of the new world. In the long run, Spain's economy collapsed as it was unable to adjust to the inflation that came with the large influx of bullion. Heavy intervention from the crown put crippling laws for the protection of Spanish goods and services. Mercantilist protectionist policy in Spain caused the long-run failure of the Castilian textile industry as the efficiency severely dropped off with each passing year due to the production being held at a specific level. Spain's heavily protected industries led to famines as much of its agricultural land was required to be used for sheep instead of grain. Much of their grain was imported from the Baltic region of Europe which caused a shortage of food in the inner regions of Spain. Spain limiting the trade of their colonies is one of the causes that lead to the separation of the Dutch from the Spanish Empire. The culmination of all of these policies lead to Spain defaulting in 1557, 1575, and 1596. During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base. Wars and imperialism Mercantilism was the economic version of warfare using economics as a tool for warfare by other means backed up by the state apparatus and was well suited to an era of military warfare. Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Franco-Dutch Wars, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy. Mercantilism fueled the imperialism of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to conquer new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets. European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the Dutch East India Company or the Hudson's Bay Company (operating in present-day Canada). With the establishment of overseas colonies by European powers early in the 17th century, mercantile theory gained a new and wider significance, in which its aim and ideal became both national and imperialistic. The connection between imperialism and mercantilism has been explored by Marxist economist and sociologist Giovanni Arrighi, who analyzed mercantilism as having three components: "settler colonialism, capitalist slavery, and economic nationalism," and further noted that slavery was "partly a condition and partly a result of the success of settler colonialism." In France, the triangular trade method was integral in the continuation of mercantilism throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. In order to maximize exports and minimize imports, France worked on a strict Atlantic |
an accident when Curt's finger was broken after being slammed in their touring van's door. The accident delayed the band's next album, the even more psychedelic Mirage, until the next year. The final result included synthesizers and electronic drums, and as such was considered their most polished sounding album to date. The tour for Mirage lasted less than 6 months, as the band found it difficult to recreate many of this album's songs in a concert atmosphere. Their next album, the ZZ-Top inspired Huevos, came out less than six months afterward, in late summer of 1987. In stark contrast to its predecessor, Huevos was recorded in a swift, fiery fashion, with many first takes, and minimal second guessing. These recordings were completed in only a matter of days, and along with a few drawings and one of Curt's paintings taken from the wall to serve as cover art (a dish of three boiled eggs, a green pepper, and a bottle of Tabasco sauce), were all sent to SST shortly before the band returned to the road en route to their next gig. Curt revealed in an interview that one of the reasons for the album being called Huevos (meaning 'eggs' in Spanish) was because of the multitude of first-takers on the record, as similarly eggs can only be used once. Monsters was released in 1989, featuring new elements to their sound with extended jams (such as "Touchdown King" and "Flight of the Fire Weasel") and heavy metal ("Attacked by Monsters"). This album was mostly motivated by the Meat Puppets' desire to attract the attention of a major label, as they were becoming frustrated with SST Records by this time. Major label career (1991–1995) As numerous bands from the seminal SST label and other kindred punk-oriented indies had before them, Meat Puppets grappled with the decision to switch to a major label. Two years after their final studio recording for SST, 1989's Monsters, the trio released its major-label debut, Forbidden Places, on the indie-friendly London Records. The band chose London Records because it was the first label that ZZ Top, one of their favorite bands, was signed to. Forbidden Places combined many elements of the band's sounds over the years (cowpunk, psychedelia, riffy heavier rock) while some songs had a more laid back early alternative sound. Songs include "Sam" and "Whirlpool," and the title track. Despite being a fan favorite, Forbidden Places is now out of print, and as such it remains a highly sought-after collectible online. In 1992 following his departure from the Red Hot Chili Peppers, guitarist John Frusciante auditioned for the band. Cris Kirkwood stated "He showed up with his guitar out of its case and barefoot. We were on a major label then, we just got signed, and those guys had blown up to where they were at and John needed to get out. John gets to our pad and we started getting ready to play and I said, 'You want to use my tuner?' He said, 'No, I'll bend it in.' It was so far out. Then we jammed but it didn't come to anything. Maybe he wasn't in the right place and we were a tight little unit. It just didn't quite happen but it could have worked." In late 1993, Meat Puppets achieved mainstream popularity when Nirvana's Kurt Cobain, who became a fan after seeing them open for Black Flag in the ‘80s, invited Cris and Curt to join him on MTV Unplugged for acoustic performances of "Plateau", "Oh Me" and "Lake of Fire" (all originally from Meat Puppets II). The resulting album, MTV Unplugged in New York, served as a swan song for Nirvana, as Cobain died less than 5 months after the concert. "Lake of Fire" became a cult favorite for its particularly wrenching vocal performance from Cobain. Subsequently, the Nirvana exposure and the strength of the single "Backwater" (their highest-charting single) helped lift Meat Puppets to new commercial heights. The band's studio return was 1994's Too High To Die, produced by Butthole Surfers guitarist Paul Leary. The album featured "Backwater", which reached #47 on the Billboard Hot 100, and a hidden-track update of "Lake of Fire." This album features a more straightforward alternative rock style, with occasional moments of pop, country and neo-psychedelic moments. Too High To Die earned the band a gold record (500,000 sold), outselling their previous records combined. 1995's No Joke! was the final album recorded by the original Meat Puppets lineup. Stylistically it is very similar to Too High to Die, although much heavier and with darker lyrics. Examples of this are the single "Scum" and "Eyeball," however the band's usual laid-back style is still heard on tracks like "Chemical Garden." Though the band's drug use included cocaine, heroin, LSD and many others, Cris' use of heroin and crack cocaine became so bad he rarely left his house except to obtain more drugs. At least two people (including his wife and one of his best friends) died of overdoses at his house in Tempe, AZ during this time. The Kirkwood brothers had always had a legendary appetite for illegal substances and during the tour to support Too High To Die with Stone Temple Pilots, the easy availability of drugs was too much for Cris. When it was over, he was severely addicted to cocaine and heroin. When their record label discovered Cris' addictions, support for No Joke! was subsequently dropped and it was met with poor sales figures. First hiatus and reunion (1996–2001) Derrick recorded a solo EP under the moniker Today's Sounds in 1996, and later on in 1999 took charge of re-issuing the Puppets' original seven records on Rykodisc as well as putting out their first live album, Live in Montana. Curt formed a new band in Austin, Texas called the Royal Neanderthal Orchestra, but they changed their name to Meat Puppets for legal reasons and released a promotional EP entitled You Love Me in 1999, Golden Lies in 2000 and Live in 2002. The line-up was Curt (voc/git), Kyle Ellison (voc/git), Andrew Duplantis (voc/bass) and Shandon Sahm (drums). Sahm's father was the legendary fiddler-singer-songwriter Doug Sahm of The Sir Douglas Quintet and Texas Tornados. The concluding track to Classic Puppets entitled "New Leaf" also dates from this incarnation of the band. Break up (2002–2005) Around 2002, Meat Puppets dissolved after Duplantis left the band. Curt went on to release albums with the groups Eyes Adrift and Volcano. In 2005, he released his first solo album entitled Snow. Bassist Cris was arrested in December 2003 for attacking a security guard at the main post office in downtown Phoenix, AZ with the guard's baton. The guard shot Kirkwood in the stomach at least twice during the melee, causing serious gunshot injuries requiring major surgery. Kirkwood was subsequently denied bail, the judge citing Kirkwood's previous drug arrests and probation violations. He eventually went to prison at the Arizona state prison in Florence, Arizona for felony assault. He was released in July 2005. Derrick Bostrom began a web site for the band about six months before the original trio stopped working together. The site went through many different permutations before it was essentially mothballed in 2003. In late 2005, Bostrom revamped it, this time as a "blog" for his recollections and as a place to share pieces of Meat Puppets history. Second reunion (2006–present) On March 24, 2006, Curt Kirkwood polled fans at his MySpace page with a bulletin that asked: "Question for all ! Would the original line up of Meat Puppets interest anyone ? Feedback is good – do you want a reunion!?" The response from fans was overwhelmingly positive within a | The Bastions of Immaturity, they settled on the name Meat Puppets in June, 1980 after a song by Curt of the same name which appears on their first album. Their earliest EP In A Car was made entirely of short hardcore punk with goofy lyrics, and attracted the attention of Joe Carducci as he was starting to work with legendary punk label SST Records. Carducci suggested they sign with the label, and Meat Puppets released their first album Meat Puppets in 1982, which among several new originals and a pair of heavily skewed Doc Watson and Bob Nolan covers, featured the songs "The Gold Mine" and "Melons Rising", two tunes Derrick and Cris originally had written and performed as Atomic Bomb Club previously. Years later, when the Meat Puppets reissued all of their albums in 1999, the five songs on In A Car would be combined with their debut album. By the release of 1984's Meat Puppets II, the bandmembers "were so sick of the hardcore thing," according to Bostrom. "We were really into pissing off the crowd." Here, the band experimented with acid rock and country and western sounds, while still retaining some punk influence on the tracks "Split Myself in Two" and "New Gods." This album contains some of the band's best known songs, such as "Lake of Fire" and "Plateau." While the album had been recorded in early 1983, the album's release was delayed for a year by SST. Meat Puppets II turned the band into one of the leading bands on SST Records, and along with the Violent Femmes, the Gun Club and others, helped establish the genre called "cow punk". Meat Puppets II was followed by 1985's Up on the Sun. The album's psychedelic sound resembled the folk-rock of The Byrds, while the songs still retained hardcore influences in the lengths of the songs and the tempos. Examples of this new style are the self titled track, "Enchanted Porkfist" and "Swimming Ground." Up On The Sun featured the Kirkwood brothers harmonizing their vocals for the first time. These two albums were mainstays of college and independent radio at that time. During the rest of the 1980s, Meat Puppets remained on SST and released a series of albums while touring relentlessly. Between tours they would regularly play small shows in bars around the Phoenix area such as The Mason Jar (now The Rebel Lounge) and The Sun Club in Tempe. After the release of the hard-rock styled Out My Way EP in 1986, however, the band was briefly sidelined by an accident when Curt's finger was broken after being slammed in their touring van's door. The accident delayed the band's next album, the even more psychedelic Mirage, until the next year. The final result included synthesizers and electronic drums, and as such was considered their most polished sounding album to date. The tour for Mirage lasted less than 6 months, as the band found it difficult to recreate many of this album's songs in a concert atmosphere. Their next album, the ZZ-Top inspired Huevos, came out less than six months afterward, in late summer of 1987. In stark contrast to its predecessor, Huevos was recorded in a swift, fiery fashion, with many first takes, and minimal second guessing. These recordings were completed in only a matter of days, and along with a few drawings and one of Curt's paintings taken from the wall to serve as cover art (a dish of three boiled eggs, a green pepper, and a bottle of Tabasco sauce), were all sent to SST shortly before the band returned to the road en route to their next gig. Curt revealed in an interview that one of the reasons for the album being called Huevos (meaning 'eggs' in Spanish) was because of the multitude of first-takers on the record, as similarly eggs can only be used once. Monsters was released in 1989, featuring new elements to their sound with extended jams (such as "Touchdown King" and "Flight of the Fire Weasel") and heavy metal ("Attacked by Monsters"). This album was mostly motivated by the Meat Puppets' desire to attract the attention of a major label, as they were becoming frustrated with SST Records by this time. Major label career (1991–1995) As numerous bands from the seminal SST label and other kindred punk-oriented indies had before them, Meat Puppets grappled with the decision to switch to a major label. Two years after their final studio recording for SST, 1989's Monsters, the trio released its major-label debut, Forbidden Places, on the indie-friendly London Records. The band chose London Records because it was the first label that ZZ Top, one of their favorite bands, was signed to. Forbidden Places combined many elements of the band's sounds over the years (cowpunk, psychedelia, riffy heavier rock) while some songs had a more laid back early alternative sound. Songs include "Sam" and "Whirlpool," and the title track. Despite being a fan favorite, Forbidden Places is now out of print, and as such it remains a highly sought-after collectible online. In 1992 following his departure from the Red Hot Chili Peppers, guitarist John Frusciante auditioned for the band. Cris Kirkwood stated "He showed up with his guitar out of its case and barefoot. We were on a major label then, we just got signed, and those guys had blown up to where they were at and John needed to get out. John gets to our pad and we started getting ready to play and I said, 'You want to use my tuner?' He said, 'No, I'll bend it in.' It was so far out. Then we jammed but it didn't come to anything. Maybe he wasn't in the right place and we were a tight little unit. It just didn't quite happen but it could have worked." In late 1993, Meat Puppets achieved mainstream popularity when Nirvana's Kurt Cobain, who became a fan after seeing them open for Black Flag in the ‘80s, invited Cris and Curt to join him on MTV Unplugged for acoustic performances of "Plateau", "Oh Me" and "Lake of Fire" (all originally from Meat Puppets II). The resulting album, MTV Unplugged in New York, served as a swan song for Nirvana, as Cobain died less than 5 months after the concert. "Lake of Fire" became a cult favorite for its particularly wrenching vocal performance from Cobain. Subsequently, the Nirvana exposure and the strength of the single "Backwater" (their highest-charting single) helped lift Meat Puppets to new commercial heights. The band's studio return was 1994's Too High To Die, produced by Butthole Surfers guitarist Paul Leary. The album featured "Backwater", which reached #47 on the Billboard Hot 100, and a hidden-track update of "Lake of Fire." This album features a more straightforward alternative rock |
Computing (CEMC) based out of the University of Waterloo hosts long-standing national competitions for grade levels 7–12 MathChallengers (formerly MathCounts BC) — for eighth, ninth, and tenth grade students Colombia Olimpiadas Colombianas de Matemáticas - national competition open to all high-school students Olimpiadas Colombianas de Matemáticas para primaria - national competition open to all primary students from 3rd Grade to 5th Grade Olimpiadas Colombianas de Matemáticas universitaria - national competition open to all university students France Concours général — competition whose mathematics portion is open to twelfth grade students Hong Kong Hong Kong Mathematics Olympiad Hong Kong Mathematical High Achievers Selection Contest — for students from Form 1 to Form 3 Pui Ching Invitational Mathematics Competition Primary Mathematics World Contest Hungary Miklós Schweitzer Competition Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok — correspondence competition for students from 9th–12th grade National Secondary School Academic Competition - Mathematics India Indian National Mathematical Olympiad Indonesia National Science Olympiad (Olimpiade Sains Nasional) — includes mathematics along with various science topics Kenya Moi National Mathematics Contest — prepared and hosted by Mang'u High School but open to students from all Kenyan high schools Nigeria Cowbellpedia. This contest is sponsored by Promasidor Nigeria. It is open to students from eight to eighteen, at public and private schools in Nigeria. Pakistan Inter School Maths Olympiad — organized nationwide by PakTurk International Schools and Colleges Saudi Arabia KFUPM mathematics olympiad – organized by King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM). Singapore Singapore Mathematical Olympiad (SMO) — organized by the Singapore Mathematical Society, the competition is open to all pre-university students in Singapore. South Africa University of Cape Town Mathematics Competition — open to students in grades 8 through 12 in the Western Cape province. United States National elementary school competitions (K–5) and higher Math League (grades 4–12) Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) (grades 4–6 and 7–8) National middle school competitions (grades 6–8) and lower/higher American Mathematics Contest 8 (AMC->8), formerly the American Junior High School Mathematics Examination (AJHSME) Math League (grades 4–12) MATHCOUNTS Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus) United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS) National high school competitions (grade 9–12) and lower American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME) American Mathematics Contest 10 (AMC->10) American | Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok — correspondence competition for students from 9th–12th grade National Secondary School Academic Competition - Mathematics India Indian National Mathematical Olympiad Indonesia National Science Olympiad (Olimpiade Sains Nasional) — includes mathematics along with various science topics Kenya Moi National Mathematics Contest — prepared and hosted by Mang'u High School but open to students from all Kenyan high schools Nigeria Cowbellpedia. This contest is sponsored by Promasidor Nigeria. It is open to students from eight to eighteen, at public and private schools in Nigeria. Pakistan Inter School Maths Olympiad — organized nationwide by PakTurk International Schools and Colleges Saudi Arabia KFUPM mathematics olympiad – organized by King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM). Singapore Singapore Mathematical Olympiad (SMO) — organized by the Singapore Mathematical Society, the competition is open to all pre-university students in Singapore. South Africa University of Cape Town Mathematics Competition — open to students in grades 8 through 12 in the Western Cape province. United States National elementary school competitions (K–5) and higher Math League (grades 4–12) Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) (grades 4–6 and 7–8) National middle school competitions (grades 6–8) and lower/higher American Mathematics Contest 8 (AMC->8), formerly the American Junior High School Mathematics Examination (AJHSME) Math League (grades 4–12) MATHCOUNTS Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus) United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS) National high school competitions (grade 9–12) and lower American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME) American Mathematics Contest 10 (AMC->10) American Mathematics Contest 12 (AMC->12), formerly the American High School Mathematics Examination (AHSME) American Regions Mathematics League (ARML) iTest Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT) High School Mathematical Contest in Modeling (HiMCM) Math League (grades 4–12) Math-O-Vision (grades 9–12) Math Prize for Girls MathWorks |
a downward causal force is consciousness – intentionality – generating meanings – intensionality. Mind is a higher-level expression of the capacity of living organisms for discrimination. Our pursuit of self-set ideals such as truth and justice transforms our understanding of the world. The reductionistic attempt to reduce higher-level realities into lower-level realities generates what Polanyi calls a moral inversion, in which the higher is rejected with moral passion. Polanyi identifies it as a pathology of the modern mind and traces its origins to a false conception of knowledge; although it is relatively harmless in the formal sciences, that pathology generates nihilism in the humanities. Polanyi considered Marxism an example of moral inversion. The State, on the grounds of an appeal to the logic of history, uses its coercive powers in ways that disregard any appeals to morality. Tacit knowledge Tacit knowledge, as distinct from explicit knowledge, is an influential term developed by Polanyi in The Tacit Dimension to describe the idea of know how, or the ability to do something, without necessarily being able to articulate it or even be aware of all the dimensions, for example being able to ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument. Bibliography 1932. Atomic Reactions. Williams and Norgate, London. 1935. U.S.S.R. Economics 1940. The Contempt of Freedom. The Russian Experiment and After. Watts & Co., London. 1944. Patent Reform 1945. Full Employment and Free Trade 1946. Science, Faith, and Society. Oxford Univ. Press. . Reprinted by the University of Chicago Press, 1964. 1951. The Logic of Liberty. University of Chicago Press. 1958. Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. 1959. The Study of Man. University of Chicago Press. 1960. Beyond Nihilism 1966. The Tacit Dimension. London, Routledge. (University of Chicago Press. . 2009 reprint) 1969. Knowing and Being. Edited with an introduction by Marjorie Grene. University of Chicago Press and (UK) Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1975 (with Prosch, Harry). Meaning. Univ. of Chicago Press. 1997. Society, Economics and Philosophy: Selected Papers of Michael Polanyi. Edited with an introduction by R.T. Allen. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers. Includes an annotated bibliography of Polanyi's publications. See also Bell–Evans–Polanyi principle Eyring–Polanyi equation Credo ut intelligam Knowledge management List of Christians in science and technology Michael Polanyi Center George Holmes Howison's "Personal Idealism" Polanyi's paradox Notes Further reading Neidhardt, W. Jim: "Possible Relationships Between Polanyi's Insights and Modern Findings in Psychology, Brain Research, and Theories of Science." JASA 31 (March 1979): 61–62. Thorson, Walter R.: "The Biblical Insights of Michael Polanyi." JASA 33 (September 1981): 129–38. Stines, J. W.: "Time, Chaos Theory and the Thought of Michael Polanyi." JASA 44 (December 1992): 220–27. Gelwick, Richard, 1987. The Way of Discovery: An Introduction to the Thought of Michael Polanyi. Oxford University Press. Allen, R. T., 1991. Polany. London, Claridge Press. Scott, Drusilla, 1995. Everyman Revived: The Common Sense of Michael Polanyi. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. . Allen, R. T., 1998. Beyond Liberalism: A Study in the Political Thought of F. A. Hayek and Michael Polanyi, Rutgers, NJ, Transaction Publishers. Poirier, Maben W. 2002. A Classified and Partially Annotated Bibliography of Michael Polanyi, the Anglo-Hungarian Philosopher of Science. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press. . Scott, William Taussig, and Moleski, Martin X., 2005. Michael Polanyi, Scientist and Philosopher. Oxford University Press. . Jacobs, Struan, and Allen, R. T. (eds.), 2005. "Emotion, Reason and Tradition: Essays on the Social, Political and Economic Thought of Michael Polanyi", Guildford, Ashgate. . Mitchell, Mark, 2006. Michael Polanyi: The Art of Knowing (Library Modern Thinkers Series). Wilmington, Delaware: Intercollegiate Studies Institute. , . Nye, Mary Jo, 2011. Michael Polanyi and His Generation: Origins of the Social Construction of Science. University of Chicago Press. . Angioni, Giulio, 2011. Fare, dire, sentire: l’identico e il diverso nelle culture, Il Maestrale. Giulio Angioni . External links Biography by Mary Jo Nye Polanyi Society home page The Society for Personalist and Postcritical Studies The SPCPS and its journal, "Appraisal", takes a special interest in Michael Polanyi. Polanyi resources at erraticimpact.com Polanyiana, Vol. 8, Number 1–2 Smith, M. K., 2003, "Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge." The encyclopaedia of informal education "Life's Irreducible Structure". Michael Polanyi. Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation. Volume 22 (December 1970): 123–31. Links to Responses by Stanford Materials Science Professor Richard H. Bube and another member of the ASA Cohn Duricz. Guide to the Michael Polanyi Papers 1900-1975 at the University of Chicago Special Collections | is directed to accord with the needs of the latest Five Year Plan. Polanyi noted what had happened to the study of genetics in the Soviet Union once the doctrines of Trofim Lysenko had gained the backing of the State. Demands in Britain, for example by the Marxist John Desmond Bernal, for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi to defend the claim that science requires free debate. Together with John Baker, he founded the influential Society for Freedom in Science. In a series of articles, re-published in The Contempt of Freedom (1940) and The Logic of Liberty (1951), Polanyi claimed that co-operation amongst scientists is analogous to the way agents co-ordinate themselves within a free market. Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, science is a spontaneous order that arises as a consequence of open debate amongst specialists. Science (contrary to the claims of Bukharin) flourishes when scientists have the liberty to pursue truth as an end in itself: [S]cientists, freely making their own choice of problems and pursuing them in the light of their own personal judgment, are in fact co-operating as members of a closely knit organization. Such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group ... under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of the single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation. He derived the phrase spontaneous order from Gestalt psychology, and it was adopted by the classical liberal economist Friederich Hayek, although the concept can be traced back to at least Adam Smith. Polanyi (unlike Hayek) argued that there are higher and lower forms of spontaneous order, and he asserted that defending scientific inquiry on utilitarian or sceptical grounds undermined the practice of science. He extends this into a general claim about free societies. Polanyi defends a free society not on the negative grounds that we ought to respect "private liberties", but on the positive grounds that "public liberties" facilitate our pursuit of objective ideals. According to Polanyi, a free society that strives to be value-neutral undermines its own justification. But it is not enough for the members of a free society to believe that ideals such as truth, justice, and beauty, are objective, they also have to accept that they transcend our ability to wholly capture them. The objectivity of values must be combined with acceptance that all knowing is fallible. In Full Employment and Free Trade (1948) Polanyi analyses the way money circulates around an economy, and in a monetarist analysis that, according to Paul Craig Roberts, was thirty years ahead of its time, he argues that a free market economy should not be left to be wholly self-adjusting. A central bank should attempt to moderate economic booms/busts via a strict/loose monetary policy. In 1940, he produced a film, "Unemployment and money. The principles involved", perhaps the first film about economics. The film presented a special kind of Keynesianism, neutral Keynesianism, that advised to use budget deficit and tax remissions to increase the amount of money in the circulation in times of economic hardship but did not advise to use infrastructural investments and public works. All knowing is personal In his book Science, Faith and Society (1946), Polanyi set out his opposition to a positivist account of science, noting that it ignores the role personal commitments play in the practice of science. Polanyi gave the Gifford Lectures in 1951–52 at Aberdeen, and a revised version of his lectures were later published as Personal Knowledge (1958). In this book Polanyi claims that all knowledge claims (including those that derive from rules) rely on personal judgements. He denies that a scientific method can yield truth mechanically. All knowing, no matter how formalised, relies upon commitments. Polanyi argued that the assumptions that underlie critical philosophy are not only false, they undermine the commitments that motivate our highest achievements. He advocates a fiduciary post-critical approach, in which we recognise that we believe more than we can prove, and know more than we can say. The literary critic Rita Felski has named Polanyi as an important precursor to the project of postcritique within literary studies. A knower does not stand apart from the universe, but participates personally within it. Our intellectual skills are driven by passionate commitments that motivate discovery and validation. According to Polanyi, a great scientist not only identifies patterns, but also chooses significant questions likely to lead to a successful resolution. Innovators risk their reputation by committing to a hypothesis. Polanyi cites the example of Copernicus, who declared that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He claims that Copernicus arrived at the Earth's true relation to the Sun not as a consequence of following a method, but via "the greater intellectual satisfaction he derived from the celestial panorama as seen from the Sun instead of the Earth." His writings on the practice of science influenced Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend. Polanyi rejected the claim by British Empiricists that experience can be reduced into sense data, but he also rejects the notion that "indwelling" within (sometimes incompatible) interpretative frameworks traps us within them. Our tacit awareness connects us, albeit fallibly, with reality. It supplies us with the context within which our articulations have meaning. Contrary to the views of his colleague and friend Alan Turing, whose work at the Victoria University of Manchester prepared the way for the first modern computer, he denied that minds are reducible to collections of rules. His work |
contamination. Due to the toxic effects of methanol when absorbed through the skin or ingested, in contrast to the relatively safer ethanol, the FDA ordered recalls of such hand sanitizer products containing methanol, and issued an import alert to stop these products from illegally entering the U.S. market. Applications Formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl tert-butylether Methanol is primarily converted to formaldehyde, which is widely used in many areas, especially polymers. The conversion entails oxidation: 2 CH3OH + O2 -> 2 CH2O + 2 H2O Acetic acid can be produced from methanol. Methanol and isobutene are combined to give methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). MTBE is a major octane booster in gasoline. Methanol to hydrocarbons, olefins, gasoline Condensation of methanol to produce hydrocarbons and even aromatic systems is the basis of several technologies related to gas to liquids. These include methanol-to-hydrocarbons (MtH), methanol to gasoline (MtG), methanol to olefins (MtO), and methanol to propylene (MtP). These conversions are catalyzed by zeolites as heterogeneous catalysts. The MtG process was once commercialized at Motunui in New Zealand. Gasoline additive The European Fuel Quality Directive allows fuel producers to blend up to 3% methanol, with an equal amount of cosolvent, with gasoline sold in Europe. China uses more than 4.5 billion liters of methanol per year as a transportation fuel in low level blends for conventional vehicles, and high level blends in vehicles designed for methanol fuels. Other chemicals Methanol is the precursor to most simple methylamines, methyl halides, and methyl ethers. Methyl esters are produced from methanol, including the transesterification of fats and production of biodiesel via transesterification. Niche and potential uses Energy carrier Methanol is a promising energy carrier because, as a liquid, it is easier to store than hydrogen and natural gas. Its energy density is, however, low, reflecting the fact that in combustion it uses 60% less of the high-energy O2 than methane, per kg. Its combustion energy density is 15.6 MJ/L, whereas that of ethanol is 24 and gasoline is 33 MJ/L. Further advantages for methanol is its ready biodegradability and low environmental toxicity. It does not persist in either aerobic (oxygen-present) or anaerobic (oxygen-absent) environments. The half-life for methanol in groundwater is just one to seven days, while many common gasoline components have half-lives in the hundreds of days (such as benzene at 10–730 days). Since methanol is miscible with water and biodegradable, it is unlikely to accumulate in groundwater, surface water, air or soil. Fuel Methanol is occasionally used to fuel internal combustion engines. It burns forming carbon dioxide and water: 2 CH3OH + 3 O2 -> 2 CO2 + 4 H2O One problem with high concentrations of methanol in fuel is that alcohols corrode some metals, particularly aluminium. Methanol fuel has been proposed for ground transportation. The chief advantage of a methanol economy is that it could be adapted to gasoline internal combustion engines with minimum modification to the engines and to the infrastructure that delivers and stores liquid fuel. Its energy density is, however, only half that of gasoline, meaning that twice the volume of methanol would be required. Methanol is an alternative fuel for ships that helps the shipping industry meet increasingly strict emissions regulations. It significantly reduces emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter. Methanol can be used with high efficiency in marine diesel engines after minor modifications using a small amount of pilot fuel (Dual fuel). In China, methanol fuels industrial boilers, which are used extensively to generate heat and steam for various industrial applications and residential heating. Its use is displacing coal, which is under pressure from increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Direct-methanol fuel cells are unique in their low temperature, atmospheric pressure operation, which lets them be greatly miniaturized. This, combined with the relatively easy and safe storage and handling of methanol, may open the possibility of fuel cell-powered consumer electronics, such as laptop computers and mobile phones. Methanol is also a widely used fuel in camping and boating stoves. Methanol burns well in an unpressurized burner, so alcohol stoves are often very simple, sometimes little more than a cup to hold fuel. This lack of complexity makes them a favorite of hikers who spend extended time in the wilderness. Similarly, the alcohol can be gelled to reduce risk of leaking or spilling, as with the brand "Sterno". Methanol is mixed with water and injected into high performance diesel and gasoline engines for an increase of power and a decrease in intake air temperature in a process known as water methanol injection. Other applications Methanol is used as a denaturant | Biosynthesis The catalytic conversion of methane to methanol is effected by enzymes including methane monooxygenases. These enzymes are mixed-function oxygenases, i.e. oxygenation is coupled with production of water and NAD+: CH4 + O2 + NADPH + H^+ -> CH3OH + H2O + NAD^+ . Both Fe- and Cu-dependent enzymes have been characterized. Intense but largely fruitless efforts have been undertaken to emulate this reactivity. Methanol is more easily oxidized than is the feedstock methane, so the reactions tend not to be selective. Some strategies exist to circumvent this problem. Examples include Shilov systems and Fe- and Cu containing zeolites. These systems do not necessarily mimic the mechanisms employed by metalloenzymes, but draw some inspiration from them. Active sites can vary substantially from those known in the enzymes. For example, a dinuclear active site is proposed in the sMMO enzyme, whereas a mononuclear iron (alpha-oxygen) is proposed in the Fe-zeolite. Safety Methanol is highly flammable. Its vapours are slightly heavier than air, can travel and ignite. Methanol fires should be extinguished with dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray or alcohol-resistant foam. Quality specifications and analysis Methanol is available commercially in various purity grades. Commercial methanol is generally classified according to ASTM purity grades A and AA. Both grade A and grade AA purity are 99.85% methanol by weight. Grade "AA" methanol contains trace amounts of ethanol as well. Methanol for chemical use normally corresponds to Grade AA. In addition to water, typical impurities include acetone and ethanol (which are very difficult to separate by distillation). UV-vis spectroscopy is a convenient method for detecting aromatic impurities. Water content can be determined by the Karl-Fischer titration. History In their embalming process, the ancient Egyptians used a mixture of substances, including methanol, which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood. Pure methanol, however, was first isolated in 1661 by Robert Boyle, when he produced it via the distillation of buxus (boxwood). It later became known as "pyroxylic spirit". In 1834, the French chemists Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Eugene Peligot determined its elemental composition. They also introduced the word "methylène" to organic chemistry, forming it from Greek methy = "alcoholic liquid" + hȳlē = "forest, wood, timber, material". "Methylène" designated a "radical" that was about 14% hydrogen by weight and contained one carbon atom. This would be CH2, but at the time carbon was thought to have an atomic weight only six times that of hydrogen, so they gave the formula as CH. They then called wood alcohol (l'esprit de bois) "bihydrate de méthylène" (bihydrate because they thought the formula was C4H8O4 = (CH)4(H2O)2). The term "methyl" was derived in about 1840 by back-formation from "methylene", and was then applied to describe "methyl alcohol". This was shortened to "methanol" in 1892 by the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature. The suffix -yl, which, in organic chemistry, forms names of carbon groups, is from the word methyl. French chemist Paul Sabatier presented the first process that could be used to produce methanol synthetically in 1905. This process suggested that carbon dioxide and hydrogen could be reacted to produce methanol. German chemists Alwin Mittasch and Mathias Pier, working for Badische-Anilin & Soda-Fabrik (BASF), developed a means to convert synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen) into methanol and received a patent. According to Bozzano and Manenti, BASF's process was first utilized in Leuna, Germany in 1923. Operating conditions consisted of "high" temperatures (between 300 and 400 °C) and pressures (between 250 and 350 atm) with a zinc/chromium oxide catalyst. US patent 1,569,775 () was applied for on 4 Sep 1924 and issued on 12 January 1926 to BASF; the process used a chromium and manganese oxide catalyst with extremely vigorous conditions: pressures ranging from 50 to 220 atm, and temperatures up to 450 °C. Modern methanol production has been made more efficient through use of catalysts (commonly copper) capable of operating at lower pressures. The modern low pressure methanol (LPM) process was developed by ICI in the late 1960s with the technology patent since long expired. During World War II, methanol was used as |
decades of the 19th century, demand for milk in most parts of the country doubled or, in some cases, tripled. Legislation in 1875 made the adulteration of milk illegal– This combined with a marketing campaign to change the image of milk. The proportion of rural imports by rail as a percentage of total milk consumption in London grew from under 5% in the 1860s to over 96% by the early 20th century. By that point, the supply system for milk was the most highly organized and integrated of any food product. Milk was analyzed for infection with tuberculosis. In 1907 180 samples were tested in Birmingham and 13.3% were found to be infected. The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s. The first company to do so may have been the New York Dairy Company in 1877. The Express Dairy Company in England began glass bottle production in 1880. In 1884, Hervey Thatcher, an American inventor from New York, invented a glass milk bottle, called "Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar," which was sealed with a waxed paper disk. Later, in 1932, plastic-coated paper milk cartons were introduced commercially. In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization, a method of killing harmful bacteria in beverages and food products. He developed this method while on summer vacation in Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines. He found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about for a brief time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without sacrificing the final quality. In honor of Pasteur, the process became known as "pasteurization". Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring. Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the process in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885. Sources The females of all mammal species can, by definition, produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed. In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrial scale and is, by far, the most commonly consumed form of milk. Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Dairy cattle, such as the Holstein, have been bred selectively for increased milk production. About 90% of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins. Other dairy cows in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn). Other animal-based sources Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011. In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist. According to the U.S. National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buffalo) are not milked commercially; however, various sources report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North America and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s. Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk is similar to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human consumption. The main reasons for this are that milking a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome, and that sows can not store their milk as cows can. A few pig farms do sell pig cheese as a novelty item; these cheeses are exceedingly expensive. Production worldwide In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil. All 28 European Union members together produced of milk in 2013, the largest by any politico-economic union. Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years. In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attracted investments by multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many countries production remains on a small scale and presents significant opportunities for diversification of income sources by small farms. Local milk collection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India. Production yields FAO reports Israel dairy farms are the most productive in the world, with a yield of milk per cow per year. This survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording) across 17 developed countries. The survey found that the average herd size in these developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand. Annual milk production in the same period increased from per cow in these developed countries. The lowest average production was in New Zealand at per cow. The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the animals. What the cow ate made the most impact on the production obtained. New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich mixed diet. The milk yield per cow in the United States was per year in 2010. In contrast, the milk yields per cow in India and China– the second and third largest producers– were respectively and per year. Price It was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased worldwide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price. In 2010 the Department of Agriculture predicted farmers would receive an average of of cow's milk, which is down from 2007 and below the break-even point for many cattle farmers. Composition Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals. Because it is produced as a food source for the young, all of its contents provide benefits for growth. The principal requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids supplied by proteins (essential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and inorganic elements, and water. pH The pH of milk ranges from 6.4 to 6.8 and it changes over time. Milk from other bovines and non-bovine mammals varies in composition, but has a similar pH. Lipids Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by a membrane. Each fat globule is composed almost entirely of triacylglycerols and is surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex lipids such as phospholipids, along with proteins. These act as emulsifiers which keep the individual globules from coalescing and protect the contents of these globules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of the milk. Although 97–98% of lipids are triacylglycerols, small amounts of di- and monoacylglycerols, free cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are also present. Unlike protein and carbohydrates, fat composition in milk varies widely due to genetic, lactational, and nutritional factor difference between different species. Like composition, fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15 micrometers in diameter between different species. Diameter may also vary between animals within a species and at different times within a milking of a single animal. In unhomogenized cow's milk, the fat globules have an average diameter of two to four micrometers and with homogenization, average around 0.4 micrometers. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K along with essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the milk fat portion of the milk. Proteins Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter of which about 80% is arranged in casein micelles. Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its composition (nutrition table). Caseins The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are "casein micelles": aggregates of several thousand protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a surfactant micelle, bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate. Each casein micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a micrometer across. There are four different types of casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins. Most of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There are several competing theories regarding the precise structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, k-casein, reaching out from the body of the micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid. Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including enzymes. These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form larger structures. Because the proteins remain suspended in whey remaining when caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as whey proteins. Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin. The ratio of caseins to whey proteins varies greatly between species; for example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in humans. Salts, minerals, and vitamins Minerals or milk salts, are traditional names for a variety of cations and anions within bovine milk. Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are all included and they typically occur at concentrations of 5–40mM. The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. In addition to calcium, milk is a good source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk. Calcium phosphate structure For many years the most widely accepted theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium phosphate linkages. However, there are two recent models of the casein micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle. The first theory, attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the centerpiece to micellar structure. Specifically in this view unstructured proteins organize around the calcium phosphate, giving rise to their structure, and thus no specific structure is formed. Under the second theory, proposed by Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of micelle formation, but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins. Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap to form micelles with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters. Some sources indicate that the trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6; whereas others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite, CaHPO4·2H2O. Sugars and carbohydrates Milk contains several different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of whole cow's milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. Bovine milk averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk. Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks. Miscellaneous contents Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, and a large number of active enzymes. Appearance Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed milk or whey products. Fat-free skimmed milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint. Processing In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the U.S., these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra. Pasteurization Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria such as M. paratuberculosis and E. coli 0157:H7 by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated. Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves. A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20%. Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12. The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant, as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C. Filtration Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk (as compared to 99.999% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization). The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition. Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein. As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards. Ultrafiltered milk is used in cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk. Creaming and homogenization Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream often is sold as a separate product with its own uses. Today the separation of the cream from the milk usually is accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water. The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening. The cream rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins. These clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as readily and are smaller to begin with, resulting in a slower separation of cream from these milks. Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation. A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are attracted to the newly exposed fat surfaces. Nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure. The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerated separation. The exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization. Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized. It is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavors. Creamline (or cream-top) milk is unhomogenized. It may or may not have been pasteurized. Milk that has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-homogenized", has a longer shelf life than milk that has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures. UHT Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT) is a type of milk processing where all bacteria are destroyed with high heat to extend its shelf life for up to 6 months, as long as the package is not opened. Milk is firstly homogenized and then is heated to 138 degrees Celsius for 1–3seconds. The milk is immediately cooled down and packed into a sterile container. As a result of this treatment, all the pathogenic bacteria within the milk are destroyed, unlike when the milk is just pasteurized. The milk will now keep for up for 6 months if unopened. UHT milk does not need to be refrigerated until the package is opened, which makes it easier to ship and store. But in this process there is a loss of vitamin B1 and vitamin C and there is also a slight change in the taste of the milk. Nutrition and health The composition of milk differs widely among species. Factors such as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules, and the strength of the curd are among those that may vary. For example: Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams. Cow's milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% minerals and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams. See also Nutritional value further on Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the milk of seals and whales may contain more than 50% fat. Cow's milk These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in the lactation period. The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4.9%. Milk fat percentages may be manipulated by dairy farmers' stock diet formulation strategies. The infection known as mastitis, especially in dairy cattle, can cause fat levels to decline. Nutritional value Processed cow's milk was formulated to contain differing amounts of fat during the 1950s. One cup (250 mL) of 2%-fat cow's milk contains 285 mg of calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake (DRI) of calcium for an adult. Depending on its age, | in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins. Other dairy cows in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn). Other animal-based sources Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011. In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist. According to the U.S. National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buffalo) are not milked commercially; however, various sources report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North America and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s. Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk is similar to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human consumption. The main reasons for this are that milking a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome, and that sows can not store their milk as cows can. A few pig farms do sell pig cheese as a novelty item; these cheeses are exceedingly expensive. Production worldwide In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil. All 28 European Union members together produced of milk in 2013, the largest by any politico-economic union. Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years. In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attracted investments by multinational dairy firms. Nevertheless, in many countries production remains on a small scale and presents significant opportunities for diversification of income sources by small farms. Local milk collection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India. Production yields FAO reports Israel dairy farms are the most productive in the world, with a yield of milk per cow per year. This survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording) across 17 developed countries. The survey found that the average herd size in these developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and 2007. A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand. Annual milk production in the same period increased from per cow in these developed countries. The lowest average production was in New Zealand at per cow. The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the animals. What the cow ate made the most impact on the production obtained. New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich mixed diet. The milk yield per cow in the United States was per year in 2010. In contrast, the milk yields per cow in India and China– the second and third largest producers– were respectively and per year. Price It was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased worldwide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price. In 2010 the Department of Agriculture predicted farmers would receive an average of of cow's milk, which is down from 2007 and below the break-even point for many cattle farmers. Composition Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals. Because it is produced as a food source for the young, all of its contents provide benefits for growth. The principal requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids supplied by proteins (essential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and inorganic elements, and water. pH The pH of milk ranges from 6.4 to 6.8 and it changes over time. Milk from other bovines and non-bovine mammals varies in composition, but has a similar pH. Lipids Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by a membrane. Each fat globule is composed almost entirely of triacylglycerols and is surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex lipids such as phospholipids, along with proteins. These act as emulsifiers which keep the individual globules from coalescing and protect the contents of these globules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of the milk. Although 97–98% of lipids are triacylglycerols, small amounts of di- and monoacylglycerols, free cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are also present. Unlike protein and carbohydrates, fat composition in milk varies widely due to genetic, lactational, and nutritional factor difference between different species. Like composition, fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15 micrometers in diameter between different species. Diameter may also vary between animals within a species and at different times within a milking of a single animal. In unhomogenized cow's milk, the fat globules have an average diameter of two to four micrometers and with homogenization, average around 0.4 micrometers. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K along with essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the milk fat portion of the milk. Proteins Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter of which about 80% is arranged in casein micelles. Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its composition (nutrition table). Caseins The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are "casein micelles": aggregates of several thousand protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a surfactant micelle, bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate. Each casein micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a micrometer across. There are four different types of casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins. Most of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There are several competing theories regarding the precise structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, k-casein, reaching out from the body of the micelle into the surrounding fluid. These kappa-casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid. Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including enzymes. These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form larger structures. Because the proteins remain suspended in whey remaining when caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as whey proteins. Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin. The ratio of caseins to whey proteins varies greatly between species; for example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in humans. Salts, minerals, and vitamins Minerals or milk salts, are traditional names for a variety of cations and anions within bovine milk. Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are all included and they typically occur at concentrations of 5–40mM. The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. In addition to calcium, milk is a good source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk. Calcium phosphate structure For many years the most widely accepted theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium phosphate linkages. However, there are two recent models of the casein micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle. The first theory, attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the centerpiece to micellar structure. Specifically in this view unstructured proteins organize around the calcium phosphate, giving rise to their structure, and thus no specific structure is formed. Under the second theory, proposed by Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of micelle formation, but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins. Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap to form micelles with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters. Some sources indicate that the trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6; whereas others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite, CaHPO4·2H2O. Sugars and carbohydrates Milk contains several different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of whole cow's milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. Bovine milk averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk. Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks. Miscellaneous contents Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, and a large number of active enzymes. Appearance Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk. The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed milk or whey products. Fat-free skimmed milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint. Processing In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the U.S., these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra. Pasteurization Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria such as M. paratuberculosis and E. coli 0157:H7 by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated. Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves. A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost. Soluble calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20%. Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12. The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant, as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C. Filtration Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk (as compared to 99.999% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization). The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition. Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein. As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards. Ultrafiltered milk is used in cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk. Creaming and homogenization Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream often is sold as a separate product with its own uses. Today the separation of the cream from the milk usually is accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water. The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening. The cream rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins. These clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as readily and are smaller to begin with, resulting in a slower separation of cream from these milks. Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation. A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are attracted to the newly exposed fat surfaces. Nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure. The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerated separation. The exposed fat |
being a radical animal rights activist. Gracie accompanies Cheryl and other contestants as they spend a night partying, where Gracie tries to dig into Cheryl's past, but inadvertently learns from the others that Kathy's past as a pageant contestant is suspect, including the fact that she won after the leading contestant suddenly came down with food poisoning. Gracie comes to believe Kathy is a "Citizen" copycat. When Gracie reports this to Eric and the team, she learns that "The Citizen" has been arrested on an unrelated charge, and because there is no further threat, their supervisor has pulled the mission. Gracie insists that she suspects something is wrong, and Eric returns to Texas to help her continue the investigation against orders. In the final round, Gracie is stunned when she is named first runner-up. Cheryl is named Miss United States, but as she goes to accept the tiara, Gracie realizes that Frank, who is actually Kathy's son, impersonated "The Citizen" to make the pageant bomb threat. She throws the tiara up at the stage scenery, where it explodes and sets the stage on fire. As Kathy and Frank are arrested, Gracie determines that the two wanted to kill the pageant winner on stage as revenge for Kathy's termination from the Miss United States organization. As the event closes down and Gracie and Eric prepare to return to headquarters with a new-found interest in each other, the other contestants name Gracie "Miss Congeniality". Cast Sandra Bullock as FBI Special Agent Gracie Hart Mary Ashleigh Green as Young Gracie Michael Caine as Victor Melling Benjamin Bratt as FBI Agent Eric Matthews Candice Bergen as Kathy Morningside William Shatner as Stanley Fields Heather Burns as Cheryl Frasier (Miss Rhode Island) Deirdre Quinn as Mary Jo Wright (Miss Texas) Wendy Raquel Robinson as Leslie Davis (Miss California) Melissa De Sousa as Karen Krantz (Miss New York) Asia De Marcos as Alana Krewson (Miss Hawaii) Steve Monroe as Frank Tobin Ernie Hudson as FBI Assistant Director Harry McDonald John DiResta as Agent Clonsky Production Development Ellen DeGeneres claims that the writer was inspired when watching her training to walk in high heels and a dress in preparation for the Oscars. Filming The story is set in New York City and San Antonio. Scenes showing the exterior of the St. Regis New York, as well as a few street scenes, were shot on location in New York, and Weehawken, New Jersey. The Alamo and River Walk scenes were shot on location in San Antonio. The majority of the film was shot in Austin, Texas: scenes depicting the | believe Kathy is a "Citizen" copycat. When Gracie reports this to Eric and the team, she learns that "The Citizen" has been arrested on an unrelated charge, and because there is no further threat, their supervisor has pulled the mission. Gracie insists that she suspects something is wrong, and Eric returns to Texas to help her continue the investigation against orders. In the final round, Gracie is stunned when she is named first runner-up. Cheryl is named Miss United States, but as she goes to accept the tiara, Gracie realizes that Frank, who is actually Kathy's son, impersonated "The Citizen" to make the pageant bomb threat. She throws the tiara up at the stage scenery, where it explodes and sets the stage on fire. As Kathy and Frank are arrested, Gracie determines that the two wanted to kill the pageant winner on stage as revenge for Kathy's termination from the Miss United States organization. As the event closes down and Gracie and Eric prepare to return to headquarters with a new-found interest in each other, the other contestants name Gracie "Miss Congeniality". Cast Sandra Bullock as FBI Special Agent Gracie Hart Mary Ashleigh Green as Young Gracie Michael Caine as Victor Melling Benjamin Bratt as FBI Agent Eric Matthews Candice Bergen as Kathy Morningside William Shatner as Stanley Fields Heather Burns as Cheryl Frasier (Miss Rhode Island) Deirdre Quinn as Mary Jo Wright (Miss Texas) Wendy Raquel Robinson as Leslie Davis (Miss California) Melissa De Sousa as Karen Krantz (Miss New York) Asia De Marcos as Alana Krewson (Miss Hawaii) Steve Monroe as Frank Tobin Ernie Hudson as FBI Assistant Director Harry McDonald John DiResta as Agent Clonsky Production Development Ellen DeGeneres claims that the writer was inspired when watching her training to walk in high heels and a dress in preparation for the Oscars. Filming The story is set in New York City and San Antonio. Scenes showing the exterior of the St. Regis New York, as well as a few street scenes, were shot on location in New York, and Weehawken, New Jersey. The Alamo and River Walk scenes were shot on location in San Antonio. The majority of the film was shot in Austin, Texas: scenes depicting the interior of the St. Regis were shot in Austin's Driskill Hotel; the pageant scenes were shot at the Bass Concert Hall at the University of Texas at Austin; and scenes depicting the pageant contestants in their hotel rooms were shot in the Omni Austin at South Park. Distribution Miss Congeniality was distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures in most countries, and by Roadshow Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand. Reception Box office The film was the fifth highest-grossing film in North America on its opening weekend, making US$13.9 million. It had a 5% increase in earnings the following week—enough to make the film reach #3. Overall it was a box office hit, grossing more than $106 million in the United States, and more than $212 million worldwide. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 42% based on review from 115 critics. The critical consensus reads: |
of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up parallel to one another. Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order. Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt, their alloys, and some alloys of rare-earth metals. Magnetic domains The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields. When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions, so that they stick together more stably, as shown at the right. When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move, so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area), as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet. When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization, and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid. Antiferromagnetism In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is anti-parallel, the substance is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning that no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties. In some materials, neighboring electrons prefer to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass and is an example of geometrical frustration. Ferrimagnetism Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction. Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism. Superparamagnetism When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger. Other types of magnetism Metamagnetism Molecule-based magnets Single-molecule magnet Spin glass Electromagnet An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel. Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820. Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how general relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime. All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light. Magnetic fields in a material In a vacuum, where is the vacuum permeability. In a material, The quantity is called magnetic polarization. If the field is small, the response of the magnetization in a diamagnet or paramagnet is approximately linear: the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility. If so, In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when is zero (see Remanence). Magnetic force The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the Biot–Savart law in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore, magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion—for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin. The same situations that create magnetic fields—charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles—are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a Lorentz force F given by the cross product: where is the electric charge of the particle, and v is the velocity vector of the particle Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is where is the angle between v and B. One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right-hand rule. Magnetic dipoles A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains. Magnetic monopoles Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist. Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the Big Bang contradicted cosmological observations—the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations. Units SI Other gauss – the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted B). oersted – the CGS unit of | net magnetic moment, meaning that no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties. In some materials, neighboring electrons prefer to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass and is an example of geometrical frustration. Ferrimagnetism Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction. Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism. Superparamagnetism When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger. Other types of magnetism Metamagnetism Molecule-based magnets Single-molecule magnet Spin glass Electromagnet An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel. Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820. Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how general relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime. All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light. Magnetic fields in a material In a vacuum, where is the vacuum permeability. In a material, The quantity is called magnetic polarization. If the field is small, the response of the magnetization in a diamagnet or paramagnet is approximately linear: the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility. If so, In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when is zero (see Remanence). Magnetic force The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the Biot–Savart law in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore, magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion—for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin. The same situations that create magnetic fields—charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles—are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a Lorentz force F given by the cross product: where is the electric charge of the particle, and v is the velocity vector of the particle Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is where is the angle between v and B. One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right-hand rule. Magnetic dipoles A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains. Magnetic monopoles Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic |
way, "always something will be found". The mathematical notion of filter provides a precise language to treat these situations in a rigorous and general way, which is useful in analysis, general topology and logic. 3. A common use for a filter is to define properties that are satisfied by "almost all" elements of some topological space . The entire space definitely contains almost-all elements in it; If some contains almost all elements of , then any superset of it definitely does; and if two subsets, and contain almost-all elements of , then so does their intersection. In a measure-theoretic terms, the meaning of " contains almost-all elements of " is that the measure of is 0. General definition: Filter on a partially ordered set A subset of a partially ordered set is an order filter if the following conditions hold: is non-empty. is downward directed: For every there is some such that and is an upper set or upward-closed: For every and implies that is said to be proper if in addition is not equal to the whole set Depending on the author, the term filter is either a synonym of order filter or else it refers to a order filter. This article defines filter to mean order filter. While the above definition is the most general way to define a filter for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the above definition can be characterized by the following equivalent statement: A subset of a lattice is a filter, if and only if it is a non-empty upper set that is closed under finite infima (or meets), that is, for all it is also the case that A subset of is a filter basis if the upper set generated by is all of Note that every filter is its own basis. The smallest filter that contains a given element is a principal filter and is a principal element in this situation. The principal filter for is just given by the set and is denoted by prefixing with an upward arrow: The dual notion of a filter, that is, the concept obtained by reversing all and exchanging with is ideal. Because of this duality, the discussion of filters usually boils down to the discussion of ideals. Hence, most additional information on this topic (including the definition of maximal filters and prime filters) is to be found in the article on ideals. There is a separate article on ultrafilters. Filter on a set Definition of a filter There are two competing definitions of a "filter on a set," both of which require that a filter be a . One definition defines "filter" as a synonym of "dual ideal" while the other defines "filter" to mean a dual ideal that is also . Warning: It is recommended that readers always check how "filter" is defined when reading mathematical literature. Given a set a canonical partial ordering can be defined on the powerset by subset inclusion, turning into a lattice. A "dual ideal" is just a filter with respect to this partial ordering. Note that if then there is exactly one dual ideal on which is Filter definition 1: Dual ideal The article uses the following definition of "filter on a set." Filter definition 2: Proper dual ideal The other definition of "filter on a set" is the original definition of a "filter" given by Henri Cartan, which required that a filter on a set be a dual ideal that does contain the empty set: Note: This article does require that a filter be proper. The only non-proper filter on is Much mathematical literature, especially that related to Topology, defines "filter" to mean a dual ideal. Filter bases, subbases, and comparison Filter bases and subbases A subset of is called a prefilter, filter base, or filter basis if is non-empty and the intersection of any two members of is a superset of some member(s) of If the empty set is not a member of we say is a proper filter base. Given a filter base the filter generated or spanned by is defined as the minimum filter containing It is the family of all those subsets of which are supersets of some member(s) of Every filter is also a filter base, so the process of passing from filter base to filter may be viewed as a sort of completion. For every subset of there is a smallest (possibly nonproper) filter containing called the filter generated or spanned by Similarly as for a filter spanned by a , a filter spanned by a is the minimum filter containing It is constructed by taking all finite intersections of which then form a filter base for This filter is proper if and only if every finite intersection of elements of is non-empty, and in that case we say that is a filter subbase. Finer/equivalent filter bases If and are two filter bases on one says is finer than (or that is a refinement of ) if for each there is a such that If also is finer than one says that they are equivalent filter bases. If and are filter bases, then is finer than if and only if the filter spanned by contains the filter spanned by Therefore, and are equivalent filter bases if and only if they generate the same filter. For filter bases and if is finer than and is finer than then is finer than Thus the refinement relation is a preorder on the set of filter bases, and the passage from filter base to filter is an instance of passing from a preordering to the associated partial ordering. Examples Let | filter should be closed with respect to finite intersection. If a set might contain "what is looked for", so does every superset of it. Thus the filter is upward-closed. An ultrafilter can be viewed as a "perfect locating scheme" where subset of the space can be used in deciding whether "what is looked for" might lie in From this interpretation, compactness (see the mathematical characterization below) can be viewed as the property that "no location scheme can end up with nothing", or, to put it another way, "always something will be found". The mathematical notion of filter provides a precise language to treat these situations in a rigorous and general way, which is useful in analysis, general topology and logic. 3. A common use for a filter is to define properties that are satisfied by "almost all" elements of some topological space . The entire space definitely contains almost-all elements in it; If some contains almost all elements of , then any superset of it definitely does; and if two subsets, and contain almost-all elements of , then so does their intersection. In a measure-theoretic terms, the meaning of " contains almost-all elements of " is that the measure of is 0. General definition: Filter on a partially ordered set A subset of a partially ordered set is an order filter if the following conditions hold: is non-empty. is downward directed: For every there is some such that and is an upper set or upward-closed: For every and implies that is said to be proper if in addition is not equal to the whole set Depending on the author, the term filter is either a synonym of order filter or else it refers to a order filter. This article defines filter to mean order filter. While the above definition is the most general way to define a filter for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the above definition can be characterized by the following equivalent statement: A subset of a lattice is a filter, if and only if it is a non-empty upper set that is closed under finite infima (or meets), that is, for all it is also the case that A subset of is a filter basis if the upper set generated by is all of Note that every filter is its own basis. The smallest filter that contains a given element is a principal filter and is a principal element in this situation. The principal filter for is just given by the set and is denoted by prefixing with an upward arrow: The dual notion of a filter, that is, the concept obtained by reversing all and exchanging with is ideal. Because of this duality, the discussion of filters usually boils down to the discussion of ideals. Hence, most additional information on this topic (including the definition of maximal filters and prime filters) is to be found in the article on ideals. There is a separate article on ultrafilters. Filter on a set Definition of a filter There are two competing definitions of a "filter on a set," both of which require that a filter be a . One definition defines "filter" as a synonym of "dual ideal" while the other defines "filter" to mean a dual ideal that is also . Warning: It is recommended that readers always check how "filter" is defined when reading mathematical literature. Given a set a canonical partial ordering can be defined on the powerset by subset inclusion, turning into a lattice. A "dual ideal" is just a filter with respect to this partial ordering. Note that if then there is exactly one dual ideal on which is Filter definition 1: Dual ideal The article uses the following definition of "filter on a set." Filter definition 2: Proper dual ideal The other definition of "filter on a set" is the original definition of a "filter" given by Henri Cartan, which required that a filter on a set be a dual ideal that does contain the empty set: Note: This article does require that a filter be proper. The only non-proper filter on is Much mathematical literature, especially that related to Topology, defines "filter" to mean a dual ideal. Filter bases, subbases, and comparison Filter bases and subbases A subset of is called a prefilter, filter base, or filter basis if is non-empty and the intersection of any two members of is a superset of some member(s) of If the empty set is not a member of we say is a proper filter base. Given a filter base the filter generated or spanned by is defined as the minimum filter containing It is the family of all those subsets of which are supersets of some member(s) of Every filter is also a filter base, so the process of passing from filter base to filter may be viewed as a sort of completion. For every subset of there is a smallest (possibly nonproper) filter containing called the filter generated or spanned by Similarly as for a filter spanned by a , a filter spanned by a is the minimum filter containing It is constructed by taking all finite intersections of which then form a filter base for This filter is proper if and only if every finite intersection of elements of is non-empty, and in that case we say that is a filter subbase. Finer/equivalent filter bases If and are two filter bases on one says is finer than (or that is a refinement of ) if for each there is a such that If also is finer than one says that they are equivalent filter bases. If and are filter bases, then is finer than if and only if the filter spanned by contains the filter spanned by Therefore, and are equivalent filter bases if and only if they generate the same filter. For filter bases and if is finer than and is finer than then is finer than Thus the refinement relation is a preorder on the set of filter bases, and the passage from filter base to filter is an instance of passing from a preordering to the associated partial ordering. Examples Let be a set and be a non-empty subset of Then is a filter base. The filter it generates (that is,, the collection of all subsets containing ) is called the principal filter generated by A filter is said to be a free filter if the intersection of all of its members is empty. A proper principal filter is not free. Since the intersection of any finite number of members of a filter is also a member, no proper filter on a finite set is free, |
black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy (also known as colored metallurgy). Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron, while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95% of world metal production. Modern metallurgists work in both emerging and traditional areas as part of an interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists, and other engineers. Some traditional areas include mineral processing, metal production, heat treatment, failure analysis, and the joining of metals (including welding, brazing, and soldering). Emerging areas for metallurgists include nanotechnology, superconductors, composites, biomedical materials, electronic materials (semiconductors) and surface engineering. Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows. Etymology and pronunciation Metallurgy derives from the Ancient Greek , , "worker in metal", from , , "mine, metal" + , , "work" The word was originally an alchemist's term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending -urgy signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 Encyclopædia Britannica. In the late 19th century, it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK and Commonwealth. The pronunciation is the more common one in the US and is the first-listed variant in various American dictionaries (e.g., Merriam-Webster Collegiate, American Heritage). History of metallurgy The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves dating to the late Paleolithic period, 40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Certain metals, notably tin, lead, and at a higher temperature, copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy, dating from the 5th and 6th millennia BC, has been found at archaeological sites in Majdanpek, Jarmovac near Priboj and Pločnik, in present-day Serbia. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site near Plocnik. This site produced a copper axe from 5,500 BC, belonging to the Vinča culture. The earliest use of lead is documented from the late neolithic settlement of Yarim Tepe in Iraq: "The earliest lead (Pb) finds in the ancient Near East are a 6th millennium BC bangle from Yarim Tepe in northern Iraq and a slightly later conical lead piece from Halaf period Arpachiyah, near Mosul. As native lead is extremely rare, such artifacts raise the possibility that lead smelting may have begun even before copper smelting." Copper smelting is also documented at this site at about the same time period (soon after 6,000 BC), although the use of lead seems to precede copper smelting. Early metallurgy is also documented at the nearby site of Tell Maghzaliyah, which seems to be dated even earlier, and completely lacks that pottery. The Balkans were the site of major Neolithic cultures, including Butmir, Vinča, Varna, Karanovo, and Hamangia. The Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria, is a burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately 4 km from the city centre), internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site. The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, recently founded in Durankulak, near Varna is another important example. Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela (Portugal), Los Millares (Spain), and Stonehenge (United Kingdom). However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. In the Near East, about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze. This represented a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia (Turkey), Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy". Extraction Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically. Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. Metal and its alloys Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc, and silicon. These metals are most often used as alloys with the noted exception of silicon. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron - carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor corrosion are a major concern. Cast irons, including ductile iron, are also part of the iron-carbon system. Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling. Stainless steel, particularly Austenitic stainless steels, galvanized steel, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, or occasionally copper alloys are used, where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are commonly used, when a lightweight strong part is required such as in automotive and aerospace applications. Copper-nickel alloys (such as Monel) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high-temperature applications such as gas turbines, turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers. For extremely high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimize creep. In modern electronics, high purity single crystal silicon is essential for metal-oxide-silicon transistors (MOS) and integrated circuits. Production In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production | burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately 4 km from the city centre), internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site. The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, recently founded in Durankulak, near Varna is another important example. Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela (Portugal), Los Millares (Spain), and Stonehenge (United Kingdom). However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. In the Near East, about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze. This represented a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia (Turkey), Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others. Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy". Extraction Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically. Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. Metal and its alloys Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc, and silicon. These metals are most often used as alloys with the noted exception of silicon. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron - carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor corrosion are a major concern. Cast irons, including ductile iron, are also part of the iron-carbon system. Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling. Stainless steel, particularly Austenitic stainless steels, galvanized steel, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, or occasionally copper alloys are used, where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are commonly used, when a lightweight strong part is required such as in automotive and aerospace applications. Copper-nickel alloys (such as Monel) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high-temperature applications such as gas turbines, turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers. For extremely high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimize creep. In modern electronics, high purity single crystal silicon is essential for metal-oxide-silicon transistors (MOS) and integrated circuits. Production In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves production of alloys, shaping, heat treatment and surface treatment of product. Determining the hardness of the metal using the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness scales is a commonly used practice that helps better understand the metal's elasticity and plasticity for different applications and production processes. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties, such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion, fatigue resistance and performance in temperature extremes. To achieve this goal, the operating environment must be carefully considered. In a saltwater environment, most ferrous metals and some non-ferrous alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may undergo a ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue. Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep. Metalworking processes Metals are shaped by processes such as Casting – molten metal is poured into a shaped mold. Forging – a red-hot |
Consultants (later renamed MGlobal), a Houston-based company originally created CCSM on 6800, then 6809, and eventually a port to the 68000, which later became MacMUMPS, a Mac OS-based product. They also worked on the MGM MUMPS implementation. MGlobal also ported their implementation to the DOS platform. MGlobal MUMPS was the first commercial MUMPS for the IBM PC and the only implementation for the classic Mac OS. Tandem Computers developed an implementation for their fault-tolerant computers. This period also saw considerable MDC activity. The second revision of the ANSI standard for MUMPS (X11.1-1984) was approved on November 15, 1984. 1990s On November 11, 1990, the third revision of the ANSI standard (X11.1-1990) was approved. In 1992 the same standard was also adopted as ISO standard 11756-1992. Use of M as an alternative name for the language was approved around the same time. On December 8, 1995, the fourth revision of the standard (X11.1-1995) was approved by ANSI, and by ISO in 1999 as ISO 11756:1999, which was also published by ANSI. The MDC finalized a further revision to the standard in 1998 but this has not been presented to ANSI for approval. InterSystems' Open M for Windows/NT was released, as well as Open M for Alpha/OSF and Alpha/VMS (their first 64-bit implementations, for the 64-bit Alpha processor). In 1997 Unicode support was added in InterSystems' Caché 3.0 2000s By 2000, the middleware vendor InterSystems had become the dominant player in the MUMPS market with the purchase of several other vendors. Initially they acquired DataTree Inc. in the early 1990s. And, on December 30, 1995, InterSystems acquired the DSM product line from DEC. InterSystems consolidated these products into a single product line, branding them, on several hardware platforms, as OpenM. In 1997, InterSystems launched a new product named Caché. This was based on their ISM product, but with influences from the other implementations. Micronetics Design Corporation assets were also acquired by InterSystems on June 21, 1998. InterSystems remains the dominant MUMPS vendor, selling Caché to MUMPS developers who write applications for a variety of operating systems. Greystone Technology Corporation's GT.M implementation was sold to Sanchez Computer Associates (now part of FIS) in the mid-1990s. On November 7, 2000, Sanchez made GT.M for Linux available under the GPL license and on October 28, 2005, GT.M for OpenVMS and Tru64 UNIX were also made available under the AGPL license. GT.M continues to be available on other UNIX platforms under a traditional license. During 2000, Ray Newman and others released MUMPS V1, an implementation of MUMPS (initially on FreeBSD) similar to DSM-11. MUMPS V1 has since been ported to Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows (using cygwin). Initially only for the x86 CPU, MUMPS V1 has now been ported to the Raspberry Pi. The newest implementation of MUMPS, released in April 2002, is an MSM derivative called M21 from the Real Software Company of Rugby, UK. There are also several open source implementations of MUMPS, including some research projects. The most notable of these is Mumps/II, by Dr. Kevin O'Kane (Professor Emeritus, University of Northern Iowa) and students' project. Dr. O'Kane has also ported the interpreter to Mac OS X. One of the original creators of the MUMPS language, Neil Pappalardo, founded a company called MEDITECH. They extended and built on the MUMPS language, naming the new language MIIS (and later, another language named MAGIC). Unlike InterSystems, MEDITECH no longer sells middleware, so MIIS and MAGIC are now only used internally at MEDITECH. On 6 January 2005, and later again on 25 June 2010, ISO re-affirmed its MUMPS-related standards: ISO/IEC 11756:1999, language standard, ISO/IEC 15851:1999, Open MUMPS Interconnect and ISO/IEC 15852:1999, MUMPS Windowing Application Programmers Interface. Name InterSystems, whose chief executive disliked the name MUMPS and felt that it represented a serious marketing obstacle. Thus, favoring M to some extent became identified as alignment with InterSystems. The dispute also reflected rivalry between organizations (the M Technology Association, the MUMPS Development Committee, the ANSI and ISO Standards Committees) as to who determines the "official" name of the language. A leading authority, and the author of an open source MUMPS implementation, Professor Kevin O'Kane, uses only 'MUMPS'. The most recent standard (ISO/IEC 11756:1999, re-affirmed on 25 June 2010), still mentions both M and MUMPS as officially accepted names. Massachusetts General Hospital registered "MUMPS" as a trademark with the USPTO on November 28, 1971, and renewed it on November 16, 1992, but let it expire on August 30, 2003. Design Overview MUMPS is a language intended for and designed to build database applications. Secondary language features were included to help programmers make applications using minimal computing resources. The original implementations were interpreted, though modern implementations may be fully or partially compiled. Individual "programs" run in memory "partitions". Early MUMPS memory partitions were limited to 2048 bytes so aggressive abbreviation greatly aided multi-programming on severely resource limited hardware, because more than one MUMPS job could fit into the very small memories extant in hardware at the time. The ability to provide multi-user systems was another language design feature. The word "Multi-Programming" in the acronym points to this. Even the earliest machines running MUMPS supported multiple jobs running at the same time. With the change from mini-computers to micro-computers a few years later, even a "single user PC" with a single 8-bit CPU and 16K or 64K of memory could support multiple users, who could connect to it from (non-graphical) video display terminals. Since memory was tight originally, the language design for MUMPS valued very terse code. Thus, every MUMPS command or function name could be abbreviated from one to three letters in length, e.g. Quit (exit program) as Q, $P = $Piece function, R = Read command, $TR = $Translate function. Spaces and end-of-line markers are significant in MUMPS because line scope promoted the same terse language design. Thus, a single line of program code could express, with few characters, an idea for which other programming languages could require 5 to 10 times as many characters. Abbreviation was a common feature of languages designed in this period (e.g., FOCAL-69, early BASICs such as Tiny BASIC, etc.). An unfortunate side effect of this, coupled with the early need to write minimalist code, was that MUMPS programmers routinely did not comment code and used extensive abbreviations. This meant that even an expert MUMPS programmer could not just skim through a page of code to see its function but would have to analyze it line by line. Database interaction is transparently built into the language. The MUMPS language provides a hierarchical database made up of persistent sparse arrays, which is implicitly "opened" for every MUMPS application. All variable names prefixed with the caret character ("^") use permanent (instead of RAM) storage, will maintain their values after the application exits, and will be visible to (and modifiable by) other running applications. Variables using this shared and permanent storage are called Globals in MUMPS, because the scoping of these variables is "globally available" to all jobs on the system. The more recent and more common use of the name "global variables" in other languages is a more limited scoping of names, coming from the fact that unscoped variables are "globally" available to any programs running in the same process, but not shared among multiple processes. The MUMPS Storage mode (i.e. globals stored as persistent sparse arrays), gives the MUMPS database the characteristics of a document-oriented database. All variable names which are not prefixed with caret character ("^") are temporary and private. Like global variables, they also have a hierarchical storage model, but are only "locally available" to a single job, thus they are called "locals". Both "globals" and "locals" can have child nodes (called subscripts in MUMPS terminology). Subscripts are not limited to numerals—any ASCII character or group of characters can be a subscript identifier. While this is not uncommon for modern languages such as Perl or JavaScript, it was a highly unusual feature in the late 1970s. This capability was not universally implemented in MUMPS systems before the 1984 ANSI standard, as only canonically numeric subscripts were required by the standard to be allowed. Thus, the variable named 'Car' can have subscripts "Door", "Steering Wheel", and "Engine", each of which can contain a value and have subscripts of their own. The variable ^Car("Door") could have a nested variable subscript of "Color" for example. Thus, you could say SET ^Car("Door","Color")="BLUE" to modify a nested child node of ^Car. In MUMPS terms, "Color" is the 2nd subscript of the variable ^Car (both the names of the child-nodes and the child-nodes themselves are likewise called subscripts). Hierarchical variables are similar to objects with properties in many object-oriented languages. Additionally, the MUMPS language design requires that all subscripts of variables are automatically kept in sorted order. Numeric subscripts (including floating-point numbers) are stored from lowest to highest. All non-numeric subscripts are stored in alphabetical order following the numbers. In MUMPS terminology, this is canonical order. By using only non-negative integer subscripts, the MUMPS programmer can emulate the arrays data type from other languages. Although MUMPS does not natively offer a full set of DBMS features such as mandatory schemas, several DBMS systems have been built on top of it that provide application developers with flat-file, relational, and network database features. Additionally, there are built-in operators which treat a delimited string (e.g., comma-separated values) as an array. Early MUMPS programmers would often store a structure of related information as a delimited string, parsing it after it was read in; this saved disk access time and offered considerable speed advantages on some hardware. MUMPS has no data types. Numbers can be treated as strings of digits, or strings can be treated as numbers by numeric operators (coerced, in MUMPS terminology). Coercion can have some odd side effects, however. For example, when a string is coerced, the parser turns as much of the string (starting from the left) into a number as it can, then discards the rest. Thus the statement IF 20<"30 DUCKS" is evaluated as TRUE in MUMPS. Other features of the language are intended to help MUMPS applications interact with each other in a multi-user environment. Database locks, process identifiers, and atomicity of database update transactions are all required of standard MUMPS implementations. In contrast to languages in the C or Wirth traditions, some space characters between MUMPS statements are significant. A single space separates a command from its argument, and a space, or newline, separates each argument from the next MUMPS token. Commands which take no arguments (e.g., ELSE) require two following spaces. The concept is that one space separates the command from the (nonexistent) argument, the next separates the "argument" from the next command. Newlines are also significant; an IF, ELSE or FOR command processes (or skips) everything else till the end-of-line. To make those statements control multiple lines, you must use the DO command to create a code block. Hello, World! example A simple "Hello, World!" program in MUMPS might be: hello() write "Hello, World!",! quit and would be run from the MUMPS command line with the command do ^hello. Since MUMPS allows commands to be strung together on the same line, and since commands can be abbreviated to a single letter, this routine could be made more compact: hello() w "Hello, World!",! q The ',!' after the text generates a newline. Features ANSI X11.1-1995 gives a complete, formal description of the language; an annotated version of this standard is available online. Language features include: Data types: There is one universal data type, which is implicitly coerced to string, integer, or floating-point data types as context requires. Booleans (called truthvalues in MUMPS): In IF commands and other syntax that has expressions evaluated as conditions, any string value is evaluated as a numeric value and, if that is a nonzero value, then it is interpreted as True. a<b yields 1 if a is less than b, 0 otherwise. Declarations: None. All variables are dynamically created at the first time a value is assigned. Lines: are important syntactic entities, unlike their status in languages patterned on C or Pascal. Multiple statements per line are allowed and are common. The scope of any IF, ELSE, and FOR command is "the remainder of current line." Case sensitivity: Commands and intrinsic functions are case-insensitive. In contrast, variable names and labels are case-sensitive. There is no special meaning for upper vs. lower-case and few widely followed conventions. The percent sign (%) is legal as first character of variables and labels. Postconditionals: execution of almost any command can be controlled by following it with a colon and a truthvalue expression. SET:N<10 A="FOO" sets A to "FOO" if N is less than 10; DO:N>100 PRINTERR, performs PRINTERR if N is greater than 100. This construct provides a conditional whose scope is less than a full line. Abbreviation: You can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions to one, two, or three characters. Reserved words: None. Since MUMPS interprets source code by context, there is no need for reserved words. You may use the names of language commands as variables, so the following is perfectly legal MUMPS code: GREPTHIS() NEW SET,NEW,THEN,IF,KILL,QUIT SET IF="KILL",SET="11",KILL="l1",QUIT="RETURN",THEN="KILL" IF IF=THEN DO THEN QUIT:$QUIT QUIT QUIT ; (quit) THEN IF IF,SET&KILL SET SET=SET+KILL QUIT MUMPS can be made more obfuscated by using the contracted operator syntax, as shown in this terse example derived from the example above: GREPTHIS() N S,N,T,I,K,Q S I="K",S="11",K="l1",Q="R",T="K" I I=T D T Q:$Q Q Q T I I,S&K S S=S+K Q Arrays: are created dynamically, stored as B-trees, are sparse (i.e. use almost no space for missing nodes), can | several DBMS systems have been built on top of it that provide application developers with flat-file, relational, and network database features. Additionally, there are built-in operators which treat a delimited string (e.g., comma-separated values) as an array. Early MUMPS programmers would often store a structure of related information as a delimited string, parsing it after it was read in; this saved disk access time and offered considerable speed advantages on some hardware. MUMPS has no data types. Numbers can be treated as strings of digits, or strings can be treated as numbers by numeric operators (coerced, in MUMPS terminology). Coercion can have some odd side effects, however. For example, when a string is coerced, the parser turns as much of the string (starting from the left) into a number as it can, then discards the rest. Thus the statement IF 20<"30 DUCKS" is evaluated as TRUE in MUMPS. Other features of the language are intended to help MUMPS applications interact with each other in a multi-user environment. Database locks, process identifiers, and atomicity of database update transactions are all required of standard MUMPS implementations. In contrast to languages in the C or Wirth traditions, some space characters between MUMPS statements are significant. A single space separates a command from its argument, and a space, or newline, separates each argument from the next MUMPS token. Commands which take no arguments (e.g., ELSE) require two following spaces. The concept is that one space separates the command from the (nonexistent) argument, the next separates the "argument" from the next command. Newlines are also significant; an IF, ELSE or FOR command processes (or skips) everything else till the end-of-line. To make those statements control multiple lines, you must use the DO command to create a code block. Hello, World! example A simple "Hello, World!" program in MUMPS might be: hello() write "Hello, World!",! quit and would be run from the MUMPS command line with the command do ^hello. Since MUMPS allows commands to be strung together on the same line, and since commands can be abbreviated to a single letter, this routine could be made more compact: hello() w "Hello, World!",! q The ',!' after the text generates a newline. Features ANSI X11.1-1995 gives a complete, formal description of the language; an annotated version of this standard is available online. Language features include: Data types: There is one universal data type, which is implicitly coerced to string, integer, or floating-point data types as context requires. Booleans (called truthvalues in MUMPS): In IF commands and other syntax that has expressions evaluated as conditions, any string value is evaluated as a numeric value and, if that is a nonzero value, then it is interpreted as True. a<b yields 1 if a is less than b, 0 otherwise. Declarations: None. All variables are dynamically created at the first time a value is assigned. Lines: are important syntactic entities, unlike their status in languages patterned on C or Pascal. Multiple statements per line are allowed and are common. The scope of any IF, ELSE, and FOR command is "the remainder of current line." Case sensitivity: Commands and intrinsic functions are case-insensitive. In contrast, variable names and labels are case-sensitive. There is no special meaning for upper vs. lower-case and few widely followed conventions. The percent sign (%) is legal as first character of variables and labels. Postconditionals: execution of almost any command can be controlled by following it with a colon and a truthvalue expression. SET:N<10 A="FOO" sets A to "FOO" if N is less than 10; DO:N>100 PRINTERR, performs PRINTERR if N is greater than 100. This construct provides a conditional whose scope is less than a full line. Abbreviation: You can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions to one, two, or three characters. Reserved words: None. Since MUMPS interprets source code by context, there is no need for reserved words. You may use the names of language commands as variables, so the following is perfectly legal MUMPS code: GREPTHIS() NEW SET,NEW,THEN,IF,KILL,QUIT SET IF="KILL",SET="11",KILL="l1",QUIT="RETURN",THEN="KILL" IF IF=THEN DO THEN QUIT:$QUIT QUIT QUIT ; (quit) THEN IF IF,SET&KILL SET SET=SET+KILL QUIT MUMPS can be made more obfuscated by using the contracted operator syntax, as shown in this terse example derived from the example above: GREPTHIS() N S,N,T,I,K,Q S I="K",S="11",K="l1",Q="R",T="K" I I=T D T Q:$Q Q Q T I I,S&K S S=S+K Q Arrays: are created dynamically, stored as B-trees, are sparse (i.e. use almost no space for missing nodes), can use any number of subscripts, and subscripts can be strings or numeric (including floating point). Arrays are always automatically stored in sorted order, so there is never any occasion to sort, pack, reorder, or otherwise reorganize the database. Built-in functions such as $DATA, $ORDER, $NEXT(deprecated), and $QUERY functions provide efficient examination and traversal of the fundamental array structure, on disk or in memory. for i=10000:1:12345 set sqtable(i)=i*i set address("Smith","Daniel")="dpbsmith@world.std.com" Local arrays: variable names not beginning with caret (i.e. "^") are stored in memory by process, are private to the creating process, and expire when the creating process terminates. The available storage depends on implementation. For those implementations using partitions, it is limited to the partition size (a small partition might be 32K). For other implementations, it may be several megabytes. Global arrays: ^abc, ^def. These are stored on disk, are available to all processes, and are persistent when the creating process terminates. Very large globals (for example, hundreds of gigabytes) are practical and efficient in most implementations. This is MUMPS' main "database" mechanism. It is used instead of calling on the operating system to create, write, and read files. Indirection: in many contexts, @VBL can be used, and effectively substitutes the contents of VBL into another MUMPS statement. SET XYZ="ABC" SET @XYZ=123 sets the variable ABC to 123. SET SUBROU="REPORT" DO @SUBROU performs the subroutine named REPORT. This substitution allows for lazy evaluation and late binding as well as effectively the operational equivalent of "pointers" in other languages. Piece function: This breaks variables into segmented pieces guided by a user specified separator string (sometimes called a "delimiter"). Those who know awk will find this familiar. $PIECE(STRINGVAR,"^",3) means the "third caret-separated piece of STRINGVAR." The piece function can also appear as an assignment (SET command) target. $PIECE("world.std.com",".",2) yields "std". After SET X="dpbsmith@world.std.com" SET $P(X,"@",1)="office" causes X to become "office@world.std.com" (note that $P is equivalent to $PIECE and could be written as such). Order function: This function treats its input as a structure, and finds the next index that exists which has the same structure except for the last subscript. It returns the sorted value that is ordered after the one given as input. (This treats the array reference as a content-addressable data rather than an address of a value.) Set stuff(6)="xyz",stuff(10)=26,stuff(15)="" $Order(stuff("")) yields 6, $Order(stuff(6)) yields 10, $Order(stuff(8)) yields 10, $Order(stuff(10)) yields 15, $Order(stuff(15)) yields "". Set i="" For Set i=$O(stuff(i)) Quit:i="" Write !,i,10,stuff(i) Here, the argument-less For repeats until stopped by a terminating Quit. This line prints a table of i and stuff(i) where i is successively 6, 10, and 15. For iterating the database, the Order function returns the next key to use. GTM>S n="" GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n)) GTM>zwr n n=" building" GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n)) GTM>zwr n n=" name:gd" GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n)) GTM>zwr n n="%kml:guid" MUMPS supports multiple simultaneous users and processes even when the underlying operating system does not (e.g., MS-DOS). Additionally, there is the ability to specify an environment for a variable, such as by specifying a machine name in a variable (as in SET ^|"DENVER"|A(1000)="Foo"), which can allow you to access data on remote machines. Criticism Some aspects of MUMPS syntax differ strongly from that of more modern languages, which can cause confusion, although those aspects vary between different versions of the language. On some versions, whitespace is not allowed within expressions, as it ends a statement: 2 + 3 is an error, and must be written 2+3. All operators have the same precedence and are left-associative (2+3*10 evaluates to 50). The operators for "less than or equal to" and "greater than or equal to" are '< and '> (that is, the boolean negation operator ' plus a strict comparison operator), although some versions allow the use of the more standard <= and >= respectively. Periods (.) are used to indent the lines in a DO block, not whitespace. The ELSE command does not need a corresponding IF, as it operates by inspecting the value in the built-in system variable $test. MUMPS scoping rules are more permissive than other modern languages. Declared local variables are scoped using the stack. A routine can normally see all declared locals of the routines below it on the call stack, and routines cannot prevent routines they call from modifying their declared locals, unless the caller manually creates a new stack level (do) and aliases each of the variables they wish to protect (. new x,y) before calling any child routines. By contrast, undeclared variables (variables created by using them, rather than declaration) are in scope for all routines running in the same process, and remain in scope until the program exits. Because MUMPS database references differ from internal variable references only in the caret prefix, it is dangerously easy to unintentionally edit the database, or even to delete a database "table". Users The US Department of Veterans Affairs (formerly the Veterans Administration) was one of the earliest major adopters of the MUMPS language. Their development work (and subsequent contributions to the free MUMPS application codebase) was an influence on many medical users worldwide. In 1995, the Veterans Affairs' patient Admission/Tracking/Discharge system, Decentralized Hospital Computer Program (DHCP) was the recipient of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award for best use of Information Technology in Medicine. In July 2006, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) / Veterans Health Administration (VHA) was the recipient of the Innovations in American Government Award presented by the Ash Institute of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University for its extension of DHCP into the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA). Nearly the entire VA hospital system in the United States, the Indian Health Service, and major parts of the Department of Defense CHCS hospital system use MUMPS databases for clinical data tracking. Other healthcare IT companies using MUMPS include: Epic MEDITECH GE Healthcare (formerly IDX Systems and Centricity) AmeriPath (part of Quest Diagnostics) Care Centric Allscripts Coventry Health Care EMIS Health Sunquest Information Systems (formerly Misys Healthcare). Netsmart Many reference laboratories, such as DASA, Quest Diagnostics, and Dynacare, use MUMPS software written by or based on Antrim Corporation code. Antrim was purchased by Misys Healthcare (now Sunquest Information Systems) in 2001. MUMPS is also widely used in financial applications. MUMPS gained an early following in the financial sector and is in use at many banks and credit unions. It is used by TD Ameritrade as well as by the Bank of England and Barclays Bank. Implementations Since 2005, the most popular implementations of MUMPS have been Greystone Technology MUMPS (GT.M) from Fidelity National Information Services, and Caché, from Intersystems Corporation. The European Space Agency announced on May 13, 2010, that it will use the InterSystems Caché database to support the Gaia mission. This mission aims to map the Milky Way with unprecedented precision. InterSystems is in the process of phasing out Caché in favor of Iris. Other current implementations include: M21 YottaDB MiniM Reference Standard M FreeM See also Profile Scripting Language Caché ObjectScript GT.M |
Hello World: :- module hello. :- interface. :- import_module io. :- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det. :- implementation. main(!IO) :- io.write_string("Hello, World!\n", !IO). Calculating the 10th Fibonacci number (in the most obvious way): :- module fib. :- interface. :- import_module io. :- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det. :- implementation. :- import_module int. :- func fib(int) = int. fib(N) = (if N =< 2 then 1 else fib(N - 1) + fib(N - 2)). main(!IO) :- io.write_string("fib(10) = ", !IO), io.write_int(fib(10), !IO), io.nl(!IO). % Could instead use io.format("fib(10) = %d\n", [i(fib(10))], !IO). !IO is a "state variable", which is syntactic sugar for a pair of variables which are assigned concrete names at compilation; for example, the above is desugared to something like: main(IO0, IO) :- io.write_string("fib(10) = ", IO0, IO1), io.write_int(fib(10), IO1, IO2), io.nl(IO2, IO). Release schedule Releases are named according to the year and month of release. The current stable release is 20.06 (June 30, 2020). Prior releases were numbered 0.12, 0.13, etc., and the time between stable releases can be as long as 3 years. There is often also a snapshot release of the day (ROTD) consisting of the latest features and bug fixes added to the last stable release. IDE and editor support Developers provide support for Vim Flycheck library for Emacs A plugin is available | typically perform significantly faster than equivalent programs written in Prolog. Its authors claim that Mercury is the fastest logic language in the world, by a wide margin. Mercury is a purely declarative language, unlike Prolog, since it lacks extra-logical Prolog statements such as ! (cut) and imperative input/output (I/O). This enables advanced static program analysis and program optimization, including compile-time garbage collection, but it can make certain programming constructs (such as a switch over a number of options, with a default) harder to express. (While Mercury does allow impure functionality, this serves mainly as a way to call foreign language code. All impure code must be marked explicitly.) Operations which would typically be impure (such as input/output) are expressed using pure constructs in Mercury using linear types, by threading a dummy world value through all relevant code. Notable programs written in Mercury include the Mercury compiler and the Prince XML formatter. Software company Mission Critical IT has also been using Mercury since 2000 to develop enterprise applications and its Ontology-Driven software development platform, ODASE. Back-ends Mercury has several back-ends, which enable compiling Mercury code into several languages, including: Production level Low-level C for GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the original Mercury back-end High-level C Java C# Erlang Past Assembly language via the GCC back-end Aditi, a deductive database system also developed at the University of Melbourne. Mercury-0.12.2 is the last version to support Aditi. Common Intermediate Language (CIL) for the .NET Framework Mercury also features a foreign language interface, allowing code in other languages (depending on the chosen back-end) to be linked with Mercury code. The following foreign languages are possible: Other languages can then be interfaced to by calling them from these languages. However, this means that foreign language code may need to be written several times for the different backends, otherwise portability between backends will be lost. The most commonly used back-end is the original low-level C back-end. Examples Hello World: :- module hello. :- interface. :- import_module io. :- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det. |
field. The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper and his Nobel acceptance speech, Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work. Faraday cage In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields emanating from them cancel one another. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage. In January 1836, Faraday had put a wooden frame, 12ft square, on four glass supports and added paper walls and wire mesh. He then stepped inside and electrified it. When he stepped out of his electrified cage, Faraday had shown that electricity was a force, not an imponderable fluid as was believed at the time. Royal Institution and public service Faraday had a long association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He was appointed Assistant Superintendent of the House of the Royal Institution in 1821. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824. In 1825, he became Director of the Laboratory of the Royal Institution. Six years later, in 1833, Faraday became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life without the obligation to deliver lectures. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Royal Institution for Faraday. Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and along with two engineers from Chance Brothers c.1853, the preparation of high-quality optical glass, which was required by Chance for its lighthouses. In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell, County Durham, which killed 95 miners. Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion. The first-time explosions had been linked to dust, Faraday gave a demonstration during a lecture on how ventilation could prevent it. The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the 1913 Senghenydd Colliery Disaster. As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse where he carried out the first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses. Faraday was also active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an often-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink). Faraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857. Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system. Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures for the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818 in order to refine the quality of his lectures. Between 1827 and 1860 at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for young people, a series which continues today. The objective of Faraday's Christmas lectures was to present science to the general public in the hopes of inspiring them and generating revenue for the Royal Institution. They were notable events on the social calendar among London's gentry. Over the course of several letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Faraday outlined his recommendations on the art of lecturing: Faraday wrote "a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end". His lectures were joyful and juvenile, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with various gasses (in order to determine whether or not they are magnetic) in front of his audiences and marveled at the rich colors of polarized lights, but the lectures were also deeply philosophical. In his lectures he urged his audiences to consider the mechanics of his experiments: "you know very well that ice floats upon water ... Why does the ice float? Think of that, and philosophise". His subjects consisted of Chemistry and Electricity, and included: 1841 The Rudiments of Chemistry, 1843 First Principles of Electricity, 1848 The Chemical History of a Candle, 1851 Attractive Forces, 1853 Voltaic Electricity, 1854 The Chemistry of Combustion, 1855 The Distinctive Properties of the Common Metals, 1857 Static Electricity, 1858 The Metallic Properties, 1859 The Various Forces of Matter and their Relations to Each Other. Commemorations A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology. The Michael Faraday Memorial, designed by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed in 1961, is at the Elephant & Castle gyratory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts, London. Faraday School is located on Trinity Buoy Wharf where his workshop still stands above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse. Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, London, not far from his birthplace at Newington Butts. It lies within the local council ward of Faraday in the London Borough of Southwark. Michael Faraday Primary school is situated on the Aylesbury Estate in Walworth. A building at London South Bank University, which houses the institute's electrical engineering departments is named the Faraday Wing, due to its proximity to Faraday's birthplace in Newington Butts. A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour. An eight-story building at the University of Edinburgh's science & engineering campus is named for Faraday, as is a recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University, the main engineering building at Swansea University, and the instructional and experimental physics building at Northern Illinois University. The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica was named after him. Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London, Fife, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Swansea, Aylesbury and Stevenage) as well as in France (Paris), Germany (Berlin-Dahlem, Hermsdorf), Canada (Quebec City, Quebec; Deep River, Ontario; Ottawa, Ontario), the United States (Reston, Virginia), and New Zealand (Hawke's Bay). A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street in London's Marylebone district. From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England. He was portrayed conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus. In 2002, Faraday was ranked number 22 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion derives its name from the scientist, who saw his faith as integral to his scientific research. The logo of the institute is also based on Faraday's discoveries. It was created in 2006 by a $2,000,000 grant from the John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic research, to foster understanding of the interaction between science and religion, and to engage public understanding in both these subject areas. The Faraday Institution, an independent energy storage research institute established in 2017, also derives its name from Michael Faraday. The organisation serves as the UK's primary research programme to advance battery science and technology, education, public engagement and market research. Faraday's life and contributions to electromagnetics was the principal topic of the tenth episode, titled "The Electric Boy", of the 2014 American science documentary series, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which was broadcast on Fox and the National Geographic Channel. Aldous Huxley, the literary giant who was also the grandson of T. H. Huxley, the grandnephew of Matthew Arnold, the brother of Julian Huxley, and the half-brother of Andrew Huxley, was well-versed in science. He wrote about Faraday in an essay entitled, A Night in Pietramala: “He is always the natural philosopher. To discover truth is his sole aim and interest…even if I could be Shakespeare, I think I should still choose to be Faraday.” Calling Faraday her "hero", in a speech to the Royal Society, Margaret Thatcher declared: “The value of his work must be higher than the capitalisation of all the shares on the Stock Exchange!”. She borrowed his bust from the Royal Institution and had it placed in the hall of 10 Downing Street. Awards named in Faraday's honour In honor and remembrance of his great scientific contributions, several institutions have created prizes and awards in his name. This include: The IET Faraday Medal The Royal Society of London Michael Faraday Prize The Institute of Physics Michael Faraday Medal and Prize The Royal Society of Chemistry Faraday Lectureship Prize Gallery Bibliography Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures. Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813–1815. 2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842 ; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855 – published in eight volumes; see also the 2009 publication of Faraday's diary – volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999 Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London; Glasgow: R. Griffin, 1860. The Liquefaction of Gases, Edinburgh: W.F. Clay, 1896. The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899. (Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf) See also Air conditioning Faraday (Unit of electrical charge) Forensic engineering Nikola Tesla Snowball formation Tetrachloroethylene Timeline of hydrogen technologies Timeline of low-temperature technology Zeeman effect References Sources Further reading Biographies The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931). Faraday. Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark, Ltd. External links Biographies Biography at The Royal Institution of Great Britain Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (downloads) The Christian Character of Michael Faraday The Life and Discoveries of Michael Faraday by J. A. Crowther, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920 Others Complete Correspondence of Michael Faraday Searchable full texts of all letters to and from Faraday, based on the standard edition by Frank James Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862. With notes, comments and references | of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (1853–1856), Faraday refused to participate citing ethical reasons. Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on 25 August 1867, aged 75. He had some years before turned down an offer of burial in Westminster Abbey upon his death, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the dissenters' (non-Anglican) section of Highgate Cemetery West. Scientific achievements Chemistry Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Humphry Davy. Faraday was specifically involved in the study of chlorine; he discovered two new compounds of chlorine and carbon. He also conducted the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon that was first pointed out by John Dalton. The physical importance of this phenomenon was more fully revealed by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. Faraday succeeded in liquefying several gases, investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses subsequently became historically important; when the glass was placed in a magnetic field Faraday determined the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. This specimen was also the first substance found to be repelled by the poles of a magnet. Faraday invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is in practical use in science laboratories around the world as a convenient source of heat. Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen) and liquefying gases such as chlorine. The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation. In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4, and published his results the following year. Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810. Faraday is also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularizing terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large part by William Whewell. Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience. Electricity and magnetism Faraday is best known for his work regarding electricity and magnetism. His first recorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven British halfpenny coins, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulfate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812). In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design an electric motor. Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called "electromagnetic rotation". One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. These experiments and inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. In his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his work with either Wollaston or Davy. The resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and may well have contributed to Faraday's assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research for several years. From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials and developing requisite experience. In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship. This experiment followed similar work conducted with light and magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results. During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass, borosilicate of lead, which he used in his future studies connecting light with magnetism. In his spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental work on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism. Two years after the death of Davy, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction, recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October 1831 he was; "making many experiments with the great magnet of the Royal Society". Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil. This phenomenon is now known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments, he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire an electric current flowed in that wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations, and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory. Faraday would later use the principles he had discovered to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators and the electric motor. In 1832, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to the scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (current and voltage) would produce different groups of phenomena. Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition by the scientific community. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields; that conceptual model was crucial for the successful development of the electromechanical devices that dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century. Diamagnetism In 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field: a phenomenon he termed diamagnetism. Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned with the direction in which the light is moving. This is now termed the Faraday effect. In Sept 1845 he wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". Later on in his life, in 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper and his Nobel acceptance speech, Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work. Faraday cage In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields emanating from them cancel one another. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage. In January 1836, Faraday had put a wooden frame, 12ft square, on four glass supports and added paper walls and wire mesh. He then stepped inside and electrified it. When he stepped out of his electrified cage, Faraday had shown that electricity was a force, not an imponderable fluid as was believed at the time. Royal Institution and public service Faraday had a long association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He was appointed Assistant Superintendent of the House of the Royal Institution in 1821. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824. In 1825, he became Director of the Laboratory of the Royal Institution. Six years later, in 1833, Faraday became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life without the obligation to deliver lectures. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Royal Institution for Faraday. Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and along with two engineers from Chance Brothers c.1853, the preparation of high-quality optical glass, which was required by Chance for its lighthouses. In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell, County Durham, which killed 95 miners. Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion. The first-time explosions had been linked to dust, Faraday gave a demonstration during a lecture on how ventilation could prevent it. The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the 1913 Senghenydd Colliery Disaster. As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse where he carried out the first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses. Faraday was also active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an often-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink). Faraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857. Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system. Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures for the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818 in order to refine the quality of his lectures. Between 1827 and 1860 at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for young people, a series which continues today. The objective of Faraday's Christmas lectures was to present science to the general public in the hopes of inspiring them and generating revenue for the Royal Institution. They were notable events on the social calendar among London's gentry. Over the course of several letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Faraday outlined his recommendations on the art of lecturing: Faraday wrote "a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end". His lectures were joyful and juvenile, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with various gasses (in order |
both of the parties is married against their will. Forced marriages continue to be practiced in parts of the world, especially in South Asia and Africa. The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred, because the social norms of these cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of one's parents/relatives in regard to the choice of a spouse; in such cultures, it is not necessary for violence, threats, intimidation etc. to occur, the person simply "consents" to the marriage even if they don't want it, out of the implied social pressure and duty. The customs of bride price and dowry, that exist in parts of the world, can lead to buying and selling people into marriage. In some societies, ranging from Central Asia to the Caucasus to Africa, the custom of bride kidnapping still exists, in which a woman is captured by a man and his friends. Sometimes this covers an elopement, but sometimes it depends on sexual violence. In previous times, raptio was a larger-scale version of this, with groups of women captured by groups of men, sometimes in war; the most famous example is The Rape of the Sabine Women, which provided the first citizens of Rome with their wives. Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual. For example, widow inheritance provides a widow with another man from her late husband's brothers. In rural areas of India, child marriage is practiced, with parents often arranging the wedding, sometimes even before the child is born. This practice was made illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929. Economic considerations The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time. In some cultures, dowries and bride wealth continue to be required today. In both cases, the financial arrangements are usually made between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; with the bride often not being involved in the negotiations, and often not having a choice in whether to participate in the marriage. In Early modern Britain, the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal. After the marriage, all the property (called "fortune") and expected inheritances of the wife belonged to the husband. Dowry A dowry is "a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. inter vivos) rather than at the holder's death (mortis causa)… A dowry establishes some variety of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund ensures her support (or endowment) in widowhood and eventually goes to provide for her sons and daughters." In some cultures, especially in countries such as Turkey, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Morocco, Nepal, dowries continue to be expected. In India, thousands of dowry-related deaths have taken place on yearly basis, to counter this problem, several jurisdictions have enacted laws restricting or banning dowry (see Dowry law in India). In Nepal, dowry was made illegal in 2009. Some authors believe that the giving and receiving of dowry reflects the status and even the effort to climb high in social hierarchy. Dower Direct Dowry contrasts with bride wealth, which is paid by the groom or his family to the bride's parents, and with indirect dowry (or dower), which is property given to the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage and which remains under her ownership and control. In the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a prenuptial agreement, called a ketubah. Besides other things, the ketubah provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a divorce or his estate in the event of his death. This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the father of the bride. This innovation was put in place because the biblical bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry. So, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum. It may also be noted that both the dower and the ketubah amounts served the same purpose: the protection for the wife should her support cease, either by death or divorce. The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment. It is the predecessor to the wife's present-day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage, and family maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his will. Another function performed by the ketubah amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife. Morning gifts, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night. She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is entitled to it when widowed. If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it may be called dower. Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries. Morning gifts were preserved for centuries in morganatic marriage, a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates. In this case, the morning gift would support the wife and children. Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure, in which property, often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband's death. Islamic tradition has similar practices. A 'mahr', either immediate or deferred, is the woman's portion of the groom's wealth (divorce) or estate (death). These amounts are usually set on the basis of the groom's own and family wealth and incomes, but in some parts these are set very high so as to provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce, or the husband's family 'inheriting' a large portion of the estate, especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage. In some countries, including Iran, the mahr or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn, sometimes up to US$1,000,000 (4000 official Iranian gold coins). If the husband cannot pay the mahr, either in case of a divorce or on demand, according to the current laws in Iran, he will have to pay it by installments. Failure to pay the mahr might even lead to imprisonment. Bridewealth Bridewealth is a common practice in parts of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Cambodia), parts of Central Asia, and in much of sub-Saharan Africa. It is also known as brideprice although this has fallen in disfavor as it implies the purchase of the bride. Bridewealth is the amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom or his family to the parents of a woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom. In anthropological literature, bride price has often been explained as payment made to compensate the bride's family for the loss of her labor and fertility. In some cases, bridewealth is a means by which the groom's family's ties to the children of the union are recognized. Taxation In some countries a married person or couple benefits from various taxation advantages not available to a single person. For example, spouses may be allowed to average their combined incomes. This is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes. To compensate for this, countries may provide a higher tax bracket for the averaged income of a married couple. While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons. In the United States, this is called the marriage penalty. When the rates applied by the tax code are not based income averaging, but rather on the sum of individuals' incomes, higher rates will usually apply to each individual in a two-earner households in a progressive tax systems. This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is another situation called a marriage penalty. Conversely, when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership, dual-income couples fare much better than single-income couples with similar household incomes. The effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby denying welfare access to the non-earning spouse. Such systems apply in Australia and Canada, for example. Post-marital residence In many Western cultures, marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising the married couple, with the married couple living together in the same home, often sharing the same bed, but in some other cultures this is not the tradition. Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, residency after marriage is matrilocal, with the husband moving into the household of his wife's mother. Residency after marriage can also be patrilocal or avunculocal. In these cases, married couples may not form an independent household, but remain part of an extended family household. Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residence connected it with the sexual division of labor. However, to date, cross-cultural tests of this hypothesis using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables. However, Korotayev's tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general. However, this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor. Although, in different-sex marriages, an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence, it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non-sororal polygyny which effectively destroys matrilocality. If this polygyny factor is controlled (e.g., through a multiple regression model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence. Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, though the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected. There has been a trend toward the neolocal residence in western societies. Law Marriage laws refer to the legal requirements which determine the validity of a marriage, which vary considerably between countries. Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares that "Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses." Rights and obligations A marriage bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties (in-laws). These may include, depending on jurisdiction: Giving one spouse or his/her family control over the other spouse's sexual services, labor, and property. Giving one spouse responsibility for the other's debts. Giving one spouse visitation rights when the other is incarcerated or hospitalized. Giving one spouse control over the other's affairs when the other is incapacitated. Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent's child. Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children. Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses. These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies, and between groups within society. These might include arranged marriages, family obligations, the legal establishment of a nuclear family unit, the legal protection of children and public declaration of commitment. Property regime In many countries today, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or combining properties. In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half. In lieu of a will or trust, property owned by the deceased generally is inherited by the surviving spouse. In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage. This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby, in a heterosexual marriage, a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife. Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract. Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage. The cost of defense and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family. The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; alimony is one such method. Restrictions Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to race, to social status, to consanguinity, to gender, restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of benefiting the children, passing on healthy genes, maintaining cultural values, or because of prejudice and fear. Almost all cultures that recognize marriage also recognize adultery as a violation of the terms of marriage. Age Most jurisdictions set a minimum age for marriage, that is, a person must attain a certain age to be legally allowed to marry. This age may depend on circumstances, for instance exceptions from the general rule may be permitted if the parents of a young person express their consent and/or if a court decides that said marriage is in the best interest of the young person (often this applies in cases where a girl is pregnant). Although most age restrictions are in place in order to prevent children from being forced into marriages, especially to much older partners – marriages which can have negative education and health related consequences, and lead to child sexual abuse and other forms of violence – such child marriages remain common in parts of the world. According to the UN, child marriages are most common in rural sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger (75%), Chad, Central African Republic, Bangladesh, Guinea, Mozambique, Mali, Burkina Faso, South Sudan, and Malawi. Kinship To prohibit incest and eugenic reasons, marriage laws have set restrictions for relatives to marry. Direct blood relatives are usually prohibited to marry, while for branch line relatives, laws are wary. Kinship relations through marriage is also called "affinity," relationships that arise in one's group of origin, can also be called one's descent group. Some cultures in kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to those who they have economic or political relationships with; or other forms of social connections. Within some cultures they may lead you back to gods or animal ancestors (totems). This can be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Race Laws banning "race-mixing" were enforced in certain North American jurisdictions from 1691 until 1967, in Nazi Germany (The Nuremberg Laws) from 1935 until 1945, and in South Africa during most part of the Apartheid era (1949–1985). All these laws primarily banned marriage between persons of different racially or ethnically defined groups, which was termed "amalgamation" or "miscegenation" in the U.S. The laws in Nazi Germany and many of the U.S. states, as well as South Africa, also banned sexual relations between such individuals. In the United States, laws in some but not all of the states prohibited the marriage of whites and blacks, and in many states also the intermarriage of whites with Native Americans or Asians. In the U.S., such laws were known as anti-miscegenation laws. From 1913 until 1948, 30 out of the then 48 states enforced such laws. Although an "Anti-Miscegenation Amendment" to the United States Constitution was proposed in 1871, in 1912–1913, and in 1928, no nationwide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted. In 1967, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional. With this ruling, these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining 16 states that still had them. The Nazi ban on interracial marriage and interracial sex was enacted in September 1935 as part of the Nuremberg Laws, the Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour). The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race and forbade marriage and extramarital sexual relations at first with people of Jewish descent, but was later ended to the "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring" and people of "German or related blood". Such relations were marked as Rassenschande (lit. "race-disgrace") and could be punished by imprisonment (usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp) and even by death. South Africa under apartheid also banned interracial marriage. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949 prohibited marriage between persons of different races, and the Immorality Act of 1950 made sexual relations with a person of a different race a crime. Sex/gender Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized (nationwide or in some jurisdictions) in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay. Israel recognizes same-sex marriages entered into abroad as full marriages. Furthermore, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has issued a ruling that is expected to facilitate recognition in several countries in the Americas. The introduction of same-sex marriage has varied by jurisdiction, being variously accomplished through legislative change to marriage law, a court ruling based on constitutional guarantees of equality, or by direct popular vote (via ballot initiative or referendum). The recognition of same-sex marriage is considered to be a human right and a civil right as well as a political, social, and religious issue. The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are human rights and civil rights organizations as well as the medical and scientific communities, while the most prominent opponents are religious groups. Various faith communities around the world support same-sex marriage, while many religious groups oppose it. Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in some developing democracies. The establishment of recognition in law for the marriages of same-sex couples is one of the most prominent objectives of the LGBT rights movement. Number of spouses Polygyny is widely practiced in mostly Muslim and African countries. In the Middle Eastern region, Israel, Turkey and Tunisia are notable exceptions. In most other jurisdictions, polygamy is illegal. For example, In the United States, polygamy is illegal in all 50 states. In the late-19th century, citizens of the self-governing territory of what is present-day Utah were forced by the United States federal government to abandon the practice of polygamy through the vigorous enforcement of several Acts of Congress, and eventually complied. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints formally abolished the practice in 1890, in a document labeled 'The Manifesto' (see Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century). Among American Muslims, a small minority of around 50,000 to 100,000 people are estimated to live in families with a husband maintaining an illegal polygamous relationship. Several countries such as India and Sri Lanka, permit only their Islamic citizens to practice polygamy. Some Indians have converted to Islam in order to bypass such legal restrictions. Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamous unions, with a handful of exceptions being the Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zambia. State recognition When a marriage is performed and carried out by a government institution in accordance with the marriage laws of the jurisdiction, without religious content, it is a civil marriage. Civil marriage recognizes and creates the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in the eyes of the state. Some countries do not recognize locally performed religious marriage on its own, and require a separate civil marriage for official purposes. Conversely, civil marriage does not exist in some countries governed by a religious legal system, such as Saudi Arabia, where marriages contracted abroad might not be recognized if they were contracted contrary to Saudi interpretations of Islamic religious law. In countries governed by a mixed secular-religious legal system, such as Lebanon and Israel, locally performed civil marriage does not exist within the country, which prevents interfaith and various other marriages that contradict religious laws from being entered into in the country; however, civil marriages performed abroad may be recognized by the state even if they conflict with religious laws. For example, in the case of recognition of marriage in Israel, this includes recognition of not only interfaith civil marriages performed abroad, but also overseas same-sex civil marriages. In various jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions. The opposite case may happen as well. Partners may not have full juridical acting capacity and churches may have less strict limits than the civil jurisdictions. This particularly applies to minimum age, or physical infirmities. It is possible for two people to be recognized as married by a religious or other institution, but not by the state, and hence without the legal rights and obligations of marriage; or to have a civil marriage deemed invalid and sinful by a religion. Similarly, a couple may remain married in religious eyes after a civil divorce. Most sovereign states and other jurisdictions limit legally recognized marriage to opposite-sex couples and a diminishing number of these permit polygyny, child marriages, and forced marriages. In modern times, a growing number of countries, primarily developed democracies, have lifted bans on, and have established legal recognition for, the marriages of interfaith, interracial, and same-sex couples. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of national laws against the practice. Marriage license, civil ceremony and registration A marriage is usually formalized at a wedding or marriage ceremony. The ceremony may be officiated either by a religious official, by a government official or by a state approved celebrant. In various European and some Latin American countries, any religious ceremony must be held separately from the required civil ceremony. Some countries – such as Belgium, Bulgaria, France, the Netherlands, Romania and Turkey – require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one. In some countries – notably the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Norway and Spain – both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony. To avoid any implication that the state is "recognizing" a religious marriage (which is prohibited in some countries) – the "civil" ceremony is said to be taking place at the same time as the religious ceremony. Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony. If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, the marriage ceremony is not recognized as a marriage by government under the law. Some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location; others, including England and Wales, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the public and specially sanctioned by law for the purpose. In England, the place of marriage formerly had to be a church or register office, but this was extended to any public venue with the necessary licence. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license (UK: licence), which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require one of the parties to reside within the jurisdiction of the register office (formerly parish). Each religious authority has rules for the manner in which marriages are to be conducted by their officials and members. Where religious marriages are recognised by the state, the officiator must also conform with the law of the jurisdiction. Common-law marriage In a small number of jurisdictions marriage relationships may be created by the operation of the law alone. Unlike the typical ceremonial marriage with legal contract, wedding ceremony, and other details, a common-law marriage may be called "marriage by habit and repute (cohabitation)." A de facto common-law marriage without a license or ceremony is legally binding in some jurisdictions but has no legal consequence in others. Civil unions A civil union, also referred to as a civil partnership, is a legally recognized form of partnership similar to marriage. Beginning with Denmark in 1989, civil unions under one name or another have been established by law in several countries in order to provide same-sex couples rights, benefits, and responsibilities similar (in some countries, identical) to opposite-sex civil marriage. In some jurisdictions, such as Brazil, New Zealand, Uruguay, Ecuador, France and the U.S. states of Hawaii and Illinois, civil unions are also open to opposite-sex couples. "Marriage of convenience" Sometimes people marry to take advantage of a certain situation, sometimes called a marriage of convenience or a sham marriage. In 2003, over 180,000 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens; more were admitted as fiancés of US citizens for the purpose of being married within 90 days. These marriages had a diverse range of motives, including obtaining permanent residency, securing an inheritance that has a marriage clause, or to enroll in health insurance, among many others. While all marriages have a complex combination of conveniences motivating the parties to marry, a marriage of convenience is one that is devoid of normal reasons to marry. In certain countries like Singapore sham marriages are punishable criminal offences. Contemporary legal and human rights criticisms of marriage People have proposed arguments against marriage for reasons that include political, philosophical and religious criticisms; concerns about the divorce rate; individual liberty and gender equality; questioning the necessity of having a personal relationship sanctioned by government or religious authorities; or the promotion of celibacy for religious or philosophical reasons. Power and gender roles Historically, in most cultures, married women had very few rights of their own, being considered, along with the family's children, the property of the husband; as such, they could not own or inherit property, or represent themselves legally (see, for example, coverture). Since the late 19th century, in some (primarily Western) countries, marriage has undergone gradual legal changes, aimed at improving the rights of the wife. These changes included giving wives legal identities of their own, abolishing the right of husbands to physically discipline their wives, giving wives property rights, liberalizing divorce laws, providing wives with reproductive rights of their own, and requiring a wife's consent when sexual relations occur. In the 21st century, there continue to be controversies regarding the legal status of married women, legal acceptance of or leniency towards violence within marriage (especially sexual violence), traditional marriage customs such as dowry and bride price, forced marriage, marriageable age, and criminalization of consensual behaviors such as premarital and extramarital sex. Feminist theory approaches opposite-sex marriage as an institution traditionally rooted in patriarchy that promotes male superiority and power over women. This power dynamic conceptualizes men as "the provider operating in the public sphere" and women as "the caregivers operating within the private sphere". "Theoretically, women ... [were] defined as the property of their husbands .... The adultery of a woman was always treated with more severity than that of a man." "[F]eminist demands for a wife's control over her own property were not met [in parts of Britain] until ... [laws were passed in the late 19th century]." Traditional heterosexual marriage imposed an obligation of the wife to be sexually available for her husband and an obligation of the husband to provide material/financial support for the wife. Numerous philosophers, feminists and other academic figures have commented on this throughout history, condemning the hypocrisy of legal and religious authorities in regard to sexual issues; pointing to the lack of choice of a woman in regard to controlling her own sexuality; and drawing parallels between marriage, an institution promoted as sacred, and prostitution, widely condemned and vilified (though often tolerated as a "necessary evil"). Mary Wollstonecraft, in the 18th century, described marriage as "legal prostitution". Emma Goldman wrote in 1910: "To the moralist prostitution does not consist so much in the fact that the woman sells her body, but rather that she sells it out of wedlock". Bertrand Russell in his book Marriage and Morals wrote that: "Marriage is for woman the commonest mode of livelihood, and the total amount of undesired sex endured by women is probably greater in marriage than in prostitution." Angela Carter in Nights at the Circus wrote: "What is marriage but prostitution to one man instead of many?" Some critics object to what they see as propaganda in relation to marriage – from the government, religious organizations, the media – which aggressively promote marriage as a solution for all social problems; such propaganda includes, for instance, marriage promotion in schools, where children, especially girls, are bombarded with positive information about marriage, being presented only with the information prepared by authorities. The performance of dominant gender roles by men and submissive gender roles by women influence the power dynamic of a heterosexual marriage. In some American households, women internalize gender role stereotypes and often assimilate into the role of "wife", "mother", and "caretaker" in conformity to societal norms and their male partner. Author bell hooks states "within the family structure, individuals learn to accept sexist oppression as 'natural' and are primed to support other forms of oppression, including heterosexist domination." "[T]he cultural, economic, political and legal supremacy of the husband" was "[t]raditional ... under English law". This patriarchal dynamic is contrasted with a conception of egalitarian or Peer Marriage in which power and labour are divided equally, and not according to gender roles. In the US, studies have shown that, despite egalitarian ideals being common, less than half of respondents viewed their opposite-sex relationships as equal in power, with unequal relationships being more commonly dominated by the male partner. Studies also show that married couples find the highest level of satisfaction in egalitarian relationships and lowest levels of satisfaction in wife dominate relationships. In recent years, egalitarian or Peer Marriages have been receiving increasing focus and attention politically, economically and culturally in a number of countries, including the United States. Extra-marital sex Different societies demonstrate variable tolerance of extramarital sex. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the occurrence of extramarital sex by gender in over 50 pre-industrial cultures. The occurrence of extramarital sex by men is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 29 cultures, "occasional" in 6 cultures, and "uncommon" in 10 cultures. The occurrence of extramarital sex by women is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 23 cultures, "occasional" in 9 cultures, and "uncommon" in 15 cultures. Three studies using nationally representative samples in the United States found that between 10 and 15% of women and 20–25% of men engage in extramarital sex. Many of the world's major religions look with disfavor on sexual relations outside marriage. There are non-secular states that sanction criminal penalties for sexual intercourse before marriage. Sexual relations by a married person with someone other than his/her spouse is known as adultery. Adultery is considered in many jurisdictions to be a crime and grounds for divorce. In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, Yemen, any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. In some parts of the world, women and girls accused of having sexual relations outside marriage are at risk of becoming victims of honor killings committed by their families. In 2011 several people were sentenced to death by stoning after being accused of adultery in Iran, Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Mali and Pakistan. Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries. In Pakistan, after the 2008 Balochistan honour killings in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the Umrani Tribe of Balochistan, Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Services Israr Ullah Zehri defended the barbaric practice; he said: "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid." Sexual violence An issue that is a serious concern regarding marriage and which has been the object of international scrutiny is that of sexual violence within marriage. Throughout much of the history, in most cultures, sex in marriage was considered a 'right', that could be taken by force (often by a man from a woman), if 'denied'. As the concept of human rights started to develop in the 20th century, and with the arrival of second-wave feminism, such views have become less widely held. The legal and social concept of marital rape has developed in most industrialized countries in the mid- to late 20th century; in many other parts of the world it is not recognized as a form of abuse, socially or legally. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made marital rape illegal before 1970, and other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western world outlawed it in the 1980s and 1990s. In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991. Although marital rape is being increasingly criminalized in developing countries too, cultural, religious, and traditional ideologies about "conjugal rights" remain very strong in many parts of the world; and even in many countries that have adequate laws against rape in marriage these laws are rarely enforced. Apart from the issue of rape committed against one's spouse, marriage is, in many parts of the world, closely connected with other forms of sexual violence: in some places, like Morocco, unmarried girls and women who are raped are often forced by their families to marry their rapist. Because being the victim of rape and losing virginity carry extreme social stigma, and the victims are deemed to have their "reputation" tarnished, a marriage with the rapist is arranged. This is claimed to be in the advantage of both the victim – who does not remain unmarried and doesn't lose social status – and of the rapist, who avoids punishment. In 2012, after a Moroccan 16-year-old girl committed suicide after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist and enduring further abuse by the rapist after they married, there have been protests from activists against this practice which is common in Morocco. In some societies, the very high social and religious importance of marital fidelity, especially female fidelity, has as result the criminalization of adultery, often with harsh penalties such as stoning or flogging; as well as leniency towards punishment of violence related to infidelity (such as honor killings). In the 21st century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial with international organizations calling for their abolition. Opponents of adultery laws argue that these laws are a major contributor to discrimination and violence against women, as they are enforced selectively mostly against women; that they prevent women from reporting sexual violence; and that they maintain social norms which justify violent crimes committed against women by husbands, families and communities. A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice states that "Adultery as a criminal offence violates women's human rights". Some human rights organizations argue that the criminalization of adultery also violates internationally recognized protections for private life, as it represents an arbitrary interference with an individual's privacy, which is not permitted under international law. Laws, human rights and gender status The laws surrounding heterosexual marriage in many countries have come under international scrutiny because they contradict international standards of human rights; institutionalize violence against women, child marriage and forced marriage; require the permission of a husband for his wife to work in a paid job, sign legal documents, file criminal charges against someone, sue in civil court etc.; sanction the use by husbands of violence to "discipline" their wives; and discriminate against women in divorce. Such things were legal even in many Western countries until recently: for instance, in France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977 (by comparison women in East Germany had many more rights). In Spain, during Franco's era, a married woman needed her husband's consent, referred to as the permiso marital, for almost all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property, and even traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975. An absolute submission of a wife to her husband is accepted as natural in many parts of the world, for instance surveys by UNICEF have shown that the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, 80% in Central African Republic. Detailed results from Afghanistan show that 78% of women agree with a beating if the wife "goes out without telling him [the husband]" and 76% agree "if she argues with him". Throughout history, and still today in many countries, laws have provided for extenuating circumstances, partial or complete defenses, for men who killed their wives due to adultery, with such acts often being seen as crimes of passion and being covered by legal defenses such as provocation or defense of family honor. Right and ability to divorce While international law and conventions recognize the need for consent for entering a marriage – namely that people cannot be forced to get married against their will – the right to obtain a divorce is not recognized; therefore holding a person in a marriage against their will (if such person has consented to entering in it) is not considered a violation of human rights, with the issue of divorce being left at the appreciation of individual states. The European Court of Human Rights has repeatedly ruled that under the European Convention on Human Rights there is neither a right to apply to divorce, nor a right to obtain the divorce if applied for it; in 2017, in Babiarz v. Poland, the Court ruled that Poland was entitled to deny a divorce because the grounds for divorce were not met, even if the marriage in question was acknowledged both by Polish courts and by the ECHR as being a legal fiction involving a long-term separation where the husband lived with another woman with whom he had an 11-year-old child. In the EU, the last country to allow divorce was Malta, in 2011. Around the world, the only countries to forbid divorce are Philippines and Vatican City, although in practice in many countries which use a fault-based divorce system obtaining a divorce is very difficult. The ability to divorce, in law and practice, has been and continues to be a controversial issue in many countries, and public discourse involves different ideologies such as feminism, social conservatism, religious interpretations. Dowry and bridewealth In recent years, the customs of dowry and bride price have received international criticism for inciting conflicts between families and clans; contributing to violence against women; promoting materialism; increasing property crimes (where men steal goods such as cattle in order to be able to pay the bride price); and making it difficult for poor people to marry. African women's rights campaigners advocate the abolishing of bride price, which they argue is based on the idea that women are a form of property which can be bought. Bride price has also been criticized for contributing to child trafficking as impoverished parents sell their young daughters to rich older men. A senior Papua New Guinea police officer has called for the abolishing of bride price arguing that it is one of the main reasons for the mistreatment of women in that country. The opposite practice of dowry has been linked to a high level of violence (see Dowry death) and to crimes such as extortion. Children born outside marriage Historically, and still in many countries, children born outside marriage suffered severe social stigma and discrimination. In England and Wales, such children were known as bastards and whoresons. There are significant differences between world regions in regard to the social and legal position of non-marital births, ranging from being fully accepted and uncontroversial to being severely stigmatized and discriminated. The 1975 European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock protects the rights of children born to unmarried parents. The convention states, among others, that: "The father and mother of a child born out of wedlock shall have the same obligation to maintain the child as if it were born in wedlock" and that "A child born out of wedlock shall have the same right of succession in the estate of its father and its mother and of a member of its father's or mother's family, as if it had been born in wedlock." While in most Western countries legal inequalities between children born inside and outside marriage have largely been abolished, this is not the case in some parts of the world. The legal status of an unmarried father differs greatly from country to country. Without voluntary formal recognition of the child by the father, in most | them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid." Sexual violence An issue that is a serious concern regarding marriage and which has been the object of international scrutiny is that of sexual violence within marriage. Throughout much of the history, in most cultures, sex in marriage was considered a 'right', that could be taken by force (often by a man from a woman), if 'denied'. As the concept of human rights started to develop in the 20th century, and with the arrival of second-wave feminism, such views have become less widely held. The legal and social concept of marital rape has developed in most industrialized countries in the mid- to late 20th century; in many other parts of the world it is not recognized as a form of abuse, socially or legally. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made marital rape illegal before 1970, and other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western world outlawed it in the 1980s and 1990s. In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991. Although marital rape is being increasingly criminalized in developing countries too, cultural, religious, and traditional ideologies about "conjugal rights" remain very strong in many parts of the world; and even in many countries that have adequate laws against rape in marriage these laws are rarely enforced. Apart from the issue of rape committed against one's spouse, marriage is, in many parts of the world, closely connected with other forms of sexual violence: in some places, like Morocco, unmarried girls and women who are raped are often forced by their families to marry their rapist. Because being the victim of rape and losing virginity carry extreme social stigma, and the victims are deemed to have their "reputation" tarnished, a marriage with the rapist is arranged. This is claimed to be in the advantage of both the victim – who does not remain unmarried and doesn't lose social status – and of the rapist, who avoids punishment. In 2012, after a Moroccan 16-year-old girl committed suicide after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist and enduring further abuse by the rapist after they married, there have been protests from activists against this practice which is common in Morocco. In some societies, the very high social and religious importance of marital fidelity, especially female fidelity, has as result the criminalization of adultery, often with harsh penalties such as stoning or flogging; as well as leniency towards punishment of violence related to infidelity (such as honor killings). In the 21st century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial with international organizations calling for their abolition. Opponents of adultery laws argue that these laws are a major contributor to discrimination and violence against women, as they are enforced selectively mostly against women; that they prevent women from reporting sexual violence; and that they maintain social norms which justify violent crimes committed against women by husbands, families and communities. A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice states that "Adultery as a criminal offence violates women's human rights". Some human rights organizations argue that the criminalization of adultery also violates internationally recognized protections for private life, as it represents an arbitrary interference with an individual's privacy, which is not permitted under international law. Laws, human rights and gender status The laws surrounding heterosexual marriage in many countries have come under international scrutiny because they contradict international standards of human rights; institutionalize violence against women, child marriage and forced marriage; require the permission of a husband for his wife to work in a paid job, sign legal documents, file criminal charges against someone, sue in civil court etc.; sanction the use by husbands of violence to "discipline" their wives; and discriminate against women in divorce. Such things were legal even in many Western countries until recently: for instance, in France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977 (by comparison women in East Germany had many more rights). In Spain, during Franco's era, a married woman needed her husband's consent, referred to as the permiso marital, for almost all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property, and even traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975. An absolute submission of a wife to her husband is accepted as natural in many parts of the world, for instance surveys by UNICEF have shown that the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, 80% in Central African Republic. Detailed results from Afghanistan show that 78% of women agree with a beating if the wife "goes out without telling him [the husband]" and 76% agree "if she argues with him". Throughout history, and still today in many countries, laws have provided for extenuating circumstances, partial or complete defenses, for men who killed their wives due to adultery, with such acts often being seen as crimes of passion and being covered by legal defenses such as provocation or defense of family honor. Right and ability to divorce While international law and conventions recognize the need for consent for entering a marriage – namely that people cannot be forced to get married against their will – the right to obtain a divorce is not recognized; therefore holding a person in a marriage against their will (if such person has consented to entering in it) is not considered a violation of human rights, with the issue of divorce being left at the appreciation of individual states. The European Court of Human Rights has repeatedly ruled that under the European Convention on Human Rights there is neither a right to apply to divorce, nor a right to obtain the divorce if applied for it; in 2017, in Babiarz v. Poland, the Court ruled that Poland was entitled to deny a divorce because the grounds for divorce were not met, even if the marriage in question was acknowledged both by Polish courts and by the ECHR as being a legal fiction involving a long-term separation where the husband lived with another woman with whom he had an 11-year-old child. In the EU, the last country to allow divorce was Malta, in 2011. Around the world, the only countries to forbid divorce are Philippines and Vatican City, although in practice in many countries which use a fault-based divorce system obtaining a divorce is very difficult. The ability to divorce, in law and practice, has been and continues to be a controversial issue in many countries, and public discourse involves different ideologies such as feminism, social conservatism, religious interpretations. Dowry and bridewealth In recent years, the customs of dowry and bride price have received international criticism for inciting conflicts between families and clans; contributing to violence against women; promoting materialism; increasing property crimes (where men steal goods such as cattle in order to be able to pay the bride price); and making it difficult for poor people to marry. African women's rights campaigners advocate the abolishing of bride price, which they argue is based on the idea that women are a form of property which can be bought. Bride price has also been criticized for contributing to child trafficking as impoverished parents sell their young daughters to rich older men. A senior Papua New Guinea police officer has called for the abolishing of bride price arguing that it is one of the main reasons for the mistreatment of women in that country. The opposite practice of dowry has been linked to a high level of violence (see Dowry death) and to crimes such as extortion. Children born outside marriage Historically, and still in many countries, children born outside marriage suffered severe social stigma and discrimination. In England and Wales, such children were known as bastards and whoresons. There are significant differences between world regions in regard to the social and legal position of non-marital births, ranging from being fully accepted and uncontroversial to being severely stigmatized and discriminated. The 1975 European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock protects the rights of children born to unmarried parents. The convention states, among others, that: "The father and mother of a child born out of wedlock shall have the same obligation to maintain the child as if it were born in wedlock" and that "A child born out of wedlock shall have the same right of succession in the estate of its father and its mother and of a member of its father's or mother's family, as if it had been born in wedlock." While in most Western countries legal inequalities between children born inside and outside marriage have largely been abolished, this is not the case in some parts of the world. The legal status of an unmarried father differs greatly from country to country. Without voluntary formal recognition of the child by the father, in most cases there is a need of due process of law in order to establish paternity. In some countries however, unmarried cohabitation of a couple for a specific period of time does create a presumption of paternity similar to that of formal marriage. This is the case in Australia. Under what circumstances can a paternity action be initiated, the rights and responsibilities of a father once paternity has been established (whether he can obtain parental responsibility and whether he can be forced to support the child) as well as the legal position of a father who voluntarily acknowledges the child, vary widely by jurisdiction. A special situation arises when a married woman has a child by a man other than her husband. Some countries, such as Israel, refuse to accept a legal challenge of paternity in such a circumstance, in order to avoid the stigmatization of the child (see Mamzer, a concept under Jewish law). In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in favor of a German man who had fathered twins with a married woman, granting him right of contact with the twins, despite the fact that the mother and her husband had forbidden him to see the children. The steps that an unmarried father must take in order to obtain rights to his child vary by country. In some countries (such as the UK – since 2003 in England and Wales, 2006 in Scotland, and 2002 in Northern Ireland) it is sufficient for the father to be listed on the birth certificate for him to have parental rights; in other countries, such as Ireland, simply being listed on the birth certificate does not offer any rights, additional legal steps must be taken (if the mother agrees, the parents can both sign a "statutory declaration", but if the mother does not agree, the father has to apply to court). Children born outside marriage have become more common, and in some countries, the majority. Recent data from Latin America showed figures for non-marital childbearing to be 74% for Colombia, 69% for Peru, 68% for Chile, 66% for Brazil, 58% for Argentina, 55% for Mexico. In 2012, in the European Union, 40% of births were outside marriage, and in the United States, in 2013, the figure was similar, at 41%. In the United Kingdom 48% of births were to unmarried women in 2012; in Ireland the figure was 35%. During the first half of the 20th century, unmarried women in some Western countries were coerced by authorities to give their children up for adoption. This was especially the case in Australia, through the forced adoptions in Australia, with most of these adoptions taking place between the 1950s and the 1970s. In 2013, Julia Gillard, then Prime Minister of Australia, offered a national apology to those affected by the forced adoptions. Some married couples choose not to have children. Others are unable to have children because of infertility or other factors preventing conception or the bearing of children. In some cultures, marriage imposes an obligation on women to bear children. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bridewealth signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse and reprisals. Religion Religions develop in specific geographic and social milieux. Religious attitudes and practices relating to marriage vary, but have many similarities. Abrahamic religions Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith encourages marriage and views it as a mutually strengthening bond. A Baháʼí marriage is contingent on the consent of all living parents. Christianity Modern Christianity bases its views on marriage upon the teachings of Jesus and the Paul the Apostle. Many of the largest Christian denominations regard marriage as a sacrament, sacred institution, or covenant. The first known decrees on marriage were during the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (twenty-fourth session of 1563), decrees that made the validity of marriage dependent on the wedding occurring in the presence of a priest and two witnesses. The absence of a requirement of parental consent ended a debate that proceeded from the 12th century. In the case of a civil divorce, the innocent spouse had and has no right to marry again until the death of the other spouse terminates the still valid marriage, even if the other spouse was guilty of adultery. The Christian Church performed marriages in the narthex of the church prior to the 16th century, when the emphasis was on the marital contract and betrothal. Subsequently, the ceremony moved inside the sacristy of the church. Christians often marry for religious reasons, ranging from following the biblical injunction for a "man to leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife, and the two shall become one", to accessing the Divine grace of the Roman Catholic Sacrament. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, as well as many Anglicans and Methodists, consider marriage termed holy matrimony to be an expression of divine grace, termed a sacrament and mystery in the first two Christian traditions. In Western ritual, the ministers of the sacrament are the spouses themselves, with a bishop, priest, or deacon merely witnessing the union on behalf of the Church and blessing it. In Eastern ritual churches, the bishop or priest functions as the actual minister of the Sacred Mystery; Eastern Orthodox deacons may not perform marriages. Western Christians commonly refer to marriage as a vocation, while Eastern Christians consider it an ordination and a martyrdom, though the theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either tradition. Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a Eucharistic service (a nuptial Mass or Divine Liturgy). The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between Christ and the Church. The Roman Catholic tradition of the 12th and 13th centuries defined marriage as a sacrament ordained by God, signifying the mystical marriage of Christ to his Church. The matrimonial covenant, by which a man and a woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life, is by its nature ordered toward the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring; this covenant between baptized persons has been raised by Christ the Lord to the dignity of a sacrament. For Catholic and Methodist Christians, the mutual love between husband and wife becomes an image of the eternal love with which God loves humankind. In the United Methodist Church, the celebration of Holy Matrimony ideally occurs in the context of a Service of Worship, which includes the celebration of the Eucharist. Likewise, the celebration of marriage between two Catholics normally takes place during the public liturgical celebration of the Holy Mass, because of its sacramental connection with the unity of the Paschal mystery of Christ (Communion). Sacramental marriage confers a perpetual and exclusive bond between the spouses. By its nature, the institution of marriage and conjugal love is ordered to the procreation and upbringing of offspring. Marriage creates rights and duties in the Church between the spouses and towards their children: "[e]ntering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment". According to current Roman Catholic legislation, progeny of annulled relationships are considered legitimate. Civilly remarried persons who civilly divorced a living and lawful spouse are not separated from the Church, but they cannot receive Eucharistic Communion. Divorce and remarriage, while generally not encouraged, are regarded differently by each Christian denomination, with certain traditions, such as the Catholic Church, teaching the concept of an annulment. For example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage in any circumstance. The Eastern Orthodox Church allows divorce for a limited number of reasons, and in theory, but usually not in practice, requires that a marriage after divorce be celebrated with a penitential overtone. With respect to marriage between a Christian and a pagan, the early Church "sometimes took a more lenient view, invoking the so-called Pauline privilege of permissible separation (1 Cor. 7) as legitimate grounds for allowing a convert to divorce a pagan spouse and then marry a Christian." The Catholic Church adheres to the proscription of Jesus in Matthew, 19: 6 that married spouses who have consummated their marriage "are no longer two, but one flesh. Therefore, what God has joined together, no human being must separate.” Consequently, the Catholic Church understands that it is wholly without authority to terminate a sacramentally valid and consummated marriage, and its Codex Iuris Canonici (1983 Code of Canon Law) confirms this in Canons 1055–7. Specifically, Canon 1056 declares that "the essential properties of marriage are unity and indissolubility; in [C]hristian marriage they acquire a distinctive firmness by reason of the sacrament." Canon 1057, §2 declares that marriage is "an irrevocable covenant". Therefore, divorce of such a marriage is a metaphysical, moral, and legal impossibility. However, the Church has the authority to annul a presumed "marriage" by declaring it to have been invalid from the beginning, i. e., declaring it not to be and never to have been a marriage, in an annulment procedure, which is basically a fact-finding and fact-declaring effort. For Protestant denominations, the purposes of marriage include intimate companionship, rearing children, and mutual support for both spouses to fulfill their life callings. Most Reformed Christians did not regard marriage to the status of a sacrament "because they did not regard matrimony as a necessary means of grace for salvation"; nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God.cf. In addition, some Protestant denominations (such as the Methodist Churches) affirmed that Holy Matrimony is a "means of grace, thus, sacramental in character". Since the 16th century, five competing models have shaped marriage in the Western tradition, as described by John Witte, Jr.: Marriage as Sacrament in the Roman Catholic Tradition Marriage as Social Estate in the Lutheran Reformation Marriage as Covenant in the Reformed (and Methodist) Traditions Marriage as Commonwealth in the Anglican Tradition Marriage as Contract in the Enlightenment Tradition Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that "marriage between a man and a woman is ordained of God and that the family is central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children." Their view of marriage is that family relationships can endure beyond the grave. This is known as 'eternal marriage' which can be eternal only when authorized priesthood holders perform the sealing ordinance in sacred temples. With respect to religion, historic Christian belief emphasizes that Christian weddings should occur in a church as Christian marriage should begin where one also starts their faith journey (Christians receive the sacrament of baptism in church in the presence of their congregation). Catholic Christian weddings must "take place in a church building" as holy matrimony is a sacrament; sacraments normatively occur in the presence of Christ in the house of God, and "members of the faith community [should be] present to witness the event and provide support and encouragement for those celebrating the sacrament." Bishops never grant permission "to those requesting to be married in a garden, on the beach, or some other place outside of the church" and a dispensation is only granted "in extraordinary circumstances (for example, if a bride or groom is ill or disabled and unable to come to the church)." Marriage in the church, for Christians, is seen as contributing to the fruit of the newlywed couple regularly attending church each Lord's Day and raising children in the faith. Christian attitudes to same-sex marriage Although many Christian denominations do not currently perform same-sex marriages, many do, such as the Presbyterian Church (USA), some dioceses of the Episcopal Church, the Metropolitan Community Church, Quakers, United Church of Canada, and United Church of Christ congregations, and some Anglican dioceses, for example. Same-sex marriage is recognized by various religious denominations. Islam Islam also commends marriage, with the age of marriage being whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally. In Islam, polygyny is allowed while polyandry is not, with the specific limitation that a man can have no more than four legal wives at any one time and an unlimited number of female slaves as concubines who may have rights similar wives, with the exception of not being free unless the man has children with them, with the requirement that the man is able and willing to partition his time and wealth equally among the respective wives and concubines (this practice of concubinage, as in Judaism, is not applicable in contemporary times and has been deemed by scholars as invalid due to shifts in views about the role of slavery in the world). For a Muslim wedding to take place, the bridegroom and the guardian of the bride (wali) must both agree on the marriage. Should the guardian disagree on the marriage, it may not legally take place. If the wali of the girl is her father or paternal grandfather, he has the right to force her into marriage even against her proclaimed will, if it is her first marriage. A guardian who is allowed to force the bride into marriage is called wali mujbir. From an Islamic (Sharia) law perspective, the minimum requirements and responsibilities in a Muslim marriage are that the groom provide living expenses (housing, clothing, food, maintenance) to the bride, and in return, the bride's main responsibility is raising children to be proper Muslims. All other rights and responsibilities are to be decided between the husband and wife, and may even be included as stipulations in the marriage contract before the marriage actually takes place, so long as they do not go against the minimum requirements of the marriage. In Sunni Islam, marriage must take place in the presence of at least two reliable witnesses, with the consent of the guardian of the bride and the consent of the groom. Following the marriage, the couple may consummate the marriage. To create an 'urf marriage, it is sufficient that a man and a woman indicate an intention to marry each other and recite the requisite words in front of a suitable Muslim. The wedding party usually follows but can be held days, or months later, whenever the couple and their families want to; however, there can be no concealment of the marriage as it is regarded as public notification due to the requirement of witnesses. In Shia Islam, marriage may take place without the presence of witnesses as is often the case in temporary Nikah mut‘ah (prohibited in Sunni Islam), but with the consent of both the bride and the groom. Following the marriage, they may consummate their marriage. Judaism In Judaism, marriage is based on the laws of the Torah and is a contractual bond between spouses in which the spouses dedicate to be exclusive to one another. This contract is called Kiddushin. Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children. The main focus centers around the relationship between the spouses. Kabbalistically, marriage is understood to mean that the spouses are merging into a single soul. This is why a man is considered "incomplete" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified. The Hebrew Bible (Christian Old Testament) describes a number of marriages, including those of Isaac, Jacob and Samson. Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Hebrew Bible; another is that of concubinage (pilegesh) which was often arranged by a man and a woman who generally enjoyed the same rights as a full legal wife (other means of concubinage can be seen in Judges 19-20 where mass marriage by abduction was practiced as a form of punishment on transgressors). Today Ashkenazi Jews are prohibited to take more than one wife because of a ban instituted on this by Gershom ben Judah (Died 1040). Among ancient Hebrews, marriage was a domestic affair and not a religious ceremony; the participation of a priest or rabbi was not required. Betrothal (erusin), which refers to the time that this binding contract is made, is distinct from marriage itself (nissu'in), with the time between these events varying substantially. In biblical times, a wife was regarded as personal property, belonging to her husband; the descriptions of the Bible suggest that she would be expected to perform tasks such as spinning, sewing, weaving, manufacture of clothing, fetching of water, baking of bread, and animal husbandry. However, wives were usually looked after with care, and men with more than one wife were expected to ensure that they continue to give the first wife food, clothing, and marital rights. Since a wife was regarded as property, her husband was originally free to divorce her for any reason, at any time. Divorcing a woman against her will was also banned by Gershom ben Judah for Ashkenazi Jews. A divorced couple were permitted to get back together, unless the wife had married someone else after her divorce. Hinduism Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. Hindu Dharma has prescribed four Purusarthas, that is Dharma , Artha (Wealth), Kama (Desires) and Moksha . The purpose of the marriage sanskar is to fulfill the Purushartha of ‘Kama’ and then gradually advance towards ‘Moksha’. Old Hindu literature in Sanskrit gives many different types of marriages and their categorization ranging from "Gandharva Vivaha" (instant marriage by mutual consent of participants only, without any need for even a single third person as witness) to normal (present day) marriages, to "Rakshasa Vivaha" ("demoniac" marriage, performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help of other persons). In the Indian subcontinent, arranged marriages, the spouse's parents or an older family member choose the partner, are still predominant in comparison with so-called love marriages until nowadays. The Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act 1856 empowers a Hindu widow to remarry. Buddhism The Buddhist view of marriage considers marriage a secular affair and thus not a sacrament. Buddhists are expected to follow the civil laws regarding marriage laid out by their respective governments. Gautama Buddha, being a kshatriya was required by Shakyan tradition to pass a series of tests to prove himself as a warrior, before he was allowed to marry. Sikhism In a Sikh marriage, the couple walks around the Guru Granth Sahib holy book four times, and a holy man recites from it in the kirtan style. The ceremony is known as 'Anand Karaj' and represents the holy union of two souls united as one. Wicca Wiccan marriages are commonly known as handfastings and is a celebration held by Wiccans. Handfastings is an ancient Celtic ritual which the hands are tied together to symbolize the binding of two lives. It is commonly used in Wicca and Pagan ceremonies, but it has become more mainstream and comes up in both religious and secular vows and readings. Although handfastings vary for each Wiccan they often involve honoring Wiccan gods. Wicca has a common marriage vow "for as long as love lasts" instead of the traditional Christian "till death do us part". The first Wicca marriage took place in 1960, between Frederic Lamond and his wife, Gillian. Wicca's are not limited to the traditional marriages regardless of gender and how long they are willing to commit themselves to a lifelong relationship. Sex is considered a pious and sacred activity for the Wiccans. In some traditions sex is ritualized in performing in the form of the Great Rite, whereby a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and Goddesses to possess them before performing sexual intercourse with one another. It is to raise magical energy for the use of spell work. It is said that it is used symbolically, using the athame to symbolize the penis and the chalice to symbolize the vagina. Health and income Marriages are correlated with better outcomes for the couple and their children, including higher income for men, better health and lower mortality. Part of these effects is due to the fact that those with better expectations get married more often. According to a systematic review on research literature, a significant part of the effect seems to be due to a true causal effect. The reason may be that marriages make particularly men become more future-oriented and take an economic and other responsibility of the family. The studies eliminate the effect of selectivity in numerous ways. However, much of the research is of low quality in this sense. On the other hand, the causal effect might be even higher if money, working skills and parenting practices are endogenous. Married men have less drug abuse and alcohol use and are more often at home during nights. Health Marriage, like other close relationships, exerts considerable influence on health. Married people experience lower morbidity and mortality across such diverse health threats as cancer, heart attacks, and surgery. Research on marriage and health is part of the broader study of the benefits of social relationships. Social ties provide people with a sense of identity, purpose, belonging, and support. Simply being married, as well as the quality of one's marriage, have been linked to diverse measures of health. The health-protective effect of marriage is stronger for men than women. Marital status—the simple fact of being married—confers more health benefits to men than women. Women's health is more strongly impacted than men's by marital conflict or satisfaction, such that unhappily married women do not enjoy better health relative to their single counterparts. Most research on marriage and health has focused on heterosexual couples; more work is needed to clarify the health impacts of same-sex marriage. Divorce and annulment In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies, this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period. In some societies, a marriage can be annulled, when an authority declares that a marriage never happened. Jurisdictions often have provisions for void marriages or voidable marriages. A marriage may also be terminated through divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Paraguay (1991), Colombia (1991), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011). As of 2012, the Philippines and the Vatican City are the only jurisdictions which do not allow divorce (this is currently under discussion in Philippines). After divorce, one spouse may have to pay alimony. Laws concerning divorce and the ease with which a divorce can be obtained vary widely around the world. After a divorce or an annulment, the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry). A statutory right of two married partners to mutually consent to divorce was enacted in western nations in the mid-20th century. In the United States, no-fault divorce was first enacted in California in 1969 and the final state to legalize it was New York in 1989. About 45% of marriages in Britain and, according to a 2009 study, 46% of marriages in the U.S. end in divorce. History The history of marriage is often considered under History of the family or legal history. Ancient world Ancient Near East Many cultures have legends concerning the origins of marriage. The way in which a marriage is conducted and its rules and ramifications have changed over time, as has the institution itself, depending on the culture or demographic of the time. The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC, in ancient Mesopotamia. Wedding ceremonies, as well as dowry and divorce, can be traced back to Mesopotamia and Babylonia. According to ancient Hebrew tradition, a wife was seen as being property of high value and was, therefore, usually, carefully looked after. Early nomadic communities in the middle east practiced a form of marriage known as beena, in which a wife would own a tent of her own, within which she retains complete independence from her husband; this principle appears to survive in parts of early Israelite society, as some early passages of the Bible appear to portray certain wives as each owning a tent as a personal possession (specifically, Jael, Sarah, and Jacob's wives). The husband, too, is indirectly implied to have some responsibilities to his wife. The Covenant Code orders "If he take him another; her food, her clothing, and her duty of marriage, shall he not diminish(or lessen)". If the husband does not provide the first wife with these things, she is to be divorced, without cost to her. The Talmud interprets this as a requirement for a man to provide food and clothing to, and have sex with, each of his wives. However, "duty of marriage" is also interpreted as whatever one does as a married couple, which is more than just sexual activity. And the term diminish, which means to lessen, shows the man must treat her as if he was not married to another. As a polygynous society, the Israelites did not have any laws that imposed marital fidelity on men. However, the prophet Malachi states that none should be faithless to the wife of his youth and that God hates divorce. Adulterous married women, adulterous betrothed women, and the men who slept with them, however, were subject to the death penalty by the biblical laws against adultery According to the Priestly Code of the Book of Numbers, if a pregnant woman was suspected of adultery, she was to be subjected to the Ordeal of Bitter Water, a form of trial by ordeal, but one that took a miracle to convict. The literary prophets indicate that adultery was a frequent occurrence, despite their strong protests against it, and these legal strictness's. Classical Greece and Rome In ancient Greece, no specific civil ceremony was required for the creation of a heterosexual marriage – only mutual agreement and the fact that the couple must regard each other as husband and wife accordingly. Men usually married when they were in their 20s and women in their teens. It has been suggested that these ages made sense for the Greeks because men were generally done with military service |
battle will take place on the plain of Vígríðr, following which Midgard and almost all life on it will be destroyed, with the earth sinking into the sea only to rise again, fertile and green when the cycle repeats and the creation begins again. Although most surviving instances of the word Midgard refer to spiritual matters, it was also used in more mundane situations, as in the Viking Age runestone poem from the inscription Sö 56 from Fyrby: The Danish and Swedish form or , the Norwegian or , as well as the Icelandic and Faroese form , all derive from the Old Norse term. English The name middangeard occurs six times in the Old English epic poem Beowulf, and is the same word as Midgard in Old Norse. The term is equivalent in meaning to the Greek term Oikoumene, as referring to the known and inhabited world. The concept of Midgard occurs many times in Middle English. The association with earth (OE eorðe) in Middle English middellærd, middelerde is by popular etymology; the modern English cognate of geard "enclosure" is yard. An early example of this transformation is from the Ormulum: þatt ure Drihhtin wollde / ben borenn i þiss middellærd that our Lord wanted / be born in this Middle-earth. The usage of "Middle-earth" as a name for a setting was popularized by Old English scholar J. R. R. Tolkien in his The Lord of the Rings and | repeats and the creation begins again. Although most surviving instances of the word Midgard refer to spiritual matters, it was also used in more mundane situations, as in the Viking Age runestone poem from the inscription Sö 56 from Fyrby: The Danish and Swedish form or , the Norwegian or , as well as the Icelandic and Faroese form , all derive from the Old Norse term. English The name middangeard occurs six times in the Old English epic poem Beowulf, and is the same word as Midgard in Old Norse. The term is equivalent in meaning to the Greek term Oikoumene, as referring to the known and inhabited world. The concept of Midgard occurs many times in Middle English. The association with earth (OE eorðe) in Middle English middellærd, middelerde is by popular etymology; the modern English cognate of geard "enclosure" is yard. An early example of this transformation is from the Ormulum: þatt ure Drihhtin wollde / ben borenn i þiss middellærd that our Lord wanted / be born in this Middle-earth. The usage of "Middle-earth" as a name for a |
of ideas to covertly persuade the unAwakened masses that their beliefs (also called paradigms) are best. This age-old struggle is called the Ascension War wherein the four factions vie for control of reality itself. The Technocracy is a worldwide conspiracy of hyper-rational mages whose paradigm is considered to dominate reality with their belief that science is the ultimate way to advance humanity. They fight for the extinction of magic and the supernatural (and the belief in magic) and consider their own willworking "awakened science". Depending on edition, they have more or less successfully convinced the unAwakened masses, otherwise known as Sleepers, that magic and the supernatural do not exist and never did. They believe in a safe, predictable, static world where everything is understood and controlled, and nothing is left to chance. They also wish to guide this world from the shadows. The Marauders, on the other hand, are pure change. They are mages who have been driven insane by their mind-bending powers, and are consumed by their own individual beliefs. Chaotic and disorganized, the Marauders pursue their own warped agendas to the exclusion of all else. The Nephandi are forces of corruption and destruction. They are mages who have sold their souls to demonic forces or Lovecraftian horrors in exchange for power in this life. They are committed to the particular agendas of their individual patrons, but all of them pursue the total destruction of everything. The Traditions, which are the default character faction, are a diverse confederacy of wizards, sorcerers, mystics, and mystic-minded technologists and scientists who have banded together to resist the Technocracy's control of reality. Most mages and factions within the game are working towards an occult goal known as Ascension. The nature of Ascension is open to interpretation, and each faction and sub-faction in the game differs on their views of what Ascension is. It may involve a single mage becoming a paragon of their beliefs or transcending them entirely. It could also involve a mass Awakening of the unAwakened (known as Sleepers), or at least mass empowerment through the adoption of a particular practice or belief. The game was designed to draw characters from the Traditions, and later, members of the Technocracy. Nephandi and Marauder mostly filled the role of antagonists, though it was possible at one point to use them as playable characters. A fifth faction was added in the second edition of the game with the publishing of The Book of Crafts in 1996. Crafts were mystic cultures from around the globe that possessed the ability to do magic, but did not participate directly in the Ascension War (though they would join in some fashion in later editions). Magic, Paradigm and Belief The beliefs are an important theme in Mage, and it forms the basis for the game's magic. The magical techniques characters employ vary enormously, from ancient shamanic practices or Medieval sorcery to religious miracle working, or even rational science or science-fiction technology. The extent a mage can alter reality is limited only by their belief. Their beliefs, practices, and tools make up a paradigm which provides the mage with a framework to understand reality or explain how the universe works, and employ techniques to change it according to those beliefs. For example, an alchemical paradigm might describe the act of wood burning as the wood "releasing its essence of elemental Fire," while modern science would describe fire as "combustion resulting from a complex chemical reaction." Paradigms are usually a mix of the cultural beliefs taught to the mage by their faction or sub-faction, and their individual interpretation of them. Some paradigms are ancient or traditional while others are modern or a mix of the new and the old. Some paradigms are rigid while others are more flexible. Players determine what their characters' believe and how that is expressed in their characters' magic. Reality & Paradox The idea that what we believe creates reality, and that those ideas create conflicts is also an important theme in the game. Everyday reality is governed by the collective beliefs of Sleepers known as the Consensus. The Consensus more or less mirrors out of character, everyday assumptions about the way the world works. For example, most people have a general understanding that magic or the supernatural do not exist. While this may not be universally true, in Mage, enough people believe it to make it so. Mages have tremendous power to reshape reality, but they must hide this ability from the Sleepers or suffer cosmic consequences. This is another central conflict of the game where the majority of Sleepers believe exclusively in the static reality offered to them by the Technocracy, but the truth is that all paradigms are potentially valid. Despite their power all Mages, even members of the Technocracy, must couch their magic in the belief of the Sleepers in order to avoid the consequences of not doing so. When a mage performs an act of magic that conforms with the Consensus, this is called coincidental magic. It is magic that, if witnessed by a Sleeper, could easily be dismissed as some understandable phenomenon. The main benefit of coincidental magic is that it is easier and less risky to perform than vulgar magic because it works with Sleepers' beliefs rather than defying them. Magic that conflicts with Sleeper belief is called vulgar magic, and this violent clashing of reality, belief, and ideas results in what is called Paradox in the game. When a character fumbles a magical working or changes reality in a manner that conflicts with the Consensus they incur Paradox in the form of Paradox points. This is made much worse when the magic is vulgar and witnessed by Sleepers. Paradox is reality trying to resolve contradictions between the Consensus and the mage's efforts, and is usually only incurred by the mage who performed the offending magic. How Paradox manifests is up to the Storyteller, and is decided based on how many Paradox points the player has incurred. By nature, Paradox is unpredictable, and almost always spells trouble for the mage. It can manifest in the form of physical damage (Backlash), temporary or last warps in reality around the mage (Paradox flaws), insanity (known as Quiet), or in more extreme cases Paradox Spirits. Paradox Spirits are nebulous, often powerful beings which purposefully set about resolving the contradictions, usually by directly punishing the mage in some manner, sometimes going so far as to transport the mage to a Paradox Realm, a mind-bending pocket dimension from which it may be difficult to escape. Game setting History Early times In the game, Mages have always existed, though there are legends of the Pure Ones who were shards of the original, divine One. Early mages cultivated their magical beliefs alone or in small groups, generally conforming to and influencing the belief systems of their societies. Obscure myths suggest that the precursors of the modern organizations of mages originally gathered in ancient Egypt. This period of historical uncertainty also saw the rise of the Nephandi in the Near East. This set the stage for what the game's history calls the Mythic Ages. Until the late Middle Ages, mages' fortunes waxed and waned along with their native societies. Eventually, though, mages belonging to the Order of Hermes and the Messianic Voices attained great influence over European society. However, absorbed by their pursuit of occult power and esoteric knowledge, they often neglected and even abused humanity. Frequently, they were at odds with mainstream religions, envied by noble authorities and cursed by common folk. The Order of Reason Mages who believed in proto-scientific theories banded together under the banner of the Order of | safe world as one devoid of heretical beliefs, ungodly practices and supernatural creatures preying upon humanity. As the defenders of the common folk, they intended to replace the dominant magical groups with a society of philosopher-scientists as shepherds, protecting and guiding humanity. In response, non-scientific mages banded together to form the Council of Nine Traditions where mages of all the major magical paths gathered. They fought on battlefields and in universities trying to undermine as many discoveries as they could, but to no avail – technology made the march of Science unstoppable. The Traditions' power bases were crippled, their believers mainly converted, their beliefs ridiculed all around the world. Their final counteroffensives against the Order of Reason were foiled by internal dissent and treachery in their midst. Rise of the Technocracy However, from the turn of the 17th century on, the goals of the Order of Reason began to change. As their scientific paradigm unfolded, they decided that the mystical beliefs of the common people were not only backward, but dangerous, and that they should be replaced by cold, measurable and predictable physical laws and respect for human genius. They replaced long-held theologies, pantheons, and mystical traditions with ideas like rational thought and the scientific method. As more and more sleepers began to use the Order's discoveries in their everyday lives, Reason and rationality came to govern their beliefs, and the old ways came to be regarded as misguided superstition. However, the Order of Reason became less and less focused on improving the daily lives of sleepers and more concerned with eliminating any resistance to their choke-hold on the minds of humanity. Ever since a reorganization performed under Queen Victoria in the late 1800s, they call themselves the Technocracy. Contemporary setting The Technocracy espouses an authoritarian rule over Sleepers' beliefs, while suppressing the Council of Nine's attempts to reintroduce magic. The Traditions replenished their numbers (which had been diminished by the withdrawal of two Traditions, the secretive Ahl-i-Batin, and the Solificati, alchemists plagued by scandal) with former Technocrats from the Sons of Ether and Virtual Adepts factions, vying for the beliefs of sleepers and with the Technocracy, and perpetually wary of the Nephandi (who consciously embrace evil and service to a demonic or alien master) and the Marauders (who resist Paradox with a magical form of madness). While the Technocracy's propaganda campaigns were effective in turning the Consensus against mystic and heterodox science, the Traditions maintained various resources, including magical nodes, hidden schools and fortresses called Chantries, and various realms outside of the Consensus in the Umbra. Finally, from 1997 to 2000, a series of metaplot events destroyed the Council of Nine's Umbral steadings, killing many of their most powerful members. This also cut the Technocracy off from their leadership. Both sides called a truce in their struggle to assess their new situation, especially since these events implied that Armageddon was soon at hand. Chief among these signs was creation of a barrier between the physical world and spirit world. This barrier was called the Avatar Storm because it affected the Avatar of the Mage. This Avatar Storm was the result of a battle in India on the so-called "Week of Nightmares." These changes were introduced in supplements for the second edition of the game and became core material in the third edition. Later plot and finale Aside from common changes introduced by the World of Darkness metaplot, mages dealt with renewed conflict when the hidden Rogue Council and the Technocracy's Panopticon encouraged the Traditions and Technocracy to struggle once again. The Rogue Council only made itself known through coded missives, while Panopticon was apparently created by the leaders of the Technocracy to counter it. This struggle eventually led to the point on the timeline occupied by the book called Ascension. While the entire metaplot has always been meant to be altered as each play group sees fit, Ascension provided multiple possible endings, with none of them being definitive (though one was meant to resolve the metaplot). Thus, there is no definitive canonical ending. Since the game is meant to be adapted to a group's tastes, the importance of this and the preceding storyline is largely a matter of personal preference. Factions The metaplot of the game involves a four-way struggle between the technological and authoritarian Technocracy, the insane Marauders, the cosmically evil Nephandi and the nine mystical Traditions (that tread the middle path), to which the player characters are assumed to belong. (This struggle has in every edition of the game been characterized both as primarily a covert, violent war directly between factions, and primarily as an effort to sway the imaginations and beliefs of sleepers.) Council of Nine Mystic Traditions The Traditions (formally called the Nine Mystic Traditions) are a fictional alliance of secret societies in the Mage: the Ascension role-playing game. The Traditions exist to unify users of magic under a common banner to protect reality (particularly those parts of reality that are magical) against the growing disbelief of the modern world, the spreading dominance of the Technocracy, and the predations of unstable mages such as Marauders and Nephandi. Each of the Traditions are largely independent organizations unified by a broadly accepted paradigm for practicing magic. The Traditions themselves vary substantially from one another. Some have almost no structure or rules, while others have rigid rules of protocol, etiquette, and rank. Though unified in their desire to keep magic alive, the magic practiced by different Traditions are often wildly different and entirely incompatible with one another. Understanding Traditions as a whole requires understanding each Tradition separately, and then assembling them into a somewhat cohesive whole. The nine traditions are: the Akashic Brotherhood, Celestial Chorus, Cult of Ecstasy, Dreamspeakers, Euthanatos, Order of Hermes, Sons of Ether, Verbena and Virtual Adepts. Mages of Akashic Brotherhood are ascetics, martial artists, and monks, largely drawing from Buddhism, Taoism, Shinto, Hinduism and other such religions. They are masters of the sphere of Mind. Mages of Celestial Chorus are pious believers in a supreme being that encompasses all Gods ever worshipped. They are masters of the sphere of Prime, the raw essence that fuels magic itself. Mages of Cult of Ecstasy are intuitive seers using sensory stimulation, consciousness-expanding techniques, and meditation. They are masters of the sphere of Time. Mages of Dreamspeakers are shamanistic emissaries to the spirit world. They are masters of Spirit magic, such as summoning or binding spirits, necromancy, creating fetishes and travelling to the Umbra. Mages of Euthanatos are Thanatoic willworkers and killers drawing from a legacy of death-cults in India, Greece, and the cultures of the Arabs and Celts. They are masters of the sphere of Entropy. Mages of Order of Hermes are formalized sorcerers, alchemists, and mystics drawing from classical occult practices. They are masters of the sphere of Forces. Mages of Sons of Ether are inspiration-oriented scientists dedicated to fringe theories and alternative science. They are masters of the sphere of Matter. Mages of Verbena are blood-shamans, healers, primordial witches and warlocks. They are masters of the sphere of Life. Mages of Virtual Adepts are technological adepts capable of informational wizardry. They are masters of the sphere of Correspondence, magic dealing with three-dimensional location, space, and communications. The Technocratic Union The Technocracy is likewise divided into groups; unlike the Traditions, however, they share a single paradigm, and instead divide themselves based upon methodologies and areas of expertise. Technocrats of Iteration X are experts in the arena of the physical sciences, especially when it comes to mechanical and robotic advancements. Technocratic Progenitors, on the other hand, are masters of the biological sciences as a whole, including genetic engineering and the medical science. Technocrats of the New World Order maintain control of information and knowledge, controlling the thoughts and actions of the masses by directing what they learn and see. Technocrats of the Syndicate control the flow of money and power—though the two are frequently the same thing—between disparate groups. Technocratic members of the Void Engineers are explorers of the unknown. In the modern day, this not only extends to outer space, but to extradimensional planes of existence. Marauders The Marauders are a group of mages that embody Dynamism. Marauders are chaos mages. They are completely insane. To other mages, they appear immune to paradox effects, often using vulgar magic to accomplish their insane tasks. Marauders represent the other narrative extreme, the repellent and frightening corruption of unrestrained power, of dynamism unchecked. Marauders are insane mages whose Avatars have been warped by their mental instability, and who exist in a state of permanent Quiet. While the nature of a Marauder's power may make them seem invincible, they are still severely hampered by their madness. They cannot become Archmages, as they lack sufficient insight and are incapable of appreciating truths which do not suit their madness. In the second edition of Mage: The Ascension, Marauders were much more cogent and likely to operate in groups, with the Umbral Underground using the Umbra to infiltrate any location and wreak havoc with the aid of bygones. They were also associated heavily with other perceived agents of Dynamism, particularly the Changing Breeds (who equate Dynamism with the Wyld) and sometimes Changelings. For example, the Marauders chapter in The Book of Madness is narrated by a Corax (were-raven) named Johnny Gore, who relates his experiences running with the Butcher Street Regulars. In the revised edition, Marauders were made darker and less coherent, in keeping with the more serious treatment of madness used for Malkavians in Vampire: The Masquerade Revised Edition. The Avatar Storm was a very convenient explanation for the Underground's loss of power and influence, though they also became more vulnerable to Paradox. In this edition, the Regulars are a cell of the Underground, and like the other cells have highly compatible Quiets. Nephandi With the Technocracy representing Stasis and the Marauders acting on behalf of Dynamism, the third part of this trifecta is Entropy, as borne by the Nephandi. While other mages may be callous or cruel, the Nephandi are morally inverted and spiritually mutilated. While a Traditionalist or Technocrat may simply fall prey to human failings or excessive zeal in their ethos, while a Marauder may well commit some true atrocities in the depth of her incurable madness; a Nephandus retains a clear moral compass, and deliberately pursues actions to worsen the world and bring about its final end. To this end, the Technocracy and Traditions have been known to set aside the ongoing war for reality to temporarily join forces to oppose the Nephandi, and even the Marauders are known to attack the Nephandi on sight. Some of their members, called barabbi, hail from the Technocracy and Traditions, but all Nephandi have experienced the Rebirth, wherein they embrace the antithesis of everything they know to be right, and are physically and spiritually torn apart and reassembled. This metamorphosis has a sort of terrible permanence to it: while each Mage's avatar will be reborn again and again, theirs is permanently twisted as a result |
born in Nova Scotia, Canada, and arrived in Australia in 1853. He made his fortune as a railway contractor, and later acquired significant pastoral holdings, becoming a member of the "squattocracy". Fraser's maternal grandfather, Louis Woolf, was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, and arrived in Australia as a child. He was of Jewish origin, a fact which his grandson did not learn until he was an adult. A chartered accountant by trade, he married Amy Booth, who was related to the wealthy Hordern family of Sydney and was a first cousin of Sir Samuel Hordern. Fraser had a political background on both sides of his family. His father served on the Wakool Shire Council, including as president for two years, and was an admirer of Billy Hughes and a friend of Richard Casey. Simon Fraser served in both houses of the colonial Parliament of Victoria, and represented Victoria at several of the constitutional conventions of the 1890s. He eventually become one of the inaugural members of the new federal Senate, serving from 1901 to 1913 as a member of the early conservative parties. Louis Woolf also ran for the Senate in 1901, standing as a Free Trader in Western Australia. He polled only 400 votes across the whole state, and was never again a candidate for public office. Childhood Fraser spent most of his early life at Balpool-Nyang, a sheep station of on the Edward River near Moulamein, New South Wales. His father had a law degree from Magdalen College, Oxford, but never practised law and preferred the life of a grazier. Fraser contracted a severe case of pneumonia when he was eight years old, which nearly proved fatal. He was home-schooled until the age of ten, when he was sent to board at Tudor House School in the Southern Highlands. He attended Tudor House from 1940 to 1943, and then completed his secondary education at Melbourne Grammar School from 1944 to 1948 where he was a member of Rusden House. While at Melbourne Grammar, he lived in a flat that his parents owned on Collins Street. In 1943, Fraser's father sold Balpool-Nyang – which had been prone to drought – and bought Nareen, in the Western District of Victoria. He was devastated by the sale of his childhood home, and regarded the day he found out about it as the worst of his life. University In 1949, Fraser moved to England to study at Magdalen College, Oxford, which his father had also attended. He read Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE), graduating in 1952 with third-class honours. Although Fraser did not excel academically, he regarded his time at Oxford as his intellectual awakening, where he learned "how to think". His college tutor was Harry Weldon, who was a strong influence. His circle of friends at Oxford included Raymond Bonham Carter, Nicolas Browne-Wilkinson, and John Turner. In his second year, he had a relationship with Anne Reid, who as Anne Fairbairn later became a prominent poet. After graduating, Fraser considered taking a law degree or joining the British Army, but eventually decided to return to Australia and take over the running of the family property. Early political career Fraser returned to Australia in mid-1952. He began attending meetings of the Young Liberals in Hamilton, and became acquainted with many of the local party officials. In November 1953, aged 23, Fraser unexpectedly won Liberal preselection for the Division of Wannon, which covered most of Victoria's Western District. The previous Liberal member, Dan Mackinnon, had been defeated in 1951 and moved to a different electorate. He was expected to be succeeded by Magnus Cormack, who had recently lost his place in the Senate. Fraser had put his name forward as a way of building a profile for future candidacies, but mounted a strong campaign and in the end won a narrow victory. In January 1954, he made the first of a series of weekly radio broadcasts on 3HA Hamilton and 3YB Warrnambool, titled One Australia. His program – consisting of a pre-recorded 15-minute monologue – covered a wide range of topics, and was often reprinted in newspapers. It continued more or less uninterrupted until his retirement from politics in 1983, and helped him build a substantial personal following in his electorate. At the 1954 election, Fraser lost to the sitting Labor member Don McLeod by just 17 votes (out of over 37,000 cast). However, he reprised his candidacy at the early 1955 election after a redistribution made Wannon notionally Liberal. McLeod concluded the reconfigured Wannon was unwinnable and retired. These factors, combined with the 1955 Labor Party split, allowed Fraser to win a landslide victory. Backbencher Fraser took his seat in parliament at the age of 25 – the youngest sitting MP by four years, and the first who had been too young to serve in World War II. He was re-elected at the 1958 election despite being restricted in his campaigning by a bout of hepatitis. Fraser was soon being touted as a future member of cabinet, but despite good relations with Robert Menzies never served in any of his ministries. This was probably due to a combination of his youth and the fact that the ministry already contained a disproportionately high number of Victorians. Fraser spoke on a wide range of topics during his early years in parliament, but took a particular interest in foreign affairs. In 1964, he and Gough Whitlam were both awarded Leader Grants by the United States Department of State, allowing them to spend two months in Washington, D.C., getting to know American political and military leaders. The Vietnam War was the main topic of conversation, and on his return trip to Australia he spent two days in Saigon. Early in 1965, he also made a private seven-day visit to Jakarta, and with assistance from Ambassador Mick Shann secured meetings with various high-ranking officials. Cabinet Minister and Gorton downfall In 1966, after more than a decade on the backbench, Sir Robert Menzies retired as Prime Minister. His successor Harold Holt appointed Fraser to the ministry as Minister for the Army. In that position, Fraser presided over the controversial Vietnam War conscription program. Under the new prime minister, John Gorton, he was elevated to Cabinet as Minister for Education and Science. In 1969 he was promoted to Minister for Defence, a particularly challenging post at the time, given the height of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and the protests against it. In March 1971 Fraser abruptly resigned from the Cabinet in protest at what he called Gorton's "interference in (his) ministerial responsibilities", and denounced Gorton on the floor of the House of Representatives as "not fit to hold the great office of Prime Minister". This precipitated a series of events which eventually led to the downfall of Gorton and his replacement as prime minister by William McMahon. In the leadership contest that followed Gorton's resignation, Fraser unsuccessfully contested the deputy Liberal leadership against Gorton and David Fairbairn. Gorton never forgave Fraser for the role he played in his downfall; to the day Gorton died in 2002, he could not bear to be in the same room with Fraser. Fraser remained on the backbenches until he was reinstated to Cabinet in his old position of Minister for Education and Science by McMahon in August 1971, immediately following Gorton's sacking as deputy Liberal leader by McMahon. When the Liberals were defeated at the 1972 election by the Labor Party under Gough Whitlam, McMahon resigned and Fraser became Shadow Minister for Labour under Billy Snedden. Opposition (1972–1975) After the Coalition lost the 1972 election, Fraser was one of five candidates for the Liberal leadership that had been vacated by McMahon. He outpolled John Gorton and James Killen, but was eliminated on the third ballot. Billy Snedden eventually defeated Nigel Bowen by a single vote on the fifth ballot. In the new shadow cabinet – which featured only Liberals – Fraser was given responsibility for primary industry. This was widely seen as a snub, as the new portfolio kept him mostly out of the public eye and was likely to be given to a member of the Country Party when the Coalition returned to government. In an August 1973 reshuffle, Snedden instead made him the Liberals' spokesman for industrial relations. He had hoped to be given responsibility for foreign affairs (in place of the retiring Nigel Bowen), but that role was given to Andrew Peacock. Fraser oversaw the development of the party's new industrial relations policy, which was released in April 1974. It was seen as more flexible and even-handed than the policy that the Coalition had pursued in government, and was received well by the media. According to Fraser's biographer Philip Ayres, by "putting a new policy in place, he managed to modify his public image and emerge as an excellent communicator across a traditionally hostile divide". Leader of the Opposition After the Liberals lost the 1974 election, Fraser unsuccessfully challenged Snedden for the leadership in November. Despite surviving the challenge, Snedden's position in opinion polls continued to decline and he was unable to get the better of Whitlam in the Parliament. Fraser again challenged Snedden on 21 March 1975, this time succeeding and becoming Leader of the Liberal Party and Leader of the Opposition. Role in the Dismissal Following a series of ministerial scandals engulfing the Whitlam Government later that year, Fraser began to instruct Coalition senators to delay the government's budget bills, with the objective of forcing an early election that he believed he would win. After several months of political deadlock, during which time the government secretly explored methods of obtaining supply funding outside the Parliament, the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, controversially dismissed Whitlam as prime minister on 11 November 1975. Fraser was immediately sworn in as caretaker prime minister on the condition that he end the political deadlock and call an immediate double dissolution election. On 19 November 1975, shortly after the election had been called, a letter bomb was sent to Fraser, but it was intercepted and defused before it reached him. Similar devices were sent to the governor-general and the Premier of Queensland, Joh Bjelke-Petersen. Prime Minister (1975–1983) 1975 and 1977 federal elections At the 1975 election, Fraser led the Liberal-Country Party Coalition to a landslide victory. The Coalition won 91 seats of a possible 127 in the election to gain a 55-seat majority, which remains to date the largest in Australian history. Fraser subsequently led the Coalition to a second victory in 1977, with only a very small decrease in their vote. The Liberals actually won a majority in their own right in both of these elections, something that Menzies and Holt had never achieved. Although Fraser thus had no need for the support of the (National) Country Party to govern, he retained the formal Coalition between the two parties. Fiscal policy Fraser quickly dismantled some of the programs of the Whitlam Government, such as the Ministry of the Media, and made major changes to the universal health insurance system Medibank. He initially maintained Whitlam's levels of tax and spending, but real per-person tax and spending soon began to increase. He did manage to rein in inflation, which had soared under Whitlam. His so-called "Razor Gang" implemented stringent budget cuts across many areas of the Commonwealth Public Sector, including the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). Fraser practised Keynesian economics during his time as Prime Minister, in part demonstrated by running budget deficits throughout his term as Prime Minister. He was the Liberal Party's last Keynesian Prime Minister. Though he had long been identified with the Liberal Party's right wing, he did not carry out the radically conservative program that his political enemies had predicted, and that some of his followers wanted. Fraser's relatively moderate policies particularly disappointed the Treasurer, John Howard, as well as other ministers who were strong adherents of fiscal conservatism and economic liberalism, and therefore detractors of Keynesian economics. The government's economic record was marred by rising double-digit unemployment and double-digit inflation, creating "stagflation", caused in part by the ongoing effects of the 1973 oil crisis. Foreign policy Fraser was particularly active in foreign policy as prime minister. He supported the Commonwealth in campaigning to abolish apartheid in South Africa and refused permission for the aircraft carrying the Springbok rugby team to refuel on Australian territory en route to their controversial 1981 tour of New Zealand. However, an earlier tour by the South African ski boat angling team was allowed to pass through Australia on the way to New Zealand in 1977 and the transit records were suppressed by Cabinet order. Fraser also strongly opposed white minority rule in Rhodesia. During the 1979 Commonwealth Conference, Fraser, together with his Nigerian counterpart, convinced the newly elected British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, to withhold recognition of the internal settlement Zimbabwe Rhodesia government; Thatcher had earlier promised to recognise it. Subsequently, the Lancaster House Agreement was signed and Robert Mugabe was elected leader of an independent Zimbabwe at the inaugural 1980 election. Duncan Campbell, a former deputy secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has stated that Fraser was "the principal architect" in the ending of white minority rule. The President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, said that he considered Fraser's role "crucial in many parts" and the President of Zambia, Kenneth Kaunda, called his contribution "vital". Under Fraser, Australia recognised Indonesia's annexation of East Timor, although many East Timorese refugees were granted asylum in Australia. Fraser was also a strong supporter of the United States and supported the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. However, although he persuaded some sporting bodies not to compete, Fraser did not try to prevent the Australian Olympic Committee sending a team to the Moscow Games. Other policy Fraser also surprised his critics over immigration policy; according to 1977 Cabinet documents, the Fraser Government adopted a formal policy for "a humanitarian commitment to admit refugees for resettlement". Fraser's aim was to expand immigration from Asian countries and allow more refugees to enter Australia. He was a firm supporter of multiculturalism and established a government-funded multilingual radio and television network, the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), building on their first radio stations which had been established under the Whitlam Government. Despite Fraser's support for SBS, his government imposed stringent budget cuts on the national broadcaster, the ABC, which came under repeated attack from the Coalition for alleged "left-wing bias" and "unfair" coverage on their TV programs, including This Day Tonight and Four Corners, and on the ABC's new youth-oriented radio station Double Jay. One result of the cuts was a plan to establish a national youth radio network, of which Double Jay was the first station. The network was delayed for many years and did not come to fruition until the 1990s. Fraser also legislated to give Indigenous Australians control of their traditional lands in the Northern Territory, but resisted imposing land rights laws on conservative state governments. 1980 federal election At the 1980 election, Fraser saw his majority more than halved, from 48 seats to 21. The Coalition also lost control of the Senate. Despite this, Fraser remained ahead of Labor leader Bill Hayden in opinion polls. However, the economy was hit by the early 1980s recession, and a protracted scandal over tax-avoidance schemes run by some high-profile Liberals also began to hurt the Government. Disputes within the Liberal Party In April 1981, the Minister for Industrial Relations, Andrew Peacock, resigned from the Cabinet, accusing Fraser of "constant interference in his portfolio". Fraser, however, had accused former prime minister John Gorton of the same thing a decade earlier. Peacock subsequently challenged Fraser for the leadership; although Fraser defeated Peacock, these events left him politically weakened. Labor Party and 1983 federal election By early 1982, the popular former ACTU President, Bob Hawke, who had entered Parliament in 1980, was polling well ahead of both Fraser and the Labor Leader, Bill Hayden, on the question of who voters would rather see as prime minister. Fraser was well aware of the infighting this caused between Hayden and Hawke and had planned to call a snap election in autumn 1982, preventing the Labor Party changing leaders. These plans were derailed when Fraser suffered a severe back injury. Shortly after recovering from his injury, the Liberal Party narrowly won a by-election in the marginal seat of Flinders in December 1982. The failure of the Labor Party to win the seat convinced Fraser that he would be able to win an election against Hayden. As leadership tensions began to grow in the Labor Party throughout January, Fraser subsequently resolved to call a double dissolution election at the earliest opportunity, hoping to capitalise on Labor's disunity. He knew that if the writs were issued soon enough, Labor would | to establish a national youth radio network, of which Double Jay was the first station. The network was delayed for many years and did not come to fruition until the 1990s. Fraser also legislated to give Indigenous Australians control of their traditional lands in the Northern Territory, but resisted imposing land rights laws on conservative state governments. 1980 federal election At the 1980 election, Fraser saw his majority more than halved, from 48 seats to 21. The Coalition also lost control of the Senate. Despite this, Fraser remained ahead of Labor leader Bill Hayden in opinion polls. However, the economy was hit by the early 1980s recession, and a protracted scandal over tax-avoidance schemes run by some high-profile Liberals also began to hurt the Government. Disputes within the Liberal Party In April 1981, the Minister for Industrial Relations, Andrew Peacock, resigned from the Cabinet, accusing Fraser of "constant interference in his portfolio". Fraser, however, had accused former prime minister John Gorton of the same thing a decade earlier. Peacock subsequently challenged Fraser for the leadership; although Fraser defeated Peacock, these events left him politically weakened. Labor Party and 1983 federal election By early 1982, the popular former ACTU President, Bob Hawke, who had entered Parliament in 1980, was polling well ahead of both Fraser and the Labor Leader, Bill Hayden, on the question of who voters would rather see as prime minister. Fraser was well aware of the infighting this caused between Hayden and Hawke and had planned to call a snap election in autumn 1982, preventing the Labor Party changing leaders. These plans were derailed when Fraser suffered a severe back injury. Shortly after recovering from his injury, the Liberal Party narrowly won a by-election in the marginal seat of Flinders in December 1982. The failure of the Labor Party to win the seat convinced Fraser that he would be able to win an election against Hayden. As leadership tensions began to grow in the Labor Party throughout January, Fraser subsequently resolved to call a double dissolution election at the earliest opportunity, hoping to capitalise on Labor's disunity. He knew that if the writs were issued soon enough, Labor would essentially be frozen into going into the subsequent election with Hayden as leader. On 3 February 1983, Fraser arranged to visit the Governor-General of Australia, Sir Ninian Stephen, intending to ask for a surprise election. However, Fraser made his run too late. Without any knowledge of Fraser's plans, Hayden resigned as Labor leader just two hours before Fraser travelled to Government House. This meant that the considerably more popular Hawke was able to replace him at almost exactly the same time that the writs were issued for the election. Although Fraser reacted to the move by saying he looked forward to "knock[ing] two Labor Leaders off in one go" at the forthcoming election, Labor immediately surged in the opinion polls. At the election on 5 March the Coalition was heavily defeated, suffering a 24-seat swing, the worst defeat of a non-Labor government since Federation. Fraser immediately announced his resignation as Liberal leader and formally resigned as prime minister on 11 March 1983; he retired from Parliament two months later. To date, he is the last non-interim prime minister from a rural seat. Retirement In retirement Fraser served as Chairman of the UN Panel of Eminent Persons on the Role of Transnational Corporations in South Africa 1985, as Co-Chairman of the Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons on South Africa in 1985–86 (appointed by Prime Minister Hawke), and as Chairman of the UN Secretary-General's Expert Group on African Commodity Issues in 1989–90. He was a distinguished international fellow at the American Enterprise Institute from 1984 to 1986. Fraser helped to establish the foreign aid group CARE organisation in Australia and became the agency's international president in 1991, and worked with a number of other charitable organisations. In 2006, he was appointed Professorial Fellow at the Asia Pacific Centre for Military Law, and in October 2007 he presented his inaugural professorial lecture, "Finding Security in Terrorism's Shadow: The importance of the rule of law". Memphis trousers affair On 14 October 1986, Fraser, then the Chairman of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group, was found in the foyer of the Admiral Benbow Inn, a seedy Memphis hotel, wearing only a pair of underpants and confused as to where his trousers were. The hotel was an establishment popular with prostitutes and drug dealers. Though it was rumoured at the time that the former Prime Minister had been with a prostitute, his wife stated that Fraser had no recollection of the events and that she believes it more likely that he was the victim of a practical joke by his fellow delegates. Estrangement from the Liberal Party In 1993, Fraser made a bid for the Liberal Party presidency but withdrew at the last minute following opposition to his bid, which was raised due to him having been critical of then Liberal leader John Hewson for losing the election earlier that year. After 1996, Fraser was critical of the Howard Coalition government over foreign policy issues, particularly John Howard's alignment with the foreign policy of the Bush administration, which Fraser saw as damaging Australian relationships in Asia. He opposed Howard's policy on asylum-seekers, campaigned in support of an Australian Republic and attacked what he perceived as a lack of integrity in Australian politics, together with former Labor prime minister Gough Whitlam, finding much common ground with his predecessor and his successor Bob Hawke, another republican. The 2001 election continued his estrangement from the Liberal Party. Many Liberals criticised the Fraser years as "a decade of lost opportunity" on deregulation of the Australian economy and other issues. In early 2004, a Young Liberal convention in Hobart called for Fraser's life membership of the Liberal Party to be ended. In 2006, Fraser criticised Howard Liberal government policies on areas such as refugees, terrorism and civil liberties, and that "if Australia continues to follow United States policies, it runs the risk of being embroiled in the conflict in Iraq for decades, and a fear of Islam in the Australian community will take years to eradicate". Fraser claimed that the way the Howard government handled the David Hicks, Cornelia Rau and Vivian Solon cases was questionable. On 20 July 2007, Fraser sent an open letter to members of the large activist group GetUp!, encouraging members to support GetUp's campaign for a change in policy on Iraq including a clearly defined exit strategy. Fraser stated: "One of the things we should say to the Americans, quite simply, is that if the United States is not prepared to involve itself in high-level diplomacy concerning Iraq and other Middle East questions, our forces will be withdrawn before Christmas." After the defeat of the Howard government at the 2007 federal election, Fraser claimed Howard approached him in a corridor, following a cabinet meeting in May 1977 regarding Vietnamese refugees, and said: "We don't want too many of these people. We're doing this just for show, aren't we?" The claims were made by Fraser in an interview to mark the release of the 1977 cabinet papers. Howard, through a spokesman, denied having made the comment. In October 2007 Fraser gave a speech to Melbourne Law School on terrorism and "the importance of the rule of law," which Liberal MP Sophie Mirabella condemned in January 2008, claiming errors and "either intellectual sloppiness or deliberate dishonesty", and claimed that he tacitly supported Islamic fundamentalism, that he should have no influence on foreign policy, and claimed his stance on the war on terror had left him open to caricature as a "frothing-at-the-mouth leftie". Shortly after Tony Abbott won the 2009 Liberal Party leadership spill, Fraser ended his Liberal Party membership, stating the party was "no longer a liberal party but a conservative party". Later political activity In December 2011, Fraser was highly critical of the Australian government's decision (also supported by the Liberal Party Opposition) to permit the export of uranium to India, relaxing the Fraser government's policy of banning sales of uranium to countries that are not signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 2012, Fraser criticised the basing of US military forces in Australia. In late 2012, Fraser wrote a foreword for the journal Jurisprudence where he openly criticised the current state of human rights in Australia and the Western World. "It is a sobering thought that in recent times, freedoms hard won through centuries of struggle, in the United Kingdom and elsewhere have been whittled away. In Australia alone we have laws |
Yerbury would go on to hold the position of Vice-Chancellor for nearly 20 years. In 1990 the university absorbed the Institute of Early Childhood Studies of the Sydney College of Advanced Education, under the terms of the Higher Education (Amalgamation) Act 1989. l 21st century Steven Schwartz replaced Di Yerbury as Vice-Chancellor at the beginning of 2006. Yerbury's departure was attended with much controversy, including a "bitter dispute" with Schwartz, disputed ownership of university artworks worth $13 million and Yerbury's salary package. In August 2006, Schwartz expressed concern about the actions of Yerbury in a letter to university auditors. Yerbury strongly denied any wrongdoing and claimed the artworks were hers. During 2007, Macquarie University restructured its student organisation after an audit raised questions about management of hundreds of thousands of dollars in funds by student organisations At the centre of the investigation was Victor Ma, president of the Macquarie University Students' Council, who was previously involved in a high-profile case of student election fixing at the University of Sydney. The university Council resolved to immediately remove Ma from his position. Vice-Chancellor Schwartz cited an urgent need to reform Macquarie's main student bodies. However, Ma strongly denied any wrongdoing and labelled the controversy a case of 'character assassination'. The Federal Court ordered on 23 May 2007 that Macquarie University Union Ltd be wound up. Following the dissolution of Macquarie University Union Ltd, the outgoing student organisation was replaced with a new wholly owned subsidiary company of the university, known as U@MQ Ltd. The new student organisation originally lacked a true student representative union; however, following a complete review and authorisation from the university Council, a new student union known as Macquarie University Students Association (MUSRA) was established in 2009. Within the first few hundred days of Schwartz's instatement as Vice-Chancellor, the 'Macquarie@50' strategic plan was launched, which positioned the university to enhance research, teaching, infrastructure and academic rankings by the university's 50th anniversary in 2014. Included in the university's plans for the future was the establishment of a sustainability office in order to more effectively manage environmental and social development at Macquarie. As part of this campaign, in 2009 Macquarie became the first Fair Trade accredited university in Australia. The beginning of 2009 also saw the introduction of a new logo for the university which retained the Sirius Star, present on both the old logo and the university crest, but now 'embedded in a stylised lotus flower'. In accordance with the university by-law, the crest continues to be used for formal purposes and is displayed on university testamurs. The by-law also prescribes the university's motto, taken from Chaucer: 'And gladly teche'. In 2013, the university became the first in Australia to fully align its degree system with the Bologna Accord. Symbols Coat of arms Macquarie's arms was assumed through a 1967 amendment of the Macquarie University Act 1964 (Confirmed by Letters Patent of the College of Arms, 16 August 1969). The escutcheon displays the Macquarie Lighthouse tower, the first major public building in the colony, as well as the Sirius star, the name of the flagship of the First Fleet. The university's founders originally wanted to base the university's arms on Lachlan Macquarie's family crest, but they decided to go for a more radical approach that represented Lachlan Macquarie as a builder and administrator. The motto chosen for the university was And Gladly Teche. This is taken from the general Prologue of The Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer c.1400 and symbolises the university's commitment to both learning and teaching. The coat of arms and the motto are used in a very limited number of formal communications. Logo Macquarie has had a number of logos in its history. In 2014, the university launched a new logo as part of its Shared Identity Project. The logo reintroduced the Macquarie Lighthouse, a popular symbol of the University within the University community and maintained the Sirus Star. Campus Macquarie University's main campus is located about north-west of the Sydney CBD and is set on 126 hectares of rolling lawns and natural bushland. Located within the high-technology corridor of Sydney's north-west and in close proximity to Macquarie Park and its surrounding industries, Macquarie's location has been crucial in its development as a relatively research intensive university. Prior to the development of the campus, most of the site was cultivated with peach orchards, market gardens and poultry farms. The university's first architect-planner was Walter Abraham, one of the first six administrators appointed to Macquarie University. As the site adapted from its former rural use to a busy collegiate environment, he implemented carefully designed planting programs across the campus. Abraham established a grid design comprising lots of running north–south, with the aim of creating a compact academic core. The measure of was seen as one minute's walk, and grid design reflected the aim of having a maximum walk of 10 minutes between any two parts of the university. The main east–west walkway that runs from the Macquarie University Research Park through to the arts faculty buildings, was named Wally's Walk in recognition of Walter Abraham's contribution to the development of the university. Apart from its centres of learning, the campus features the Macquarie University Research Park, museums, art galleries, a sculpture park, an observatory, a sport and aquatic centre and also the private Macquarie University Hospital. The campus has its own postcode, 2109. Macquarie University Hospital Macquarie became the first university in Australia to own and operate a private medical facility in 2010 when it opened a $300 million hospital on its campus. The hospital is the first and only private not-for-profit teaching hospital on an Australian university campus. The Macquarie University Hospital is located to the north of the main campus area towards the university sports grounds. It comprises 183 beds, 13 operating theatres, 2 cardiac and vascular angiography suites. The hospital is co-located with the university's Australian School of Advanced Medicine. Commercial use The university hosts a number of high-technology companies on its campus. Primarily designed to encourage interaction between the university and industry, commercialisation of its campus has also given the institution an additional revenue stream. Tenants are selected based on their potential to collaborate with the university's researches or their ability to provide opportunities for its students and graduates. Cochlear has its headquarters in close proximity to the Australian Hearing Hub on the southern edge of campus. Other companies that have office space at the campus include Dow Corning, Goodman Fielder, Nortel, OPSM, and Siemens. The Macquarie University Observatory was originally constructed in 1978 as a research facility but, since 1997, has been accessible to the public through its Public Observing Program. Library The library houses over 1.8 million items and uses the Library of Congress Classification System. The library features several collections including a Rare Book Collection, a Palaeontology Collection and the Brunner Collection of Egyptological materials. Macquarie University operated two libraries during the transition. The old library in building C7A closed at the end of July 2011 (which has since been repurposed as a student support and study space), and the new library in building C3C became fully operational on 1 August 2011. The new library was the first university library in Australia to possess an Automated Storage and Retrieval System (ASRS). The ASRS consists of an environmentally controlled vault with metal bins storing the items; robotic cranes retrieve an item on request and deliver it to the service desk for collection. Macquarie University Incubator The Macquarie University Incubator is a space to research and develop ideas that can be commercialised. It was established in 2017 as a part of the Macquarie Park Innovation District (MPID) project. Macquarie University received $1 million grant from the New South Wales government to build the incubator. The University has also committed about $7 million to the incubator with financial support of the big businesses and the New South Wales government. It was officially opened by Prince Andrew, Duke of York on 25 September 2017. Residential colleges Macquarie University has two residential colleges on its campus, Dunmore Lang College and Robert Menzies College, both founded in 1972. The colleges offer academic support and a wide range of social and sporting activities in a communal environment. Separate to the colleges is the Macquarie University Village. The village has over 900 rooms in mostly town house style buildings to the north of the campus. The village encourages its students to interact in its communal spaces and has a number of social events throughout the year. Museums and collections The museums and collections of Macquarie University are extensive and include nine museums and galleries. Each collection focuses on various historical, scientific or artistic interests. The most visible collection on | the campus and is accessible to traffic from the university. Gallery Organisation and governance Structure The university currently comprises 35 departments within four faculties: Faculty of Arts Macquarie Business School Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Faculty of Science and Engineering Research centres, schools and institutes that are affiliated with the university: The Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability The Macquarie University Hospital The Australian Hearing Hub Macquarie University's Australian Hearing Hub is partnered with Cochlear. Cochlear Headquarters are on campus. The Australian Hearing Hub includes the head office of Australian Hearing. The Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability is a research centre that promotes change for environmental sustainability, is affiliated with the University and is located on its campus. Access Macquarie Limited was established in 1989 as the commercial arm of the university. It facilitates and supports the commercial needs of industry, business and government organisations seeking to utilise the academic expertise of the broader University community. Governance The university is governed by a 17-member Council. The University Council is the governing authority of the university under the Macquarie University Act 1989. The Council takes primary responsibility for the control and management of the affairs of the University, and is empowered to make by-laws and rules relating to how the University is managed. Members of the Council include the University Vice-Chancellor, Academic and non-academic staff, the Vice President of the Academic Senate and a student representative. The Council is chaired by The Chancellor of the University. The Academic Senate is the primary academic body of the university. It has certain powers delegated to it by Council, such as the approving of examination results and the completion of requirements for the award of degrees. At the same time, it makes recommendations to the Council concerning all changes to degree rules, and all proposals for new awards. While the Academic Senate is an independent body, it is required to make recommendations to the university Council in relation to matters outside its delegated authority. Macquarie's current Vice-Chancellor, Bruce Dowton, took over from Schwartz in September 2012. Prior to his appointment Dowton served as a senior medical executive having held a range of positions in university, healthcare and consulting organisations. He also served as a pediatrician at the Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, and as Clinical Professor of Pediatrics at Harvard Medical School. There have been five Vice-Chancellors in the university's history. Academic profile International admissions The Macquarie University International College offers Foundation Studies (Pre-University) and University-level Diplomas. Upon successful completion of a MUIC Diploma, students enter the appropriate bachelor's degree as a second year student. The Centre for Macquarie English is the English-language centre that offers a range of specialised, direct entry English programmes that are approved by Macquarie University. Research The university positions itself as being research intensive. In 2012, 85% of Macquarie's broad fields of research was rated 'at or above world standard' in the Excellence in Research for Australia 2012 National report. The university is within the top 3 universities in Australia for the number of peer reviewed publications produced per academic staff member. Researchers at Macquarie University, David Skellern and Neil Weste, and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation helped develop Wi-Fi. David Skellern has been a major donor to the University through the Skellern Family Trust. Macquarie physicists Frank Duarte and Jim Piper pioneered the laser designs adopted by researchers worldwide, in various major national programs, for atomic vapor laser isotope separation. Macquarie University's linguistics department developed the Macquarie Dictionary. The dictionary is regarded as the standard reference on Australian English. Macquarie University has a research partnership with the University of Hamburg in Germany and Fudan University in China. They offer dual and joint degree programs and engage in joint research. University rankings Macquarie University (MQ) world rankings includes it being number 200 on the QS rankings, number 195 on Times (THE), number 201-300 on ARWU, and number 207 with US News. This contributes to Macquarie being the number 11th ranked Australian university overall in the world ranking systems. Macquarie University rankings within Australia include being placed at number 8 on the ERA scale (2012) and being a 4 1/2 Star AEN rated university. Macquarie also has a student survey satisfaction rating of 77.4% for business, 90.3% for health, 91.4% for arts, and 93.8% for science. Macquarie is ranked in the top 40 universities in the Asia-Pacific region and within Australia's top 12 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the U.S. News & World Report Rankings and the QS World University Rankings. Macquarie was the highest ranked university in Australia under the age of 50 and was ranked 18th in the world (prior to its golden jubilee in 2014), according to the QS World University Rankings. Internationally, Macquarie was ranked 239th in the world (9th in Australia) in the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2014. Macquarie University was ranked among the top 50 universities in the world for linguistics (43rd), psychology (48th) and earth and marine sciences (48th), and was ranked in the top 5 nationally for philosophy and earth and marine sciences, according to the 2014 QS World University Rankings. Macquarie ranked 67th in the world for Arts and Humanities (equal 5th in Australia), according to the 2015 Times Higher Education rankings by subject and 54th in the world for arts and humanities, according to the 2017 USNWR rankings by subject. Arts and Humanities is Macquarie's best discipline area in rankings. Macquarie was one of four non-Group of Eight universities ranked in the top 100 universities in the world in particular discipline areas. The Macquarie Graduate School of Management is one of the oldest business schools in Australia. In 2014, The Economist ranked MGSM 5th in the Asia-Pacific, 3rd in Australia, 1st in Sydney/New South Wales and 49th in the world. It was the highest ranked business school in Australia and was ranked 68th in the world in the 2015 Financial Times MBA ranking. The 2022 QS Graduate Employability Rankings ranked Macquarie graduates 9th most employable in Australia, and 98th in the world. Student life Macquarie is the fourth largest university in Sydney (38,753 students in 2013). The university has the largest student exchange programme in Australia. In 2012, 9,802 students from Asia were enrolled at Macquarie University (Sydney campuses and offshore programs in China, Hong Kong, Korea and Singapore). Campus Life manages the |
Thul, Slid and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid, Leipt and Gjoll. After a time these streams had traveled sufficiently far from their source in Niflheim, that the venom that flowed within them hardened and turned to ice. When this ice eventually settled, rain rose up from it, and froze into rime. This ice then began to layer itself over the primordial void, Ginnungagap. This made the northern portion of Ginungagap thick with ice, and storms begin to form within. In the southern region of Ginungagap, however, glowing sparks were still flying out of Muspelheim. When the heat and sparks from Muspelheim met the ice, it began to melt. The sparks would go on to create the Sun, Moon, and stars, and the drops of melted ice would form the primeval being Ymir: "By the might of him who sent the heat, the drops quickened into life and took the likeness of a man, who got the name Ymer. But the Frost giants call him Aurgelmer". The Prose Edda section Gylfaginning foretells that the sons of Muspell will break the Bifröst bridge as part of the events of Ragnarök: Depictions in popular culture Muspelheim – called "Surt's sea of | layer itself over the primordial void, Ginnungagap. This made the northern portion of Ginungagap thick with ice, and storms begin to form within. In the southern region of Ginungagap, however, glowing sparks were still flying out of Muspelheim. When the heat and sparks from Muspelheim met the ice, it began to melt. The sparks would go on to create the Sun, Moon, and stars, and the drops of melted ice would form the primeval being Ymir: "By the might of him who sent the heat, the drops quickened into life and took the likeness of a man, who got the name Ymer. But the Frost giants call him Aurgelmer". The Prose Edda section Gylfaginning foretells that the sons of Muspell will break the Bifröst bridge as part of the events of Ragnarök: Depictions in popular culture Muspelheim – called "Surt's sea of fire" – is mentioned in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter." Muspelheim appears in different kinds of Marvel Entertainment media. Muspelheim is a realm in the Marvel Comics universe. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Muspelheim is first depicted in Thor: The Dark World (2013) during the Convergence and later in Thor: Ragnarok (2017). |
to gamma rays. The equations have two major variants. The microscopic equations have universal applicability but are unwieldy for common calculations. They relate the electric and magnetic fields to total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomic scale. The macroscopic equations define two new auxiliary fields that describe the large-scale behaviour of matter without having to consider atomic scale charges and quantum phenomena like spins. However, their use requires experimentally determined parameters for a phenomenological description of the electromagnetic response of materials. The term "Maxwell's equations" is often also used for equivalent alternative formulations. Versions of Maxwell's equations based on the electric and magnetic scalar potentials are preferred for explicitly solving the equations as a boundary value problem, analytical mechanics, or for use in quantum mechanics. The covariant formulation (on spacetime rather than space and time separately) makes the compatibility of Maxwell's equations with special relativity manifest. Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime, commonly used in high energy and gravitational physics, are compatible with general relativity. In fact, Albert Einstein developed special and general relativity to accommodate the invariant speed of light, a consequence of Maxwell's equations, with the principle that only relative movement has physical consequences. The publication of the equations marked the unification of a theory for previously separately described phenomena: magnetism, electricity, light and associated radiation. Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations do not give an exact description of electromagnetic phenomena, but are instead a classical limit of the more precise theory of quantum electrodynamics. Conceptual descriptions Gauss's law Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and electric charges: a static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges, and the net outflow of the electric field through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed charge, including bound charge due to polarization of material. The coefficient of the proportion is the permittivity of free space. Gauss's law for magnetism Gauss's law for magnetism states that electric charges have no magnetic analogues, called magnetic monopoles. Instead, the magnetic field of a material is attributed to a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through a closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles may be represented as loops of current or inseparable pairs of equal and opposite 'magnetic charges'. Precisely, the total magnetic flux through a Gaussian surface is zero, and the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field. Faraday's law The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field. In integral form, it states that the work per unit charge required to move a charge around a closed loop equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the enclosed surface. The electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire. Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electric current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell's addition", which he called displacement current). In integral form, the magnetic field induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus displacement current (proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the enclosed surface. Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law is particularly important: it makes the set of equations mathematically consistent for non static fields, without changing the laws of Ampere and Gauss for static fields. However, as a consequence, it predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa. Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation). The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents, matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics. Formulation in terms of electric and magnetic fields (microscopic or in vacuum version) In the electric and magnetic field formulation there are four equations that determine the fields for given charge and current distribution. A separate law of nature, the Lorentz force law, describes how, conversely, the electric and magnetic fields act on charged particles and currents. A version of this law was included in the original equations by Maxwell but, by convention, is included no longer. The vector calculus formalism below, the work of Oliver Heaviside, has become standard. It is manifestly rotation invariant, and therefore mathematically much more transparent than Maxwell's original 20 equations in x,y,z components. The relativistic formulations are even more symmetric and manifestly Lorentz invariant. For the same equations expressed using tensor calculus or differential forms, see alternative formulations. The differential and integral formulations are mathematically equivalent and are both useful. The integral formulation relates fields within a region of space to fields on the boundary and can often be used to simplify and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other hand, the differential equations are purely local and are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis. Key to the notation Symbols in bold represent vector quantities, and symbols in italics represent scalar quantities, unless otherwise indicated. The equations introduce the electric field, , a vector field, and the magnetic field, , a pseudovector field, each generally having a time and location dependence. The sources are the total electric charge density (total charge per unit volume), , and the total electric current density (total current per unit area), . The universal constants appearing in the equations (the first two ones explicitly only in the SI units formulation) are: the permittivity of free space, , and the permeability of free space, , and the speed of light, Differential equations In the differential equations, the nabla symbol, , denotes the three-dimensional gradient operator, del, the symbol (pronounced "del dot") denotes the divergence operator, the symbol (pronounced "del cross") denotes the curl operator. Integral equations In the integral equations, is any fixed volume with closed boundary surface , and is any fixed surface with closed boundary curve , Here a fixed volume or surface means that it does not change over time. The equations are correct, complete, and a little easier to interpret with time-independent surfaces. For example, since the surface is time-independent, we can bring the differentiation under the integral sign in Faraday's law: Maxwell's equations can be formulated with possibly time-dependent surfaces and volumes by using the differential version and using Gauss and Stokes formula appropriately. is a surface integral over the boundary surface , with the loop indicating the surface is closed is a volume integral over the volume , is a line integral around the boundary curve , with the loop indicating the curve is closed. is a surface integral over the surface , The total electric charge enclosed in is the volume integral over of the charge density (see the "macroscopic formulation" section below): where is the volume element. The net electric current is the surface integral of the electric current density passing through a fixed surface, : where denotes the differential vector element of surface area , normal to surface . (Vector area is sometimes denoted by rather than , but this conflicts with the notation for magnetic vector potential). Formulation in SI units convention Formulation in Gaussian units convention The definitions of charge, electric field, and magnetic field can be altered to simplify theoretical calculation, by absorbing dimensioned factors of and into the units of calculation, by convention. With a corresponding change in convention for the Lorentz force law this yields the same physics, i.e. trajectories of charged particles, or work done by an electric motor. These definitions are often preferred in theoretical and high energy physics where it is natural to take the electric and magnetic field with the same units, to simplify the appearance of the electromagnetic tensor: the Lorentz covariant object unifying electric and magnetic field would then contain components with uniform unit and dimension. Such modified definitions are conventionally used with the Gaussian (CGS) units. Using these definitions and conventions, colloquially "in Gaussian units", the Maxwell equations become: The equations are particularly readable when length and time are measured in compatible units like seconds and lightseconds i.e. in units such that c = 1 unit of length/unit of time. Ever since 1983 (see International System of Units), metres and seconds are compatible except for historical legacy since by definition c = 299 792 458 m/s (≈ 1.0 feet/nanosecond). Further cosmetic changes, called rationalisations, are possible by absorbing factors of depending on whether we want Coulomb's law or Gauss's law to come out nicely, see Lorentz–Heaviside units (used mainly in particle physics). Relationship between differential and integral formulations The equivalence of the differential and integral formulations are a consequence of the Gauss divergence theorem and the Kelvin–Stokes theorem. Flux and divergence According to the (purely mathematical) Gauss divergence theorem, the electric flux through the boundary surface can be rewritten as The integral version of Gauss's equation can thus be rewritten as Since is arbitrary (e.g. an arbitrary small ball with arbitrary center), this is satisfied if and only if the integrand is zero everywhere. This is the differential equations formulation of Gauss equation up to a trivial rearrangement. Similarly rewriting the magnetic flux in Gauss's law for magnetism in integral form gives which is satisfied for all if and only if everywhere. Circulation and curl By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem we can rewrite the line integrals of the fields around the closed boundary curve to an integral of the "circulation of the fields" (i.e. their curls) over a surface it bounds, i.e. Hence the modified Ampere law in integral form can be rewritten as Since can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g. as an arbitrary small, arbitrary oriented, and arbitrary centered disk, we conclude that the integrand is zero if and only if Ampere's modified law in differential equations form is satisfied. The equivalence of Faraday's law in differential and integral form follows likewise. The line integrals and curls are analogous to quantities in classical fluid dynamics: the circulation of a fluid is the line integral of the fluid's flow velocity field around a closed loop, and the vorticity of the fluid is the curl of the velocity field. Charge conservation The invariance of charge can be derived as a corollary of Maxwell's equations. The left-hand side of the modified Ampere's Law has zero divergence by the div–curl identity. Expanding the divergence of the right-hand side, interchanging derivatives, and applying Gauss's law gives: i.e., By the Gauss Divergence Theorem, this means the rate of change of charge in a fixed volume equals the net current flowing through the boundary: In particular, in an isolated system the total charge is conserved. Vacuum equations, electromagnetic waves and speed of light In a region with no charges () and no currents (), such as in a vacuum, Maxwell's equations reduce to: Taking the curl of the curl equations, and using the curl of the curl identity we obtain The quantity has the dimension of (time/length)2. Defining , the equations above have the form of the standard wave equations Already during Maxwell's lifetime, it was found that the known values for and give , then already known to be the speed of light in free space. This led him to propose that light and radio waves were propagating electromagnetic waves, since amply confirmed. In the old SI system of units, the values of and are defined constants, (which means that by definition ) that define the ampere and the metre. In the new SI system, only c keeps its defined value, and the electron charge gets a defined value. In materials with relative permittivity, , and relative permeability, , the phase velocity of light becomes which is usually less than . In addition, and are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other. A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations. Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. In turn, that electric field creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity . Macroscopic formulation The above equations are the microscopic version of Maxwell's equations, expressing the electric and the magnetic fields in terms of the (possibly atomic-level) charges and currents present. This is sometimes called the "general" form, but the macroscopic version below is equally general, the difference being one of bookkeeping. The microscopic version is sometimes called "Maxwell's equations in a vacuum": this refers to the fact that the material medium is not built into the structure of the equations, but appears only in the charge and current terms. The microscopic version was introduced by Lorentz, who tried to use it to derive the macroscopic properties of bulk matter from its microscopic constituents. "Maxwell's macroscopic equations", also known as Maxwell's equations in matter, are more similar to those that Maxwell introduced himself. In the macroscopic equations, the influence of bound charge and bound current is incorporated into the displacement field and the magnetizing field , while the equations depend only on the free charges and free currents . This reflects a splitting of the total electric charge Q and current I (and their densities and J) into free and bound parts: The cost of this splitting is that the additional fields and need to be determined through phenomenological constituent equations relating these fields to the electric field and the magnetic field , together with the bound charge and current. See below for a detailed description of the differences between the microscopic equations, dealing with total charge and current including material contributions, useful in air/vacuum; and the macroscopic equations, dealing with free charge and current, practical to use within materials. Bound charge and current When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material its molecules respond by forming microscopic electric dipoles – their atomic nuclei move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their electrons move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This produces a macroscopic bound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where enters and leaves the material. For non-uniform , a charge is also produced in the bulk. Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the components of the atoms, most notably their electrons. The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops. Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual charge is | layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where enters and leaves the material. For non-uniform , a charge is also produced in the bulk. Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the components of the atoms, most notably their electrons. The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops. Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual charge is traveling a large distance. These bound currents can be described using the magnetization . The very complicated and granular bound charges and bound currents, therefore, can be represented on the macroscopic scale in terms of and , which average these charges and currents on a sufficiently large scale so as not to see the granularity of individual atoms, but also sufficiently small that they vary with location in the material. As such, Maxwell's macroscopic equations ignore many details on a fine scale that can be unimportant to understanding matters on a gross scale by calculating fields that are averaged over some suitable volume. Auxiliary fields, polarization and magnetization The definitions of the auxiliary fields are: where is the polarization field and is the magnetization field, which are defined in terms of microscopic bound charges and bound currents respectively. The macroscopic bound charge density and bound current density in terms of polarization and magnetization are then defined as If we define the total, bound, and free charge and current density by and use the defining relations above to eliminate , and , the "macroscopic" Maxwell's equations reproduce the "microscopic" equations. Constitutive relations In order to apply 'Maxwell's macroscopic equations', it is necessary to specify the relations between displacement field and the electric field , as well as the magnetizing field and the magnetic field . Equivalently, we have to specify the dependence of the polarization (hence the bound charge) and the magnetization (hence the bound current) on the applied electric and magnetic field. The equations specifying this response are called constitutive relations. For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are rarely simple, except approximately, and usually determined by experiment. See the main article on constitutive relations for a fuller description. For materials without polarization and magnetization, the constitutive relations are (by definition) where is the permittivity of free space and the permeability of free space. Since there is no bound charge, the total and the free charge and current are equal. An alternative viewpoint on the microscopic equations is that they are the macroscopic equations together with the statement that vacuum behaves like a perfect linear "material" without additional polarization and magnetization. More generally, for linear materials the constitutive relations are where is the permittivity and the permeability of the material. For the displacement field the linear approximation is usually excellent because for all but the most extreme electric fields or temperatures obtainable in the laboratory (high power pulsed lasers) the interatomic electric fields of materials of the order of 1011 V/m are much higher than the external field. For the magnetizing field , however, the linear approximation can break down in common materials like iron leading to phenomena like hysteresis. Even the linear case can have various complications, however. For homogeneous materials, and are constant throughout the material, while for inhomogeneous materials they depend on location within the material (and perhaps time). For isotropic materials, and are scalars, while for anisotropic materials (e.g. due to crystal structure) they are tensors. Materials are generally dispersive, so and depend on the frequency of any incident EM waves. Even more generally, in the case of non-linear materials (see for example nonlinear optics), and are not necessarily proportional to , similarly or is not necessarily proportional to . In general and depend on both and , on location and time, and possibly other physical quantities. In applications one also has to describe how the free currents and charge density behave in terms of and possibly coupled to other physical quantities like pressure, and the mass, number density, and velocity of charge-carrying particles. E.g., the original equations given by Maxwell (see History of Maxwell's equations) included Ohm's law in the form Alternative formulations Following is a summary of some of the numerous other mathematical formalisms to write the microscopic Maxwell's equations, with the columns separating the two homogeneous Maxwell equations from the two inhomogeneous ones involving charge and current. Each formulation has versions directly in terms of the electric and magnetic fields, and indirectly in terms of the electrical potential and the vector potential . Potentials were introduced as a convenient way to solve the homogeneous equations, but it was thought that all observable physics was contained in the electric and magnetic fields (or relativistically, the Faraday tensor). The potentials play a central role in quantum mechanics, however, and act quantum mechanically with observable consequences even when the electric and magnetic fields vanish (Aharonov–Bohm effect). Each table describes one formalism. See the main article for details of each formulation. SI units are used throughout. Relativistic formulations The Maxwell equations can also be formulated on a spacetime-like Minkowski space where space and time are treated on equal footing. The direct spacetime formulations make manifest that the Maxwell equations are relativistically invariant. Because of this symmetry, the electric and magnetic fields are treated on equal footing and are recognised as components of the Faraday tensor. This reduces the four Maxwell equations to two, which simplifies the equations, although we can no longer use the familiar vector formulation. In fact the Maxwell equations in the space + time formulation are not Galileo invariant and have Lorentz invariance as a hidden symmetry. This was a major source of inspiration for the development of relativity theory. Indeed, even the formulation that treats space and time separately is not a non-relativistic approximation and describes the same physics by simply renaming variables. For this reason the relativistic invariant equations are usually called the Maxwell equations as well. Each table describes one formalism. In the tensor calculus formulation, the electromagnetic tensor is an antisymmetric covariant order 2 tensor; the four-potential, , is a covariant vector; the current, , is a vector; the square brackets, , denote antisymmetrization of indices; is the derivative with respect to the coordinate, . In Minkowski space coordinates are chosen with respect to an inertial frame; , so that the metric tensor used to raise and lower indices is . The d'Alembert operator on Minkowski space is as in the vector formulation. In general spacetimes, the coordinate system is arbitrary, the covariant derivative , the Ricci tensor, and raising and lowering of indices are defined by the Lorentzian metric, and the d'Alembert operator is defined as . The topological restriction is that the second real cohomology group of the space vanishes (see the differential form formulation for an explanation). This is violated for Minkowski space with a line removed, which can model a (flat) spacetime with a point-like monopole on the complement of the line. In the differential form formulation on arbitrary space times, is the electromagnetic tensor considered as a 2-form, is the potential 1-form, is the current 3-form, is the exterior derivative, and is the Hodge star on forms defined (up to its orientation, i.e. its sign) by the Lorentzian metric of spacetime. In the special case of 2-forms such as F, the Hodge star depends on the metric tensor only for its local scale. This means that, as formulated, the differential form field equations are conformally invariant, but the Lorenz gauge condition breaks conformal invariance. The operator is the d'Alembert–Laplace–Beltrami operator on 1-forms on an arbitrary Lorentzian spacetime. The topological condition is again that the second real cohomology group is 'trivial' (meaning that its form follows from a definition). By the isomorphism with the second de Rham cohomology this condition means that every closed 2-form is exact. Other formalisms include the geometric algebra formulation and a matrix representation of Maxwell's equations. Historically, a quaternionic formulation was used. Solutions Maxwell's equations are partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the electric charges and currents. Often, the charges and currents are themselves dependent on the electric and magnetic fields via the Lorentz force equation and the constitutive relations. These all form a set of coupled partial differential equations which are often very difficult to solve: the solutions encompass all the diverse phenomena of classical electromagnetism. Some general remarks follow. As for any differential equation, boundary conditions and initial conditions are necessary for a unique solution. For example, even with no charges and no currents anywhere in spacetime, there are the obvious solutions for which E and B are zero or constant, but there are also non-trivial solutions corresponding to electromagnetic waves. In some cases, Maxwell's equations are solved over the whole of space, and boundary conditions are given as asymptotic limits at infinity. In other cases, Maxwell's equations are solved in a finite region of space, with appropriate conditions on the boundary of that region, for example an artificial absorbing boundary representing the rest of the universe, or periodic boundary conditions, or walls that isolate a small region from the outside world (as with a waveguide or cavity resonator). Jefimenko's equations (or the closely related Liénard–Wiechert potentials) are the explicit solution to Maxwell's equations for the electric and magnetic fields created by any given distribution of charges and currents. It assumes specific initial conditions to obtain the so-called "retarded solution", where the only fields present are the ones created by the charges. However, Jefimenko's equations are unhelpful in situations when the charges and currents are themselves affected by the fields they create. Numerical methods for differential equations can be used to compute approximate solutions of Maxwell's equations when exact solutions are impossible. These include the finite element method and finite-difference time-domain method. For more details, see Computational electromagnetics. Overdetermination of Maxwell's equations Maxwell's equations seem overdetermined, in that they involve six unknowns (the three components of and ) but eight equations (one for each of the two Gauss's laws, three vector components each for Faraday's and Ampere's laws). (The currents and charges are not unknowns, being freely specifiable subject to charge conservation.) This is related to a certain limited kind of redundancy in Maxwell's equations: It can be proven that any system satisfying Faraday's law and Ampere's law automatically also satisfies the two Gauss's laws, as long as the system's initial condition does, and assuming conservation of charge and the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles. This explanation was first introduced by Julius Adams Stratton in 1941. Although it is possible to simply ignore the two Gauss's laws in a numerical algorithm (apart from the initial conditions), the imperfect precision of the calculations can lead to ever-increasing violations of those laws. By introducing dummy variables characterizing these violations, the four equations become not |
only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a σ-locally finite base. A σ-locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets. For a closely related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem. Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube that is, the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology. A space is said to be locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact. In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact. Examples The group of unitary operators on a separable Hilbert space endowed with the strong operator topology is | related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem. Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube that is, the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology. A space is said to be locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact. In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact. Examples The group of unitary operators on a separable Hilbert space endowed with the strong operator topology is metrizable (see Proposition II.1 in ). Examples of non-metrizable spaces Non-normal spaces cannot be metrizable; important examples include the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or on the spectrum of a ring, used in algebraic geometry, the topological vector space of all functions from the real line to itself, with the topology of pointwise convergence. The real line with the lower limit topology is not metrizable. The usual distance function is not a metric on this space because the topology it determines is the usual topology, not the lower limit topology. This space is Hausdorff, paracompact and first countable. The long line is locally metrizable but not metrizable; in a sense it is "too long". See also , the property of a topological space of being homeomorphic to a uniform space, or equivalently the topology being defined by |
friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new system of notation, he published. Among Agricola's other theoretical works is Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1528 and 1545), a study of musical instruments, and one of the most important works in early organology; and one of the earliest books on the rudiments of music. Agricola was also the first to harmonize in four parts Martin Luther's chorale, Ein feste Burg. Notes References Attribution Further reading Classical Composers Database 1486 | a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new system of notation, he published. Among Agricola's other theoretical works is Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1528 and 1545), a study of musical instruments, and one of the most important works in early organology; and one of the earliest books on the rudiments of music. Agricola was also the first |
1993) was a German mathematician. He was an algebraist, group theorist, and numerical analyst. He is best known for Zorn's lemma, a method used in set theory that is applicable to a wide range of mathematical constructs such as vector spaces, ordered sets and the like. Zorn's lemma was first postulated by Kazimierz Kuratowski in 1922, and then independently by Zorn in 1935. Life and career Zorn was born in Krefeld, Germany. He attended the University of Hamburg. He received his Ph.D. in April 1930 for a thesis on alternative algebras. He published his findings in Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen Seminar der Universität Hamburg. Zorn showed that split-octonions could be represented by a mixed-style of matrices called Zorn's vector-matrix algebra. Max Zorn was appointed as an assistant at the University of Halle. However, he did not have the opportunity to work there for long since he was forced | Zorn immigrated to the United States and was appointed a Sterling Fellow at Yale University. While at Yale, Zorn wrote his paper "A Remark on Method in Transfinite Algebra" that stated his Maximum Principle, later called Zorn's lemma. It requires a set that contains the union of any chain of subsets to have one chain not contained in any other, called the maximal element. He illustrated the principle with applications in ring theory and field extensions. Zorn's lemma is an alternative expression of the axiom of choice, and thus a subject of interest in axiomatic set theory. In 1936 he moved to UCLA and remained until 1946. While at UCLA Zorn revisited his study of alternative rings and proved the existence of the nilradical of certain alternative rings. According to Angus E. Taylor, Max was his most stimulating colleague at UCLA. In 1946 Zorn became a professor at Indiana University, where he taught until retiring in 1971. He was thesis advisor for Israel Nathan Herstein. Zorn died in Bloomington, Indiana, |
in the mountains of the Fichtelgebirge; it is long. In its upper and middle section, the Main runs through the valleys of the German Highlands. Its lower section crosses the Lower Main Lowlands (Hanau-Seligenstadt Basin and northern Upper Rhine Plain) to Wiesbaden, where it discharges into the Rhine. Major tributaries of the Main are the Regnitz, the Franconian Saale, the Tauber, and the Nidda. The name Main originates from Latin Moenis, Moenus or Menus. It is not related to the name of the city Mainz (Latin: Mogontiacum or Moguntiacum). Navigation The Main is navigable for shipping from its mouth at the Rhine close to Mainz for to Bamberg. Since 1992, the Main has been connected to the Danube via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and the highly regulated Altmühl river. The Main has been canalized with 34 large locks () to allow CEMT class V vessels () to navigate the total length of the river. The 16 locks in the adjacent Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and the Danube itself are of the same dimensions. Weirs and locks There are 34 weirs and locks along the 380 km navigable portion of the Main, from the confluence with the Regnitz near Bamberg, to the Rhine. No.: Number of the lock (from upstream to downstream). Name: Name of the lock. Location: City or town where the lock is located. Year built: Year when the lock was put into operation (replacement dates are also listed where applicable). Main-km: Location on the Main, measured from the 0 km stone in Mainz-Kostheim. The reference point is the center of the lock or lock group. Distance between locks: length in km of impoundment (between adjacent locks). Altitude: height in meters above mean sea level of the upper water at normal levels. Height: Height of the dam in | along the Main also have turbines for power generation. No.: Number of the dam/weir (from upstream to downstream). Name: Name of the dam/weir. Height: Height of the dam/weir in meters (the height of the Kostheim dam depends on the water level of the Rhine). Power: Maximum power generation capacity in megawatts. Turbines: Type and number of turbines. Operator: Operator of the hydroelectric plant. Tributaries Tributaries from source to mouth: Left Regnitz Tauber Mümling Right Rodach (Main) Itz Franconian Saale Aschaff Kahl Kinzig Nidda Ports and municipalities Around Frankfurt are several large inland ports. Because the river is rather narrow on many of the upper reaches, navigation with larger vessels and push convoys requires great skill. The largest cities along the Main are Frankfurt am Main, Offenbach am Main and Würzburg. The Main also passes the following towns: Burgkunstadt, Lichtenfels, Bad Staffelstein, Eltmann, Haßfurt, Schweinfurt, Volkach, Kitzingen, Marktbreit, Ochsenfurt, Karlstadt, Gemünden, Lohr, Marktheidenfeld, Wertheim, Miltenberg, Obernburg, Erlenbach/Main, Aschaffenburg, Seligenstadt, Hainburg, Hanau, Hattersheim, Flörsheim, and Rüsselsheim. The river has gained enormous importance as a vital part of European "Corridor VII", the inland waterway link from the North Sea to the Black Sea. Main line In a historical and political sense, the Main line is referred to as the northern border of Southern Germany, with its predominantly Catholic population. The river roughly marked the southern border of the North German Federation, established in 1867 under Prussian leadership as the predecessor of the German Empire. The river course also corresponds with the Speyer line isogloss between Central and Upper German dialects, sometimes mocked as Weißwurstäquator. Recreation The Main-Radweg is a major German bicycle path alongside the river. Approximately , it is the first long-distance instance awarded 5 stars by the General German Bicycle Club (ADFC) in 2008. It starts from Creußen or Bischofsgrün and ends in Mainz. Sights Roman |
BC he put down a rising of the Aquitanians and fought the Germanic tribes. He was consul for 37 BC, well below the usual minimum age of 43, to oversee the preparations for warfare against Sextus Pompey, who had cut off grain shipments to Rome. Agrippa defeated Pompey in the battles of Mylae and Naulochus in 36 BC. In 33 BC, he served as Curule aedile. Agrippa commanded the victorious Octavian's fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Following the victory at Actium, Octavian became emperor, and took the title of Augustus, while Agrippa remained as his close friend and lieutenant. Agrippa assisted Augustus in making Rome "a city of marble." Agrippa renovated aqueducts to provide Roman citizens from every social class access to the highest quality public services, and was responsible for the creation of many baths, porticoes, and gardens. He was also awarded powers almost as great as those of Augustus. He had veto power over the acts of the Senate and the power to present laws for approval by the People. He died in 12 BC at the age of 50–51. Augustus honored his memory with a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. His remains were placed in Augustus' own mausoleum. Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's design of having a complete survey of the empire made was accomplished. From the materials at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Vipsania Polla. Agrippa was also husband to Julia the Elder (who had later married the second Emperor Tiberius), and was the maternal grandfather of Caligula and the maternal great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero. Early life, family, and early career Early life and family Agrippa was born in 63 BC, in an uncertain location. His father was called Lucius Vipsanius. He had an elder brother whose name was also Lucius Vipsanius, and a sister named Vipsania Polla. His family originated in the Italian countryside, and was of humble and plebeian origins. They had not been prominent in Roman public life. According to some scholars, including Victor Gardthausen, R. E. A. Palmer, and David Ridgway, Agrippa's family was originally from Pisa in Etruria. Early career Agrippa was the same age as Octavian (the future emperor Augustus), and the two were educated together and became close friends. Despite Agrippa's association with the family of Julius Caesar, his elder brother chose another side in the civil wars of the 40s BC, fighting under Cato against Caesar in Africa. When Cato's forces were defeated, Agrippa's brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavian interceded on his behalf. It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar's campaign of 46 to 45 BC against Gnaeus Pompeius, which culminated in the Battle of Munda. Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to study in Apollonia (on the Illyrian coast) with the Macedonian legions, while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome. In the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia the news of Julius Caesar's assassination in March 44 BC reached them. Agrippa and another friend, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus, advised Octavius to march on Rome with the troops from Macedonia, but Octavius decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue. After his arrival, he learned that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir. Octavius at this time took Caesar's name, but modern historians refer to him as "Octavian" during this period. Rise to power Friend to Octavian After Octavian's return to Rome, he and his supporters realised they needed the support of legions. Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops in Campania. Once Octavian had his legions, he made a pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus, legally established in 43 BC as the Second Triumvirate. Octavian and his consular colleague Quintus Pedius arranged for Caesar's assassins to be prosecuted in their absence, and Agrippa was entrusted with the case against Gaius Cassius Longinus. It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position of Tribune of the Plebs, which granted him entry to the Senate. In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in the Battle of Philippi. After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian's war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture of Perusia in 40 BC. However, Salvidienus remained Octavian's main general at this time. After the Perusine war, Octavian departed for Gaul, leaving Agrippa as urban praetor in Rome with instructions to defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius, an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupying Sicily. In July 40, while Agrippa was occupied with the Ludi Apollinares that were the praetor's responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy. Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw. However, the Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance). Agrippa's success in retaking Sipontum from Antony helped bring an end to the conflict. Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace. During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with the result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide. Agrippa was now Octavian's leading general. Governor of Transalpine Gaul In 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor of Transalpine Gaul, where in 38 BC he put down a rising of the Aquitanians. He also fought the Germanic tribes, becoming the next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar. He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume the consulship for 37 BC. He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare. Agrippa refused the offer of a triumph for his exploits in Gaul – on the grounds, says Dio, that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian. Since Sextus Pompeius had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for Octavian's ships. He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming an outer harbour, while joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbor. The new harbor-complex was named Portus Julius in Octavian's honour. Agrippa was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form of grappling hook. About this time, he married Caecilia Pomponia Attica, daughter of Cicero's friend Titus Pomponius Atticus. War with Pompey In 36 BC, Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus. The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus, destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph. Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of a naval crown decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was "a decoration given to nobody before or since". Public service Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34, he had returned to Rome. He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. He became the first water commissioner of Rome in 33 BC. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held. Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima, constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of aedile, but Agrippa's success bore out that break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that "he had found the city of brick but left it of marble" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign. Battle of Actium Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese, then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base. Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium, where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae. Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius, one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a | withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus, destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph. Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of a naval crown decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was "a decoration given to nobody before or since". Public service Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34, he had returned to Rome. He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. He became the first water commissioner of Rome in 33 BC. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held. Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima, constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of aedile, but Agrippa's success bore out that break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that "he had found the city of brick but left it of marble" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign. Battle of Actium Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese, then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base. Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium, where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae. Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius, one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron of Lucius Tarius, a supporter of Octavian. Agrippa's unexpected arrival turned the battle around. As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape. At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders' cowardice. Agrippa objected, saying that Antony's ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian's if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony's fleet had just been struck by storms. Octavian followed his friend's advice. On September 2, 31 BC, the Battle of Actium was fought. Octavian's victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa. Octavian then bestowed upon him the hand of his niece Claudia Marcella Major in 28 BC. He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year. In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian, and in that year, the senate also bestowed upon Octavian the imperial title of Augustus. In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the Roman Pantheon before its destruction in AD 80. Emperor Hadrian used Agrippa's design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome. The inscription of the later building, which was built around 125, preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa's building during his third consulship. The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming the provincial administration and taxation system, along with building an effective road system and aqueducts. Later life Agrippa's friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of Augustus' nephew and son-in-law Marcus Claudius Marcellus, which was probably instigated by the intrigues of Livia, the third wife of Augustus, who feared Agrippa's influence over her husband. Traditionally it is said the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces – a sort of honourable exile, but he only sent his legate to Syria, while he himself remained at Lesbos and governed by proxy, though he may have been on a secret mission to negotiate with the Parthians about the return of the Roman legions' standards which they held. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services. However, if one places the events in the context of the crisis of 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a major political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops. What is far more likely is that Agrippa's 'exile' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army as a backup plan in case the settlement plans of 23 BC failed and Augustus needed military support. Moreover, after 23 BC as part of what became known as Augustus' Second Constitutional Settlement, Agrippa's constitutional powers were greatly increased to provide the Principate of Augustus with greater constitutional stability by providing for a political heir or replacement for Augustus if he were to succumb to his habitual ill health or was assassinated. In the course of the year, proconsular imperium, similar to Augustus' power, was conferred upon Agrippa for five years. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus' imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That was to come later, as |
and Child with Saints, Angels and Various Religious Scenes at the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Chartres. The several panels with Scenes from Genesis, at the Courtauld Institute in London, Strossmayer Gallery in Zagreb, Accademia Carrara in Bergamo and Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, probably also date from this period. In 1503 Albertinelli signed and dated his best-known work, an altarpiece for the chapel of Sant'Elisabetta della congrega dei Preti in San Michele alle Trombe, Florence (now in the Uffizi). The central panel of this work depicts the Visitation and the predella the Annunciation, Nativity, and Circumcision of Christ. The pyramidal composition, classical background architecture and pronounced contrasts of light and dark make the painting a quintessential example of High Renaissance art. Also in 1503 Albertinelli entered a new partnership with Giuliano Bugiardini, which lasted until 1509, when Albertinelli resumed his partnership with Fra Bartolomeo. At this point Fra Bartolomeo and Albertinelli practiced similar styles and occasionally collaborated. For example, the Kress Tondo, now in the Columbia Museum of Art, was previously attributed to Fra Bartolomeo but is now thought to be the work | from Genesis, at the Courtauld Institute in London, Strossmayer Gallery in Zagreb, Accademia Carrara in Bergamo and Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, probably also date from this period. In 1503 Albertinelli signed and dated his best-known work, an altarpiece for the chapel of Sant'Elisabetta della congrega dei Preti in San Michele alle Trombe, Florence (now in the Uffizi). The central panel of this work depicts the Visitation and the predella the Annunciation, Nativity, and Circumcision of Christ. The pyramidal composition, classical background architecture and pronounced contrasts of light and dark make the painting a quintessential example of High Renaissance art. Also in 1503 Albertinelli entered a new partnership with Giuliano Bugiardini, which lasted until 1509, when Albertinelli resumed his partnership with Fra Bartolomeo. At this point Fra Bartolomeo and Albertinelli practiced similar styles and occasionally collaborated. For example, the Kress Tondo, now in the Columbia Museum of Art, was previously attributed to Fra Bartolomeo but is now thought to be the work of Albertinelli using Fra Bartolomeo's cartoon, or scaled-preparatory drawing. The Annunciation at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire in Geneva is signed and dated (1511) by both artists. The partnership was terminated in January 1513, as reported in a document stipulating the division of the workshop's |
requests. Leng zhuangzi () lacked any rooms to host banquets, and thus their business was purely catering. Tang Tang (), or tang zihao (), are similar to zhuang establishments, but the business of these second-class establishments were generally evenly divided among onsite banquet hosting and catering (at customers' homes). Establishments of this class would also have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes to perform onsite, but they did not have long-term contracts with famous performers, such as national-treasure-class performers, to perform onsite on regular basis; however these top performers would still perform at establishments of this category occasionally. In terms of catering at the customers' sites, establishments of this category often only provided dishes strictly according to their menu. Ting Ting (), or ting zihao () are foodservice establishments which had more business in onsite banquet hosting than catering at customers' homes. For onsite banquet hosting, entertainment was still provided, but establishments of this category did not have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes, so that performers varied from time to time, and top performers usually did not perform here or at any lower-ranking establishments. For catering, different establishments of this category were incapable of handling significant catering on their own, but generally had to combine resources with other establishments of the same ranking (or lower) to do the job. Yuan Yuan (), or yuan zihao () did nearly all their business in hosting banquets onsite. Entertainment was not provided on a regular basis, but there were stages built onsite for Beijing opera performers. Instead of being hired by the establishments like in the previous three categories, performers at establishments of this category were usually contractors who paid the establishment to perform and split the earnings according to a certain percentage. Occasionally, establishments of this category would be called upon to help cater at customers' homes, but had to work with others, never taking the lead as establishments like the ting. Lou Lou (), or lou zihao () did the bulk of their business hosting banquets onsite by appointment. In addition, a smaller portion of the business was in serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Occasionally, when catering at customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for. Ju Ju (), or ju zihao () generally divided their business evenly into two areas: serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Occasionally, when catering at the customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for, just like the lou. However, unlike those establishments, which always cooked their specialty dishes on location, establishment of this category would either cook on location or simply bring the already-cooked food to the location. Zhai Zhai (), or zhai zihao () were mainly in the business of serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, but a small portion of their income did come from hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Similar to the ju, when catering at customers’ homes, establishments of this category would also only provide the few specialty dishes they are famous for, but they would mostly bring the already-cooked dishes to the location, and would only cook on location occasionally. Fang Fang (), or fang zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category generally did not offer the service of hosting banquets made by appointment for customers who came as one group, but instead, often only offered to serve different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Establishments of this category or lower would not be called upon to perform catering at the customers' homes for special events. Guan Guan (), or guan zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category mainly served different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and in addition, a portion of the income would be earned from selling to-goes. Dian Dian (), or dian zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category had their own place, like all previous categories, but serving different customers to dine onsite on a walk-in basis only provided half of the overall income, while the other half came from selling to-goes. Pu Pu (), or pu zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category ranked next to the last, and they were often named after the owners' last names. Establishments of this category had fixed spots of business for having their own places, but smaller than dian, and thus did not have tables, but only seats for customers. As a result, the bulk of the income of establishments of this category was from selling to-goes, while income earned from customers dining onsite only provided a small portion of the overall income. Tan Tan (), or tan zihao (). The lowest ranking foodservice establishments without any tables, and selling to-goes was the only form of business. In addition to name the food stand after the owners' last name or the food sold, these food stands were also often named after the owners' nicknames. Notable dishes and street foods Meat and poultry dishes Fish and seafood dishes Noodles (both vegetarian and non-vegetarian) Pastries Vegetarian Beijing Delicacies Deep-Fried Pie Soy Bean Curd Restaurants known for Beijing cuisine Numerous traditional restaurants in Beijing are credited with great contributions in the formation of Beijing cuisine, but many of them have gone out of business. However, some of them managed to survive until today, and some of them are: Bai Kui (白魁): established in 1780 Bao Du Feng (爆肚冯): established in 1881, also known as Ji Sheng Long (金生隆) Bianyifang: established in 1416, the oldest surviving restaurant in Beijing Cha Tang Li (茶汤李), established in 1858 Dao Xiang Chun (稻香春): established in 1916 Dao Xian Cun (稻香村): established in 1895 De Shun Zhai (大顺斋): established in the early 1870s Dong Lai Shun (东来顺): established in 1903 Dong Xin Shun (东兴顺): also known as Bao Du Zhang (爆肚张), established in 1883 Du Yi Chu (都一处): established in 1738 Dou Fu Nao Bai (豆腐脑白): established in 1877, also known as Xi Yu Zhai (西域斋) En Yuan Ju (恩元居), established in 1929 Fang Sheng Zhai (芳生斋), also known as Nai Lao Wei (奶酪魏), established in 1857 Hong Bin Lou (鸿宾楼): established in 1853 in Tianjin, relocated to Beijing in 1955. Jin Sheng Long (金生隆): established in 1846 Kao Rou Ji (烤肉季): established in 1828 Kao Rou Wan (烤肉宛): established in 1686 Liu Bi Ju (六必居) established in 1530 Liu Quan | would be called upon to help cater at customers' homes, but had to work with others, never taking the lead as establishments like the ting. Lou Lou (), or lou zihao () did the bulk of their business hosting banquets onsite by appointment. In addition, a smaller portion of the business was in serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Occasionally, when catering at customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for. Ju Ju (), or ju zihao () generally divided their business evenly into two areas: serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Occasionally, when catering at the customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for, just like the lou. However, unlike those establishments, which always cooked their specialty dishes on location, establishment of this category would either cook on location or simply bring the already-cooked food to the location. Zhai Zhai (), or zhai zihao () were mainly in the business of serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, but a small portion of their income did come from hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Similar to the ju, when catering at customers’ homes, establishments of this category would also only provide the few specialty dishes they are famous for, but they would mostly bring the already-cooked dishes to the location, and would only cook on location occasionally. Fang Fang (), or fang zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category generally did not offer the service of hosting banquets made by appointment for customers who came as one group, but instead, often only offered to serve different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Establishments of this category or lower would not be called upon to perform catering at the customers' homes for special events. Guan Guan (), or guan zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category mainly served different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and in addition, a portion of the income would be earned from selling to-goes. Dian Dian (), or dian zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category had their own place, like all previous categories, but serving different customers to dine onsite on a walk-in basis only provided half of the overall income, while the other half came from selling to-goes. Pu Pu (), or pu zihao (). Foodservice establishments of this category ranked next to the last, and they were often named after the owners' last names. Establishments of this category had fixed spots of business for having their own places, but smaller than dian, and thus did not have tables, but only seats for customers. As a result, the bulk of the income of establishments of this category was from selling to-goes, while income earned from customers dining onsite only provided a small portion of the overall income. Tan Tan (), or tan zihao (). The lowest ranking foodservice establishments without any tables, and selling to-goes was the only form of business. In addition to name the food stand after the owners' last name or the food sold, these food stands were also often named after the owners' nicknames. Notable dishes and street foods Meat and poultry dishes Fish and seafood dishes Noodles (both vegetarian and non-vegetarian) Pastries Vegetarian Beijing Delicacies Deep-Fried Pie Soy Bean Curd Restaurants known for Beijing cuisine Numerous traditional restaurants in Beijing are credited with great contributions in the formation of Beijing cuisine, but many of them have gone out of business. However, some of them managed to survive until today, and some of them are: Bai Kui (白魁): established in 1780 Bao Du Feng (爆肚冯): established in 1881, also known as Ji Sheng Long (金生隆) Bianyifang: established in 1416, the oldest surviving restaurant in Beijing Cha Tang Li (茶汤李), established in 1858 Dao Xiang Chun (稻香春): established in 1916 Dao Xian Cun (稻香村): established in 1895 De Shun Zhai (大顺斋): established in the early 1870s Dong Lai Shun (东来顺): established in 1903 Dong Xin Shun (东兴顺): also known as Bao Du Zhang (爆肚张), established in 1883 Du Yi Chu (都一处): established in 1738 Dou Fu Nao Bai (豆腐脑白): established in 1877, also known as Xi Yu Zhai (西域斋) En Yuan Ju (恩元居), established in 1929 Fang |
a head of their community. Under the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate, Arabic zindīq and the adjectival term zandaqa could denote many different things, though it seems primarily (or at least initially) to have signified a follower of Manichaeism, however its true meaning is not known. In the ninth century, it is reported that Caliph al-Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans. During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution. The third Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdi, persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who if being found guilty of heresy refused to renounce their beliefs, were executed. Their persecution was finally ended in 780s by Harun al-Rashid. During the reign of the Caliph al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution and the base of the religion was later shifted to Samarkand. Syncretism and translation Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings that were corrupted and misinterpreted by the followers of its predecessors Adam, Zoroaster, Buddha and Jesus. Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted new deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its original Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus. When they moved eastward and were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities (or angels) were often transformed into the names of Zoroastrian yazatas. Thus Abbā dəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness", the highest Manichaean deity of Light), in Middle Persian texts might either be translated literally as pīd ī wuzurgīh, or substituted with the name of the deity Zurwān. Similarly, the Manichaean primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā "The Original Man" was rendered Ohrmazd Bay, after the Zoroastrian god Ohrmazd. This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting with Chinese Buddhism, where, for example, the original Aramaic qaryā (the "call" from the World of Light to those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness), becomes identified in the Chinese scriptures with Guanyin ( or Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the bodhisattva of Compassion). Persecution and extinction Manichaeism was repressed by the Sasanian Empire. In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the Roman emperor Diocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. It wasn't until 372 with Valentinian I and Valens that Manichaeism was legislated against again. Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD. The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the Christian Church and the Roman state, and the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century. In 732, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang banned any Chinese from converting to the religion, saying it was a heretic religion that was confusing people by claiming to be Buddhism. However, the foreigners who followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment. After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals and Taiyuan were closed down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the Chinese (see Cao'an). Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long. The Manichaean temples were attacked by Chinese people who burned the images and idols of these temples. Manichaean priests were ordered to wear hanfu instead of their traditional clothing, which was viewed as un-Chinese. In 843, Emperor Wuzong of Tang gave the order to kill all Manichaean clerics as part of his Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, and over half died. They were made to look like Buddhists by the authorities, their heads were shaved, they were made to dress like Buddhist monks and then killed. Although the religion was mostly forbidden and its followers persecuted thereafter in China, it survived till the 14th century in China. Under the Song dynasty, its followers were derogatorily referred to with the chengyu () "vegetarian demon-worshippers". Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song dynasty. They were quelled by Song China and were suppressed and persecuted by all successive governments before the Mongol Yuan dynasty. In 1370, the religion was banned through an edict of the Ming dynasty, whose Hongwu Emperor had a personal dislike for the religion. Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including the White Lotus movement. According to Wendy Doniger, Manichaeism may have continued to exist in the modern-East Turkestan region until the Mongol conquest in the 13th century. Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi, started a campaign of inquisition against those who were "dualist heretics" or "Manichaeans" called the zindīq. He appointed a "master of the heretics" ( ṣāhib al-zanādiqa), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who were then examined by the Caliph. Those found guilty who refused to abjure their beliefs were executed. This persecution continued under his successor, Caliph al-Hadi, and continued for some time during reign of Harun al-Rashid, who finally abolished it and ended it. During the reign of the 18th Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution by him and about 500 of them assembled in Samarkand. The base of the religion was later shifted to this city, which became their new Patriarchate. Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-century Byzantine Constantinople, as the patriarch Photios summarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in his Bibliotheca. Later movements associated with Manichaeism During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as "Manichaean" by the Catholic Church, and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of the Inquisition in 1184. They included the Cathar churches of Western Europe. Other groups sometimes referred to as "neo-Manichaean" were the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia, and the Bogomils in Bulgaria. An example of this usage can be found in the published edition of the Latin Cathar text, the Liber de duobus principiis (Book of the Two Principles), which was described as "Neo-Manichaean" by its publishers. As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups were descendants of Manichaeism. Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. However, these groups left few records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers. Whether the dualism of the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars and their belief that the world was created by a Satanic demiurge were due to influence from Manichaeism is impossible to determine. The Cathars apparently adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization. Priscillian and his followers may also have been influenced by Manichaeism. The Manichaeans preserved many apocryphal Christian works, such as the Acts of Thomas, that would otherwise have been lost. Present day Some sites are preserved in Xinjiang and Fujian in China. The Cao'an temple is the only fully intact Manichaean building, though it later became associated with Buddhism. Several small groups claim to continue to practice this faith. Teachings and beliefs General Mani's teaching dealt with the origin of evil, by addressing a theoretical part of the problem of evil by denying the omnipotence of God and postulating two opposite powers. Manichaean theology taught a dualistic view of good and evil. A key belief in Manichaeism is that the powerful, though not omnipotent good power (God), was opposed by the eternal evil power (devil). Humanity, the world, and the soul are seen as the by-product of the battle between God's proxy, Primal Man, and the devil. The human person is seen as a battle-ground for these powers: the soul defines the person, but it is under the influence of both light and dark. This contention plays out over the world as well as the human body—neither the Earth nor the flesh were seen as intrinsically evil, but rather possessed portions of both light and dark. Natural phenomena (such as rain) were seen as the physical manifestation of this spiritual contention. Therefore, the Manichaean view explained the existence of evil by positing a flawed creation in the formation of which God took no part and which constituted rather the product of a battle by the devil against God. Cosmogony Manichaeism presented an elaborate description of the conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. The beings of both the world of darkness and the world of light have names. There are numerous sources for the details of the Manichaean belief. There are two portions of Manichaean scriptures that are probably the closest thing to the original Manichaean writings in their original languages that will ever be available. These are the Syriac-Aramaic quotation by the Nestorian Christian Theodore bar Konai, in his Syriac "Book of Scholia" (Ketba de-Skolionz, 8th century), and the Middle Persian sections of Mani's Shabuhragan discovered at Turpan (a summary of Mani's teachings prepared for Shapur I). From these and other sources, it is possible to derive an almost complete description of the detailed Manichaean vision (a complete list of Manichaean deities is outlined below). According to Mani, the unfolding of the universe takes place with three "creations": The First Creation Originally, good and evil existed in two completely separate realms, one the World of Light (), ruled by the Father of Greatness together with his five Shekhinas (divine attributes of light), and the other the World of Darkness, ruled by the King of Darkness. At a certain point, the Kingdom of Darkness notices the World of Light, becomes greedy for it and attacks it. The Father of Greatness, in the first of three "creations" (or "calls"), calls to the Mother of Life, who sends her son Original Man (Nāšā Qaḏmāyā in Aramaic), to battle with the attacking powers of Darkness, which include the Demon of Greed. The Original Man is armed with five different shields of light (reflections of the five Shekhinas), which he loses to the forces of darkness in the ensuing battle, described as a kind of "bait" to trick the forces of darkness, as the forces of darkness greedily consume as much light as they can. When the Original Man comes to, he is trapped among the forces of darkness. The Second Creation Then the Father of Greatness begins the Second Creation, calling to the Living Spirit, who calls to his five sons, and sends a call to the Original Man (Call then becomes a Manichaean deity). An answer (Answer becomes another Manichaean deity) then returns from the Original Man to the World of Light. The Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and his five sons begin to create the universe from the bodies of the evil beings of the World of Darkness, together with the light that they have swallowed. Ten heavens and eight earths are created, all consisting of various mixtures of the evil material beings from the World of Darkness and the swallowed light. The sun, moon, and stars are all created from light recovered from the World of Darkness. The waxing and waning of the moon is described as the moon filling with light, which passes to the sun, then through the Milky Way, and eventually back to the World of Light. The Third Creation Great demons (called archons in bar-Khonai's account) are hung out over the heavens, and then the Father of Greatness begins the Third Creation. Light is recovered from out of the material bodies of the male and female evil beings and demons, by causing them to become sexually aroused in greed, towards beautiful images of the beings of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light. However, as soon as the light is expelled from their bodies and falls to the earth (some in the form of abortions – the source of fallen angels in the Manichaean myth), the evil beings continue to swallow up as much of it as they can to keep the light inside of them. This results eventually in the evil beings swallowing huge quantities of light, copulating, and producing Adam and Eve. The Father of Greatness then sends the Radiant Jesus to awaken Adam, and to enlighten him to the true source of the light that is trapped in his material body. Adam and Eve, however, eventually copulate, and produce more human beings, trapping the light in bodies of mankind throughout human history. The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by the World of Light to reveal to mankind the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned within their material bodies. Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion had a detailed description of deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe. In every language and region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted by Theodore bar Konai, or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani's Epistola Fundamenti, or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward. While the original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the deities not implied in the original Syriac writings. Chinese translations were especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common in Chinese Buddhism. The World of Light The Father of Greatness (Syriac: Abbā dəRabbūṯā; Middle Persian: pīd ī wuzurgīh, or the Zoroastrian deity Zurwān; Parthian: Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn; or ) His Four Faces (Greek: ; ) Divinity (Middle Persian: yzd; Parthian: bg’; ) Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: rwšn; ) Power (Middle Persian: zwr; Parthian: z’wr’; ) Wisdom (Middle Persian: whyh; Parthian: jyryft’; ) His Five Shekhinas (Syriac: khamesh shkhinatei; Chinese: ): The Great Spirit (Middle Persian: Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr; Latin: Spiritus Potens) The first creation The Mother of Life ( imā dəḥayyē; ; ) The First Man ( Nāšā Qaḏmāyā; , the Zoroastrian god of light and goodness; Latin: Primus Homo) First Enthymesis (; ) His five Sons (the five Light Elements; ; ; ) Ether (; ; ) Wind (Parthian and ; ) Light (Parthian and ; ) Water (Parthian and ; ) Fire (Parthian and ; ) His sixth Son, the Answer-God ( anyā; Parthian and ; Shì Zhì "The Power of Wisdom", a Chinese bodhisattva). The answer sent by the First Man to the Call from the World of Light. The Living Self (Parthian and , ; ) The anima mundi made up of the five Light Elements, identical with the Suffering Jesus who is crucified in the world. The second creation The Friend of the Lights ( ḥaviv nehirē; ) Calls to: The Great Builder ( ban rabbā; ) In charge of creating the new world that will separate the darkness from the light. He calls to: The Living Spirit ( ruḥā ḥayyā; ; ; ; ). Acts as a demiurge, creating the structure of the material world. His five Sons ( ḥamšā benawhy; ) The Keeper of the Splendour ( ṣfat ziwā; ; ). Holds up the ten heavens from above. The King of Glory ( mlex šuvḥā; ; Dìzàng "Earth Treasury", a Chinese bodhisattva). The Adamas of Light ( adamus nuhrā; ; ). Fights with and overcomes an evil being in the image of the King of Darkness. The Great King of Honour ( malkā rabbā dikkārā; Dead Sea Scrolls malka raba de-ikara; ; ). A being that plays a central role in The Book of Enoch (originally written in Aramaic), as well as Mani's Syriac version of it, the Book of Giants. Sits in the seventh heaven of the ten heavens (corresponding to the celestial spheres, the first seven of which house the classical planets) and guards the entrance to the world of light. Atlas ( sebblā; ; ). Supports the eight worlds from below. His sixth Son, the Call-God ( qaryā; ; Guanyin "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness. The third creation The Third Messenger ( izgaddā; , ; ) Jesus the Splendour ( Isho Ziwā; or ). Sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the source of the spiritual light trapped within their physical bodies. The Maiden of Light (Middle Persian and ; , a phonetic loan from Middle Persian) The Twelve Virgins of Light ( tratesrā btultē; ; ). Reflected in the twelve constellations of the Zodiac. The Column of Glory ( esṭun šuvḥā; ; and , , both phonetic from ). The path that souls take back to the World of Light; corresponds to the Milky Way. The Great Nous His five Limbs () (See "His Five Shekhinas" above.) Reason Mind Intelligence Thought Understanding The Just Judge (; ) The Last God The World of Darkness The Prince of Darkness (Syriac: mlex ḥešoxā; Middle Persian: Ahriman, the Zoroastrian supreme evil being) His five evil kingdoms Evil counterparts of the five elements of light, the lowest being the kingdom of Darkness. His son (Syriac: Ashaklun; Middle Persian: Az, from the Zoroastrian demon, Aži Dahāka) His son's mate (Syriac: Nevro'el) Their offspring – Adam and Eve (Middle Persian: Gehmurd and Murdiyanag) Giants (Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac: yaḥtē, "abortions" or "those that fell"; also: ; Egrēgoroi, "Giants"). Related to the story of the fallen angels in the Book of Enoch (which Mani used extensively in The Book of Giants), and the nephilim described in Genesis (6:1–4). The Manichaean Church Organization The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church. The Elect were forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim that harvesting was a form of murder against plants. The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them of these sins. The terms for these divisions were already common since the days of early Christianity, however, it had a different meaning in Christianity. In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese). These were recorded by Augustine of Hippo. The Leader (Syriac: ܟܗܢܐ ; Parthian: yamag; ), Mani's designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally in Ctesiphon, from the ninth century in Samarkand. Two notable leaders were Mār Sīsin (or Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader. 12 Apostles (Latin: magistrī; Syriac: ܫܠܝܚܐ ; Middle Persian: možag; ). Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father), Akouas and Mar Ammo. 72 Bishops (Latin: episcopī; Syriac: ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ ; Middle Persian: aspasag, aftadan; or ; see also: seventy disciples). One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a bishop | over the heavens, and then the Father of Greatness begins the Third Creation. Light is recovered from out of the material bodies of the male and female evil beings and demons, by causing them to become sexually aroused in greed, towards beautiful images of the beings of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light. However, as soon as the light is expelled from their bodies and falls to the earth (some in the form of abortions – the source of fallen angels in the Manichaean myth), the evil beings continue to swallow up as much of it as they can to keep the light inside of them. This results eventually in the evil beings swallowing huge quantities of light, copulating, and producing Adam and Eve. The Father of Greatness then sends the Radiant Jesus to awaken Adam, and to enlighten him to the true source of the light that is trapped in his material body. Adam and Eve, however, eventually copulate, and produce more human beings, trapping the light in bodies of mankind throughout human history. The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by the World of Light to reveal to mankind the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned within their material bodies. Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion had a detailed description of deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe. In every language and region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted by Theodore bar Konai, or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani's Epistola Fundamenti, or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward. While the original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the deities not implied in the original Syriac writings. Chinese translations were especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common in Chinese Buddhism. The World of Light The Father of Greatness (Syriac: Abbā dəRabbūṯā; Middle Persian: pīd ī wuzurgīh, or the Zoroastrian deity Zurwān; Parthian: Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn; or ) His Four Faces (Greek: ; ) Divinity (Middle Persian: yzd; Parthian: bg’; ) Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: rwšn; ) Power (Middle Persian: zwr; Parthian: z’wr’; ) Wisdom (Middle Persian: whyh; Parthian: jyryft’; ) His Five Shekhinas (Syriac: khamesh shkhinatei; Chinese: ): The Great Spirit (Middle Persian: Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr; Latin: Spiritus Potens) The first creation The Mother of Life ( imā dəḥayyē; ; ) The First Man ( Nāšā Qaḏmāyā; , the Zoroastrian god of light and goodness; Latin: Primus Homo) First Enthymesis (; ) His five Sons (the five Light Elements; ; ; ) Ether (; ; ) Wind (Parthian and ; ) Light (Parthian and ; ) Water (Parthian and ; ) Fire (Parthian and ; ) His sixth Son, the Answer-God ( anyā; Parthian and ; Shì Zhì "The Power of Wisdom", a Chinese bodhisattva). The answer sent by the First Man to the Call from the World of Light. The Living Self (Parthian and , ; ) The anima mundi made up of the five Light Elements, identical with the Suffering Jesus who is crucified in the world. The second creation The Friend of the Lights ( ḥaviv nehirē; ) Calls to: The Great Builder ( ban rabbā; ) In charge of creating the new world that will separate the darkness from the light. He calls to: The Living Spirit ( ruḥā ḥayyā; ; ; ; ). Acts as a demiurge, creating the structure of the material world. His five Sons ( ḥamšā benawhy; ) The Keeper of the Splendour ( ṣfat ziwā; ; ). Holds up the ten heavens from above. The King of Glory ( mlex šuvḥā; ; Dìzàng "Earth Treasury", a Chinese bodhisattva). The Adamas of Light ( adamus nuhrā; ; ). Fights with and overcomes an evil being in the image of the King of Darkness. The Great King of Honour ( malkā rabbā dikkārā; Dead Sea Scrolls malka raba de-ikara; ; ). A being that plays a central role in The Book of Enoch (originally written in Aramaic), as well as Mani's Syriac version of it, the Book of Giants. Sits in the seventh heaven of the ten heavens (corresponding to the celestial spheres, the first seven of which house the classical planets) and guards the entrance to the world of light. Atlas ( sebblā; ; ). Supports the eight worlds from below. His sixth Son, the Call-God ( qaryā; ; Guanyin "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness. The third creation The Third Messenger ( izgaddā; , ; ) Jesus the Splendour ( Isho Ziwā; or ). Sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the source of the spiritual light trapped within their physical bodies. The Maiden of Light (Middle Persian and ; , a phonetic loan from Middle Persian) The Twelve Virgins of Light ( tratesrā btultē; ; ). Reflected in the twelve constellations of the Zodiac. The Column of Glory ( esṭun šuvḥā; ; and , , both phonetic from ). The path that souls take back to the World of Light; corresponds to the Milky Way. The Great Nous His five Limbs () (See "His Five Shekhinas" above.) Reason Mind Intelligence Thought Understanding The Just Judge (; ) The Last God The World of Darkness The Prince of Darkness (Syriac: mlex ḥešoxā; Middle Persian: Ahriman, the Zoroastrian supreme evil being) His five evil kingdoms Evil counterparts of the five elements of light, the lowest being the kingdom of Darkness. His son (Syriac: Ashaklun; Middle Persian: Az, from the Zoroastrian demon, Aži Dahāka) His son's mate (Syriac: Nevro'el) Their offspring – Adam and Eve (Middle Persian: Gehmurd and Murdiyanag) Giants (Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac: yaḥtē, "abortions" or "those that fell"; also: ; Egrēgoroi, "Giants"). Related to the story of the fallen angels in the Book of Enoch (which Mani used extensively in The Book of Giants), and the nephilim described in Genesis (6:1–4). The Manichaean Church Organization The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church. The Elect were forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim that harvesting was a form of murder against plants. The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them of these sins. The terms for these divisions were already common since the days of early Christianity, however, it had a different meaning in Christianity. In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese). These were recorded by Augustine of Hippo. The Leader (Syriac: ܟܗܢܐ ; Parthian: yamag; ), Mani's designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally in Ctesiphon, from the ninth century in Samarkand. Two notable leaders were Mār Sīsin (or Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader. 12 Apostles (Latin: magistrī; Syriac: ܫܠܝܚܐ ; Middle Persian: možag; ). Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father), Akouas and Mar Ammo. 72 Bishops (Latin: episcopī; Syriac: ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ ; Middle Persian: aspasag, aftadan; or ; see also: seventy disciples). One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a bishop was Mār Addā. 360 Presbyters (Latin: presbyterī; Syriac: ܩܫܝܫܐ ; Middle Persian: mahistan; ) The general body of the Elect (Latin: ēlēctī; Syriac: ܡܫܡܫܢܐ ; Middle Persian: ardawan or dēnāwar; or ) The Hearers (Latin: audītōrēs; Syriac: ܫܡܘܥܐ ; Middle Persian: niyoshagan; ) Religious practices Prayers Evidently from Manichaean sources, Manichaeans observed daily prayers, either four for the hearers or seven for the elects. The sources differ about the exact time of prayer. The Fihrist by al-Nadim, points them after noon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset and at nightfall. Al-Biruni places the prayers at noon, nightfall, dawn and sunrise. The elect additionally pray at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall and at midnight. Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers is probably adjusted to coincide with the public prayers for the Muslims, while Al-Birunis report may reflect an older tradition unaffected by Islam. When Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers had been the only detailed source available, there was a concern, that these practises had been only adapted by Muslims during the Abbasid Caliphate. However, it is clear that the Arabic text provided by Al-Nadim corresponds with the descriptions of Egyptian texts from the fourth Century. Every prayer started with an ablution with water or, if water was not available, with other substances comparable to ablution in Islam and consisted of several blessings to the apostales and spirits. The prayer consisted of prostrating oneself to the ground and rising again twelve times during every prayer. During day, Manichaeans turned towards the sun and during night towards the moon. If the moon is not visible at night, when they turned towards north. Evident from Faustus of Mileve, Celestial bodies are not the subject of worship themselves, but are "ships" carrying the light particles of the world to the supreme god, who can not be seen, since he exists beyond time and space, and also the dwelling places for emanations of the supreme deity, such as Jesus the Splendour. According to the writings of Augustine of Hippo, ten prayers were performed, the first devoted to the Father of Greatness, and the following to lesser deities, spirits and angels and finally towards the elect, in order to be freed from rebirth and pain and to attain peace in the realm of light. Comparable, in the Uighur confession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and the buddhas. Primary sources Mani wrote seven books, which contained the teachings of the religion. Only scattered fragments and translations of the originals remain, most having been discovered in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century." The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been. There are also fragments and quotations from them. A long quotation, preserved by the eighth-century Nestorian Christian author Theodore Bar Konai, shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no influence of Iranian or Zoroastrian terms. The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac writings are in Aramaic. The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle Persian Shabuhragan, his book dedicated to the Sasanian emperor, Shapur I. In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian divinities such as Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz. Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian (as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers near Turpan in what is now Xinjiang, China, during the early 1900s. However, from the vantage point of its original Syriac descriptions (as quoted by Theodore Bar Khonai and outlined above), Manichaeism may be better described as a unique phenomenon of Aramaic Babylonia, occurring in proximity to two other new Aramaic religious phenomena, Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia in roughly the third century. The original, but now lost, six sacred books of Manichaeism were composed in Syriac Aramaic, and translated into other languages to help spread the religion. As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings passed through Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, and ultimately Uyghur and Chinese translations. As they spread to the west, they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin. Henning describes how this translation process evolved and influenced the Manichaeans of Central Asia: Originally written in Syriac the Gospel of Mani (Syriac: ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ ; "good news, gospel"). Quotations from the first chapter were brought in Arabic by ibn al-Nadim, who lived in Baghdad at a time when there were still Manichaeans living there, in his 938 book, the Fihrist, a catalog of all written books known to him. The Treasure of Life The Treatise (Coptic: πραγματεία, pragmateia) Secrets The Book of Giants: Original fragments were discovered at Qumran (pre-Manichaean) and Turpan. Epistles: Augustine brings quotations, in Latin, from Mani's Fundamental Epistle in some of his anti-Manichaean works. Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalter, discovered in Egypt in the early 1900s, was edited and published by Charles Allberry from Manichaean manuscripts in the Chester Beatty collection and in the Berlin Academy, 1938–9. Originally written in Middle Persian The Shabuhragan, dedicated to Shapur I: Original Middle Persian fragments were discovered at Turpan, quotations were brought in Arabic by al-Biruni. Other books The Ardahang, the "Picture Book". In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani's holy books that became remembered in later Persian history, and was also called Aržang, a Parthian word meaning "Worthy", and was beautified with paintings. Therefore, Iranians gave him the title of "The Painter". The Kephalaia of the Teacher (), "Discourses", found in Coptic translation. On the Origin of His Body, the title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, a Greek translation of an Aramaic book that describes the early life of Mani. Non-Manichaean works preserved by the Manichaean Church Portions of the Book of Enoch literature such as the Book of Giants Literature relating to the apostle Thomas (who by tradition went to India, and was also venerated in Syria), such as portions of the Syriac The Acts of Thomas, and the Psalms of Thomas. The Gospel of Thomas was also attributed to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a fourth-century Church Father. The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat passed from an Indian story about the Buddha, through a Manichaean version, before it transformed into the story of a Christian Saint in the west. Later works In later centuries, as Manichaeism passed through eastern Persian-speaking lands and arrived at the Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻帝國), and eventually the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwan or āfurišn) and the Parthian hymn-cycles (the Huwīdagmān and Angad Rōšnan created by Mar Ammo) were added to the Manichaean writings. A translation of a collection of these produced the Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (, which Lieu translates as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e. the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion"). In addition to containing hymns attributed to Mani, it contains prayers attributed to Mani's earliest disciples, including Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a complete translation of the Sermon of the Light Nous, presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda. Critical and polemic sources Until discoveries in the 1900s of original sources, the only sources for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotations from non-Manichaean authors, either Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, or Zoroastrian ones. While often criticizing Manichaeism, they also quoted directly from Manichaean scriptures. This enabled Isaac de Beausobre, writing in the 18th century, to create a comprehensive work on Manichaeism, relying solely on anti-Manichaean sources. Thus quotations and descriptions in Greek and Arabic have long been known to scholars, as have the long quotations in Latin by Saint Augustine, and the extremely important quotation in Syriac by Theodore Bar Konai. Patristic depictions of Mani and Manichaeism Eusebius commented as follows: Acta Archelai An example of how inaccurate some of these accounts could be can be seen in the account of the origins of Manichaeism contained in the Acta Archelai. This was a Greek anti-Manichaean work written before 348, most well known in its Latin version, which was regarded as an accurate account of Manichaeism until refuted by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century: In the time of the Apostles there lived a man named Scythianus, who is described as coming "from Scythia", and also as being "a Saracen by race" ("ex genere Saracenorum"). He settled in Egypt, where he became acquainted with "the wisdom of the Egyptians", and invented the religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism. Finally he emigrated to Palestine, and, when he died, his writings passed into |
mix of Amazigh, Andalusian, and Mediterranean cuisines, with slight European (French and Spanish) and sub-Saharan influences. According to Moroccan chef and cuisine researcher Hossin Houari, the oldest traces of Moroccan cuisine that can still be observed today, go back to the 7th century BC. Ingredients Morocco produces a large range of Mediterranean fruits, vegetables and even some tropical ones like snails. Common meats include beef, goat, mutton and lamb, which, together with chicken and seafood, serve as a base for the cuisine. Characteristic flavorings include lemon pickle, argan oil, preserved butter (smen), olive oil, and dried fruits. The staple grain today is wheat, used for bread and couscous, though until the mid-20th century, barley was an important staple, especially in the south. Grapes are mostly eaten fresh, as a dessert; wine consumption is only about 1 liter per capita per year. The traditional cooking fats are butter and animal fat, though olive oil is now replacing them. Butter is used both fresh, zebeda, and preserved, smen. Flavorings Spices are used extensively in Moroccan food. Although some spices have been imported to Morocco through the Arabs for thousands of years, many ingredients—like saffron from Talaouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fes—are home-grown, and are being exported. Common spices include cinnamon, cumin, turmeric, ginger, paprika, coriander, saffron, mace, cloves, fennel, anise, nutmeg, cayenne pepper, fenugreek, caraway, black pepper and sesame seeds. Twenty-seven spices are combined for the famous Moroccan spice mixture ras el hanout. Common herbs in Moroccan cuisine include mint, parsley, coriander, oregano, peppermint, marjoram, verbena, sage and bay laurel. Structure of meals A typical lunch meal begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by a tagine or dwaz. Often, for a formal meal, a lamb or chicken dish is next, or couscous topped with meat and vegetables. Moroccans either eat with fork, knife and spoon, or with their hands using bread as a utensil depending on the dish served. The consumption of pork and alcohol is uncommon due to religious restrictions. Main dishes The main Moroccan dish people are most familiar with is couscous; beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a tagine with a wide selection of vegetables. Chicken is also very commonly used in tagines or roasted. They also use additional ingredients such as plums, boiled eggs, and lemon. Like their national food, the tagine has a unique taste of popular spices such as saffron, cumin, cinnamon, ginger, and cilantro, as well as ground red pepper. Since Morocco lies on two coasts, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Moroccan cuisine has ample seafood dishes. European pilchard is caught in large but declining quantities. Other fish species include mackerel, anchovy, sardinella, and horse mackerel. Other famous Moroccan dishes are pastilla (also spelled basteeya or bestilla), tanjia, and rfissa. A big part of the daily meal is bread. Bread in Morocco is principally made from | fork, knife and spoon, or with their hands using bread as a utensil depending on the dish served. The consumption of pork and alcohol is uncommon due to religious restrictions. Main dishes The main Moroccan dish people are most familiar with is couscous; beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a tagine with a wide selection of vegetables. Chicken is also very commonly used in tagines or roasted. They also use additional ingredients such as plums, boiled eggs, and lemon. Like their national food, the tagine has a unique taste of popular spices such as saffron, cumin, cinnamon, ginger, and cilantro, as well as ground red pepper. Since Morocco lies on two coasts, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Moroccan cuisine has ample seafood dishes. European pilchard is caught in large but declining quantities. Other fish species include mackerel, anchovy, sardinella, and horse mackerel. Other famous Moroccan dishes are pastilla (also spelled basteeya or bestilla), tanjia, and rfissa. A big part of the daily meal is bread. Bread in Morocco is principally made from durum wheat semolina known as khobz. Bakeries are very common throughout Morocco and fresh bread is a staple in every city, town, and village. The most common is whole-grain coarse ground or white-flour bread or baguettes. There are also a number of flat breads and pulled unleavened pan-fried breads. In addition, there are dried salted meats and salted preserved meats such as khlea and g'did (basically sheep bacon), which are used to flavor tagines or used in el rghaif, a folded savory Moroccan pancake. Soups Harira, a typical heavy soup, eaten during winter to warm up and is usually served for dinner. It is typically eaten with plain bread or with dates during the month of Ramadan. Bissara is a broad bean-based soup that is also consumed during the colder months of the year. Salads Salads include both raw and cooked vegetables, served either hot or cold. Cold salads include zaalouk, an aubergine and tomato mixture, and taktouka (a mixture of tomatoes, smoked green peppers, garlic, and spices) characteristic of the cities of Taza and Fes, in the Atlas. Another cold salad is called bakoula, or khoubiza, consisting of braised mallow leaves, but can also be made with spinach or arugula, with parsley, cilantro, lemon, olive oil, and olives. Desserts Usually, seasonal fruits rather than cooked desserts are served at the close of a meal. A common dessert is kaab el ghzal (, gazelle ankles), a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar. Another is halwa chebakia, pretzel-shaped dough deep-fried, soaked in honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds; it is eaten during the month of Ramadan. Jowhara is a delicacy typical of Fes, made with fried waraq pastry, cream, and toasted almond slices. Coconut fudge cakes, 'Zucre Coco', are popular also. Seafood Morocco is endowed with over 3000 km of coastline. There is an abundance of fish in these coastal waters with the sardine being commercially significant as Morocco is the world's largest exporter. Sardines were used in the production of garum in Lixus. At Moroccan fish markets one can find sole, swordfish, tuna, turbot, mackerel, shrimp, congre eel, skate, red snapper, spider crab, lobster and a variety of mollusks. In Moroccan cuisine, seafood is incorporated into, among others: tajines, bastilla, briouat , |
their work in early 1815. Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him. Van Buren's strong support for the war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of New York Attorney General. Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of Albany, where he established a legal partnership with Benjamin Butler, and shared a house with political ally Roger Skinner. In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as the state's attorney general. In 1819, he played an active part in prosecuting the accused murderers of Richard Jennings, the first murder-for-hire case in the state of New York. Albany regency After Tompkins was elected as vice president in the 1816 presidential election, Clinton defeated Van Buren's preferred candidate, Peter Buell Porter, in the 1817 New York gubernatorial election. Clinton threw his influence behind the construction of the Erie Canal, an ambitious project designed to connect Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean. Though many of Van Buren's allies urged him to block Clinton's Erie Canal bill, Van Buren believed that the canal would benefit the state. His support for the bill helped it win approval from the New York legislature. Despite his support for the Erie Canal, Van Buren became the leader of an anti-Clintonian faction in New York known as the "Bucktails". The Bucktails succeeded in emphasizing party loyalty and used it to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York. Through his use of patronage, loyal newspapers, and connections with local party officials and leaders, Van Buren established what became known as the "Albany Regency", a political machine that emerged as an important factor in New York politics. The Regency relied on a coalition of small farmers, but also enjoyed support from the Tammany Hall machine in New York City. During this era, Van Buren largely determined Tammany Hall's political policy for New York's Democratic-Republicans. A New York state referendum that expanded state voting rights to all white men in 1821, and which further increased the power of Tammany Hall, was guided by Van Buren. Although Governor Clinton remained in office until late 1822, Van Buren emerged as the leader of the state's Democratic-Republicans after the 1820 elections. Van Buren was a member of the 1820 state constitutional convention, where he favored expanded voting rights, but opposed universal suffrage and tried to maintain property requirements for voting. Entry into national politics In February 1821, the state legislature elected Van Buren to represent New York in the United States Senate. Van Buren arrived in Washington during the "Era of Good Feelings", a period in which partisan distinctions at the national level had faded. Van Buren quickly became a prominent figure in Washington, D.C., befriending Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, among others. Though not an exceptional orator, Van Buren frequently spoke on the Senate floor, usually after extensively researching the subject at hand. Despite his commitments as a father and state party leader, Van Buren remained closely engaged in his legislative duties, and during his time in the Senate he served as the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee. As he gained renown, Van Buren earned monikers like "Little Magician" and "Sly Fox". Van Buren chose to back Crawford over John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Henry Clay in the presidential election of 1824. Crawford shared Van Buren's affinity for Jeffersonian principles of states' rights and limited government, and Van Buren believed that Crawford was the ideal figure to lead a coalition of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia's "Richmond Junto". Van Buren's support for Crawford aroused strong opposition in New York in the form of the People's party, which drew support from Clintonians, Federalists, and others opposed to Van Buren. Nonetheless, Van Buren helped Crawford win the Democratic-Republican party's presidential nomination at the February 1824 congressional nominating caucus. The other Democratic-Republican candidates in the race refused to accept the poorly attended caucus's decision, and as the Federalist Party had all but ceased to function as a national party, the 1824 campaign became a competition among four candidates of the same party. Though Crawford suffered a severe stroke that left him in poor health, Van Buren continued to support his chosen candidate. Van Buren met with Thomas Jefferson in May 1824 in an attempt to bolster Crawford's candidacy, and though he was unsuccessful in gaining a public endorsement for Crawford, he nonetheless cherished the chance to meet with his political hero. The 1824 elections dealt a severe blow to the Albany Regency, as Clinton returned to the governorship with the support of the People's party. By the time the state legislature convened to choose the state's presidential electors, results from other states had made it clear that no individual would win a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the United States House of Representatives. While Adams and Jackson finished in the top three and were eligible for selection in the contingent election, New York's electors would help determine whether Clay or Crawford would finish third. Though most of the state's electoral votes went to Adams, Crawford won one more electoral vote than Clay in the state, and Clay's defeat in Louisiana left Crawford in third place. With Crawford still in the running, Van Buren lobbied members of the House to support him. He hoped to engineer a Crawford victory on the second ballot of the contingent election, but Adams won on the first ballot with the help of Clay and Stephen Van Rensselaer, a Congressman from New York. Despite his close ties with Van Buren, Van Rensselaer cast his vote for Adams, thus giving Adams a narrow majority of New York's delegation and a victory in the contingent election. After the House contest, Van Buren shrewdly kept out of the controversy which followed, and began looking forward to 1828. Jackson was angered to see the presidency go to Adams despite having won more popular votes than he had, and he eagerly looked forward to a rematch. Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of having made a "corrupt bargain" in which Clay helped Adams win the contingent election in return for Clay's appointment as Secretary of State. Van Buren was always courteous in his treatment of opponents and showed no bitterness toward either Adams or Clay, and he voted to confirm Clay's nomination to the cabinet. At the same time, Van Buren opposed the Adams-Clay plans for internal improvements like roads and canals and declined to support U.S. participation in the Congress of Panama. Van Buren considered Adams's proposals to represent a return to the Hamiltonian economic model favored by Federalists, which he strongly opposed. Despite his opposition to Adams's public policies, Van Buren easily secured re-election in his divided home state in 1827. 1828 elections Van Buren's overarching goal at the national level was to restore a two-party system with party cleavages based on philosophical differences, and he viewed the old divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans as beneficial to the nation. Van Buren believed that these national parties helped ensure that elections were decided on national, rather than sectional or local, issues; as he put it, "party attachment in former times furnished a complete antidote for sectional prejudices". After the 1824 election, Van Buren was initially somewhat skeptical of Jackson, who had not taken strong positions on most policy issues. Nonetheless, he settled on Jackson as the one candidate who could beat Adams in the 1828 presidential election, and he worked to bring Crawford's former backers into line behind Jackson. He also forged alliances with other members of Congress opposed to Adams, including Vice President John C. Calhoun, Senator Thomas Hart Benton, and Senator John Randolph. Seeking to solidify his standing in New York and bolster Jackson's campaign, Van Buren helped arrange the passage of the Tariff of 1828, which opponents labeled as the "Tariff of Abominations". The tariff satisfied many who sought protection from foreign competition, but angered Southern cotton interests and New Englanders. Because Van Buren believed that the South would never support Adams, and New England would never support Jackson, he was willing to alienate both regions through passage of the tariff. Meanwhile, Clinton's death from a heart attack in 1828 dramatically shook up the politics of Van Buren's home state, while the Anti-Masonic Party emerged as an increasingly important factor. After some initial reluctance, Van Buren chose to run for Governor of New York in the 1828 election. Hoping that a Jackson victory would lead to his elevation to Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury, Van Buren chose Enos T. Throop as his running mate and preferred successor. Van Buren's candidacy was aided by the split between supporters of Adams, who had adopted the label of National Republicans, and the Anti-Masonic Party. Reflecting his public association with Jackson, Van Buren accepted the gubernatorial nomination on a ticket that called itself "Jacksonian-Democrat". He campaigned on local as well as national issues, emphasizing his opposition to the policies of the Adams administration. Van Buren ran ahead of Jackson, winning the state by 30,000 votes compared to a margin of 5,000 for Jackson. Nationally, Jackson defeated Adams by a wide margin, winning nearly every state outside of New England. After the election, Van Buren resigned from the Senate to start his term as governor, which began on January 1, 1829. While his term as governor was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Fund Law, an early form of deposit insurance, through the legislature. He also appointed several key supporters, including William L. Marcy and Silas Wright, to important state positions. Jackson administration (1829–1837) Secretary of State In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State. Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor the following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest of any Governor of New York. No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the Napoleonic Wars. He reached an agreement with the British to open trade with the British West Indies colonies and concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that gained American merchants access to the Black Sea. Items on which he did not achieve success included settling the Maine-New Brunswick boundary dispute with Great Britain, gaining settlement of the U.S. claim to the Oregon Country, concluding a commercial treaty with Russia, and persuading Mexico to sell Texas. In addition to his foreign policy duties, Van Buren quickly emerged as an important advisor to Jackson on major domestic issues like the tariff and internal improvements. The Secretary of State was instrumental in convincing Jackson to issue the Maysville Road veto, which both reaffirmed limited government principles and also helped prevent the construction of infrastructure projects that could potentially compete with New York's Erie Canal. He also became involved in a power struggle with Calhoun over appointments and other issues, including the Petticoat Affair. The Petticoat Affair arose because Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War John H. Eaton, was ostracized by the other cabinet wives due to the circumstances of her marriage. Led by Floride Calhoun, wife of Vice President John Calhoun, the other cabinet wives refused to pay courtesy calls to the Eatons, receive them as visitors, or invite them to social events. As a widower, Van Buren was unaffected by the position of the cabinet wives. Van Buren initially sought to mend the divide in the cabinet, but most of the leading citizens in Washington continued to snub the Eatons. Jackson was close to Eaton, and he came to the conclusion that the allegations against Eaton arose from a plot against his administration led by Henry Clay. The Petticoat Affair, combined with a contentious debate over the tariff and Calhoun's decade-old criticisms of Jackson's actions in the First Seminole War, contributed to a split between Jackson and Calhoun. As the debate over the tariff and the proposed ability of South Carolina to nullify federal law consumed Washington, Van Buren increasingly emerged as Jackson's likely successor. The Petticoat affair was finally resolved when Van Buren offered to resign. In April 1831, Jackson accepted and reorganized his cabinet by asking for the resignations of the anti-Eaton cabinet members. Postmaster General William T. Barry, who had sided with the Eatons in the Petticoat Affair, was the lone cabinet member to remain in office. The cabinet reorganization removed Calhoun's allies from the Jackson administration, and Van Buren had a major role in shaping the new cabinet. After leaving office, Van Buren continued to play a part in the Kitchen Cabinet, Jackson's informal circle of advisors. Ambassador to Britain and Vice-presidency In August 1831, Jackson gave Van Buren a recess appointment as the ambassador to Britain, and Van Buren arrived in London in September. He was cordially received, but in February 1832, he learned that the Senate had rejected his nomination. The rejection of Van Buren was essentially the work of Calhoun. When the vote on Van Buren's nomination was taken, enough pro-Calhoun Jacksonians refrained from voting to produce a tie, which allowed Calhoun to cast the deciding vote against Van Buren. Calhoun was elated, convinced that he had ended Van Buren's career. "It will kill him dead, sir, kill him dead. He will never kick, sir, never kick", Calhoun exclaimed to a friend. Calhoun's move backfired; by making Van Buren appear the victim of petty politics, Calhoun raised Van Buren in both Jackson's regard and the esteem of others in the Democratic Party. Far from ending Van Buren's career, Calhoun's action gave greater impetus to Van Buren's candidacy for vice president. Seeking to ensure that Van Buren would replace Calhoun as his running mate, Jackson had arranged for a national convention of his supporters. The May 1832 Democratic National Convention subsequently nominated Van Buren to serve as the party's vice presidential nominee. Van Buren won the nomination over Philip P. Barbour (Calhoun's favored candidate) and Richard Mentor Johnson due to the support of Jackson and the strength of the Albany Regency. Upon Van Buren's return from Europe in July 1832, he became involved in the Bank War, a struggle over the renewal of the charter of the Second Bank of the United States. Van Buren had long been distrustful of banks, and he viewed the Bank as an extension of the Hamiltonian economic program, so he supported Jackson's veto of the Bank's re-charter. Henry Clay, the presidential nominee of the National Republicans, made the struggle over the Bank the key issue of the presidential election of 1832. The Jackson–Van Buren ticket won the 1832 election by a landslide, and Van Buren took office as vice president in March 1833. During the Nullification Crisis, Van Buren counseled Jackson to pursue a policy of conciliation with South Carolina leaders. He played little direct role in the passage of the Tariff of 1833, but he quietly hoped that the tariff would help bring an end to the Nullification Crisis, which it did. As Vice President, Van Buren continued to be one of Jackson's primary advisors and confidants, and accompanied Jackson on his tour of the northeastern United States in 1833. Jackson's struggle with the Second Bank of the United States continued, as the president sought to remove federal funds from the Bank. Though initially apprehensive of the removal due to congressional support for the Bank, Van Buren eventually came to support Jackson's policy. He also helped undermine a fledgling alliance between Jackson and Daniel Webster, a senator from Massachusetts who could have potentially threatened Van Buren's project to create two parties separated by policy differences rather than personalities. During Jackson's second term, the president's supporters began to refer to themselves as members of the Democratic Party. Meanwhile, those opposed to Jackson, including Clay's National Republicans, followers of Calhoun and Webster, and many members of the Anti-Masonic Party, coalesced into the Whig Party. Presidential election of 1836 President Andrew Jackson declined to seek another term in the 1836 presidential election, but he remained influential within the Democratic Party as his second term came to an end. Jackson was determined to help elect Van Buren in 1836 so that the latter could continue the Jackson administration's policies. The two men—the charismatic "Old Hickory" and the efficient "Sly Fox"—had entirely different personalities but had become an effective team in eight years in office together. With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the 1835 Democratic National Convention without opposition. Two names were put forward for the vice-presidential nomination: Representative Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, and former Senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia. Southern Democrats, and Van Buren himself, strongly preferred Rives. Jackson, on the other hand, strongly preferred Johnson. Again, Jackson's considerable influence prevailed, and Johnson received the required two-thirds vote after New York Senator Silas Wright prevailed upon non-delegate Edward Rucker to cast the 15 votes of the absent Tennessee delegation in Johnson's favor. Van Buren's competitors in the election of 1836 were three members of the Whig Party, which remained a loose coalition bound by mutual opposition to Jackson's anti-bank policies. Lacking the party unity or organizational strength to field a single ticket or define a single platform, the Whigs ran several regional candidates in hopes of sending the election to the House of Representatives. The three candidates were Hugh Lawson White of Tennessee, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and William Henry Harrison of Indiana. Besides endorsing internal improvements and a national bank, the Whigs tried to tie Democrats to abolitionism and sectional tension, and attacked Jackson for "acts of aggression and usurpation of power". Southern voters represented the biggest potential impediment to Van Buren's quest for the presidency, as many were apprehensive at the prospect of a Northern president. Van Buren moved to obtain their support by assuring them that he opposed abolitionism and supported maintaining slavery in states where it already existed. To demonstrate consistency regarding his opinions on slavery, Van Buren cast the tie-breaking Senate vote for a bill to subject abolitionist mail to state laws, thus ensuring that its circulation would be prohibited in the South. Van Buren considered slavery to be immoral but sanctioned by the Constitution. Van Buren won the election with 764,198 popular votes, 50.9% of the total, and 170 electoral votes. Harrison led the Whigs with 73 electoral votes, White receiving 26, and Webster 14. Willie Person Mangum received South Carolina's 11 electoral votes, which were awarded by the state legislature. Van Buren's victory resulted from a combination of his attractive political and personal qualities, Jackson's popularity and endorsement, the organizational power of the Democratic Party, and the inability of the Whig Party to muster an effective candidate and campaign. Virginia's presidential electors voted for Van Buren for president, but voted for William Smith for vice president, leaving Johnson one electoral vote short of election. In accordance with the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate elected Johnson vice president in a contingent vote. The election of 1836 marked an important turning point in American political history because it saw the establishment of the Second Party System. In the early 1830s, the political party structure was still changing, rapidly, and factional and personal leaders continued to play a major role in politics. By the end of the campaign of 1836, the new party system was almost complete, as nearly every faction had been absorbed by either the Democrats or the Whigs. Presidency (1837–1841) Cabinet Van Buren retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would stop Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity. The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of the country: Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury came from New England, Attorney General Benjamin F. Butler and Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson hailed from mid-Atlantic states, Secretary of State John Forsyth represented the South, and Postmaster General Amos Kendall of Kentucky represented the West. For the lone open position of Secretary of War, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought the vice presidency in 1836. After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett, a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the Nullification Crisis. Van Buren's cabinet choices were criticized by Pennsylvanians such as James Buchanan, who argued that their state deserved a cabinet position as well as some Democrats who argued that Van Buren should have used his patronage powers to augment his power. However, Van Buren saw value in avoiding contentious patronage battles, and his decision to retain Jackson's cabinet made it clear that he intended to continue the policies of his predecessor. Additionally, Van Buren had helped select Jackson's cabinet appointees and enjoyed strong working relationships with them. Van Buren held regular formal cabinet meetings and discontinued the informal gatherings of advisors that had attracted so much attention during Jackson's presidency. He solicited advice from department heads, tolerated open and even frank exchanges between cabinet members, perceiving himself as "a mediator, and to some extent an umpire between the conflicting opinions" of his counselors. Such detachment allowed the president to reserve judgment and protect his prerogative for making final decisions. These open discussions gave cabinet members a sense of participation and made them feel part of a functioning entity, rather than isolated executive agents. Van Buren was closely involved in foreign affairs and matters pertaining to the Treasury Department; but the Post Office, War Department, and Navy Department had significant autonomy under their respective cabinet secretaries. Panic of 1837 When Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over. Two months into his presidency, on May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit. This financial crisis would become known as the Panic of 1837. The Panic was followed by a five-year depression in which banks failed and unemployment reached record highs. Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular. Cries of "rescind the circular!" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank of the United States was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic. The Panic of 1837 loomed large over the 1838 election cycle, as the carryover effects of the economic downturn led to Whig gains in both the U.S. House and Senate. The state elections in 1837 and 1838 were also disastrous for the Democrats, and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis later that year. To address the crisis, the Whigs proposed rechartering the national bank. The president countered by proposing the establishment of an independent U.S. treasury, which he contended would take the politics out of the nation's money supply. Under the plan, the government would hold its money in gold or silver, and would be restricted from printing paper money at will; both measures were designed to prevent inflation. The plan would permanently separate the government from private banks by storing government funds in government vaults rather than in private banks. Van Buren announced his proposal in September 1837, but an alliance of conservative Democrats and Whigs prevented it from becoming law until 1840. As the debate continued, conservative Democrats like Rives defected to the Whig Party, which itself grew more unified in its opposition to Van Buren. The Whigs would abolish the Independent Treasury system in 1841, but it was revived in 1846, and remained in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in his upcoming re-election campaign. Indian removal Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian tribes during Van Buren's presidency. The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma. In 1838, Van Buren directed General Winfield Scott to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with the treaty. The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but in the fall, the Cherokee reluctantly agreed to transport themselves west. Some 20,000 people were relocated against their will during the Cherokee removal, part of the Trail of Tears. Notably, Ralph Waldo Emerson, who would go on to become America's foremost man of letters, wrote Van Buren a letter protesting his treatment of the Cherokee. The administration also contended with the Seminole Indians, who engaged the army in a prolonged conflict known as the Second Seminole War. Before he left office, Jackson put General Thomas Jesup in command of all military troops in Florida to force Seminole emigration to the West. Forts were established throughout the Indian territory, and mobile columns of soldiers scoured the countryside, and many Seminoles offered to surrender, including Chief Micanopy. The Seminoles slowly gathered for emigration near Tampa, but in June they fled the detention camps, driven off by disease and the presence of slave catchers hoping to capture Black Seminoles. In December 1837, Jesup began a massive offensive, culminating in the Battle of Lake Okeechobee, and the war entered a new phase of attrition. During this time, the government realized that it would be almost impossible to drive the remaining Seminoles from Florida, so Van Buren sent General Alexander Macomb to negotiate peace with them. It was the only time that an Indian tribe had forced the government to sue for peace. An agreement was reached allowing the Seminoles to remain in southwest Florida, but the peace was shattered in July 1839 and was not restored until 1842, after Van Buren had left office. Texas Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas, which had won independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. By suggesting the prospect of quick annexation, Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home. New England abolitionists charged that there was a "slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation. Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States. Boldly reversing Jackson's policies, Van Buren sought peace abroad and harmony at home. He proposed a diplomatic solution to a long-standing financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government, rejecting Jackson's threat to settle it by force. Likewise, when the Texas minister at Washington, D.C., proposed annexation to the administration in August 1837, he was told that the proposition could not be entertained. Constitutional scruples and fear of war with Mexico were the reasons given for the rejection, but concern that it would precipitate a clash over the extension of slavery undoubtedly influenced Van Buren and continued to be the chief obstacle to annexation. Northern and Southern Democrats followed an unspoken rule: Northerners helped quash anti-slavery proposals and Southerners refrained from agitating for the annexation of Texas. Texas withdrew the annexation offer in 1838. Britain British subjects in Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario) rose in rebellion in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of responsible government. While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended quickly (following the December 1837 Battle of Montgomery's Tavern), many of the rebels fled across the Niagara River into New York, and Canadian leader William Lyon Mackenzie began recruiting volunteers in Buffalo. Mackenzie declared the establishment of the Republic of Canada and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River. Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed. They procured the steamboat Caroline to deliver supplies to Navy Island from Fort Schlosser. Seeking to deter an imminent invasion, British forces crossed to the American bank of the river in late December 1837, and they burned and sank the Caroline. In the melee, one American was killed and others were wounded. Considerable sentiment arose within the United States to declare war, and a British ship was burned in revenge. Van Buren, looking to avoid a war with Great Britain, sent General Winfield Scott to the Canada–United States border with large discretionary powers for its protection and its peace. | isolated executive agents. Van Buren was closely involved in foreign affairs and matters pertaining to the Treasury Department; but the Post Office, War Department, and Navy Department had significant autonomy under their respective cabinet secretaries. Panic of 1837 When Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over. Two months into his presidency, on May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit. This financial crisis would become known as the Panic of 1837. The Panic was followed by a five-year depression in which banks failed and unemployment reached record highs. Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular. Cries of "rescind the circular!" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank of the United States was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic. The Panic of 1837 loomed large over the 1838 election cycle, as the carryover effects of the economic downturn led to Whig gains in both the U.S. House and Senate. The state elections in 1837 and 1838 were also disastrous for the Democrats, and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis later that year. To address the crisis, the Whigs proposed rechartering the national bank. The president countered by proposing the establishment of an independent U.S. treasury, which he contended would take the politics out of the nation's money supply. Under the plan, the government would hold its money in gold or silver, and would be restricted from printing paper money at will; both measures were designed to prevent inflation. The plan would permanently separate the government from private banks by storing government funds in government vaults rather than in private banks. Van Buren announced his proposal in September 1837, but an alliance of conservative Democrats and Whigs prevented it from becoming law until 1840. As the debate continued, conservative Democrats like Rives defected to the Whig Party, which itself grew more unified in its opposition to Van Buren. The Whigs would abolish the Independent Treasury system in 1841, but it was revived in 1846, and remained in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in his upcoming re-election campaign. Indian removal Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian tribes during Van Buren's presidency. The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma. In 1838, Van Buren directed General Winfield Scott to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with the treaty. The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but in the fall, the Cherokee reluctantly agreed to transport themselves west. Some 20,000 people were relocated against their will during the Cherokee removal, part of the Trail of Tears. Notably, Ralph Waldo Emerson, who would go on to become America's foremost man of letters, wrote Van Buren a letter protesting his treatment of the Cherokee. The administration also contended with the Seminole Indians, who engaged the army in a prolonged conflict known as the Second Seminole War. Before he left office, Jackson put General Thomas Jesup in command of all military troops in Florida to force Seminole emigration to the West. Forts were established throughout the Indian territory, and mobile columns of soldiers scoured the countryside, and many Seminoles offered to surrender, including Chief Micanopy. The Seminoles slowly gathered for emigration near Tampa, but in June they fled the detention camps, driven off by disease and the presence of slave catchers hoping to capture Black Seminoles. In December 1837, Jesup began a massive offensive, culminating in the Battle of Lake Okeechobee, and the war entered a new phase of attrition. During this time, the government realized that it would be almost impossible to drive the remaining Seminoles from Florida, so Van Buren sent General Alexander Macomb to negotiate peace with them. It was the only time that an Indian tribe had forced the government to sue for peace. An agreement was reached allowing the Seminoles to remain in southwest Florida, but the peace was shattered in July 1839 and was not restored until 1842, after Van Buren had left office. Texas Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas, which had won independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. By suggesting the prospect of quick annexation, Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home. New England abolitionists charged that there was a "slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation. Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States. Boldly reversing Jackson's policies, Van Buren sought peace abroad and harmony at home. He proposed a diplomatic solution to a long-standing financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government, rejecting Jackson's threat to settle it by force. Likewise, when the Texas minister at Washington, D.C., proposed annexation to the administration in August 1837, he was told that the proposition could not be entertained. Constitutional scruples and fear of war with Mexico were the reasons given for the rejection, but concern that it would precipitate a clash over the extension of slavery undoubtedly influenced Van Buren and continued to be the chief obstacle to annexation. Northern and Southern Democrats followed an unspoken rule: Northerners helped quash anti-slavery proposals and Southerners refrained from agitating for the annexation of Texas. Texas withdrew the annexation offer in 1838. Britain British subjects in Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario) rose in rebellion in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of responsible government. While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended quickly (following the December 1837 Battle of Montgomery's Tavern), many of the rebels fled across the Niagara River into New York, and Canadian leader William Lyon Mackenzie began recruiting volunteers in Buffalo. Mackenzie declared the establishment of the Republic of Canada and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River. Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed. They procured the steamboat Caroline to deliver supplies to Navy Island from Fort Schlosser. Seeking to deter an imminent invasion, British forces crossed to the American bank of the river in late December 1837, and they burned and sank the Caroline. In the melee, one American was killed and others were wounded. Considerable sentiment arose within the United States to declare war, and a British ship was burned in revenge. Van Buren, looking to avoid a war with Great Britain, sent General Winfield Scott to the Canada–United States border with large discretionary powers for its protection and its peace. Scott impressed upon American citizens the need for a peaceful resolution to the crisis, and made it clear that the U.S. government would not support adventuresome Americans attacking the British. Also, in early January 1838, the president proclaimed U.S. neutrality in the Canadian independence issue, a declaration which Congress endorsed by passing a neutrality law designed to discourage the participation of American citizens in foreign conflicts. During the Canadian rebellions, Charles Duncombe and Robert Nelson helped foment a largely American militia, the Hunters' Lodge/Frères chasseurs. This militia carried out several attacks in Upper Canada between December 1837 and December 1838, collectively known as the Patriot War. The administration followed through on its enforcement of the Neutrality Act, encouraged the prosecution of filibusters, and actively deterred U.S. citizens from subversive activities abroad. In the long term, Van Buren's opposition to the Patriot War contributed to the construction of healthy Anglo-American and Canada–United States relations in the 20th century; it also led, more immediately, to a backlash among citizens regarding the seeming overreach of federal authority, which hurt congressional Democrats in the 1838 midterm elections. A new crisis surfaced in late 1838, in the disputed territory on the Maine–New Brunswick frontier, where Americans were settling on long-disputed land claimed by the United States and Great Britain. Jackson had been willing to drop American claims to the region in return for other concessions, but Maine was unwilling to drop its claims to the disputed territory. The British considered possession of the area vital to the defense of Canada. Both American and New Brunswick lumberjacks cut timber in the disputed territory during the winter of 1838–1839. On December 29, New Brunswick lumbermen were spotted cutting down trees on an American estate near the Aroostook River. After American woodcutters rushed to stand guard, a shouting match, known as the Battle of Caribou, ensued. Tensions quickly boiled over into a near war with both Maine and New Brunswick arresting each other's citizens. The crisis seemed ready to turn into an armed conflict. British troops began to gather along the Saint John River. Governor John Fairfield mobilized the state militia to confront the British in the disputed territory and several forts were constructed. The American press clamored for war; "Maine and her soil, or BLOOD!" screamed one editorial. "Let the sword be drawn and the scabbard thrown away!" In June, Congress authorized 50,000 troops and a $10 million budget in the event foreign military troops crossed into United States territory. Van Buren was unwilling to go to war over the disputed territory, though he assured Maine that he would respond to any attacks by the British. To settle the crisis, Van Buren met with the British minister to the United States, and Van Buren and the minister agreed to resolve the border issue diplomatically. Van Buren also sent General Scott to the northern border area, both to show military resolve, and more importantly, to lower the tensions. Scott successfully convinced all sides to submit the border issue to arbitration. The border dispute was put to rest a few years later, with the signing of the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty. Amistad case The Amistad case was a freedom suit that involved international issues and parties, as well as United States law, resulting from the rebellion of Africans on board the Spanish schooner La Amistad in 1839. Van Buren viewed abolitionism as the greatest threat to the nation's unity, and he resisted the slightest interference with slavery in the states where it existed. His administration supported the Spanish government's demand that the ship and its cargo (including the Africans) be turned over to them. A federal district court judge ruled that the Africans were legally free and should be transported home, but Van Buren's administration appealed the case to the Supreme Court. In February 1840, former president John Quincy Adams argued passionately for the Africans' right to freedom, and Attorney General Henry D. Gilpin presented the government's case. In March 1841, the Supreme Court issued its final verdict: the Amistad Africans were free people and should be allowed to return home. The unique nature of the case heightened public interest in the saga, including the participation of former president Adams, Africans testifying in federal court, and their representation by prominent lawyers. The Amistad case drew attention to the personal tragedies of slavery and attracted new support for the growing abolition movement in the North. It also transformed the courts into the principal forum for a national debate on the legal foundations of slavery. Judicial appointments Van Buren appointed two Associate Justices to the Supreme Court: John McKinley, confirmed September 25, 1837, and Peter Vivian Daniel, confirmed March 2, 1841. He also appointed eight other federal judges, all to United States district courts. White House hostess For the first half of his presidency, Van Buren, who had been a widower for many years, did not have a specific person to act as White House hostess at administration social events, but tried to assume such duties himself. When his eldest son Abraham Van Buren married Angelica Singleton in 1838, he quickly acted to install his daughter-in-law as his hostess. She solicited the advice of her distant relative, Dolley Madison, who had moved back to Washington after her husband's death, and soon the president's parties livened up. After the 1839 New Year's Eve reception, the Boston Post raved: "[Angelica Van Buren is a] lady of rare accomplishments, very modest yet perfectly easy and graceful in her manners and free and vivacious in her conversation ... universally admired." As the nation endured a deep economic depression, Angelica Van Buren's receiving style at receptions was influenced by her heavy reading about European court life (and her naive delight in being received as the Queen of the United States when she visited the royal courts of England and France after her marriage). Newspaper coverage of this, and the claim that she intended to re-landscape the White House grounds to resemble the royal gardens of Europe, was used in a political attack on her father-in-law by a Pennsylvania Whig Congressman Charles Ogle. He referred obliquely to her as part of the presidential "household" in his famous Gold Spoon Oration. The attack was delivered in Congress and the depiction of the president as living a royal lifestyle was a primary factor in his defeat for re-election. Presidential election of 1840 Van Buren easily won renomination for a second term at the 1840 Democratic National Convention, but he and his party faced a difficult election in 1840. Van Buren's presidency had been a difficult affair, with the U.S. economy mired in a severe downturn, and other divisive issues, such as slavery, western expansion, and tensions with Great Britain, providing opportunities for Van Buren's political opponents—including some of his fellow Democrats—to criticize his actions. Although Van Buren's renomination was never in doubt, Democratic strategists began to question the wisdom of keeping Johnson on the ticket. Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was a liability and insisted on former House Speaker James K. Polk of Tennessee as Van Buren's new running mate. Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson, who was popular with workers and radicals in the North and added military experience to the ticket, which might prove important against likely Whig nominee William Henry Harrison. Rather than re-nominating Johnson, the Democratic convention decided to allow state Democratic Party leaders to select the vice-presidential candidates for their states. Van Buren hoped that the Whigs would nominate Clay for president, which would allow Van Buren to cast the 1840 campaign as a clash between Van Buren's Independent Treasury system and Clay's support for a national bank. However, rather than nominating longtime party spokesmen like Clay and Daniel Webster, the 1839 Whig National Convention nominated Harrison, who had served in various governmental positions during his career and had earned fame for his military leadership in the Battle of Tippecanoe and the War of 1812. Whig leaders like William Seward and Thaddeus Stevens believed that Harrison's war record would effectively counter the popular appeals of the Democratic Party. For vice president, the Whigs nominated former Senator John Tyler of Virginia. Clay was deeply disappointed by his defeat at the convention, but he nonetheless threw his support behind Harrison. Whigs presented Harrison as the antithesis of the president, whom they derided as ineffective, corrupt, and effete. Whigs also depicted Van Buren as an aristocrat living in high style in the White House, while they used images of Harrison in a log cabin sipping cider to convince voters that he was a man of the people. They threw such jabs as "Van, Van, is a used-up man" and "Martin Van Ruin" and ridiculed him in newspapers and cartoons. Issues of policy were not absent from the campaign; the Whigs derided the alleged executive overreaches of Jackson and Van Buren, while also calling for a national bank and higher tariffs. Democrats attempted to campaign on the Independent Treasury system, but the onset of deflation undercut these arguments. The enthusiasm for "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too", coupled with the country's severe economic crisis, made it impossible for Van Buren to win a second term. Harrison won by a popular vote of 1,275,612 to 1,130,033, and an electoral vote margin of 234 to 60. An astonishing 80% of eligible voters went to the polls on election day. Van Buren actually won more votes than he had in 1836, but the Whig success in attracting new voters more than canceled out Democratic gains. Additionally, Whigs won majorities for the first time in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. Post-presidency (1841–1862) Election of 1844 On the expiration of his term, Van Buren returned to his estate of Lindenwald in Kinderhook. He continued to closely watch political developments, including the battle between Clay and President Tyler, who took office after Harrison's death in April 1841. Though undecided on another presidential run, Van Buren made several moves calculated to maintain his support, including a trip to the South and West during which he met with Jackson, former Speaker of the House James K. Polk, and others. President Tyler, James Buchanan, Levi Woodbury, and others loomed as potential challengers for the 1844 Democratic nomination, but it was Calhoun who posed the most formidable obstacle. Van Buren remained silent on major public issues like the debate over the Tariff of 1842, hoping to arrange for the appearance of a draft movement for his presidential candidacy. President John Tyler made the annexation of Texas his chief foreign policy goal, and many Democrats, particularly in the South, were anxious to quickly complete the annexation of Texas. After an explosion on the killed Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur in February 1844, Tyler brought Calhoun into his cabinet to direct foreign affairs. Like Tyler, Calhoun pursued the annexation of Texas to upend the presidential race and to extend slavery into new territories. Shortly after taking office, Secretary of State Calhoun negotiated an annexation treaty between the United States and Texas. Van Buren had hoped he would not have to take a public stand on annexation, but as the Texas question came to dominate U.S. politics, he decided to make his views on the issue public. Though he believed that his public acceptance of annexation would likely help him win the 1844 Democratic nomination, Van Buren thought that annexation would inevitably lead to an unjust war with Mexico. In a public letter published shortly after Henry Clay also announced his opposition to the annexation treaty, Van Buren articulated his views on the Texas question. Van Buren's opposition to immediate annexation cost him the support of many pro-slavery Democrats. In the weeks before the 1844 Democratic National Convention, Van Buren's supporters anticipated that he would win a majority of the delegates on the first presidential ballot, but would not be able to win the support of the required two-thirds of delegates. Van Buren's supporters attempted to prevent the adoption of the two-thirds rule, but several Northern delegates joined with Southern delegates in implementing the two-thirds rule for the 1844 convention. Van Buren won 146 of the 266 votes on the first presidential ballot, with only 12 of his votes coming from Southern states. Senator Lewis Cass won much of the remaining vote, and he gradually picked up support on subsequent ballots until the convention adjourned for the day. When the convention reconvened and held another ballot, James K. Polk, who shared many of Van Buren's views but favored immediate annexation, won 44 votes. On the ninth and final ballot of the convention, Van Buren's supporters withdrew the former president's name from consideration, and Polk won the Democratic presidential nomination. Although angered that his opponents had denied him in the nomination, Van Buren endorsed Polk in the interest of party unity. He also convinced Silas Wright to run for Governor of New York so that the popular Wright could help boost Polk in the state. Wright narrowly defeated Whig nominee Millard Fillmore in the 1844 gubernatorial election, and Wright's victory in the state helped Polk narrowly defeat Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. After taking office, Polk used George Bancroft as an intermediary to offer Van Buren the ambassadorship to London. Van Buren declined, partly because he was upset with Polk over the treatment the Van Buren delegates had received at the 1844 convention, and partly because he was content in his retirement. Polk also consulted Van Buren in the formation of his cabinet, but offended Van Buren by offering to appoint a New Yorker only to the lesser post of Secretary of War, rather than as Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury. Other patronage decisions also angered Van Buren and Wright, and they became permanently alienated from the Polk administration. Election of 1848 Though he had previously helped maintain a balance between the Barnburners and Hunkers, the two factions of the New York Democratic Party, Van Buren moved closer to the Barnburners after the 1844 Democratic National Convention. The split in the state party worsened during Polk's presidency, as his administration lavished patronage on the Hunkers. In his retirement, Van Buren also grew increasingly opposed to slavery. As the Mexican–American War brought the debate over slavery in the territories to the forefront of American politics, Van Buren published an anti-slavery manifesto. In it, he refuted the notion that Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories, and argued the Founding Fathers had favored the eventual abolition of slavery. The document, which became known as the "Barnburner Manifesto," was edited at Van Buren's request by John Van Buren and Samuel Tilden, both of whom were leaders of the Barnburner faction. After the publication of the Barnburner Manifesto, many Barnburners urged the former president to seek his old office in the 1848 presidential election. The 1848 Democratic National Convention seated competing Barnburner and Hunker delegations from New York, but the Barnburners walked out of the convention when Lewis Cass, who opposed congressional regulation of slavery in the territories, was nominated on the fourth ballot. In response to the nomination of Cass, the Barnburners began to organize as a third party. At a convention held in June 1848, in Utica, New York, the Barnburners nominated Van Buren for president. Though reluctant to bolt from the Democratic Party, Van Buren accepted the nomination to show the power of the anti-slavery movement, help defeat Cass, and weaken the Hunkers. At a convention held in Buffalo, New York in August 1848, a group of anti-slavery Democrats, Whigs, and members of the abolitionist Liberty Party met in the first national convention of what became known as the Free Soil Party. The convention unanimously nominated Van Buren, and chose Charles Francis Adams as Van Buren's running mate. In a public message accepting the nomination, Van Buren gave his full support for the Wilmot Proviso, a proposed law that would ban slavery in all territories acquired from Mexico in the Mexican–American War. Anti-slavery Whig orator Daniel Webster, in his "Marshfield Speech," expressed skepticism, in terms that may have influenced Whig voters, about the sincerity of Van Buren's espousal of the anti-slavery cause: Van Buren won no electoral votes, but finished second to Whig nominee Zachary Taylor in New York, taking enough votes from Cass to give the state—and perhaps the election—to Taylor. Nationwide, Van Buren won 10.1% of the popular vote, the strongest showing by a third-party presidential nominee up to that point in U.S. history. Retirement Van Buren never sought public office again after the 1848 election, but he continued to closely follow national politics. He was deeply troubled by the stirrings of secessionism in the South and welcomed the Compromise of 1850 as a necessary conciliatory measure despite his opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Van Buren also worked on a history of American political parties and embarked on a tour of Europe, becoming the first former American head of state to visit Britain. Though still concerned about slavery, Van Buren and his followers returned to the Democratic fold, partly out of the fear that a continuing Democratic split would help the Whig Party. He also attempted to reconcile the Barnburners and the Hunkers, with mixed results. Van Buren supported Franklin Pierce for president in 1852, James Buchanan in 1856, and Stephen A. Douglas in 1860. Van Buren viewed the fledgling Know Nothing movement with contempt and felt that the anti-slavery Republican Party exacerbated sectional tensions. He considered Chief Justice Roger Taney's ruling in the 1857 case of Dred Scott v. Sandford to be a "grievous mistake" since it overturned the Missouri Compromise. He believed that the Buchanan administration handled the issue of Bleeding Kansas poorly, and saw the Lecompton Constitution as a sop to Southern extremists. After the election of Abraham Lincoln and the secession of several Southern states in 1860, Van Buren unsuccessfully sought to call a constitutional convention. In April 1861, former president Pierce wrote to the other living former presidents and asked them to consider meeting to use their stature and influence to propose a negotiated end to the war. Pierce asked Van Buren to use his role as the senior living ex-president to issue a formal call. Van Buren's reply suggested that Buchanan should be the one to call the meeting, since he was the |
be reached. Different deals, half deals and possible deals were done over the years, with the Premier of Victoria, John Cain, Jr., even becoming involved. Cain was said to have promised the VFL it could use the MCG for six months of the year and then hand it back to the MCC, but this never eventuated, as the MCG Trust did not approve it. In the mid-1980s, a deal was done where the VFL was given its own members area in the Southern Stand. Against this background of political manoeuvring, in 1985 became the third club to make the MCG its home ground. In the same year, North played in the first night football match at the MCG for almost 110 years, against Collingwood on 29 March 1985. In 1986, only a month after Ross Oakley had taken over as VFL Commissioner, VFL executives met with the MCC and took a big step towards resolving their differences. Changes in the personnel at the MCC also helped. In 1983 John Lill was appointed secretary and Don Cordner its president. Shortly after the Southern Stand opened in 1992, the Australian Football League moved its headquarters into the complex. The AFL assisted with financing the new stand and came to an agreement that ensures at least 45 AFL games are played at the MCG each year, including the Grand Final in September. Another 45 days of cricket are also played there each year and more than 3.5 million spectators come to watch every year. As of the end of 2011, Matthew Richardson holds the records for having scored the most goals on the MCG and as of 2021 Scott Pendlebury holds the record for playing the most matches. Two players have scored 14 goals for an AFL or VFL game in one match at the MCG, Gary Ablett, Sr. in 1989 and 1993 and John Longmire in 1990. Before an AFL match between and on 27 August 1999, the city end scoreboard caught on fire due to an electrical fault, causing the start of play to be delayed by half an hour. World War II During World War II, the government requisitioned the MCG for military use. From 1942 until 1945 it was occupied by (in order): the United States Army Air Forces, the Royal Australian Air Force, the United States Marine Corps and again the RAAF. Over the course of the war, more than 200,000 personnel were barracked at the MCG. From April to October 1942, the US Army's Fifth Air Force occupied the ground, naming it "Camp Murphy", in honor of officer Colonel William Murphy, a senior USAAF officer killed in Java. In 1943 the MCG was home to the legendary First Regiment of the First Division of the United States Marine Corps. The First Marine Division were the heroes of the Guadalcanal campaign and used the "cricket grounds", as the marines referred to it, to rest and recuperate. On 14 March 1943 the marines hosted a giant "get together" of American and Australian troops on the arena. In 1977, Melbourne Cricket Club president Sir Albert Chadwick and Medal of Honor recipient, Colonel Mitchell Paige, unveiled a commemorative plaque recognizing the Americans' time at the ground. In episode 3 of the 2010 TV miniseries, The Pacific, members of the US Marines are shown to be camped in the war-era MCG. Olympic Games The MCG's most famous moment in history was as the main stadium for the 1956 Olympic Games, hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, track and field events, and the finals in field hockey and soccer. The MCG was only one of seven possible venues, including the Melbourne Showgrounds, for the Games' main arena. The MCG was the Federal Government's preferred venue but there was resistance from the MCC. The inability to decide on the central venue nearly caused the Games to be moved from Melbourne. Prime Minister Robert Menzies recognised the potential embarrassment to Australia if this happened and organised a three-day summit meeting to thrash things out. Attending was Victorian Premier John Cain, Sr., the Prime Minister, deputy opposition leader Arthur Calwell, all State political leaders, civic leaders, Olympic officials and trustees and officials of the MCC. Convening the meeting was no small effort considering the calibre of those attending and that many of the sports officials were only part-time amateurs. As 22 November, the date of the opening ceremony, drew closer, Melbourne was gripped ever more tightly by Olympic fever. At 3 pm the day before the opening ceremony, people began to line up outside the MCG gates. That night the city was paralysed by a quarter of a million people who had come to celebrate. The MCG's capacity was increased by the new Olympic (or Northern) Stand, and on the day itself 103,000 people filled the stadium to capacity. A young up and coming distance runner was chosen to carry the Olympic torch into the stadium for the opening ceremony. Although Ron Clarke had a number of junior world records for distances of 1500 m, one mile (1.6 km) and two miles (3 km), he was relatively unknown in 1956. Perhaps the opportunity to carry the torch inspired him because he went on to have a career of exceptional brilliance and was without doubt the most outstanding runner of his day. At one stage he held the world record for every distance from two miles (3 km) to 20 km. His few failures came in Olympic and Commonwealth Games competition. Although favourite for the gold at Tokyo in 1964 he was placed ninth in the 5,000 metres race and the marathon and third in the 10,000 metres. He lost again in the 1966 Commonwealth Games and in 1968 at altitude in Mexico he collapsed at the end of the 10 km race. On that famous day in Melbourne in 1956 the torch spluttered and sparked, showering Clarke with hot magnesium, burning holes in his shirt. When he dipped the torch into the cauldron it burst into flame singeing him further. In the centre of the ground, John Landy, the fastest miler in the world, took the Olympic oath and sculler Merv Wood carried the Australian flag. The Melbourne Games also saw the high point of Australian female sprinting with Betty Cuthbert winning three gold medals at the MCG. She won the 100 m and 200 m and anchored the winning 4 x 100 m team. Born in Merrylands in Sydney's west she was a champion schoolgirl athlete and had already broken the world record for the 200 m just before the 1956 Games. She was to be overshadowed by her Western Suburbs club member, the Marlene Matthews. When they got to the Games, Matthews was the overwhelming favourite especially for the 100 m a distance over which Cuthbert had beaten her just once. Both Matthews and Cuthbert won their heats with Matthews setting an Olympic record of 11.5 seconds in hers. Cuthbert broke that record in the following heat with a time of 11.4 seconds. The world record of 11.3 was held by another Australian, Shirley Strickland who was eliminated in her heat. In the final Matthews felt she got a bad start and was last at the 50 metre mark. Cuthbert sensed Isabella Daniels from the USA close behind her and pulled out a little extra to win Australia's first gold at the Games in a time of 11.5 seconds, Matthews was third. The result was repeated in the 200 m final. Cuthbert won her second gold breaking Marjorie Jackson's Olympic record. Mathews was third again. By the time the 1956 Olympics came around, Shirley Strickland was a mother of 31 years of age but managed to defend her 80 m title, which she had won in Helsinki four years before, winning gold and setting a new Olympic record. The sensational incident of the track events was the non-selection of Marlene Matthews in the 4 x 100 m relay. Matthews trained with the relay team up until the selection was made but Cuthbert, Strickland, Fleur Mellor and Norma Croker were picked for the team. There was outrage at the selection which increased when Matthews went on to run third in both the 100 m and 200 m finals. Personally she was devastated and felt that she had been overlooked for her poor baton change. Strickland was disappointed with the way Matthews was treated and maintained it was an opinion held in New South Wales that she had baton problems. One of the selectors, Doris Magee from NSW, said that selecting Matthews increased the risk of disqualification at the change. But Cuthbert maintained that the selectors made the right choice saying that Fleur Mellor was fresh, a specialist relay runner and was better around the curves than Matthews. The men did not fare so well. The 4 x 400 m relay team, including later IOC Committee member Kevan Gosper, won silver. Charles Porter also won silver in the high jump. Hec Hogan won bronze in the 100 m to become the first Australian man to win a medal in a sprint since the turn of the century and despite injury John Landy won bronze in the 1500 m. Allan Lawrence won bronze in the 10,000 m event. Apart from athletics, the stadium was also used for the soccer finals, the hockey finals, the Opening and Closing Ceremonies, and an exhibition game of baseball between the Australian National Team and a US armed services team at which an estimated crowd of 114,000 attended. This was the Guinness World Record for the largest attendance for any baseball game, which stood until a 29 March 2008 exhibition game between the Boston Red Sox and Los Angeles Dodgers at the Los Angeles Coliseum (also a former Olympic venue in 1932 and 1984) drawing 115,300. The MCG was also used for another demonstration sport, Australian Rules. The Olympics being an amateur competition meant that only amateurs could play in the demonstration game. A combined team of amateurs from the VFL and VFA were selected to play a state team from the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA). The game was played 7 December 1956 with the VAFA side, wearing white jumpers, green collars and the Olympic rings on their chests, winning easily 81 to 55. One of the players chosen for the VFA side was Lindsay Gaze (although he never got off the bench) who would go on to make his mark in another sport, basketball, rather than Australian Rules. The MCG's link with its Olympic past continues to this day. Within its walls is the IOC-endorsed Australian Gallery of Sport and Olympic Museum. Forty-four years later at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the ground hosted several soccer preliminaries, making it one of a few venues ever used for more than one Olympics. Commonwealth Games The Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the 2006 Commonwealth Games were held at the MCG, as well as athletics events during the games. The games began on 15 March and ended on 26 March. The seating capacity of the stadium during the games was 80,000. A total of 47 events were contested, of which 24 by male and 23 by female athletes. Furthermore, three men's and three women's disability events were held within the programme. All athletics events took place within the Melbourne Cricket Ground, while the marathon and racewalking events took place on the streets of Melbourne and finished at the main stadium. The hosts Australia easily won the medals table with 16 golds and 41 medals in total. Jamaica came second with 10 golds and 22 medals, while Kenya and England were the next best performers. A total of eleven Games records were broken over the course of the seven-day competition. Six of the records were broken by Australian athletes. Rugby union The first game of Rugby Union to be played on the ground was on Saturday, 29 June 1878, when the Waratah Club of Sydney played Carlton Football Club in a return of the previous year's contests in Sydney where the clubs had competed in both codes of football. The match, watched by a crowd of between 6,000 and 7,000 resulted in a draw; one goal and one try being awarded to each team. The next Rugby match was held on Wednesday 29 June 1881, when the Wanderers, a team organised under the auspices of the Melbourne Cricket Club, played a team representing a detached Royal Navy squadron then visiting Melbourne. The squadron team won by one goal and one try to nil. It was not until 19 August 1899 that the MCG was again the venue for a Union match, this time Victoria v the British Lions (as they were later to be called). During the preceding week the Victorians had held several trial and practice matches there, as well as several training sessions, despite which they were defeated 30–0 on the day before a crowd of some 7,000. Nine years later, on Monday, 10 August 1908, Victoria was again the host, this time to the Australian team en route to Great Britain and soon to be dubbed the First Wallabies. Despite being held on a working day some 1,500 spectators attended to see the visitors win by 26–6. On Saturday, 6 July 1912 the MCG was the venue, for the only time ever, of a match between two Victorian Rugby Union clubs, Melbourne and East Melbourne, the former winning 9–5 in what was reported to be ‘... one of the finest exhibitions of the Rugby game ever seen in Victoria.' It was played before a large crowd as a curtain raiser to a State Rules match against South Australia. On Saturday 18 June 1921, in another curtain raiser, this time to a Melbourne-Fitzroy League game, a team representing Victoria was soundly beaten 51–0 by the South African Springboks in front of a crowd of 11,214. It was nine years later, on Saturday 13 September 1930, that the British Lions returned to play Victoria, again before a crowd of 7,000, this time defeating the home side 41–36, a surprisingly narrow winning margin. The first post war match at the MCG was on 21 May 1949 when the NZ Maoris outclassed a Southern States side 35–8 before a crowd of close to 10,000. A year later, on 29 July 1950, for the first and only time, Queensland travelled to Victoria to play an interstate match, defeating their hosts 31–12 before a crowd of 7,479. In the following year the MCG was the venue for a contest between the New Zealand All Blacks and an Australian XV . This was on 30 June 1951 before some 9,000 spectators and resulted in a convincing 56–11 win for the visitors. Union did not return to the MCG until the late 1990s, for several night time Test matches, both Australia v New Zealand All Blacks as part of the Tri Nations Series. The first, on Saturday 26 July 1997, being notable for an attendance of 90,119, the visitors decisively winning 33–18 and the second, on Saturday 11 July 1998, for a victory to Australia of 24–16. Australia and New Zealand met again at the MCG during the 2007 Tri Nations Series on 30 June, the hosts again winning, this time by 20 points to 15 in front of a crowd of 79,322. Rugby league Rugby league was first played at the ground on 15 August 1914, with the New South Wales team losing to England 15–21. The first ever State of Origin match at the MCG (and second in Melbourne) was Game II of the 1994 series, and the attendance of 87,161 set a new record rugby league crowd in Australia. The MCG was also the venue for Game II of the 1995 State of Origin series and drew 52,994, the most of any game that series. The second game of the 1997 State of Origin series, which, due to the Super League war only featured Australian Rugby League-signed players, was played there too, but only attracted 25,105, the lowest in a series that failed to attract over 35,000 to any game. The Melbourne Storm played two marquee games at the MCG in 2000. This was the first time that they had played outside of their normal home ground of Olympic Park Stadium which held 18,500 people. Their first game was held on 3 March 2000 against the St. George Illawarra Dragons in a rematch of the infamous 1999 NRL Grand Final. Dragons player Anthony Mundine said the Storm were 'not worthy premiers' and they responded by running in 12 tries to two, winning 70–10 in front of 23,239 fans. This was their biggest crowd they had played against until 33,427 turned up to the 2007 Preliminary Final at Docklands Stadium which saw Melbourne defeat the Parramatta Eels 26–10. The record home and away crowd record has also been overhauled, when a match at Docklands in 2010 against St George attracted 25,480 spectators. Their second game attracted only 15,535 spectators and was up against the Cronulla Sharks on 24 June 2000. Once again, the Storm won 22–16. It was announced in June 2014 that the ground would host its first State of Origin match since 1997. Game II of the 2015 series was played at the venue, with an all-time record State of Origin crowd of 91,513 attending the match. The attendance is 19th on the all time rugby league attendance list and the 4th highest rugby league attendance in Australia. Soccer On 9 February 2006 Victorian premier Steve Bracks and Football Federation Australia chairman Frank Lowy announced that the MCG would host a world class soccer event each year from 2006 until 2009 inclusive. The agreement sees an annual fixture at the MCG, beginning with a clash between Australia and European champions Greece on 25 May 2006 in front of a sell-out crowd | a grassless desert and Gilbert, considering players fielded without boots, promptly sent Victoria into bat. Needing only 16 to win in the final innings, New South Wales collapsed to be 5 for 5 before Gilbert's batting saved the game and the visitors won by three wickets. In subsequent years conditions at the MCG improved but the ever-ambitious Melburnians were always on the lookout for more than the usual diet of club and inter-colonial games. In 1861, Felix William Spiers and Christopher Pond, the proprietors of the Cafe de Paris in Bourke Street and caterers to the MCC, sent their agent, W.B. Mallam, to England to arrange for a cricket team to visit Australia. Mallam found a team and, captained by Heathfield Stephenson, it arrived in Australia on Christmas Eve 1861 to be met by a crowd of more than 3000 people. The team was taken on a parade through the streets wearing white-trimmed hats with blue ribbons given to them for the occasion. Wherever they went they were mobbed and cheered by crowds to the point where the tour sponsors had to take them out of Melbourne so that they could train undisturbed. Their first game was at the MCG on New Year's Day 1862, against a Victorian XVIII. The Englishmen also wore coloured sashes around their waists to identify each player and were presented with hats to shade them from the sun. Some estimates put the crowd at the MCG that day at 25,000. It must have been quite a picture with a new 6000 seat grandstand, coloured marquees ringing the ground and a carnival outside. Stephenson said that the ground was better than any in England. The Victorians however, were no match for the English at cricket and the visitors won by an innings and 96 runs. Over the four days of the 'test' more than 45,000 people attended and the profits for Speirs and Pond from this game alone was enough to fund the whole tour. At that time it was the largest number of people to ever watch a cricket match anywhere in the world. Local cricket authorities went out of their way to cater for the needs of the team and the sponsors. They provided grounds and sponsors booths without charge and let the sponsors keep the gate takings. The sponsors however, were not so generous in return. They quibbled with the Melbourne Cricket Club about paying £175 for damages to the MCG despite a prior arrangement to do so. The last match of the tour was against a Victorian XXII at the MCG after which the English team planted an elm tree outside the ground. Following the success of this tour, a number of other English teams also visited in subsequent years. George Parr's side came out in 1863–64 and there were two tours by sides led by William Gilbert Grace. The fourth tour was led by James Lillywhite. On Boxing Day 1866 an Indigenous Australian cricket team played at the MCG with 11,000 spectators against an MCC team. A few players in that match were in a later team that toured England in 1868. Some also played in three other matches at the ground before 1869. First Test match Up until the fourth tour in 1877, led by James Lillywhite, touring teams had played first-class games against the individual colonial sides, but Lillywhite felt that his side had done well enough against New South Wales to warrant a game against an All Australian team. When Lillywhite headed off to New Zealand he left Melbourne cricketer John Conway to arrange the match for their return. Conway ignored the cricket associations in each colony and selected his own Australian team, negotiating directly with the players. Not only was the team he selected of doubtful representation but it was also probably not the strongest available as some players had declined to take part for various reasons. Demon bowler Fred Spofforth refused to play because wicket-keeper Billy Murdoch was not selected. Paceman Frank Allan was at Warnambool Agricultural Show and Australia's best all-rounder Edwin Evans could not get away from work. In the end only five Australian-born players were selected. The same could be said for Lillywhite's team which, being selected from only four counties, meant that some of England's best players did not take part. In addition, the team had a rough voyage back across the Tasman Sea and many members had been seasick. The game was due to be played on 15 March, the day after their arrival, but most had not yet fully recovered. On top of that, wicket-keeper Ted Pooley was still in a New Zealand prison after a brawl in a Christchurch pub. England was nonetheless favourite to win the game and the first ever Test match began with a crowd of only 1000 watching. The Australians elected Dave Gregory from New South Wales as Australia's first ever captain and on winning the toss he decided to bat. Charles Bannerman scored an unbeaten 165 before retiring hurt. Sydney Cricket Ground curator, Ned Gregory, playing in his one and only Test for Australia, scored Test cricket's first duck. Australia racked up 245 and 104 while England scored 196 and 108 giving Australia victory by 45 runs. The win hinged on Bannerman's century and a superb bowling performance by Tom Kendall who took 7 for 55 in England's second innings. A fortnight later there was a return game, although it was really more of a benefit for the English team. Australia included Spofforth, Murdoch and T.J.D. Cooper in the side but this time the honours went to England who won by four wickets. Two years later Lord Harris brought another England team out and during England's first innings in the Test at the MCG, Fred Spofforth took the first hat-trick in Test cricket. He bagged two hauls of 6 for 48 and 7 for 62 in Australia's ten wicket win. Cricket uses Through most of the 20th century, the Melbourne Cricket Ground was one of the two major Test venues in Australia (along with the Sydney Cricket Ground), and it would host one or two Tests in each summer in which Tests were played; since 1982, the Melbourne Cricket Ground has hosted one Test match each summer. Until 1979, the ground almost always hosted its match or one of its matches over the New Year, with the first day's play falling somewhere between 29 December and 1 January; in most years since 1980 and every year since 1995, its test has begun on Boxing Day, and it is now a standard fixture in the Australian cricket calendar and is known as the Boxing Day Test. The venue also hosts one-day international matches each year, and Twenty20 international matches most years. No other venue in Melbourne has hosted a Test, and Docklands Stadium is the only other venue to have hosted a limited-overs international. The Victorian first-class team plays Sheffield Shield cricket at the venue during the season. Prior to Test cricket being played on Boxing Day, it was a long-standing tradition for Victoria to host New South Wales in a first-class match on Boxing Day. Victoria also played its limited overs matches at the ground. Since the introduction of the domestic Twenty20 Big Bash League (BBL) in 2011, the Melbourne Stars club has played its home matches at the ground. It is also the home ground of the Melbourne Stars Women team, which plays in the Women's Big Bash League (WBBL). By the 1980s, the integral MCG pitch – grown from Merri Creek black soil – was considered the worst in Australia, in some matches exhibiting wildly inconsistent bounce which could see balls pass through as grubbers or rear dangerously high – a phenomenon which was put down to damage caused by footballers in winter and increased use for cricket during the summers of the 1970s. The integral pitch has since been removed and drop-in pitches have been cultivated and used since 1996, generally offering consistent bounce and a fair balance between bat and ball. The decade-and-a-half-old pitches degraded again through the late 2010s, seeing the pitch receive the first official International Cricket Council 'poor' rating by an Australian pitch in 2017, and saw another Sheffield Shield match abandoned in 2019; a new set of drop-in pitches will be grown and ready for use by the early 2020s. Highlights and lowlights The highest first class team score in history was posted at the MCG in the Boxing Day match against New South Wales in 1926–27. Victoria scored 1107 in two days, with Bill Ponsford scoring 352 and Jack Ryder scoring 295. One of the most sensational incidents in Test cricket occurred at the MCG during the Melbourne test of the 1954–55 England tour of Australia. Big cracks had appeared in the pitch during a very hot Saturday's play and on the rest day Sunday, groundsman Jack House watered the pitch to close them up. This was illegal and the story was leaked by The Age newspaper. The teams agreed to finish the match and England won by 128 runs after Frank Tyson took 7 for 27 in the final innings. An incident in the second Test of the 1960–61 series involved the West Indies player Joe Solomon being given out after his hat fell on the stumps after being bowled at by Richie Benaud. The crowd sided with the West Indies over the Australians. Not only was the first Test match played at the MCG, the first One Day International match was also played there, on 5 January 1971, between Australia and England. The match was played on what was originally scheduled to have been the fifth day of a Test match, but the Test was abandoned after the first three days were washed out. Australia won the 40-over match by 5 wickets. The next ODI was played in August 1972, some 19 months later. In March 1977, a Centenary Test Match was held between Australia and England to mark the 100th anniversary of the first Test match. The match was the idea of former Australian bowler and MCC committee member Hans Ebeling who had been responsible for developing the cricket museum at the MCG. England's Derek Randall scored 174, Australia's Rod Marsh also got a century, Dennis Lillee took 11 wickets, and David Hookes, in his first Test, hit five fours in a row off England captain Tony Greig's bowling. Rick McCosker opened the batting for Australia and suffered a fractured jaw after being hit by a sharply rising delivery. He left the field but came back in the second innings with his head swathed in bandages. Australia won the match by 45 runs, exactly the same margin as the first Test in 1877. Another incident occurred on 1 February 1981 at the end of a one-day match between Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand, batting second, needed six runs off the last ball of the day to tie the game. Australian captain, Greg Chappell instructed his brother Trevor, who was bowling the last over, to send the last ball down underarm to prevent the New Zealand batsman, Brian McKechnie, from hitting the ball for six. Although not in the spirit of the game, an underarm delivery was quite legal, so long as the arm was kept straight. The Laws of cricket have since been changed to prevent such a thing happening again. The incident has long been a sore point between Australia and New Zealand. In February and March 1985 the Benson & Hedges World Championship of Cricket was played at the MCG, a One Day International tournament involving all of the then Test match playing countries to celebrate 150 years of the Australian state of Victoria. Some matches were also played at Sydney Cricket Ground. The MCG hosted the 1992 Cricket World Cup Final between Pakistan and England with a crowd of more than 87,000. Pakistan won the match after an all-round performance by Wasim Akram who scored 33 runs and took 3 wickets to make Pakistan cricket world champions for the first and, to date, only time. During the 1995 Boxing Day Test at the MCG, Australian umpire Darrell Hair called Sri Lankan spin bowler Muttiah Muralitharan for throwing the ball, rather than bowling it, seven times during the match. The other umpire did not call him once and this caused a controversy, although Muralitharan was later called for throwing by other umpires in different matches. The MCG is known for its great atmosphere, much of which is generated in the infamous Bay 13, situated almost directly opposite to the members stand. In the late 1980s, the crowd at Bay 13 would often mimic the warm up stretches performed by Merv Hughes. In a 1999 One-Day International, the behaviour of Bay 13 was so bad that Shane Warne, donning a helmet for protection, asked the crowd to settle down at the request of opposing England captain Alec Stewart. The MCG hosted three pool games as part of the 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup as well as a quarter-final, and then the final on 29 March. Australia comfortably defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in front of an Australian record cricket crowd of 93,013. The 2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup Final was held on International Women's Day between Australia and India. Australia won by 85 runs in front of a record crowd for women's cricket of 86,174. Australian rules football Origins Despite being called the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the stadium has been and continues to be used much more often for Australian rules football. Spectator numbers for football are larger than for any other sport in Australia, and it makes more money for the MCG than any of the other sports played there. Although the Melbourne Cricket Club members were instrumental in founding Australian Rules Football, there were understandable concerns in the early days about the damage that might be done to the playing surface if football was allowed to be played at the MCG. Therefore, football games were often played in the parklands next to the cricket ground, and this was the case for the first documented football match to be played at the ground. The match which today is considered to be the first Australian rules football, played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College over three Saturdays beginning 7 August 1858 was played in this area. It wasn't until 1869 that football was played on the MCG proper, a trial game involving a police team. It was not for another ten years, in 1879, after the formation of the Victorian Football Association, that the first official match was played on the MCG and the cricket ground itself became a regular venue for football. Two night matches were played on the ground during the year under the newly invented electric light. In the early years, the MCG was the home ground of Melbourne Football Club, Australia's oldest club, established in 1858 by the founder of the game itself, Thomas Wills. Melbourne won five premierships during the 1870s using the MCG as its home ground. The first of nearly 3000 Victorian Football League/Australian Football League games to be played at the MCG was on 15 May 1897, with beating 64 to 19. Several Australian Football League (AFL) clubs later joined Melbourne in using the MCG as their home ground for matches: (1965), (1985), (1992), (started moving in 1994, became a full-time tenant in 2000) and (2000). Melbourne used the venue as its training base until 1984, before being required to move to preserve the venue's surface when North Melbourne began playing there. Finals and grand finals The VFL/AFL grand final has been played at the MCG every season since 1902, except for between 1942 and 1945, when the ground was used by the military during World War II; in 1991 as the construction of the Great Southern Stand had temporarily reduced the ground's capacity below that of Waverley Park; and both 2020 and 2021, when restrictions in Victoria due to the COVID-19 pandemic prompted the games to be moved to the Gabba in Queensland and Perth Stadium in Western Australia respectively. All three grand final replays have been played at the MCG. Before the MCG was fully seated, a grand final could draw attendances above 110,000. The record for the highest attendance in the history of the sport was set in the 1970 VFL Grand Final, with 121,696 in attendance. Since being fully seated, grand final attendances are typically between 95,000 and 100,000, with the record of 100,022 in the 2018 grand final, followed by 100,021 at the 2017 AFL Grand Final. In the modern era, most finals games held in Melbourne have been played at the MCG. Under the current contract, 10 finals (excluding the grand final) must be played at the MCG over a five-year period. Under previous contracts, the MCG was entitled to host at least one match in each week of the finals, which on several occasions required non-Victorian clubs to play "home" finals in Victoria. The MCG is contracted to host the grand final every year until 2058. All Melbourne-based teams (and most of the time Geelong) play their "home" finals at the MCG unless if four Victorian teams win the right to host a final in the first week of the finals. MCG and the VFL/AFL For many years the VFL had an uneasy relationship with the MCG trustees and the Melbourne Cricket Club. Both needed the other, but resented the dependence. The VFL made the first move which brought things to a head by beginning the development of VFL Park at Mulgrave in the 1960s as its own home ground and as a potential venue for future grand finals. Then in 1983, president of the VFL, Allen Aylett started to pressure the MCG Trust to give the VFL a greater share of the money it made from using the ground for football. In March 1983 the MCG trustees met to consider a submission from Aylett. Aylett said he wanted the Melbourne Cricket Club's share of revenue cut from 15 per cent to 10 per cent. He threatened to take the following day's opening game of the season, Collingwood vs Melbourne, away from the MCG. The money was held aside until an agreement could be reached. Different deals, half deals and possible deals were done over the years, with the Premier of Victoria, John Cain, Jr., even becoming involved. Cain was said to have promised the VFL it could use the MCG for six months of the year and then hand it back to the MCC, but this never eventuated, as the MCG Trust did not approve it. In the mid-1980s, a deal was done where the VFL was given its own members area in the Southern Stand. Against this background of political manoeuvring, in 1985 became the third club to make the MCG its home ground. In the same year, North played in the first night football match at the MCG for almost 110 years, against Collingwood on 29 March 1985. In 1986, only a month after Ross Oakley had taken over as VFL Commissioner, VFL executives met with the MCC and took a big step towards resolving their differences. Changes in the personnel at the MCC also helped. In 1983 John Lill was appointed secretary and Don Cordner its president. Shortly after the Southern Stand opened in 1992, the Australian Football League moved its headquarters into the complex. The AFL assisted with financing the new stand and came to an agreement that ensures at least 45 AFL games are played at the MCG each year, including the Grand Final in September. Another 45 days of cricket are |
loans to the government, and the money would then be lent out to another group of businesses. This process has continued to this day in the guise of the state-owned KfW bank, (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, meaning Reconstruction Credit Institute). The Special Fund, then supervised by the Federal Economics Ministry, was worth over DM 10 billion in 1971. In 1997 it was worth DM 23 billion. Through the revolving loan system, the Fund had by the end of 1995 made low-interest loans to German citizens amounting to around DM 140 billion. The other 40% of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt, stabilize the currency, or invest in non-industrial projects. France made the most extensive use of counterpart funds, using them to reduce the budget deficit. In France, and most other countries, the counterpart fund money was absorbed into general government revenues, and not recycled as in Germany. The Netherlands received US aid for economic recovery in the Netherlands Indies. However, in January 1949, the American government suspended this aid in response to the Dutch efforts to restore colonial rule in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution, and it implicitly threatened to suspend Marshall aid to the Netherlands if the Dutch government continued to oppose the independence of Indonesia. At the time the United States was a significant oil producing nation—one of the goals of the Marshall Plan was for Europe to use oil in place of coal, but the Europeans wanted to buy crude oil and use the Marshall Plan funds to build refineries instead. However, when independent American oil companies complained, the ECA denied funds for European refinery construction. Technical Assistance Program A high priority was increasing industrial productivity in Europe, which proved one of the more successful aspects of the Marshall Plan. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) contributed heavily to the success of the Technical Assistance Program. The United States Congress passed a law on June 7, 1940 that allowed the BLS to "make continuing studies of labor productivity" and appropriated funds for the creation of a Productivity and Technological Development Division. The BLS could then use its expertise in the field of productive efficiency to implement a productivity drive in each Western European country receiving Marshall Plan aid. Counterpart funds were used to finance large-scale tours of American industry. France, for example, sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores, and offices. They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France. By implementing technological literature surveys and organized plant visits, American economists, statisticians, and engineers were able to educate European manufacturers in statistical measurement. The goal of the statistical and technical assistance from the Americans was to increase productive efficiency of European manufacturers in all industries. To conduct this analysis, the BLS performed two types of productivity calculations. First, they used existing data to calculate how much a worker produces per hour of work—the average output rate. Second, they compared the existing output rates in a particular country to output rates in other nations. By performing these calculations across all industries, the BLS was able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each country's manufacturing and industrial production. From that, the BLS could recommend technologies (especially statistical) that each individual nation could implement. Often, these technologies came from the United States; by the time the Technical Assistance Program began, the United States used statistical technologies "more than a generation ahead of what [the Europeans] were using". The BLS used these statistical technologies to create Factory Performance Reports for Western European nations. The American government sent hundreds of technical advisers to Europe to observe workers in the field. This on-site analysis made the Factory Performance Reports especially helpful to the manufacturers. In addition, the Technical Assistance Program funded 24,000 European engineers, leaders, and industrialists to visit America and tour America's factories, mines, and manufacturing plants. This way, the European visitors would be able to return to their home countries and implement the technologies used in the United States. The analyses in the Factory Performance Reports and the "hands-on" experience had by the European productivity teams effectively identified productivity deficiencies in European industries; from there, it became clearer how to make European production more effective. Before the Technical Assistance Program even went into effect, United States Secretary of Labor Maurice Tobin expressed his confidence in American productivity and technology to both American and European economic leaders. He urged that the United States play a large role in improving European productive efficiency by providing four recommendations for the program's administrators: That BLS productivity personnel should serve on American-European councils for productivity; that productivity targets (based on American productivity standards) can and should be implemented to increase productivity; that there should be a general exchange and publication of information; and that the "technical abstract" service should be the central source of information. The effects of the Technical Assistance Program were not limited to improvements in productive efficiency. While the thousands of European leaders took their work/study trips to the United States, they were able to observe a number of aspects of American society as well. The Europeans could watch local, state, and federal governments work together with citizens in a pluralist society. They observed a democratic society with open universities and civic societies in addition to more advanced factories and manufacturing plants. The Technical Assistance Program allowed Europeans to bring home many types of American ideas. Another important aspect of the Technical Assistance Program was its low cost. While $19.4 billion was allocated for capital costs in the Marshall Plan, the Technical Assistance Program only required $300 million. Only one-third of that $300 million cost was paid by the United States. United Kingdom In the aftermath of the war Britain faced a deep financial crisis, whereas the United States enjoyed an economic boom. The United States continue to finance the British treasury after the war. Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees. Britain received an emergency loan of $3.75 billion in 1946; it was a 50-year loan with a low 2% interest rate. The Marshall Plan provided a more permanent solution as it gave $3.3 billion to Britain. The Marshall money was a gift and carried requirements that Britain balance its budget, control tariffs and maintain adequate currency reserves. The British Labour government under Prime Minister Clement Attlee was an enthusiastic participant. The American goals for the Marshall plan were to help rebuild the postwar British economy, help modernize the economy, and minimize trade barriers. When the Soviet Union refused to participate or allow its satellites to participate, the Marshall plan became an element of the emerging Cold War. There were political tensions between the two nations regarding Marshall plan requirements. London was dubious about Washington's emphasis on European economic integration as the solution to postwar recovery. Integration with Europe at this point would mean cutting close ties to the emerging Commonwealth. London tried to convince Washington that that American economic aid, especially to the sterling currency area, was necessary to solve the dollar shortage. British economist argued that their position was validated by 1950 as European industrial production exceeded prewar levels. Washington demanded convertibility of sterling currency on 15 July 1947, which produced a severe financial crisis for Britain. Convertibility was suspended on 20 August 1947. However, by 1950, American rearmament and heavy spending on the Korean War and Cold War finally ended the dollar shortage. The balance of payment problems the trouble the postwar government was caused less by economic decline and more by political overreach, according to Jim Tomlinson. West Germany and Austria The Marshall Plan was implemented in West Germany (1948–1950), as a way to modernize business procedures and utilize the best practices. The Marshall Plan made it possible for West Germany to return quickly to its traditional pattern of industrial production with a strong export sector. Without the plan, agriculture would have played a larger role in the recovery period, which itself would have been longer. With respect to Austria, Günter Bischof has noted that "the Austrian economy, injected with an overabundance of European Recovery Program funds, produced "miracle" growth figures that matched and at times surpassed the German ones." Marshall Aid in general and the counterpart funds in particular had a significant impact in Cold-War propaganda and economic matters in Western Europe, which most likely contributed to the declining appeal of domestic communist parties. Expenditures The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed toward the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral. The exception was Iceland, which had been neutral during the war, but received far more on a per capita basis than the second highest recipient. The table below shows Marshall Plan aid by country and year (in millions of dollars) from The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later. There is no clear consensus on exact amounts, as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of American aid during this period were part of the Marshall Plan. Loans and grants The Marshall Plan, just as GARIOA, consisted of aid both in the form of grants and in the form of loans. Out of the total, US$1.2 billion were loan-aid. Ireland which received US$146.2 million through the Marshall Plan, received US$128.2 million as loans, and the remaining US$18 million as grants. By 1969 the Irish Marshall Plan debt, which was still being repaid, amounted to 31 million pounds, out of a total Irish foreign debt of 50 million pounds. The UK received US$385 million of its Marshall Plan aid in the form of loans. Unconnected to the Marshall Plan the UK also received direct loans from the US amounting to US$4.6 billion. The proportion of Marshall Plan loans versus Marshall Plan grants was roughly 15% to 85% for both the UK and France. Germany, which up until the 1953 Debt agreement had to work on the assumption that all the Marshall Plan aid was to be repaid, spent its funds very carefully. Payment for Marshall Plan goods, "counterpart funds", were administered by the Reconstruction Credit Institute, which used the funds for loans inside Germany. In the 1953 Debt agreement, the amount of Marshall plan aid that Germany was to repay was reduced to less than US$1 billion. This made the proportion of loans versus grants to Germany similar to that of France and the UK. The final German loan repayment was made in 1971. Since Germany chose to repay the aid debt out of the German Federal budget, leaving the German ERP fund intact, the fund was able to continue its reconstruction work. By 1996 it had accumulated a value of 23 billion Deutsche Mark. Funding for CIA fronts The Central Intelligence Agency received 5% of the Marshall Plan funds (about $685 million spread over six years), which it used to finance secret operations abroad. Through the Office of Policy Coordination money was directed toward support for labor unions, newspapers, student groups, artists and intellectuals, who were countering the anti-American counterparts subsidized by the communists. The largest sum went to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. There were no agents working among the Soviets or their satellite states. The founding conference of the Congress for Cultural Freedom was held in Berlin in June 1950. Among the leading intellectuals from the US and Western Europe were writers, philosophers, critics and historians: Franz Borkenau, Karl Jaspers, John Dewey, Ignazio Silone, James Burnham, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Arthur Schlesinger Jr., Bertrand Russell, Ernst Reuter, Raymond Aron, Alfred Ayer, Benedetto Croce, Arthur Koestler, Richard Löwenthal, Melvin J. Lasky, Tennessee Williams, Irving Brown, and Sidney Hook. There were conservatives among the participants, but non-communist (or former communist) leftists were more numerous. Effects and legacy The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War and rearmament. American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived. Thus the plan ended in 1951, though various other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterward. The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. Additionally, the long-term effect of economic integration raised European income levels substantially, by nearly 20 percent by the mid-1970s. There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it. Many argue that the structural adjustments that it forced were of great importance. Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it "history's most successful structural adjustment program." One effect of the plan was that it subtly "Americanized" European countries, especially Austria, through new exposure to American popular culture, including the growth in influence of Hollywood movies and rock n' roll. The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region, communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan. The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War in the form of NATO. At the same time, the nonparticipation of the states of the Eastern Bloc was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided. The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration. Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration. In some ways, this effort failed, as the OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation. Rather, it was the separate European Coal and Steel Community, which did not include Britain, that would eventually grow into the European Union. However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures that would later be used by the European Economic Community. The Marshall Plan, linked into the Bretton Woods system, also mandated free trade throughout the region. While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated, it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world. After the fall of communism, several proposed a "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe" that would help revive that region. Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent, and US Vice President Al Gore suggested a Global Marshall Plan. "Marshall Plan" has become a metaphor for any very large-scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem. It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector. Nicholas Shaxson comments: "It is widely believed that the plan worked by offsetting European countries' yawning deficits. But its real importance ... was simply to compensate for the US failure to institute controls on inflows of hot money from Europe. ... American post-war aid was less than the money flowing in the other direction." European hot money inflated the US dollar, to the disadvantage of US exporters. Repayment The Marshall Plan money was in the form of grants from the U.S. Treasury that did not have to be repaid. The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation took the leading role in allocating funds, and the OEEC arranged for the transfer of the goods. The American supplier was paid in dollars, which were credited against the appropriate European Recovery Program funds. The European recipient, however, was not given the goods as a gift but had to pay for them (usually on credit) in local currency. These payments were kept by the European government involved in a special counterpart fund. This counterpart money, in turn, could be used by the government for further investment projects. Five percent of the counterpart money was paid to the US to cover the administrative costs of the ERP. In addition to ERP grants, the Export-Import Bank (an agency of the US government) at the same time made long-term loans at low interest rates to finance major purchases in the US, all of which were repaid. In the case of Germany, there also were 16 billion marks of debts from the 1920s which had defaulted in the 1930s, but which Germany decided to repay to restore its reputation. This money was owed to government and private banks in the US, France, and Britain. Another 16 billion marks represented postwar loans by the US. Under the London Debts Agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced by 50% to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast-growing German economy were of minor impact. Areas without the Plan Large parts of the world devastated by World War II did not benefit from the Marshall Plan. The only major Western European nation excluded was Francisco Franco's Spain, which was highly unpopular in Washington. With the escalation of the Cold War, the United States reconsidered its position, and in 1951 embraced Spain as an ally, encouraged by Franco's aggressive anti-communist policies. Over the next decade, a considerable amount of American aid would go to Spain, but less than its neighbors had received under the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war. The Soviets imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence. Austria, Finland, Hungary, Romania, and especially East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the USSR. These reparation payments meant the Soviet Union itself received about the same as 16 European countries received in total from Marshall Plan aid. In accordance with the agreements with the USSR, shipment of dismantled German industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946. Under the terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union would in return ship raw materials such as food and timber to the western zones. In view of the Soviet failure to do so, the western zones halted the shipments east, ostensibly on a temporary basis, although they were never resumed. It was later shown that the main reason for halting shipments east was not the behavior of the USSR but rather the recalcitrant behavior of France. Examples of material received by the USSR were equipment from the Kugel-Fischer ballbearing plant at Schweinfurt, the Daimler-Benz underground aircraft-engine plant at Obrigheim, the Deschimag shipyards at Bremen-Weser, and the Gendorf powerplant. The USSR did establish COMECON as a riposte to the Marshall Plan to deliver aid for Eastern Bloc countries, but this was complicated by the Soviet efforts to manage their own recovery from the war. The members of Comecon looked to the Soviet Union for oil; in turn, they provided machinery, equipment, agricultural goods, industrial goods, and consumer goods to the Soviet Union. Economic recovery in the East was much slower than in the West, resulting in the formation of the shortage economies and a gap in wealth between East and West. Finland, which the USSR forbade to join the Marshall Plan and which was required to give large reparations to the USSR, saw its economy recover to pre-war levels in 1947. France, which received billions of dollars through the Marshall Plan, similarly saw its average income per person return to almost pre-war level by 1949. By mid-1948 industrial production in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia had recovered to a level somewhat above pre-war level. Aid to Asia From the end of the war to the end of 1953, the US provided grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially Rep. Of China (Taiwan) ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.444 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan. Canada Canada, like the United States, was damaged little by the war and in 1945 was one of the world's richest economies. It operated its own aid program. In 1948, the US allowed ERP aid to be used in purchasing goods from Canada. Canada made over a billion dollars in sales in the first two years of operation. World total The total of American grants and loans to the world from 1945 to 1953 came to $44.3 billion. Opinion Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was "History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state: It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix. Domestic campaign for support Prior to passing and enacting the Marshall Plan, President Truman and George Marshall started a domestic overhaul of public opinion from coast to coast. The purpose of this campaign was to sway public opinion in their direction and to inform the common person of what the Marshall Plan was and what the Plan would ultimately do. They spent months attempting to convince Americans that their cause was just and that they should embrace the higher taxes that would come in the foreseeable future. A copious amount of propaganda ended up being highly effective in swaying public opinion toward supporting the Marshall Plan. During the nationwide campaign for support, "more than a million pieces of pro-Marshall Plan publications-booklets, leaflets, reprints, and fact sheets", were disseminated. Truman's and Marshall's efforts proved to be effective. A Gallup Poll taken between the months of July and December 1947 shows the percentage of Americans unaware of the Marshall Plan fell from 51% to 36% nationwide. By the time the Marshall Plan was ready to be implemented, there was a general consensus throughout the American public that this was the right policy for both America, and the countries who would be receiving aid. Change in American ideology During the period leading up to World War II, Americans were highly isolationist, and many called The Marshall Plan a "milestone" for American ideology. By looking at polling data over time from pre-World War II to post-World War II, one would find that there was a change in public opinion in regards to ideology. Americans swapped their isolationist ideals for a much more global internationalist ideology after World War II. Polling data In a National Opinion Research Center (NORC) poll taken in April 1945, a cross-section of Americans were asked, "If our government keeps on sending lendlease materials, which we may not get paid for, to friendly countries for about three years after the war, do you think this will mean more jobs or fewer jobs for most Americans, or won't it make any difference?" 75% said the same or more jobs; 10% said fewer. Before proposing anything to Congress in 1947, the Truman administration made an elaborate effort to organize public opinion in favor of the Marshall Plan spending, reaching out to numerous national organizations representing business, labor, farmers, women, and other interest groups. Political scientist Ralph Levering points out that: Mounting large public relations campaigns and supporting private groups such as the Citizens Committee for the Marshall Plan, the administration carefully built public and bipartisan Congressional support before bringing these measures to a vote. Public opinion polls in 1947 consistently showed strong support for the Marshall plan among Americans. Furthermore, Gallup polls in England, France, and Italy showed favorable majorities over 60%. Criticism Laissez-faire criticism Laissez-faire criticism of the Marshall Plan came from a number of economists. Wilhelm Röpke, who influenced German Minister for Economy Ludwig Erhard in his economic recovery program, believed recovery would be found in eliminating central planning and restoring a market economy in Europe, especially in those countries which had adopted more fascist and corporatist economic policies. Röpke criticized the Marshall Plan for forestalling the transition to the free market by subsidizing the current, failing systems. Erhard put Röpke's theory into practice and would later credit Röpke's influence for West Germany's preeminent success. Henry Hazlitt criticized the Marshall Plan in his 1947 book Will Dollars Save the World?, arguing that economic recovery comes through savings, capital accumulation, and private enterprise, and not through large cash subsidies. Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises criticized the Marshall Plan in 1951, believing that "the American subsidies make it possible for [Europe's] governments to conceal partially the disastrous effects of the various socialist measures they have adopted". Some critics and Congressmen at the time believed that America was giving too much aid to Europe. America had already given Europe $9 billion in other forms of help in previous years. The Marshall Plan gave another $13 billion, equivalent to about $100 billion in 2010 value. Modern criticism However, its role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. The Marshall Plan grants were provided at a rate that was not much higher in terms of flow than the previous UNRRA aid and represented less than 3% of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951,which would mean an increase in GDP growth of only 0.3%. In addition, there is no correlation between the amount of aid received and the speed of recovery: both France and the United Kingdom received more aid, but West Germany recovered significantly faster. Criticism of the Marshall Plan became prominent among historians of the revisionist school, such as Walter LaFeber, during the 1960s and 1970s. They argued that the plan was American economic imperialism and that it was an attempt to gain control over Western Europe just as the Soviets controlled Eastern Europe economically through the Comecon. In a review of West Germany's economy from 1945 to 1951, German analyst Werner Abelshauser concluded that "foreign aid was not crucial in starting the recovery or in keeping it going". The economic recoveries of France, Italy, and Belgium, Cowen argues, began a few months before the flow of US money. Belgium, the country that relied earliest and most heavily on free-market economic policies after its liberation in 1944, experienced swift recovery and avoided the severe housing and food shortages seen in the rest of continental Europe. Former US Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan gives most credit to German Chancellor Ludwig Erhard for Europe's economic recovery. Greenspan writes in his memoir The Age of Turbulence that Erhard's economic policies were the most important aspect of postwar Western European recovery, even outweighing the contributions of the Marshall Plan. He states that it was Erhard's reductions in economic regulations that permitted Germany's miraculous recovery, and that these policies also contributed to the recoveries of many other European countries. Its recovery is attributed to traditional economic stimuli, such as increases in investment, fueled by a high savings rate and low taxes. Japan saw a large infusion of US investment during the Korean War. Noam Chomsky said the Marshall Plan "set the stage for large amounts of private U.S. investment in Europe, establishing the basis for modern transnational corporations". The Marshall Plan has been recently reinterpreted as a public policy approach to complex and multi-causal problems (wicked problems) in search of building integrated solutions with multilevel governance. In popular culture Alfred Friendly, press aide to the US Secretary of Commerce W. Averell Harriman, wrote a humorous operetta about the Marshall Plan during its first year; one of the lines in the operetta was: "Wines for Sale; will you swap / A little bit of steel for Chateau Neuf du Pape?" Spanish director Luis García Berlanga co-wrote and directed the movie Welcome Mr. Marshall!, a comedy about the residents of a small Spanish village who dream about the life of wealth and self-fulfilment the Marshall Plan will bring them. The film highlights the stereotypes held by both the Spanish and the Americans regarding the culture of the other, as well as displays social criticism of 1950s Francoist Spain. See also Foreign policy of the United States Timeline of United States diplomatic history World War II reparations Morgenthau Plan GITP (example of a company that was built with Marshall aid) Footnotes References Notes Works cited Further reading Arkes, Hadley. Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest (1972). Bischof, Günter, and Hans Petschar. The Marshall Plan: Saving Europe, Rebuilding Austria (U of New Orleans Publishing, 2017) 336 pp. Online review Bonds, John Bledsoe. Bipartisan Strategy: Selling the Marshall Plan (2002) online version Bryan, Ferald J. "George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the 'Marshall Plan' Speech." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991): 489–502. Online Djelic, Marie-Laure A. Exporting the American Model: The Post-War Transformation of European Business (1998) online version Elwood, David, "Was the Marshall Plan Necessary?" in Alan S. Milward and a Century of European Change, ed. Fernando Guirao, Frances M. B. Lynch, and Sigfrido M. Ramírez Pérez, 179–98. (Routledge, 2012) Esposito, Chiarella. America's Feeble Weapon: Funding the Marshall Plan in France and Italy, 1948–1950 (1994) online version Fossedal, Gregory A. Our Finest Hour: Will Clayton, the Marshall Plan, and the Triumph of Democracy. (1993). Gimbel, John, The origins of the Marshall | all industries. To conduct this analysis, the BLS performed two types of productivity calculations. First, they used existing data to calculate how much a worker produces per hour of work—the average output rate. Second, they compared the existing output rates in a particular country to output rates in other nations. By performing these calculations across all industries, the BLS was able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each country's manufacturing and industrial production. From that, the BLS could recommend technologies (especially statistical) that each individual nation could implement. Often, these technologies came from the United States; by the time the Technical Assistance Program began, the United States used statistical technologies "more than a generation ahead of what [the Europeans] were using". The BLS used these statistical technologies to create Factory Performance Reports for Western European nations. The American government sent hundreds of technical advisers to Europe to observe workers in the field. This on-site analysis made the Factory Performance Reports especially helpful to the manufacturers. In addition, the Technical Assistance Program funded 24,000 European engineers, leaders, and industrialists to visit America and tour America's factories, mines, and manufacturing plants. This way, the European visitors would be able to return to their home countries and implement the technologies used in the United States. The analyses in the Factory Performance Reports and the "hands-on" experience had by the European productivity teams effectively identified productivity deficiencies in European industries; from there, it became clearer how to make European production more effective. Before the Technical Assistance Program even went into effect, United States Secretary of Labor Maurice Tobin expressed his confidence in American productivity and technology to both American and European economic leaders. He urged that the United States play a large role in improving European productive efficiency by providing four recommendations for the program's administrators: That BLS productivity personnel should serve on American-European councils for productivity; that productivity targets (based on American productivity standards) can and should be implemented to increase productivity; that there should be a general exchange and publication of information; and that the "technical abstract" service should be the central source of information. The effects of the Technical Assistance Program were not limited to improvements in productive efficiency. While the thousands of European leaders took their work/study trips to the United States, they were able to observe a number of aspects of American society as well. The Europeans could watch local, state, and federal governments work together with citizens in a pluralist society. They observed a democratic society with open universities and civic societies in addition to more advanced factories and manufacturing plants. The Technical Assistance Program allowed Europeans to bring home many types of American ideas. Another important aspect of the Technical Assistance Program was its low cost. While $19.4 billion was allocated for capital costs in the Marshall Plan, the Technical Assistance Program only required $300 million. Only one-third of that $300 million cost was paid by the United States. United Kingdom In the aftermath of the war Britain faced a deep financial crisis, whereas the United States enjoyed an economic boom. The United States continue to finance the British treasury after the war. Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees. Britain received an emergency loan of $3.75 billion in 1946; it was a 50-year loan with a low 2% interest rate. The Marshall Plan provided a more permanent solution as it gave $3.3 billion to Britain. The Marshall money was a gift and carried requirements that Britain balance its budget, control tariffs and maintain adequate currency reserves. The British Labour government under Prime Minister Clement Attlee was an enthusiastic participant. The American goals for the Marshall plan were to help rebuild the postwar British economy, help modernize the economy, and minimize trade barriers. When the Soviet Union refused to participate or allow its satellites to participate, the Marshall plan became an element of the emerging Cold War. There were political tensions between the two nations regarding Marshall plan requirements. London was dubious about Washington's emphasis on European economic integration as the solution to postwar recovery. Integration with Europe at this point would mean cutting close ties to the emerging Commonwealth. London tried to convince Washington that that American economic aid, especially to the sterling currency area, was necessary to solve the dollar shortage. British economist argued that their position was validated by 1950 as European industrial production exceeded prewar levels. Washington demanded convertibility of sterling currency on 15 July 1947, which produced a severe financial crisis for Britain. Convertibility was suspended on 20 August 1947. However, by 1950, American rearmament and heavy spending on the Korean War and Cold War finally ended the dollar shortage. The balance of payment problems the trouble the postwar government was caused less by economic decline and more by political overreach, according to Jim Tomlinson. West Germany and Austria The Marshall Plan was implemented in West Germany (1948–1950), as a way to modernize business procedures and utilize the best practices. The Marshall Plan made it possible for West Germany to return quickly to its traditional pattern of industrial production with a strong export sector. Without the plan, agriculture would have played a larger role in the recovery period, which itself would have been longer. With respect to Austria, Günter Bischof has noted that "the Austrian economy, injected with an overabundance of European Recovery Program funds, produced "miracle" growth figures that matched and at times surpassed the German ones." Marshall Aid in general and the counterpart funds in particular had a significant impact in Cold-War propaganda and economic matters in Western Europe, which most likely contributed to the declining appeal of domestic communist parties. Expenditures The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed toward the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral. The exception was Iceland, which had been neutral during the war, but received far more on a per capita basis than the second highest recipient. The table below shows Marshall Plan aid by country and year (in millions of dollars) from The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later. There is no clear consensus on exact amounts, as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of American aid during this period were part of the Marshall Plan. Loans and grants The Marshall Plan, just as GARIOA, consisted of aid both in the form of grants and in the form of loans. Out of the total, US$1.2 billion were loan-aid. Ireland which received US$146.2 million through the Marshall Plan, received US$128.2 million as loans, and the remaining US$18 million as grants. By 1969 the Irish Marshall Plan debt, which was still being repaid, amounted to 31 million pounds, out of a total Irish foreign debt of 50 million pounds. The UK received US$385 million of its Marshall Plan aid in the form of loans. Unconnected to the Marshall Plan the UK also received direct loans from the US amounting to US$4.6 billion. The proportion of Marshall Plan loans versus Marshall Plan grants was roughly 15% to 85% for both the UK and France. Germany, which up until the 1953 Debt agreement had to work on the assumption that all the Marshall Plan aid was to be repaid, spent its funds very carefully. Payment for Marshall Plan goods, "counterpart funds", were administered by the Reconstruction Credit Institute, which used the funds for loans inside Germany. In the 1953 Debt agreement, the amount of Marshall plan aid that Germany was to repay was reduced to less than US$1 billion. This made the proportion of loans versus grants to Germany similar to that of France and the UK. The final German loan repayment was made in 1971. Since Germany chose to repay the aid debt out of the German Federal budget, leaving the German ERP fund intact, the fund was able to continue its reconstruction work. By 1996 it had accumulated a value of 23 billion Deutsche Mark. Funding for CIA fronts The Central Intelligence Agency received 5% of the Marshall Plan funds (about $685 million spread over six years), which it used to finance secret operations abroad. Through the Office of Policy Coordination money was directed toward support for labor unions, newspapers, student groups, artists and intellectuals, who were countering the anti-American counterparts subsidized by the communists. The largest sum went to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. There were no agents working among the Soviets or their satellite states. The founding conference of the Congress for Cultural Freedom was held in Berlin in June 1950. Among the leading intellectuals from the US and Western Europe were writers, philosophers, critics and historians: Franz Borkenau, Karl Jaspers, John Dewey, Ignazio Silone, James Burnham, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Arthur Schlesinger Jr., Bertrand Russell, Ernst Reuter, Raymond Aron, Alfred Ayer, Benedetto Croce, Arthur Koestler, Richard Löwenthal, Melvin J. Lasky, Tennessee Williams, Irving Brown, and Sidney Hook. There were conservatives among the participants, but non-communist (or former communist) leftists were more numerous. Effects and legacy The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War and rearmament. American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived. Thus the plan ended in 1951, though various other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterward. The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically. Additionally, the long-term effect of economic integration raised European income levels substantially, by nearly 20 percent by the mid-1970s. There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it. Many argue that the structural adjustments that it forced were of great importance. Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it "history's most successful structural adjustment program." One effect of the plan was that it subtly "Americanized" European countries, especially Austria, through new exposure to American popular culture, including the growth in influence of Hollywood movies and rock n' roll. The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region, communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan. The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War in the form of NATO. At the same time, the nonparticipation of the states of the Eastern Bloc was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided. The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration. Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration. In some ways, this effort failed, as the OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation. Rather, it was the separate European Coal and Steel Community, which did not include Britain, that would eventually grow into the European Union. However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures that would later be used by the European Economic Community. The Marshall Plan, linked into the Bretton Woods system, also mandated free trade throughout the region. While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated, it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world. After the fall of communism, several proposed a "Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe" that would help revive that region. Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent, and US Vice President Al Gore suggested a Global Marshall Plan. "Marshall Plan" has become a metaphor for any very large-scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem. It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector. Nicholas Shaxson comments: "It is widely believed that the plan worked by offsetting European countries' yawning deficits. But its real importance ... was simply to compensate for the US failure to institute controls on inflows of hot money from Europe. ... American post-war aid was less than the money flowing in the other direction." European hot money inflated the US dollar, to the disadvantage of US exporters. Repayment The Marshall Plan money was in the form of grants from the U.S. Treasury that did not have to be repaid. The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation took the leading role in allocating funds, and the OEEC arranged for the transfer of the goods. The American supplier was paid in dollars, which were credited against the appropriate European Recovery Program funds. The European recipient, however, was not given the goods as a gift but had to pay for them (usually on credit) in local currency. These payments were kept by the European government involved in a special counterpart fund. This counterpart money, in turn, could be used by the government for further investment projects. Five percent of the counterpart money was paid to the US to cover the administrative costs of the ERP. In addition to ERP grants, the Export-Import Bank (an agency of the US government) at the same time made long-term loans at low interest rates to finance major purchases in the US, all of which were repaid. In the case of Germany, there also were 16 billion marks of debts from the 1920s which had defaulted in the 1930s, but which Germany decided to repay to restore its reputation. This money was owed to government and private banks in the US, France, and Britain. Another 16 billion marks represented postwar loans by the US. Under the London Debts Agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced by 50% to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast-growing German economy were of minor impact. Areas without the Plan Large parts of the world devastated by World War II did not benefit from the Marshall Plan. The only major Western European nation excluded was Francisco Franco's Spain, which was highly unpopular in Washington. With the escalation of the Cold War, the United States reconsidered its position, and in 1951 embraced Spain as an ally, encouraged by Franco's aggressive anti-communist policies. Over the next decade, a considerable amount of American aid would go to Spain, but less than its neighbors had received under the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war. The Soviets imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence. Austria, Finland, Hungary, Romania, and especially East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the USSR. These reparation payments meant the Soviet Union itself received about the same as 16 European countries received in total from Marshall Plan aid. In accordance with the agreements with the USSR, shipment of dismantled German industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946. Under the terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union would in return ship raw materials such as food and timber to the western zones. In view of the Soviet failure to do so, the western zones halted the shipments east, ostensibly on a temporary basis, although they were never resumed. It was later shown that the main reason for halting shipments east was not the behavior of the USSR but rather the recalcitrant behavior of France. Examples of material received by the USSR were equipment from the Kugel-Fischer ballbearing plant at Schweinfurt, the Daimler-Benz underground aircraft-engine plant at Obrigheim, the Deschimag shipyards at Bremen-Weser, and the Gendorf powerplant. The USSR did establish COMECON as a riposte to the Marshall Plan to deliver aid for Eastern Bloc countries, but this was complicated by the Soviet efforts to manage their own recovery from the war. The members of Comecon looked to the Soviet Union for oil; in turn, they provided machinery, equipment, agricultural goods, industrial goods, and consumer goods to the Soviet Union. Economic recovery in the East was much slower than in the West, resulting in the formation of the shortage economies and a gap in wealth between East and West. Finland, which the USSR forbade to join the Marshall Plan and which was required to give large reparations to the USSR, saw its economy recover to pre-war levels in 1947. France, which received billions of dollars through the Marshall Plan, similarly saw its average income per person return to almost pre-war level by 1949. By mid-1948 industrial production in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia had recovered to a level somewhat above pre-war level. Aid to Asia From the end of the war to the end of 1953, the US provided grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially Rep. Of China (Taiwan) ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.444 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan. Canada Canada, like the United States, was damaged little by the war and in 1945 was one of the world's richest economies. It operated its own aid program. In 1948, the US allowed ERP aid to be used in purchasing goods from Canada. Canada made over a billion dollars in sales in the first two years of operation. World total The total of American grants and loans to the world from 1945 to 1953 came to $44.3 billion. Opinion Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was "History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state: It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix. Domestic campaign for support Prior to passing and enacting the Marshall Plan, President Truman and George Marshall started a domestic overhaul of public opinion from coast to coast. The purpose of this campaign was to sway public opinion in their direction and to inform the common person of what the Marshall Plan was and what the Plan would ultimately do. They spent months attempting to convince Americans that their cause was just and that they should embrace the higher taxes that would come in the foreseeable future. A copious amount of propaganda ended up being highly effective in swaying public opinion toward supporting the Marshall Plan. During the nationwide campaign for support, "more than a million pieces of pro-Marshall Plan publications-booklets, leaflets, reprints, and fact sheets", were disseminated. Truman's and Marshall's efforts proved to be effective. A Gallup Poll taken between the months of July and December 1947 shows the percentage of Americans unaware of the Marshall Plan fell from 51% to 36% nationwide. By the time the Marshall Plan was ready to be implemented, there was a general consensus throughout the American public that this was the right policy for both America, and the countries who would be receiving aid. Change in American ideology During the period leading up to World War II, Americans were highly isolationist, and many called The Marshall Plan a "milestone" for American ideology. By looking at polling data over time from pre-World War II to post-World War II, one would find that there was a change in public opinion in regards to ideology. Americans swapped their isolationist ideals for a much more global internationalist ideology after World War II. Polling data In a National Opinion Research Center (NORC) poll taken in April 1945, a cross-section of Americans were asked, "If our government keeps on sending lendlease materials, which we may not get paid for, to friendly countries for about three years after the war, do you think this will mean more jobs or fewer jobs for most Americans, or won't it make any difference?" 75% said the same or more jobs; 10% said fewer. Before proposing anything to Congress in 1947, the Truman administration made an elaborate effort to organize public opinion in favor of the Marshall Plan spending, reaching out to numerous national organizations representing business, labor, farmers, women, and other interest groups. Political scientist Ralph Levering points out that: Mounting large public relations campaigns and supporting private groups such as the Citizens Committee for the Marshall Plan, the administration carefully built public and bipartisan Congressional support before bringing these measures to a vote. Public opinion polls in 1947 consistently showed strong support for the Marshall plan among Americans. Furthermore, Gallup polls in England, France, and Italy showed favorable majorities over 60%. Criticism Laissez-faire criticism Laissez-faire criticism of the Marshall Plan came from a number of economists. Wilhelm Röpke, who influenced German Minister for Economy Ludwig Erhard in his economic recovery program, believed recovery would be found in eliminating central planning and restoring a market economy in Europe, especially in those countries which had adopted more fascist and corporatist economic policies. Röpke criticized the Marshall Plan for forestalling the transition to the free market by subsidizing the current, failing systems. Erhard put Röpke's theory into practice and would later credit Röpke's influence for West Germany's preeminent success. Henry Hazlitt criticized the Marshall Plan in his 1947 book Will Dollars Save the World?, arguing that economic recovery comes through savings, capital accumulation, and private enterprise, and not through large cash subsidies. Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises criticized the Marshall Plan in 1951, believing that "the American subsidies make it possible for [Europe's] governments to conceal partially the disastrous effects of the various socialist measures they have adopted". Some critics and Congressmen at the time believed that America was giving too much aid to Europe. America had already given Europe $9 billion in other forms of help in previous years. The Marshall Plan gave another $13 billion, equivalent to about $100 billion in 2010 value. Modern criticism However, its role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway. The Marshall Plan grants were provided at a rate that was not much higher in terms of flow than the previous UNRRA aid and represented less than 3% of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951,which would mean an increase in GDP growth of only 0.3%. In addition, there is no correlation |
of successful trials have taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania. The idea has received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by Damon Gameau’s documentary 2040 and in the book Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming edited by Paul Hawken. Enhanced stocking Enhanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond. Seawater ponds In seawater pond mariculture, fish are raised in ponds which receive water from the sea. This has the benefit that the nutrition (e.g. microorganisms) present in the seawater can be used. This is a great advantage over traditional fish farms (e.g. sweet water farms) for which the farmers buy feed (which is expensive). Other advantages are that water purification plants may be planted in the ponds to eliminate the buildup of nitrogen, from fecal and other contamination. Also, the ponds can be left unprotected from natural predators, providing another kind of filtering. Environmental effects Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology, improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion and government interest. As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts. Commonly identified environmental impacts from marine farms are: Wastes from cage cultures; Farm escapees and invasives; Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer; Habitat modification. As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry methods. The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects. Wastes from cage cultures Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food sources. Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor feed conversion ratios. In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish – from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with in situ uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment. This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth. Farm escapees and invasives The impact of escapees from aquaculture operations depends on whether or not there are wild conspecifics or close relatives in the receiving environment, and whether or not the escapee is reproductively capable. Several different mitigation/prevention strategies are currently employed, from the development of infertile triploids to land-based farms which are completely isolated from any marine environment. Escapees can adversely impact local ecosystems through hybridization and loss of genetic diversity in native stocks, increase negative interactions within an ecosystem (such as predation and competition), disease transmission and habitat changes (from trophic cascades and ecosystem shifts to varying sediment regimes and thus turbidity). The accidental introduction of invasive species is also of concern. Aquaculture is one of the main vectors for invasives following accidental releases of farmed stocks into the wild. One example is the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) which accidentally escaped from a fish farm into the Gironde Estuary (Southwest France) following a severe storm in December 1999 (5,000 individual fish escaped into the estuary which had never hosted this species before). Molluscan farming is another example whereby species can be introduced to new environments by ‘hitchhiking’ on farmed molluscs. Also, farmed molluscs themselves can become dominate predators and/or competitors, as well as potentially spread pathogens and parasites. Genetic pollution, disease, and parasite transfer One of the primary concerns with mariculture is the potential for disease and parasite transfer. Farmed stocks are often selectively bred to increase disease and parasite resistance, as well as improving growth rates and quality of products. As a consequence, the genetic diversity within reared stocks decreases with every generation – meaning they can potentially reduce the genetic diversity within wild populations if they escape into those wild populations. Such genetic pollution from escaped aquaculture stock can reduce the wild population's ability to adjust to the changing natural environment. Species grown by mariculture can also harbour diseases and parasites (e.g., lice) which can be introduced to wild populations upon their escape. An example of this is the parasitic sea lice on wild and farmed Atlantic salmon in Canada. Also, non-indigenous species which are farmed may have resistance to, or carry, particular diseases (which they picked up in their native habitats) which could be spread through wild populations if they escape into those wild populations. Such ‘new’ diseases would be devastating for those wild populations because they would have no immunity to them. Habitat modification With the exception of benthic habitats directly beneath marine farms, most mariculture causes minimal destruction to habitats. However, the destruction of mangrove forests from the farming of shrimps is of concern. Globally, shrimp farming activity is a small contributor to the destruction of mangrove forests; however, locally it can be devastating. Mangrove forests provide rich matrices which support a great deal of biodiversity – predominately juvenile fish and crustaceans. Furthermore, they act as buffering systems whereby they reduce coastal erosion, and improve water quality for in situ animals by processing material and ‘filtering’ sediments. Others In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of phytoplankton, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen levels. If the algae are toxic, fish are killed and shellfish contaminated.<ref> UNEP, World Fisheries Trust. (2002). [http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/temctre-01/official/temctre-01-02-en.pdf THE EFFECTS OF MARICULTURE ON BIODIVERSITY"]</ref> These algal blooms are sometimes referred to as harmful algal blooms, which are caused by a high influx of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, into the water due to run-off from land based human operations. Over the course of rearing various species, the sediment on bottom of the specific body of water becomes highly metallic with influx of copper, zinc and lead that is being introduced to the area. This influx of these heavy metals is likely due to the buildup of fish waste, uneaten fish feed, and the paint that | near Puerto Rico. An operation targeting bigeye tuna recently received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction. The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia 12 km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites. There has been considerable discussion as to how mariculture of seaweeds can be conducted in the open ocean as a means to regenerate decimated fish populations by providing both habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life. It has been proposed that natural seaweed ecosystems can be replicated in the open ocean by creating the conditions for their growth through artificial upwelling and through submerged tubing that provide substrate. Proponents and permaculture experts recognise that such approaches correspond to the core principles of permaculture and thereby constitute Marine Permaculture. The concept envisions using artificial upwelling and floating, submerged platforms as substrate to replicate natural seaweed ecosystems that provide habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life. Following the principles of permaculture, seaweeds and fish from Marine Permaculture arrays can be sustainably harvested with the potential of also sequestering atmospheric carbon, should seaweeds be sunk below a depth of one kilometer. As of 2020, a number of successful trials have taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania. The idea has received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by Damon Gameau’s documentary 2040 and in the book Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming edited by Paul Hawken. Enhanced stocking Enhanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond. Seawater ponds In seawater pond mariculture, fish are raised in ponds which receive water from the sea. This has the benefit that the nutrition (e.g. microorganisms) present in the seawater can be used. This is a great advantage over traditional fish farms (e.g. sweet water farms) for which the farmers buy feed (which is expensive). Other advantages are that water purification plants may be planted in the ponds to eliminate the buildup of nitrogen, from fecal and other contamination. Also, the ponds can be left unprotected from natural predators, providing another kind of filtering. Environmental effects Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology, improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion and government interest. As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts. Commonly identified environmental impacts from marine farms are: Wastes from cage cultures; Farm escapees and invasives; Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer; Habitat modification. As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry methods. The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects. Wastes from cage cultures Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food sources. Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor feed conversion ratios. In cage culture, several different methods |
exact sequence of instructions, or (in the case of a forgetful child) terminates. The self-correcting meme tends to not evolve, and to experience profound mutations in the rare event that it does. Another definition, given by Hokky Situngkir, tried to offer a more rigorous formalism for the meme, memeplexes, and the deme, seeing the meme as a cultural unit in a cultural complex system. It is based on the Darwinian genetic algorithm with some modifications to account for the different patterns of evolution seen in genes and memes. In the method of memetics as the way to see culture as a complex adaptive system, he describes a way to see memetics as an alternative methodology of cultural evolution. DiCarlo (2010) developed the definition of meme further to include the idea of 'memetic equilibrium', which describe a culturally compatible state with biological equilibrium. In "How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions", DiCarlo argues that as human consciousness evolved and developed, so too did our ancestors' capacity to consider and attempt to solve environmental problems in more conceptually sophisticated ways. When a satisfactory solution is found, the feeling of environmental stability, or memetic equilibrium, is achieved. The relationship between a gradually emerging conscious awareness and sophisticated languages in which to formulate representations combined with the desire to maintain biological equilibrium, generated the necessity for equilibrium to fill in conceptual gaps in terms of understanding three very important aspects in the Upper Paleolithic: causality, morality, and mortality. The desire to explain phenomena in relation to maintaining survival and reproductive stasis, generated a normative stance in the minds of our ancestors—Survival/Reproductive Value (or S-R Value). Memetic analysis The possibility of quantitative analysis of memes using neuroimaging tools and the suggestion that such studies have already been done was given by McNamara (2011). This author proposes hyperscanning (concurrent scanning of two communicating individuals in two separate MRI machines) as a key tool in the future for investigating memetics. Velikovsky (2013) proposed the "holon" as the structure of the meme, synthesizing the major theories on memes of Richard Dawkins, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, E. O. Wilson, Frederick Turner (poet) and Arthur Koestler. Proponents of memetics as described in the Journal of Memetics (out of print since 2005) believe that 'memetics' has the potential to be an important and promising analysis of culture using the framework of evolutionary concepts. Keith Henson in Memetics and the Modular-Mind (Analog Aug. 1987) makes the case that memetics needs to incorporate evolutionary psychology to understand the psychological traits of a meme's host. Applications Research methodologies that apply memetics go by many names: Viral marketing, cultural evolution, the history of ideas, social analytics, and more. Many of these applications do not make reference to the literature on memes directly but are built upon the evolutionary lens of idea propagation that treats semantic units of culture as self-replicating and mutating patterns of information that are assumed to be relevant for scientific study. For example, the field of public relations is filled with attempts to introduce new ideas and alter social discourse. One means of doing this is to design a meme and deploy it through various media channels. One historic example of applied memetics is the PR campaign conducted in 1991 as part of the build-up to the first Gulf War in the United States. The application of memetics to a difficult complex social system problem, environmental sustainability, has recently been attempted at thwink.org Using meme types and memetic infection in several stock and flow simulation models, Jack Harich has demonstrated several interesting phenomena that are best, and perhaps only, explained by memes. One model, The Dueling Loops of the Political Powerplace, argues that the fundamental reason corruption is the norm in politics is due to an inherent structural advantage of one feedback loop pitted against another. Another model, The Memetic Evolution of Solutions to Difficult Problems, uses memes, the evolutionary algorithm, and the scientific method to show how complex solutions evolve over time and how that process can be improved. The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem. Another application of memetics in the sustainability space is the crowdfunded Climate Meme Project conducted by Joe Brewer and Balazs Laszlo Karafiath in the spring of 2013. This study was based on a collection of 1000 unique text-based expressions gathered from Twitter, Facebook, and structured interviews with climate activists. The major finding was that the global warming meme is not effective at spreading because it causes emotional duress in the minds of people who learn about it. Five central tensions were revealed in the discourse about [climate change], each of which represents a resonance point through which dialogue can be engaged. The tensions were Harmony/Disharmony (whether or not humans are part of the natural world), Survival/Extinction (envisioning the future as either apocalyptic collapse of civilization or total extinction of the human race), Cooperation/Conflict (regarding whether or not humanity can come together to solve global problems), Momentum/Hesitation (about whether or not we are making progress at the collective scale to address climate change), and Elitism/Heretic (a general sentiment that each side of the debate considers the experts of its opposition to be untrustworthy). Ben Cullen, in his book Contagious Ideas, brought the idea of the meme into the discipline of archaeology. He coined the term "Cultural Virus Theory", and used it to try to anchor archaeological theory in a neo-Darwinian paradigm. Archaeological memetics could assist the application of the meme concept to material culture in particular. Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls "memetic selection criteria". These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of applied memetics to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses. In 2003 Klaas Chielens carried out these tests in a Masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria. In Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution, Austrian linguist Nikolaus Ritt has attempted to operationalise memetic concepts and use them for the explanation of long term sound changes and change conspiracies in early English. It is argued that a generalised Darwinian framework for handling cultural change can provide explanations where established, speaker centred approaches fail to do so. The book makes comparatively concrete suggestions about the possible material structure of memes, and provides two empirically rich case studies. Australian academic S.J. Whitty has argued that project management is a memeplex with the language and stories of its practitioners at its core. This radical approach sees a project and its management as an illusion; a human construct about a collection of feelings, expectations, and sensations, which are created, fashioned, and labeled by the human brain. Whitty's approach requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit, and are encouraged to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving process which shapes organizations for its own purpose. Swedish political scientist Mikael Sandberg argues against "Lamarckian" interpretations of institutional and technological evolution and studies creative innovation of information technologies in governmental and private organizations in Sweden in the 1990s from a memetic perspective. Comparing the effects of active ("Lamarckian") IT strategy versus user–producer interactivity (Darwinian co-evolution), evidence from Swedish organizations shows that co-evolutionary interactivity is almost four times as strong a factor behind IT creativity as the "Lamarckian" IT strategy. Terminology Memeplex – (an abbreviation of meme-complex) is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship. Simply put, a meme-complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other. Meme-complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of individual genes that make up the genetic codes of biological organisms. An example of a memeplex would be a religion. Meme pool – a population of interbreeding memes. Memetic engineering – The process of deliberately creating memes, using engineering principles. Memetic algorithms – an approach to evolutionary computation that attempts to emulate cultural evolution in order to solve optimization problems. Memotype – is the actual information-content of a meme. Memeoid – a neologism for people who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential. Examples include kamikazes, suicide bombers and cult members who commit mass suicide. The term was apparently coined by H. Keith Henson in "Memes, L5 and the Religion of the Space Colonies," L5 News, September 1985 pp. 5–8, and referenced in the expanded second edition of Richard Dawkins' book The Selfish Gene (p. 330). But in the strict sense all people are essentially memeoid, since no distinction can be made if one uses language, or memes use their host. In The Electronic Revolution William S. Burroughs writes: "the word has not been recognised as a virus because it has achieved a state of stable symbiosis with the host." Memetic equilibrium – the cultural equivalent of species biological equilibrium. It is that which humans strive for in terms of personal value with respect to cultural artefacts and ideas. The term was coined by Christopher diCarlo. Metamemetic thinking - coined by Diego Fontanive, is the thinking skill & cognitive training capable of making individuals acknowledge illogical memes. Eumemics - the belief and practice of deliberately improving the quality of the meme pool. Memocide - intentional action to eradicate a meme or memeplex from the population, either by killing its carriers or by censorship. See also References Sources Apter, Emily (2019). Alphabetic Memes: Caricature, Satire, and Political Literacy in the Age of Trump (PDF). OCTOBER Journal 170, Fall 2019, MIT Press Journal Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten (2008). "Can Memes Play Games? Memetics and the Problem of Space" in T. Botz-Bornstein (ed.): Culture, Nature, Memes: Dynamic Cognitive Theories (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press), pp. 142–156. Boyd, Robert & Richerson, Peter J. (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. University of Chicago Press. Boyd, Rob & Richerson, Peter J. (2005). Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution. Chicago University Press. DiCarlo, Christopher W. 2010. "How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions." Politics and Culture. https://politicsandculture.org/2010/04/27/how-problem-solving-and-neurotransmission-in-the-upper-paleolithic-led-to-the-emergence-and-maintenance-of-memetic-equilibrium-in-contemporary-world-religions/ Edmonds, Bruce. 2002. "Three challenges for the survival of memetics." Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 6. http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2002/vol6/edmonds_b_letter.html Edmonds, Bruce. 2005. "The revealed poverty of the gene-meme analogy – why memetics per se has failed." Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 9. http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2005/vol9/edmonds_b.html Heylighen F. & Chielens K. (2009): Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed. B. | developments Alternative definitions Dawkins, in A Devil's Chaplain, expanded his definition of meme by saying there are actually two different types of memetic processes (controversial and informative). The first is a type of cultural idea, action, or expression, which does have high variance; for instance, a student of his who had inherited some of the mannerisms of Wittgenstein. The second type is a self-correcting meme that is highly resistant to mutation. As an example of this, he gives origami patterns taught to elementary students– the meme is either passed on in the exact sequence of instructions, or (in the case of a forgetful child) terminates. The self-correcting meme tends to not evolve, and to experience profound mutations in the rare event that it does. Another definition, given by Hokky Situngkir, tried to offer a more rigorous formalism for the meme, memeplexes, and the deme, seeing the meme as a cultural unit in a cultural complex system. It is based on the Darwinian genetic algorithm with some modifications to account for the different patterns of evolution seen in genes and memes. In the method of memetics as the way to see culture as a complex adaptive system, he describes a way to see memetics as an alternative methodology of cultural evolution. DiCarlo (2010) developed the definition of meme further to include the idea of 'memetic equilibrium', which describe a culturally compatible state with biological equilibrium. In "How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions", DiCarlo argues that as human consciousness evolved and developed, so too did our ancestors' capacity to consider and attempt to solve environmental problems in more conceptually sophisticated ways. When a satisfactory solution is found, the feeling of environmental stability, or memetic equilibrium, is achieved. The relationship between a gradually emerging conscious awareness and sophisticated languages in which to formulate representations combined with the desire to maintain biological equilibrium, generated the necessity for equilibrium to fill in conceptual gaps in terms of understanding three very important aspects in the Upper Paleolithic: causality, morality, and mortality. The desire to explain phenomena in relation to maintaining survival and reproductive stasis, generated a normative stance in the minds of our ancestors—Survival/Reproductive Value (or S-R Value). Memetic analysis The possibility of quantitative analysis of memes using neuroimaging tools and the suggestion that such studies have already been done was given by McNamara (2011). This author proposes hyperscanning (concurrent scanning of two communicating individuals in two separate MRI machines) as a key tool in the future for investigating memetics. Velikovsky (2013) proposed the "holon" as the structure of the meme, synthesizing the major theories on memes of Richard Dawkins, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, E. O. Wilson, Frederick Turner (poet) and Arthur Koestler. Proponents of memetics as described in the Journal of Memetics (out of print since 2005) believe that 'memetics' has the potential to be an important and promising analysis of culture using the framework of evolutionary concepts. Keith Henson in Memetics and the Modular-Mind (Analog Aug. 1987) makes the case that memetics needs to incorporate evolutionary psychology to understand the psychological traits of a meme's host. Applications Research methodologies that apply memetics go by many names: Viral marketing, cultural evolution, the history of ideas, social analytics, and more. Many of these applications do not make reference to the literature on memes directly but are built upon the evolutionary lens of idea propagation that treats semantic units of culture as self-replicating and mutating patterns of information that are assumed to be relevant for scientific study. For example, the field of public relations is filled with attempts to introduce new ideas and alter social discourse. One means of doing this is to design a meme and deploy it through various media channels. One historic example of applied memetics is the PR campaign conducted in 1991 as part of the build-up to the first Gulf War in the United States. The application of memetics to a difficult complex social system problem, environmental sustainability, has recently been attempted at thwink.org Using meme types and memetic infection in several stock and flow simulation models, Jack Harich has demonstrated several interesting phenomena that are best, and perhaps only, explained by memes. One model, The Dueling Loops of the Political Powerplace, argues that the fundamental reason corruption is the norm in politics is due to an inherent structural advantage of one feedback loop pitted against another. Another model, The Memetic Evolution of Solutions to Difficult Problems, uses memes, the evolutionary algorithm, and the scientific method to show how complex solutions evolve over time and how that process can be improved. The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem. Another application of memetics in the sustainability space is the crowdfunded Climate Meme Project conducted by Joe Brewer and Balazs Laszlo Karafiath in the spring of 2013. This study was based on a collection of 1000 unique text-based expressions gathered from Twitter, Facebook, and structured interviews with climate activists. The major finding was that the global warming meme is not effective at spreading because it causes emotional duress in the minds of people who learn about it. Five central tensions were revealed in the discourse about [climate change], each of which represents a resonance point through which dialogue can be engaged. The tensions were Harmony/Disharmony (whether or not humans are part of the natural world), Survival/Extinction (envisioning the future as either apocalyptic collapse of civilization or total extinction of the human race), Cooperation/Conflict (regarding whether or not humanity can come together to solve global problems), Momentum/Hesitation (about whether or not we are making progress at the collective scale to address climate change), and Elitism/Heretic (a general sentiment that each side of the debate considers the experts of its opposition to be untrustworthy). Ben Cullen, in his book Contagious Ideas, brought the idea of the meme into the discipline of archaeology. He coined the term "Cultural Virus Theory", and used it to try to anchor archaeological theory in a neo-Darwinian paradigm. Archaeological memetics could assist the application of the meme concept to material culture in particular. Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls "memetic selection criteria". These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of applied memetics to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses. In 2003 Klaas Chielens carried out these tests in a Masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria. In Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution, Austrian linguist Nikolaus Ritt has attempted to operationalise memetic concepts and use them for the explanation of long term sound changes and change conspiracies in early English. It is argued that a generalised Darwinian framework for handling cultural change can provide explanations where established, speaker centred approaches fail to do so. The book makes comparatively concrete suggestions about the possible material structure of memes, and provides two empirically rich case studies. Australian academic S.J. Whitty has argued that project management is a memeplex with the language and stories of its practitioners at its core. This radical approach sees a project and its management as an illusion; a human construct about a collection of feelings, expectations, and sensations, which are created, fashioned, and labeled by the human brain. Whitty's approach requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit, and are encouraged to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving process which shapes organizations for its own purpose. Swedish political scientist Mikael Sandberg argues against "Lamarckian" interpretations of institutional and technological evolution and studies creative innovation of information technologies in governmental and private organizations in Sweden in the 1990s from a memetic perspective. Comparing the effects of active ("Lamarckian") IT strategy versus user–producer interactivity (Darwinian co-evolution), evidence from Swedish organizations shows that co-evolutionary interactivity is almost four times as strong a factor behind IT creativity as the "Lamarckian" IT strategy. Terminology Memeplex – (an abbreviation of meme-complex) is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship. Simply put, a meme-complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other. Meme-complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of individual genes that make up the genetic codes of biological organisms. An example of a memeplex would be a religion. Meme pool – a population of interbreeding memes. Memetic engineering – The process of deliberately creating memes, using engineering principles. Memetic algorithms – an approach to evolutionary computation that attempts to emulate cultural evolution in order to solve optimization problems. Memotype – is the actual information-content of a meme. Memeoid – a neologism for people who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential. Examples include kamikazes, suicide bombers and cult members who commit mass suicide. The term was apparently coined by H. Keith Henson in "Memes, L5 and the Religion of the Space Colonies," L5 News, September 1985 pp. 5–8, and referenced in the expanded second edition of Richard Dawkins' book The Selfish Gene (p. 330). But in the strict sense all people are essentially memeoid, since no distinction can be made if one uses language, or memes use their host. In The Electronic Revolution William S. Burroughs writes: "the word has not been recognised as a virus because it has achieved a state of stable symbiosis with the host." Memetic equilibrium – the cultural equivalent of species biological equilibrium. It is that which humans strive for in terms of personal value with respect to cultural artefacts and ideas. The term was coined by Christopher diCarlo. Metamemetic thinking - coined by Diego Fontanive, is the thinking skill & cognitive training capable of making individuals acknowledge illogical memes. Eumemics - the belief and practice of deliberately improving the quality of the meme pool. Memocide - intentional action to eradicate a meme or memeplex from the population, either by killing its carriers or by censorship. See also References Sources Apter, Emily (2019). Alphabetic Memes: Caricature, Satire, and Political Literacy in the Age of Trump (PDF). OCTOBER Journal 170, Fall 2019, MIT Press Journal Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten (2008). "Can Memes Play Games? Memetics and the Problem of Space" in T. Botz-Bornstein (ed.): Culture, Nature, Memes: Dynamic Cognitive Theories (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press), pp. 142–156. Boyd, Robert & Richerson, Peter J. (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. University of Chicago Press. Boyd, Rob & Richerson, Peter J. (2005). Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution. Chicago University Press. DiCarlo, Christopher W. 2010. "How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions." Politics and Culture. https://politicsandculture.org/2010/04/27/how-problem-solving-and-neurotransmission-in-the-upper-paleolithic-led-to-the-emergence-and-maintenance-of-memetic-equilibrium-in-contemporary-world-religions/ Edmonds, Bruce. 2002. "Three challenges for the survival of memetics." Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 6. http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2002/vol6/edmonds_b_letter.html Edmonds, Bruce. 2005. "The revealed poverty of the gene-meme analogy – why memetics per se has failed." Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 9. http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2005/vol9/edmonds_b.html Heylighen F. & Chielens K. (2009): Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed. B. Meyers (Springer) Houben, Jan E.M. "Memetics of Vedic Ritual, Morphology of the Agnistoma." Powerpoint presentation first presented at the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002 www.academia.edu/7090834 Houben, Jan E.M. "A Tradição Sânscrita entre Memética Védica e Cultura Literária." (In Portuguese) Revista Linguagem & Ensino, vol. 17 n. 2 (2014), p. 441-469. www.rle.ucpel.tche.br/index.php/rle/article/view/1089/783 The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins, Oxford University Press, 1976, 2nd edition, December 1989, hardcover, 352 pages, ; April 1992, ; trade paperback, September 1990, 352 pages, Aunger, Robert. The Electric Meme: A New Theory of How We Think. New York: Free Press, 2002. The Meme Machine by Susan Blackmore, Oxford University Press, 1999, hardcover , trade paperback , May 2000, The Ideology of Cybernetic Totalist Intellectuals an essay by Jaron Lanier which is very strongly critical of |
1889) 1808 – José de Espronceda, Spanish poet and author (d. 1842) 1824 – Clinton L. Merriam, American banker and politician (d. 1900) 1840 – Myles Keogh, Irish-American colonel (d. 1876) 1863 – Simon Flexner, American physician and academic (d. 1946) 1867 – Gutzon Borglum, American sculptor, designed Mount Rushmore (d. 1941) 1867 – Arturo Toscanini, Italian-American cellist and conductor (d. 1957) 1868 – Bill Lockwood, English cricketer (d. 1932) 1871 – Louis Perrée, French fencer (d. 1924) 1872 – Horatio Nelson Jackson, American race car driver and physician (d. 1955) 1873 – Rudolf Rocker, German-American author and activist (d. 1958) 1874 – Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Turkish educator and politician (d. 1957) 1876 – Irving Baxter, American high jumper and pole vaulter (d. 1957) 1877 – Walter Little, Canadian politician (d. 1961) 1878 – František Janda-Suk, Czech discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1955) 1879 – Amedee Reyburn, American swimmer and water polo player (d. 1920) 1881 – Béla Bartók, Hungarian pianist and composer (d. 1945) 1881 – Patrick Henry Bruce, American painter and educator (d. 1936) 1881 – Mary Webb, English author and poet (d. 1927) 1893 – Johannes Villemson, Estonian runner (d. 1971) 1895 – Siegfried Handloser, German general and physician (d. 1954) 1885 – Jimmy Seed, English international footballer and manager (d. 1966) 1897 – Leslie Averill, New Zealand doctor and soldier (d. 1981) 1899 – François Rozet, French-Canadian actor (d. 1994) 1901–present 1901 – Ed Begley, American actor (d. 1970) 1903 – Binnie Barnes, English-American actress (d. 1998) 1903 – Frankie Carle, American pianist and bandleader (d. 2001) 1903 – Nahum Norbert Glatzer, Ukrainian-American theologian and scholar (d. 1990) 1904 – Pete Johnson, American boogie-woogie and jazz pianist (d. 1967) 1905 – Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim, German colonel (d. 1944) 1906 – Jean Sablon, French singer and actor (d. 1994) 1906 – A. J. P. Taylor, English historian and academic (d. 1990) 1908 – David Lean, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1991) 1910 – Magda Olivero, Italian soprano (d. 2014) 1910 – Benzion Netanyahu, Polish-Israeli historian and academic (d. 2012) 1912 – Melita Norwood, English civil servant and spy (d. 2005) 1912 – Jean Vilar, French actor and director (d. 1971) 1913 – Reo Stakis, Cypriot-Scottish businessman, founded Stakis Hotels (d. 2001) 1914 – Norman Borlaug, American agronomist and humanitarian, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1915 – Dorothy Squires, Welsh singer (d. 1998) 1916 – S. M. Pandit, Indian painter and educator (d. 1993) 1918 – Howard Cosell, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1995) 1920 – Paul Scott, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1978) 1920 – Patrick Troughton, English actor (d. 1987) 1920 – Usha Mehta, Gandhian and freedom fighter of India (d. 2000) 1921 – Nancy Kelly, American actress (d. 1995) 1921 – Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985) 1921 – Alexandra of Yugoslavia, the last Queen of Yugoslavia (d. 1993) 1922 – Eileen Ford, American businesswoman, co-founded Ford Models (d. 2014) 1923 – Bonnie Guitar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019) 1923 – Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003) 1924 – Roberts Blossom, American actor (d. 2011) 1924 – Machiko Kyō, Japanese actress (d. 2019) 1925 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (d. 1964) 1925 – Anthony Quinton, Baron Quinton, English physician and philosopher (d. 2010) 1925 – Kishori Sinha, Indian politician, social activist and advocate (d. 2016) 1926 – Riz Ortolani, Italian composer and conductor (d. 2014) 1926 – László Papp, Hungarian boxer (d. 2003) 1926 – Shirley Jean Rickert, American actress (d. 2009) 1926 – Jaime Sabines, Mexican poet and politician (d. 1999) 1926 – Gene Shalit, American journalist and critic 1927 – P. Shanmugam, Indian politician, 13th Chief Minister of Puducherry (d. 2013) 1928 – Jim Lovell, American captain, pilot, and astronaut 1928 – Gunnar Nielsen, Danish runner and typographer (d. 1985) 1928 – Peter O'Brien, Australian rugby league player (d. 2016) 1928 – Hans Steinbrenner, German sculptor (d. 2008) 1929 – Cecil Taylor, American pianist and composer (d. 2018) 1930 – David Burge, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2013) 1930 – Carlo Mauri, Italian mountaineer and explorer (d. 1982) 1930 – Rudy Minarcin, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013) 1931 – Humphrey Burton, English radio and television host 1932 – Penelope Gilliatt, English novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 1993) 1932 – Wes Santee, American runner (d. 2010) 1934 – Johnny Burnette, American singer-songwriter (d. 1964) 1934 – Bernard King, Australian actor and chef (d. 2002) 1934 – Karlheinz Schreiber, German-Canadian businessman 1934 – Gloria Steinem, American feminist activist, co-founded the Women's Media Center 1935 – Gabriel Elorde, Filipino boxer (d. 1985) 1936 – Carl Kaufmann, American-German sprinter (d. 2008) 1937 – Tom Monaghan, American businessman, founded Domino's Pizza 1938 – Hoyt Axton, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1999) 1938 – Daniel Buren, French sculptor and painter 1938 – Fritz d'Orey, Brazilian racing driver (d. 2020) 1939 – Toni Cade Bambara, American author, academic, and activist (d. 1995) 1939 – D. C. Fontana, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2019) 1941 – Gudmund Hernes, Norwegian sociologist and politician, Norwegian Minister of Education and Research 1942 – Aretha Franklin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2018) 1942 – Richard O'Brien, English actor and screenwriter 1942 – Kim Woodburn, English television host 1943 – Paul Michael Glaser, American actor and director 1945 – Leila Diniz, Brazilian actress (d. 1972) 1946 – Cliff Balsom, English footballer 1946 – Daniel Bensaïd, French philosopher and author (d. 2010) 1946 – Stephen Hunter, American author and critic 1946 – Maurice Krafft, French volcanologist (d. 1991) 1947 – Richard Cork, English historian and critic 1947 – Elton John, English singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor 1948 – Bonnie Bedelia, American actress 1948 – Michael Stanley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021) 1949 – Ronnie Flanagan, Northern Irish Chief Constable (Royal Irish Constabulary, Police Service of Northern Ireland) 1949 – Sue Klebold, American activist 1950 – Chuck Greenberg, American saxophonist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1995) 1950 – Ronnie McDowell, American singer-songwriter 1950 – David Paquette, American-New Zealander pianist 1951 – Jumbo Tsuruta, Japanese wrestler (d. 2000) 1952 – Stephen Dorrell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health 1952 – Antanas Mockus, Colombian mathematician, philosopher, and politician, Mayor of Bogotá 1953 – Robert Fox, English producer and manager 1953 – Vesna Pusić, Croatian sociologist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia 1953 – Haroon Rasheed, Pakistani cricketer and coach 1954 – Thom Loverro, American journalist and author 1955 – Daniel Boulud, French chef and author 1955 – Lee Mazzilli, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1957 – Christina Boxer, English runner and journalist 1957 – Jonathan Michie, English economist and academic 1957 – Aleksandr Puchkov, Russian hurdler 1957 – Jim Uhls, American screenwriter and producer 1958 – Susie Bright, American journalist, author, and critic 1958 – Lorna Brown, Canadian artist, curator, and writer 1958 – Sisy Chen, Taiwanese journalist and politician 1958 – María Caridad Colón, Cuban javelin thrower and shot putter 1958 – John Ensign, American physician and politician 1958 – Ray Tanner, American baseball player and coach 1958 – Åsa Torstensson, Swedish politician, 3rd Swedish Minister for Infrastructure 1960 – Steve Norman, English saxophonist, songwriter, and producer 1960 – Peter O'Brien, Australian actor 1960 – Brenda Strong, American actress 1961 – Mark Brooks, American golfer 1962 – Marcia Cross, American actress 1962 – David Nuttall, English lawyer and politician 1963 – Karen Bruce, English dancer and choreographer 1963 – Velle Kadalipp, Estonian architect 1963 – Andrew O'Connor, British actor, comedian, magician, television presenter and executive producer 1964 – René Meulensteen, Dutch footballer and coach 1964 – Ken Wregget, Canadian ice hockey player 1964 – Norm Duke, American bowler 1965 – Avery Johnson, American basketball player and coach 1965 – Stefka Kostadinova, Bulgarian high jumper 1965 – Sarah Jessica Parker, American actress, producer, and designer 1966 – Tom Glavine, American baseball player 1966 – Humberto Gonzalez, Mexican boxer 1966 – Jeff Healey, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008) 1966 – Anton Rogan, Northern Irish footballer 1967 – Matthew Barney, American sculptor and photographer 1967 – Doug Stanhope, American comedian and actor 1967 – Debi Thomas, American figure skater and physician 1969 – George Chlitsios, Greek conductor and composer 1969 – Dale Davis, American basketball player 1969 – Cathy Dennis, English singer-songwriter, record producer and actress 1969 – Jeffrey Walker, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1970 – Magnus Larsson, Swedish golfer 1971 – Stacy Dragila, American pole vaulter and coach 1971 – Cammi Granato, American ice hockey player and sportscaster 1971 – Sheryl Swoopes, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Naftali Bennett, Israeli politician, 13th Prime Minister of Israel 1972 – Giniel de Villiers, South African racing driver 1972 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (d. 2007) 1973 – Michaela Dorfmeister, Austrian skier 1973 – Anders Fridén, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer 1973 – Bob Sura, American basketball player 1974 – Serge Betsen, Cameroonian-French rugby player 1974 – Lark Voorhies, American actress and singer 1975 – Ladislav Benýšek, Czech ice hockey player 1975 – Melanie Blatt, English singer-songwriter and actress 1975 – Erika Heynatz, Papua New Guinean-Australian model and actress 1976 – Francie Bellew, Irish footballer | Sarah Jessica Parker, American actress, producer, and designer 1966 – Tom Glavine, American baseball player 1966 – Humberto Gonzalez, Mexican boxer 1966 – Jeff Healey, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008) 1966 – Anton Rogan, Northern Irish footballer 1967 – Matthew Barney, American sculptor and photographer 1967 – Doug Stanhope, American comedian and actor 1967 – Debi Thomas, American figure skater and physician 1969 – George Chlitsios, Greek conductor and composer 1969 – Dale Davis, American basketball player 1969 – Cathy Dennis, English singer-songwriter, record producer and actress 1969 – Jeffrey Walker, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1970 – Magnus Larsson, Swedish golfer 1971 – Stacy Dragila, American pole vaulter and coach 1971 – Cammi Granato, American ice hockey player and sportscaster 1971 – Sheryl Swoopes, American basketball player and coach 1972 – Naftali Bennett, Israeli politician, 13th Prime Minister of Israel 1972 – Giniel de Villiers, South African racing driver 1972 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (d. 2007) 1973 – Michaela Dorfmeister, Austrian skier 1973 – Anders Fridén, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer 1973 – Bob Sura, American basketball player 1974 – Serge Betsen, Cameroonian-French rugby player 1974 – Lark Voorhies, American actress and singer 1975 – Ladislav Benýšek, Czech ice hockey player 1975 – Melanie Blatt, English singer-songwriter and actress 1975 – Erika Heynatz, Papua New Guinean-Australian model and actress 1976 – Francie Bellew, Irish footballer 1976 – Lars Figura, German sprinter 1976 – Wladimir Klitschko, Ukrainian boxer 1976 – Rima Wakarua, New Zealand-Italian rugby player 1977 – Natalie Clein, English cellist and educator 1977 – Andrew Lindsay, Scottish rower 1978 – Gennaro Delvecchio, Italian footballer 1979 – Muriel Hurtis-Houairi, French sprinter 1980 – Kathrine Sørland, Norwegian fashion model and television presenter 1981 – Casey Neistat, American YouTube personality, filmmaker, and entrepreneur 1982 – Danica Patrick, American race car driver 1982 – Álvaro Saborío, Costa Rican footballer 1982 – Jenny Slate, American comedian, actress and author 1983 – Mickaël Hanany, French high jumper 1984 – Katharine McPhee, American singer-songwriter and actress 1984 – Liam Messam, New Zealand rugby player 1985 – Carmen Rasmusen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and actress 1985 – Diana Rennik, Estonian figure skater 1986 – Marco Belinelli, Italian basketball player 1986 – Megan Gibson, American softball player 1986 – Kyle Lowry, American basketball player 1986 – Mickey Paea, Australian rugby league player 1987 – Jacob Bagersted, Danish handball player 1987 – Victor Obinna, Nigerian footballer 1987 – Nobunari Oda, Japanese figure skater 1988 – Big Sean, American rapper, singer and songwriter 1988 – Ryan Lewis, American music producer 1988 – Mitchell Watt, Australian long jumper 1988 – Arthur Zeiler, German rugby player 1989 – Aly Michalka, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1989 – Scott Sinclair, English footballer 1990 – Mehmet Ekici, Turkish footballer 1990 – Alexander Esswein, German footballer 1991 – Scott Malone, English footballer 1992 – Meg Lanning, Australian cricketer 1993 – Jacob Gagan, Australian rugby league player 1993 – Sam Johnstone, English footballer 1994 – Justine Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier Deaths Pre-1600 908 – Li Kening, Chinese general 940 – Taira no Masakado, Japanese samurai 990 – Nicodemus of Mammola, Italian monk and saint 1005 – Kenneth III, king of Scotland 1051 – Hugh IV, French nobleman 1189 – Frederick, duke of Bohemia 1223 – Alfonso II, king of Portugal (b. 1185) 1351 – Kō no Moronao, Japanese samurai 1351 – Kō no Moroyasu, Japanese samurai 1392 – Hosokawa Yoriyuki, Japanese samurai 1458 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Spanish poet and politician (b. 1398) 1558 – Marcos de Niza, French friar and explorer (b. 1495) 1601–1900 1603 – Ikoma Chikamasa, Japanese daimyō (b. 1526) 1609 – Olaus Martini, Swedish archbishop (b. 1557) 1609 – Isabelle de Limeuil, French noble (b. 1535) 1620 – Johannes Nucius, German composer and theorist (b. 1556) 1625 – Giambattista Marino, Italian poet and author (b. 1569) 1658 – Herman IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg, German nobleman (b. 1607) 1677 – Wenceslaus Hollar, Czech-English painter and etcher (b. 1607) 1701 – Jean Regnault de Segrais, French poet and novelist (b. 1624) 1712 – Nehemiah Grew, English anatomist and physiologist (b. 1641) 1732 – Lucy Filippini, Italian teacher and saint (b. 1672) 1736 – Nicholas Hawksmoor, English architect, designed Easton Neston and Christ Church (b. 1661) 1738 – Turlough O'Carolan, Irish harp player and composer (b. 1670) 1801 – Novalis, German poet and author (b. 1772) 1818 – Caspar Wessel, Norwegian-Danish mathematician and cartographer (b. 1745) 1857 – William Colgate, English-American businessman and philanthropist, founded Colgate-Palmolive (b. 1783) 1860 – James Braid, Scottish-English surgeon (b. 1795) 1869 – Edward Bates, American politician and lawyer (b. 1793) 1873 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (b. 1810) 1901–present 1907 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (b. 1836) 1908 – Durham Stevens, American diplomat (b. 1851) 1914 – Frédéric Mistral, French lexicographer and poet, 1904 Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1830) 1917 – Elizabeth Storrs Mead, American academic (b. 1832) 1918 – Claude Debussy, French composer (b. 1862) 1918 – Peter Martin, Australian footballer and soldier (b. 1875) 1927 – Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas, Palestinian Roman Catholic nun; later canonized (b. 1843) 1931 – Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, Indian journalist and politician (b. 1890) 1931 – Ida B. Wells, American journalist and activist (b. 1862) 1932 – Harriet Backer, Norwegian painter (b.1845) 1942 – William Carr, American rower (b. 1876) 1951 – Eddie Collins, American baseball player and manager (b. 1887) 1956 – Lou Moore, American race car driver (b. 1904) 1956 – Robert Newton, English actor (b. 1905) 1958 – Tom Brown, American trombonist (b. 1888) 1964 – Charles Benjamin Howard, Canadian businessman and politician (b. 1885) 1965 – Viola Liuzzo, American civil rights activist (b. 1925) 1969 – Billy Cotton, English singer, drummer, and bandleader (b. 1899) 1969 – Max Eastman, American poet and activist (b. 1883) 1973 – Jakob Sildnik, Estonian photographer and director (b. 1883) 1973 – Edward Steichen, Luxembourgian-American photographer, painter, and curator (b. 1879) 1975 – Juan Gaudino, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1893) 1975 – Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian king (b. 1906) 1975 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1894) 1976 – Josef Albers, German-American painter and educator (b. 1888) 1976 – Benjamin Miessner, American radio engineer and inventor (b. 1890) 1978 – Thomas Woodrooffe, 79, British naval officer and radio commentator 1979 – Robert Madgwick, Australian colonel and academic (b. 1905) 1979 – Akinoumi Setsuo, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 37th Yokozuna (b. 1914) 1980 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and psychologist (b. 1901) 1980 – Walter Susskind, Czech-English conductor and educator (b. 1913) 1982 – Goodman Ace, American comedian and writer (b. 1899) 1983 – Bob Waterfield, American football player and coach (b. 1920) 1986 – Gloria Blondell, American actress (b. 1910) 1987 – A. W. Mailvaganam, Sri Lankan physicist and academic (b. 1906) 1988 – Robert Joffrey, American dancer, choreographer, and director, co-founded the Joffrey Ballet (b. 1930) 1991 – Marcel Lefebvre, French-Swiss archbishop (b. 1905) 1992 – Nancy Walker, American actress, singer, and director (b. 1922) 1994 – Angelines Fernández, Spanish-Mexican actress (b. 1922) 1994 – Bernard Kangro, Estonian poet and journalist (b. 1910) 1994 – Max Petitpierre, Swiss jurist and politician (b. 1899) 1995 – James Samuel Coleman, American sociologist and academic (b. 1926) 1995 – John Hugenholtz, Dutch engineer (b. 1914) 1998 – Max Green, Australian lawyer (b. 1952) 1998 – Steven Schiff, American lawyer and politician (b. 1947) 1999 – Cal Ripken, Sr., American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1936) 2000 – Helen Martin, American actress (b. 1909) 2001 – Brian Trubshaw, English cricketer and pilot (b. 1924) 2002 – Kenneth Wolstenholme, English journalist and sportscaster (b. 1920) 2005 – Paul Henning, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1911) 2006 – Bob Carlos Clarke, Irish photographer (b. 1950) 2006 – Rocío Dúrcal, Spanish singer and actress (b. 1944) 2006 – Richard Fleischer, American film director (b. 1916) 2006 – Buck |
islands is Isle Royale in Lake Superior, which, in addition to its waters and other surrounding islands, is organized as Isle Royale National Park. Isle Royale itself is . The most populated island is Grosse Ile with approximately 10,000 residents, located in the Detroit River about south of Detroit. The majority of Michigan's islands are uninhabited and very small. Some of these otherwise unusable islands have been used for the large number of Michigan's lighthouses to aid in shipping throughout the Great Lakes, while others have been set aside as nature reserves. Many islands in Michigan have the same name, even some that are in the same municipality and body of water, such as Gull, Long, or Round islands. Lake Erie Only Monroe County and a very small portion of Wayne County have boundaries within the westernmost portion of Lake Erie. The lake has a mean surface elevation of . The islands in the southern portion of the county are part of the North Maumee Bay Archeological District of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, while northern islands are part of Pointe Mouillee State Game Area at the mouth of the Huron River and Detroit River. Turtle Island is the only island in the state of Michigan that is shared by another state, as it is divided with the state of Ohio. Lake Huron Lake Huron is the second largest of the Great Lakes (after Lake Superior) with a surface area of . Michigan is the only state to border Lake Huron, while the portion of the lake on the other side of the international border belongs to the province of Ontario. The vast majority of Michigan's islands in Lake Huron are centered around Drummond Island in the northernmost portion of the state's lake territory. Another large group of islands is the Les Cheneaux Islands archipelago, which itself contains dozens of small islands. Many of the lake's islands are very small and uninhabited. As the most popular tourist destination in the state, Mackinac Island is the most well known of Lake Huron's islands. Drummond Island is the state's second-largest island (after Isle Royale) and is the most populous of Michigan's islands in Lake Huron, with a population of 1,058 at the 2010 census. While Mackinac Island had a population of 492, there are thousands more seasonal workers and tourists during the summer months. Lake Michigan Michigan only has islands in Lake Michigan in the northern portion of the lake. There are no islands in the southern half of Lake Michigan. The largest and most populated of Michigan's islands in Lake Michigan is Beaver Island at and 551 residents. Some of the smaller islands surrounding Beaver Island are part of the larger Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Lake Superior Lake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes, and the coastline is sparsely populated. At , Isle Royale is the largest Michigan island and is the center of Isle Royale National Park, which itself contains over 450 islands. The following is a list of islands in Lake Superior that are not part of | list of islands in Isle Royale National Park. Lake St. Clair Lake St. Clair connects Lake Huron and Lake Erie through the St. Clair River in the north and the Detroit River in the south. At , it is one of the largest non-Great Lakes in the United States, but it only contains a small number of islands near the mouth of the St. Clair River, where all of the following islands are located. The largest of these islands is Harsens Island, and all the islands are in Clay Township in St. Clair County. Detroit River The Detroit River runs for and connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie. For its entire length, it carries the international border between the United States and Canada. Some islands belong to Ontario in Canada and are not included in the list below. All islands on the American side belong to Wayne County. Portions of the southern portion of the river serve as wildlife refuges as part of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge. The largest and most populous island is Grosse Ile. Most of the islands are around and closely connected to Grosse Ile. St. Marys River The St. Marys River connects Lake Superior and Lake Huron at the easternmost point of the Upper Peninsula. It carries the international border throughout its length, and some of the islands belong to neighboring Ontario. The largest of Michigan's islands in the river are Sugar Island and Neebish Island. Wider portions of the river are designated as Lake George, Lake Nicolet, and the Munuscong Lake. The whole length of the Michigan portion of the river is part of Chippewa County. Inland islands Michigan has numerous inland lakes and rivers that also contain their own islands. The following also lists the body of water in which these islands are located. Five islands below (* and highlighted |
divided between the Ohio Country and the new Indiana Territory, 1800-1803 (when the eastern half of the Lower Peninsula was transferred to Indiana upon Ohio achieving statehood). On June 30, 1805, the Territory of Michigan was created, with General William Hull as the first territorial governor. Originally, the territory included only the Lower Peninsula and eastern tip of the Upper Peninsula. The rest of the Upper Peninsula remained part of Indiana Territory until creation of Illinois Territory in 1809. The entire Upper Peninsula was not attached to Michigan Territory until Illinois became a state in 1818, Indiana having become a state in 1816. Governors of the Territory of Michigan Governors of the State of Michigan Michigan was admitted to the Union on January 26, 1837. The original 1835 Constitution of Michigan provided for the election of a governor and a lieutenant governor every 2 years. The fourth and current constitution of 1963 increased this term to four years. There was no term limit on governors until a constitutional amendment effective in 1993 limited governors to two terms. Should the office of governor become vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, followed in order of succession by the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. Prior to the current constitution, the duties of the office would devolve upon the lieutenant governor, without that person actually becoming governor. The term begins at noon on January 1 of the year following the election. Prior to the 1963 constitution, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected through separate votes, allowing them to | of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws; the power to either approve or veto appropriation bills passed by the Michigan Legislature; the power to convene the legislature; and the power to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. He or she is also empowered to reorganize the executive branch of the state government. In the 17th and 18th century, Michigan was part of French and then British holdings, and administered by their colonial governors. After becoming part of the United States, areas of what is today Michigan were part of the Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory and Illinois Territory, and administered by territorial governors. In 1805, the Michigan Territory was created, and five men served as territorial governors, until Michigan was granted statehood in 1837. Forty-eight individuals have held the position of state governor. The first female governor, Jennifer Granholm, served from 2003 to 2011. After Michigan gained statehood, governors held the office for a 2-year term, until the 1963 Michigan Constitution changed the term to 4 years. The number of times an individual could hold the office was unlimited until a 1992 constitutional amendment imposed a lifetime term limit of two 4-year governorships. The longest-serving governor in Michigan's history was William Milliken, who was promoted from lieutenant governor after Governor George W. Romney resigned to become Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, then was elected to three further successive terms. The only governors to serve non-consecutive terms were John S. Barry and Frank Fitzgerald. Governors Michigan was part of New |
the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traité de la predestination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his Universalismus hypotheticus. God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alençon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580–1652). The charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The university of Saumur became the university of French Protestantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures. One of these was William Penn, who would later go on to found the Pennsylvania Colony in America based in part on Amyraut's notions of religious freedom . Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchère (1600–1653), first president of the parlement of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants. Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books, which have long remained the "fireside" favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst these are Estat des fideles apres la mort; Sur l'oraison dominicale; Du merite des oeuvres; Traité de la justification; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New Testament. His closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on 18 January 1664. Seventeenth century opponents There were a number of theologians who defended Calvinistic orthodoxy against Amyraut and Saumur, including Friedrich Spanheim (1600–1649) and Francis Turretin (1623–1687). Ultimately, the Helvetic Consensus was drafted to counteract the theology of Saumur and Amyraldism. See also Amyraldism Richard Baxter References References Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyraut, sa vie et ses écrits (1849) Alex. Schweizer in Tüb. theol. Jahrbb., 1852, pp. 41 ff. 155 ff., Protestant. Central-Dogmen (1854 ff.), ii. 225 ff., and in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie Pierre Bayle, s.v.; Biog. Univ., s.v. John Quick, Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, pp. 352–357 John Quick (MS). Icones Sacrae Gallicanae: Life of Cameron External links 1596 births 1664 deaths People from Indre-et-Loire Huguenots French Calvinist and Reformed theologians 17th-century | There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it. His "oration" on this occasion, which was immediately published in the French Mercure, remains a striking landmark in the history of French Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly debated "whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the Lord's Table." It was decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining intercommunion between all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation. Pierre Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author. These show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traité de la predestination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his Universalismus hypotheticus. God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alençon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580–1652). The charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The university of Saumur became the university of French Protestantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures. One of these was William Penn, who would later go on to found the Pennsylvania Colony in America based in part on Amyraut's notions of religious freedom . Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchère (1600–1653), first president of the parlement of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French |
of present-day Ashville. The twin summits of Mount Misery are said to be the remnants of his rafts; they are known as Lalangengall or the two watercraft. This story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out the Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system. The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill, who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. History European exploration The first Europeans to encounter the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell, who crossed the river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the Hume River after his father. In 1830, Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the Murray River in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Sir George Murray, not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream. Sturt continued down the remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth. The vicinity of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831. The first three settlers on the Murray River are known to have been James Collins Hawker (explorer and surveyor) along with Edward John Eyre (explorer and later Governor of Jamaica) plus E.B. Scott (onetime superintendent of Yatala Labour Prison). Hawker is known to have sold his share in the Bungaree Station, which he founded with his brothers, and relocated alongside the Murray at a site near Moorundie. In 1852, Francis Cadell, in preparation for the launch of his steamer service, explored the river in a canvas boat, travelling downstream from Swan Hill. In 1858, while acting as Minister of Land and Works for New South Wales, Irish nationalist and founder of Young Ireland, Charles Gavan Duffy, founded Carlyle Township on the Murray River, after his close friend, Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle. Included in the township were "Jane Street," named in honor of Carlyle's wife Jane Carlyle and "Stuart-Mill Street" in honor of political philosopher John Stuart Mill In 1858, the Government Zoologist, William Blandowski, together with Gerard Krefft, explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling a list of birds and mammals. George "Chinese" Morrison, then aged 18, navigated the river by canoe from Wodonga to its mouth, in 65 days, completing the 1,555-mile (2,503 km) journey in January 1881. River transport Shipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea because it does not have an estuary. However, in the 19th century the river supported a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft paddle steamers, the first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853. The Lady Augusta, captained by Francis Cadell, reached Swan Hill while another, Mary Ann, captained by William Randell, reached Moama (near Echuca). In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point, though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal, Wahgunya and Albury. The arrival of steamboat transport was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields. By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries. Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne. The Murray was plagued by "snags", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches. In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these snags by placing dead gum trees back into the river. The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of the snags. The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion. By this time up to thirty steamers and a similar number of barges were working the river in season. River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points. The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport. However, the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length. Today, most traffic on the river is recreational. Small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing. Houseboats are common, both commercial for hire and privately owned. There are a number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from half an hour to 5 days. River crossings The Murray River has been a significant barrier to land-based travel and trade. Many of the ports for transport of goods along the Murray have also developed as places to cross the river, either by bridge or ferry. The first bridge to cross the Murray, which was built in 1869, is in the town of Murray Bridge, formerly called Edwards Crossing. To distinguish this bridge from the many others that span the Murray River, this bridge is known as Murray River road bridge, Murray Bridge Tolls applied on South Australian ferries until abolished in November 1961. Water storage and irrigation Small-scale pumping plants began drawing water from the Murray in the 1850s and the first high-volume plant was constructed at Mildura in 1887. The introduction of pumping stations along the river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas (including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area). In 1915, the three Murray states – New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia – signed the River Murray Agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river's headwaters as well as at Lake Victoria near the South Australian border. Along the intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built. These were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water, but riverborne transport was already declining due to improved highway and railway systems. The disruption of the river's natural flow, run-off from agriculture, and the introduction of pest species such as the European carp has led to serious environmental damage along the river's length. There are widespread concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term – a serious problem given that the Murray supplies 40 per cent of the water supply for Adelaide. Efforts to alleviate the problems have proceeded but disagreement between various | fault in the two main channels (Edward and ancestral Goulburn) in addition to a fan of small streams, and regularly floods a large amount of low-lying country in the area. These conditions are perfect for River Red Gums, which rapidly formed forests in the area. Thus the displacement of the Cadell Fault 25,000 BP led directly to the formation of the famous Barmah River Red Gum Forests. The Barmah Choke and The Narrows restrict the amount of water that can travel down this part of the Murray. In times of flood and high irrigation flows the majority of the water, in addition to flooding the Red Gum forests, actually travels through the Edward River channel. The Murray has not had enough flow power to naturally enlarge The Barmah Choke and The Narrows to increase the amount of water they can carry. The Cadell Fault is quite noticeable as a continuous, low, earthen embankment as one drives into Barmah from the west, although to the untrained eye it may appear man-made. Murray mouth The Murray Mouth is the point at which the Murray River empties into the sea, and the interaction between its shallow, shifting and variable currents and the open sea can be complex and unpredictable. During the peak period of Murray River commerce (roughly 1855 to 1920), it presented a major impediment to the passage of goods and produce between Adelaide and the Murray settlements, and many vessels foundered or were wrecked there. Since the early 2000s, dredging machines have operated at the Murray Mouth for 24 hours a day, moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the Coorong's lagoon system. Without the dredging, the mouth would silt up and close, cutting the supply of fresh sea-water into the Coorong National Park, which would then warm up, stagnate and die. Mythology Being one of the major river systems on one of the driest continents on Earth, the Murray has significant cultural relevance to Aboriginal Australians. According to the people of Lake Alexandrina, the Murray was created by the tracks of the Great Ancestor, Ngurunderi, as he pursued Pondi, the Murray Cod. The chase originated in the interior of New South Wales. Ngurunderi pursued the fish (who, like many totem animals in Aboriginal myths, is often portrayed as a man) on rafts (or lala) made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target. But Pondi was a wily prey and carved a weaving path, carving out the river's various tributaries. Ngurunderi was forced to beach his rafts, and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river. At Kobathatang, Ngurunderi finally got lucky and struck Pondi in the tail with a spear. However, the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called Peindjalang, near Tailem Bend. Eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey, the hunter and his two wives (sometimes the escaped sibling wives of Waku and Kanu) hurried on, and took positions high on the cliff on which Tailem Bend now stands. They sprung an ambush on Pondi only to fail again. Ngurunderi set off in pursuit again but lost his prey as Pondi dived into Lake Alexandrina. Ngurunderi and the women settled on the shore, only to suffer bad luck with fishing, being plagued by a water fiend known as Muldjewangk. They later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present-day Ashville. The twin summits of Mount Misery are said to be the remnants of his rafts; they are known as Lalangengall or the two watercraft. This story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out the Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system. The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill, who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. History European exploration The first Europeans to encounter the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell, who crossed the river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the Hume River after his father. In 1830, Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the Murray River in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Sir George Murray, not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream. Sturt continued down the remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth. The vicinity of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831. The first three settlers on the Murray River are known to have been James Collins Hawker (explorer and surveyor) along with Edward John Eyre (explorer and later Governor of Jamaica) plus E.B. Scott (onetime superintendent of Yatala Labour Prison). Hawker is known to have sold his share in the Bungaree Station, which he founded with his brothers, and relocated alongside the Murray at a site near Moorundie. In 1852, Francis Cadell, in preparation for the launch of his steamer service, explored the river in a canvas boat, travelling downstream from Swan Hill. In 1858, while acting as Minister of Land and Works for New South Wales, Irish nationalist and founder of Young Ireland, Charles Gavan Duffy, founded Carlyle Township on the Murray River, after his close friend, Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle. Included in the township were "Jane Street," named in honor of Carlyle's wife Jane Carlyle and "Stuart-Mill Street" in honor of political philosopher John Stuart Mill In 1858, the Government Zoologist, William Blandowski, together with Gerard Krefft, explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling a list of birds and mammals. George "Chinese" Morrison, then aged 18, navigated the river by canoe from Wodonga to its mouth, in 65 days, completing the 1,555-mile (2,503 km) journey in January 1881. River transport Shipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea because it does not have an estuary. However, in the 19th century the river supported a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft paddle steamers, the first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853. The Lady Augusta, captained by Francis Cadell, reached Swan Hill while another, Mary Ann, captained by William Randell, reached Moama (near Echuca). In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point, though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal, Wahgunya and Albury. The arrival of steamboat transport was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields. By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries. Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne. The Murray was plagued by "snags", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches. In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these snags by placing dead gum trees back into the river. The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of the snags. The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion. By this time up to thirty steamers and a similar number of barges were working the river in season. River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points. The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the |
was the pressurized crew compartment (3). Inside, an astronaut would be strapped to a form-fitting seat with instruments in front of him and with his back to the heat shield. Underneath the seat was the environmental control system supplying oxygen and heat, scrubbing the air of CO2, vapor and odors, and (on orbital flights) collecting urine. The recovery compartment (4) at the narrow end of the spacecraft contained three parachutes: a drogue to stabilize free fall and two main chutes, a primary and reserve. Between the heat shield and inner wall of the crew compartment was a landing skirt, deployed by letting down the heat shield before landing. On top of the recovery compartment was the antenna section (5) containing both antennas for communication and scanners for guiding spacecraft orientation. Attached was a flap used to ensure the spacecraft was faced heat shield first during reentry. A launch escape system (6) was mounted to the narrow end of the spacecraft containing three small solid-fueled rockets which could be fired briefly in a launch failure to separate the capsule safely from its booster. It would deploy the capsule's parachute for a landing nearby at sea. (See also Mission profile for details.) The Mercury spacecraft did not have an on-board computer, instead relying on all computation for reentry to be calculated by computers on the ground, with their results (retrofire times and firing attitude) then transmitted to the spacecraft by radio while in flight. All computer systems used in the Mercury space program were housed in NASA facilities on Earth. (See Ground control for details.) Pilot accommodations The astronaut lay in a sitting position with his back to the heat shield, which was found to be the position that best enabled a human to withstand the high g-forces of launch and reentry. A fiberglass seat was custom-molded from each astronaut's space-suited body for maximum support. Near his left hand was a manual abort handle to activate the launch escape system if necessary prior to or during liftoff, in case the automatic trigger failed. To supplement the onboard environmental control system, he wore a pressure suit with its own oxygen supply, which would also cool him. A cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at a low pressure of (equivalent to an altitude of ) was chosen, rather than one with the same composition as air (nitrogen/oxygen) at sea level. This was easier to control, avoided the risk of decompression sickness ("the bends"), and also saved on spacecraft weight. Fires (which never occurred) would have to be extinguished by emptying the cabin of oxygen. In such case, or failure of the cabin pressure for any reason, the astronaut could make an emergency return to Earth, relying on his suit for survival. The astronauts normally flew with their visor up, which meant that the suit was not inflated. With the visor down and the suit inflated, the astronaut could only reach the side and bottom panels, where vital buttons and handles were placed. The astronaut also wore electrodes on his chest to record his heart rhythm, a cuff that could take his blood pressure, and a rectal thermometer to record his temperature (this was replaced by an oral thermometer on the last flight). Data from these was sent to the ground during the flight. The astronaut normally drank water and ate food pellets. Once in orbit, the spacecraft could be rotated in yaw, pitch, and roll: along its longitudinal axis (roll), left to right from the astronaut's point of view (yaw), and up or down (pitch). Movement was created by rocket-propelled thrusters which used hydrogen peroxide as a fuel. For orientation, the pilot could look through the window in front of him or he could look at a screen connected to a periscope with a camera which could be turned 360°. The Mercury astronauts had taken part in the development of their spacecraft, and insisted that manual control, and a window, be elements of its design. As a result, spacecraft movement and other functions could be controlled three ways: remotely from the ground when passing over a ground station, automatically guided by onboard instruments, or manually by the astronaut, who could replace or override the two other methods. Experience validated the astronauts' insistence on manual controls. Without them, Gordon Cooper's manual reentry during the last flight would not have been possible. Spacecraft cutaway Control panels and handle Development and production The Mercury spacecraft design was modified three times by NASA between 1958 and 1959. After bidding by potential contractors had been completed, NASA selected the design submitted as "C" in November 1958. After it failed a test flight in July 1959, a final configuration, "D", emerged. The heat shield shape had been developed earlier in the 1950s through experiments with ballistic missiles, which had shown a blunt profile would create a shock wave that would lead most of the heat around the spacecraft. To further protect against heat, either a heat sink, or an ablative material, could be added to the shield. The heat sink would remove heat by the flow of the air inside the shock wave, whereas the ablative heat shield would remove heat by a controlled evaporation of the ablative material. After uncrewed tests, the latter was chosen for crewed flights. Apart from the capsule design, a rocket plane similar to the existing X-15 was considered. This approach was still too far from being able to make a spaceflight, and was consequently dropped. The heat shield and the stability of the spacecraft were tested in wind tunnels, and later in flight. The launch escape system was developed through uncrewed flights. During a period of problems with development of the landing parachutes, alternative landing systems such as the Rogallo glider wing were considered, but ultimately scrapped. The spacecraft were produced at McDonnell Aircraft, St. Louis, Missouri, in clean rooms and tested in vacuum chambers at the McDonnell plant. The spacecraft had close to 600 subcontractors, such as Garrett AiResearch which built the spacecraft's environmental control system. Final quality control and preparations of the spacecraft were made at Hangar S at Cape Canaveral. NASA ordered 20 production spacecraft, numbered 1 through 20. Five of the 20, Nos. 10, 12, 15, 17, and 19, were not flown. Spacecraft No. 3 and No. 4 were destroyed during uncrewed test flights. Spacecraft No. 11 sank and was recovered from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean after 38 years. Some spacecraft were modified after initial production (refurbished after launch abort, modified for longer missions, etc.). A number of Mercury boilerplate spacecraft (made from non-flight materials or lacking production spacecraft systems) were also made by NASA and McDonnell. They were designed and used to test spacecraft recovery systems and the escape tower. McDonnell also built the spacecraft simulators used by the astronauts during training, and adopted the motto "First Free Man in Space". Launch vehicles Launch escape system testing A launch vehicle called Little Joe was used for uncrewed tests of the launch escape system, using a Mercury capsule with an escape tower mounted on it. Its main purpose was to test the system at max q, when aerodynamic forces against the spacecraft peaked, making separation of the launch vehicle and spacecraft most difficult. It was also the point at which the astronaut was subjected to the heaviest vibrations. The Little Joe rocket used solid-fuel propellant and was originally designed in 1958 by NACA for suborbital crewed flights, but was redesigned for Project Mercury to simulate an Atlas-D launch. It was produced by North American Aviation. It was not able to change direction; instead its flight depended on the angle from which it was launched. Its maximum altitude was fully loaded. A Scout launch vehicle was used for a single flight intended to evaluate the tracking network; however, it failed and was destroyed from the ground shortly after launch. Suborbital flight The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was an (with capsule and escape system) single-stage launch vehicle used for suborbital (ballistic) flights. It had a liquid-fueled engine that burned alcohol and liquid oxygen producing about of thrust, which was not enough for orbital missions. It was a descendant of the German V-2, and developed for the U.S. Army during the early 1950s. It was modified for Project Mercury by removing the warhead and adding a collar for supporting the spacecraft together with material for damping vibrations during launch. Its rocket motor was produced by North American Aviation and its direction could be altered during flight by its fins. They worked in two ways: by directing the air around them, or by directing the thrust by their inner parts (or both at the same time). Both the Atlas-D and Redstone launch vehicles contained an automatic abort sensing system which allowed them to abort a launch by firing the launch escape system if something went wrong. The Jupiter rocket, also developed by Von Braun's team at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, was considered as well for intermediate Mercury suborbital flights at a higher speed and altitude than Redstone, but this plan was dropped when it turned out that man-rating Jupiter for the Mercury program would actually cost more than flying an Atlas due to economics of scale. Jupiter's only use other than as a missile system was for the short-lived Juno II launch vehicle, and keeping a full staff of technical personnel around solely to fly a few Mercury capsules would result in excessively high costs. Orbital flight Orbital missions required use of the Atlas LV-3B, a man-rated version of the Atlas D which was originally developed as the United States' first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by Convair for the Air Force during the mid-1950s. The Atlas was a "one-and-one-half-stage" rocket fueled by kerosene and liquid oxygen (LOX). The rocket by itself stood high; total height of the Atlas-Mercury space vehicle at launch was . The Atlas first stage was a booster skirt with two engines burning liquid fuel. This, together with the larger sustainer second stage, gave it sufficient power to launch a Mercury spacecraft into orbit. Both stages fired from lift-off with the thrust from the second stage sustainer engine passing through an opening in the first stage. After separation from the first stage, the sustainer stage continued alone. The sustainer also steered the rocket by thrusters guided by gyroscopes. Smaller vernier rockets were added on its sides for precise control of maneuvers. Gallery Astronauts NASA announced the following seven astronauts – known as the Mercury Seven – on April 9, 1959: Alan Shepard became the first American in space by making a suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. Mercury-Redstone 3, Shepard's 15 minute and 28 second flight of the Freedom 7 capsule demonstrated the ability to withstand the high g-forces of launch and atmospheric re-entry. Shepard later went on to fly in the Apollo program and became the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the Moon on Apollo 14. Gus Grissom became the second American in space on Mercury-Redstone 4 on July 21, 1961. After the splashdown of Liberty Bell 7, the side hatch opened and caused the capsule to sink although Grissom was able to be safely recovered. His flight also gave NASA the confidence to move onto orbital flights. Grissom went on to participate in the Gemini and Apollo programs, but died in January 1967 during a pre-launch test for Apollo 1. John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on Mercury-Atlas 6 February 20, 1962. During the flight, the spacecraft Friendship 7 experienced issues with its automatic control system but Glenn was able to manually control the spacecraft's attitude. He quit NASA in 1964, when he came to the conclusion that he likely wouldn't be selected for any Apollo missions and later got elected to the US Senate, serving from 1974 to 1999. During his tenure, he returned to space in 1998 as a Payload Specialist aboard STS-95. Scott Carpenter was the second astronaut in orbit and flew on Mercury-Atlas 7 on May 24, 1962. The spaceflight was essentially a repeat of Mercury-Atlas 6, but a targeting error during re-entry took Aurora 7 250 miles (400 km) off-course, delaying recovery. Afterwards, he joined the Navy's "Man in the Sea" program and is the only American to be both an astronaut and an aquanaut. Carpenter's Mercury flight was his only trip into space. Wally Schirra flew aboard Sigma 7 on Mercury-Atlas 8 on October 3, 1962. The mission's main goal was to show development of environmental controls or life-support systems that would allow for safety in space, thus being a flight mainly focused on technical evaluation, rather than scientific experimentation. The mission lasted 9 hours and 13 minutes, setting a new U.S. flight duration record. In December 1965, Schirra flew on Gemini 6A, achieving the first ever space rendezvous with sister spacecraft Gemini 7. Three years later, he commanded the first crewed Apollo mission, Apollo 7, becoming the first astronaut to fly three times and the only person to fly in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs. Gordon Cooper made the last flight of Project Mercury with Mercury-Atlas 9 on May 15, 1963. His flight onboard Faith 7 set the another U.S. endurance record with a 34-hour and 19 minute flight duration, and 22 completed orbits. This mission marks the last time an American was launched alone to conduct an entirely solo orbital mission. Cooper later went on to participate in Project Gemini where he once again beat the endurance record during Gemini 5. Deke Slayton was grounded in 1962 due to a heart condition, but remained with NASA and was appointed senior manager of the Astronaut Office and later additionally assistant director of Flight Crew Operations at the beginning of Project Gemini. On March 13, 1972, after doctors confirmed he no longer had a coronary condition, Slayton returned to flight status and the next year was assigned to the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which successfully flew in 1975 with Slayton as the docking module pilot. After the ASTP, he managed the Space Shuttle Program's Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) and Orbital Flight Tests (OFT) before retiring from NASA in 1982. One of the astronauts' tasks was publicity; they gave interviews to the press and visited project manufacturing facilities to speak with those who worked on Project Mercury. The press was especially fond of John Glenn, who was considered the best speaker of the seven. They sold their personal stories to Life magazine which portrayed them as 'patriotic, God-fearing family men.' Life was also allowed to be at home with the families while the astronauts were in space. During the project, Grissom, Carpenter, Cooper, Schirra and Slayton stayed with their families at or near Langley Air Force Base; Glenn lived at the base and visited his family in Washington DC on weekends. Shepard lived with his family | CO2, vapor and odors, and (on orbital flights) collecting urine. The recovery compartment (4) at the narrow end of the spacecraft contained three parachutes: a drogue to stabilize free fall and two main chutes, a primary and reserve. Between the heat shield and inner wall of the crew compartment was a landing skirt, deployed by letting down the heat shield before landing. On top of the recovery compartment was the antenna section (5) containing both antennas for communication and scanners for guiding spacecraft orientation. Attached was a flap used to ensure the spacecraft was faced heat shield first during reentry. A launch escape system (6) was mounted to the narrow end of the spacecraft containing three small solid-fueled rockets which could be fired briefly in a launch failure to separate the capsule safely from its booster. It would deploy the capsule's parachute for a landing nearby at sea. (See also Mission profile for details.) The Mercury spacecraft did not have an on-board computer, instead relying on all computation for reentry to be calculated by computers on the ground, with their results (retrofire times and firing attitude) then transmitted to the spacecraft by radio while in flight. All computer systems used in the Mercury space program were housed in NASA facilities on Earth. (See Ground control for details.) Pilot accommodations The astronaut lay in a sitting position with his back to the heat shield, which was found to be the position that best enabled a human to withstand the high g-forces of launch and reentry. A fiberglass seat was custom-molded from each astronaut's space-suited body for maximum support. Near his left hand was a manual abort handle to activate the launch escape system if necessary prior to or during liftoff, in case the automatic trigger failed. To supplement the onboard environmental control system, he wore a pressure suit with its own oxygen supply, which would also cool him. A cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at a low pressure of (equivalent to an altitude of ) was chosen, rather than one with the same composition as air (nitrogen/oxygen) at sea level. This was easier to control, avoided the risk of decompression sickness ("the bends"), and also saved on spacecraft weight. Fires (which never occurred) would have to be extinguished by emptying the cabin of oxygen. In such case, or failure of the cabin pressure for any reason, the astronaut could make an emergency return to Earth, relying on his suit for survival. The astronauts normally flew with their visor up, which meant that the suit was not inflated. With the visor down and the suit inflated, the astronaut could only reach the side and bottom panels, where vital buttons and handles were placed. The astronaut also wore electrodes on his chest to record his heart rhythm, a cuff that could take his blood pressure, and a rectal thermometer to record his temperature (this was replaced by an oral thermometer on the last flight). Data from these was sent to the ground during the flight. The astronaut normally drank water and ate food pellets. Once in orbit, the spacecraft could be rotated in yaw, pitch, and roll: along its longitudinal axis (roll), left to right from the astronaut's point of view (yaw), and up or down (pitch). Movement was created by rocket-propelled thrusters which used hydrogen peroxide as a fuel. For orientation, the pilot could look through the window in front of him or he could look at a screen connected to a periscope with a camera which could be turned 360°. The Mercury astronauts had taken part in the development of their spacecraft, and insisted that manual control, and a window, be elements of its design. As a result, spacecraft movement and other functions could be controlled three ways: remotely from the ground when passing over a ground station, automatically guided by onboard instruments, or manually by the astronaut, who could replace or override the two other methods. Experience validated the astronauts' insistence on manual controls. Without them, Gordon Cooper's manual reentry during the last flight would not have been possible. Spacecraft cutaway Control panels and handle Development and production The Mercury spacecraft design was modified three times by NASA between 1958 and 1959. After bidding by potential contractors had been completed, NASA selected the design submitted as "C" in November 1958. After it failed a test flight in July 1959, a final configuration, "D", emerged. The heat shield shape had been developed earlier in the 1950s through experiments with ballistic missiles, which had shown a blunt profile would create a shock wave that would lead most of the heat around the spacecraft. To further protect against heat, either a heat sink, or an ablative material, could be added to the shield. The heat sink would remove heat by the flow of the air inside the shock wave, whereas the ablative heat shield would remove heat by a controlled evaporation of the ablative material. After uncrewed tests, the latter was chosen for crewed flights. Apart from the capsule design, a rocket plane similar to the existing X-15 was considered. This approach was still too far from being able to make a spaceflight, and was consequently dropped. The heat shield and the stability of the spacecraft were tested in wind tunnels, and later in flight. The launch escape system was developed through uncrewed flights. During a period of problems with development of the landing parachutes, alternative landing systems such as the Rogallo glider wing were considered, but ultimately scrapped. The spacecraft were produced at McDonnell Aircraft, St. Louis, Missouri, in clean rooms and tested in vacuum chambers at the McDonnell plant. The spacecraft had close to 600 subcontractors, such as Garrett AiResearch which built the spacecraft's environmental control system. Final quality control and preparations of the spacecraft were made at Hangar S at Cape Canaveral. NASA ordered 20 production spacecraft, numbered 1 through 20. Five of the 20, Nos. 10, 12, 15, 17, and 19, were not flown. Spacecraft No. 3 and No. 4 were destroyed during uncrewed test flights. Spacecraft No. 11 sank and was recovered from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean after 38 years. Some spacecraft were modified after initial production (refurbished after launch abort, modified for longer missions, etc.). A number of Mercury boilerplate spacecraft (made from non-flight materials or lacking production spacecraft systems) were also made by NASA and McDonnell. They were designed and used to test spacecraft recovery systems and the escape tower. McDonnell also built the spacecraft simulators used by the astronauts during training, and adopted the motto "First Free Man in Space". Launch vehicles Launch escape system testing A launch vehicle called Little Joe was used for uncrewed tests of the launch escape system, using a Mercury capsule with an escape tower mounted on it. Its main purpose was to test the system at max q, when aerodynamic forces against the spacecraft peaked, making separation of the launch vehicle and spacecraft most difficult. It was also the point at which the astronaut was subjected to the heaviest vibrations. The Little Joe rocket used solid-fuel propellant and was originally designed in 1958 by NACA for suborbital crewed flights, but was redesigned for Project Mercury to simulate an Atlas-D launch. It was produced by North American Aviation. It was not able to change direction; instead its flight depended on the angle from which it was launched. Its maximum altitude was fully loaded. A Scout launch vehicle was used for a single flight intended to evaluate the tracking network; however, it failed and was destroyed from the ground shortly after launch. Suborbital flight The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was an (with capsule and escape system) single-stage launch vehicle used for suborbital (ballistic) flights. It had a liquid-fueled engine that burned alcohol and liquid oxygen producing about of thrust, which was not enough for orbital missions. It was a descendant of the German V-2, and developed for the U.S. Army during the early 1950s. It was modified for Project Mercury by removing the warhead and adding a collar for supporting the spacecraft together with material for damping vibrations during launch. Its rocket motor was produced by North American Aviation and its direction could be altered during flight by its fins. They worked in two ways: by directing the air around them, or by directing the thrust by their inner parts (or both at the same time). Both the Atlas-D and Redstone launch vehicles contained an automatic abort sensing system which allowed them to abort a launch by firing the launch escape system if something went wrong. The Jupiter rocket, also developed by Von Braun's team at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, was considered as well for intermediate Mercury suborbital flights at a higher speed and altitude than Redstone, but this plan was dropped when it turned out that man-rating Jupiter for the Mercury program would actually cost more than flying an Atlas due to economics of scale. Jupiter's only use other than as a missile system was for the short-lived Juno II launch vehicle, and keeping a full staff of technical personnel around solely to fly a few Mercury capsules would result in excessively high costs. Orbital flight Orbital missions required use of the Atlas LV-3B, a man-rated version of the Atlas D which was originally developed as the United States' first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by Convair for the Air Force during the mid-1950s. The Atlas was a "one-and-one-half-stage" rocket fueled by kerosene and liquid oxygen (LOX). The rocket by itself stood high; total height of the Atlas-Mercury space vehicle at launch was . The Atlas first stage was a booster skirt with two engines burning liquid fuel. This, together with the larger sustainer second stage, gave it sufficient power to launch a Mercury spacecraft into orbit. Both stages fired from lift-off with the thrust from the second stage sustainer engine passing through an opening in the first stage. After separation from the first stage, the sustainer stage continued alone. The sustainer also steered the rocket by thrusters guided by gyroscopes. Smaller vernier rockets were added on its sides for precise control of maneuvers. Gallery Astronauts NASA announced the following seven astronauts – known as the Mercury Seven – on April 9, 1959: Alan Shepard became the first American in space by making a suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. Mercury-Redstone 3, Shepard's 15 minute and 28 second flight of the Freedom 7 capsule demonstrated the ability to withstand the high g-forces of launch and atmospheric re-entry. Shepard later went on to fly in the Apollo program and became the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the Moon on Apollo 14. Gus Grissom became the second American in space on Mercury-Redstone 4 on July 21, 1961. After the splashdown of Liberty Bell 7, the side hatch opened and caused the capsule to sink although Grissom was able to be safely recovered. His flight also gave NASA the confidence to move onto orbital flights. Grissom went on to participate in the Gemini and Apollo programs, but died in January 1967 during a pre-launch test for Apollo 1. John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on Mercury-Atlas 6 February 20, 1962. During the flight, the spacecraft Friendship 7 experienced issues with its automatic control system but Glenn was able to manually control the spacecraft's attitude. He quit NASA in 1964, when he came to the conclusion that he likely wouldn't be selected for any Apollo missions and later got elected to the US Senate, serving from 1974 to 1999. During his tenure, he returned to space in 1998 as a Payload Specialist aboard STS-95. Scott Carpenter was the second astronaut in orbit and flew on Mercury-Atlas 7 on May 24, 1962. The spaceflight was essentially a repeat of Mercury-Atlas 6, but a targeting error during re-entry took Aurora 7 250 miles (400 km) off-course, delaying recovery. Afterwards, he joined the Navy's "Man in the Sea" program and is the only American to be both an astronaut and an aquanaut. Carpenter's Mercury flight was his only trip into space. Wally Schirra flew aboard Sigma 7 on Mercury-Atlas 8 on October 3, 1962. The mission's main goal was to show development of environmental controls or life-support systems that would allow for safety in space, thus being a flight mainly focused on technical evaluation, rather than scientific experimentation. The mission lasted 9 hours and 13 minutes, setting a new U.S. flight duration record. In December 1965, Schirra flew on Gemini 6A, achieving the first ever space rendezvous with sister spacecraft Gemini 7. Three years later, he commanded the first crewed Apollo mission, Apollo 7, becoming the first astronaut to fly three times and the only person to fly in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs. Gordon Cooper made the last flight of Project Mercury with Mercury-Atlas 9 on May 15, 1963. His flight onboard Faith 7 set the another U.S. endurance record with a 34-hour and 19 minute flight duration, and 22 completed orbits. This mission marks the last time an American was launched alone to conduct an entirely solo orbital mission. Cooper later went on to participate in Project Gemini where he once again beat the endurance record during Gemini 5. Deke Slayton was grounded in 1962 due to a heart condition, but remained with NASA and was appointed senior manager of the Astronaut Office and later additionally assistant director of Flight Crew Operations at the beginning of Project Gemini. On March 13, 1972, after doctors confirmed he no longer had a coronary condition, Slayton returned to flight status and the next year was assigned to the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which successfully flew in 1975 with Slayton as the docking module pilot. After the ASTP, he managed the Space Shuttle Program's Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) and Orbital Flight Tests (OFT) before retiring from NASA in 1982. One of the astronauts' tasks was publicity; they gave interviews to the press and visited project manufacturing facilities to speak with those who worked on Project Mercury. The press was especially fond of John Glenn, who was considered the best speaker of the seven. They sold their personal stories to Life magazine which portrayed them as 'patriotic, God-fearing family men.' Life was also allowed to be at home with the families while the astronauts were in space. During the project, Grissom, Carpenter, Cooper, Schirra and Slayton stayed with their families at or near Langley Air Force Base; Glenn lived at the base and visited his family in Washington DC on weekends. Shepard lived with his family at Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia. Other than Grissom, who was killed in the 1967 Apollo 1 fire, the other six survived past retirement and died between 1993 and 2016. Selection and training Prior to Project Mercury, there was no protocol for selecting astronauts, so NASA would set a far-reaching precedent with both their selection process and initial choices for astronauts. At the end of 1958, various ideas for the selection pool were discussed privately within the national government and the civilian space program, and also among the public at large. Initially, there was the idea to issue a widespread public call to volunteers. Thrill-seekers such as rock climbers and acrobats would have been allowed to apply, but this idea was quickly shot down by NASA officials who understood that an undertaking such as space flight required individuals with professional training and education in flight engineering. By late 1958, NASA officials decided to move forward with test pilots being the heart of their selection pool. On President Eisenhower's insistence, the group was further narrowed down to active duty military test pilots, which set the number of candidates at 508. These candidates were USN or USMC naval aviation pilots (NAPs), or USAF pilots of Senior or Command rating. These aviators had long military records, which would give NASA officials more background information on which to base their decisions. Furthermore, these aviators were skilled in flying the most advanced aircraft to date, giving them the best qualifications for the new position of astronaut. During this time, women were banned from flying in the military and so could not successfully qualify as test pilots. This meant that no female candidates could earn consideration for the title of astronaut. Civilian NASA X-15 pilot Neil Armstrong was also disqualified, though he had been selected by the US Air Force in 1958 for its Man in Space Soonest program, which was replaced by Mercury. Although Armstrong had been a combat-experienced NAP during the Korean War, he left active duty in 1952. Armstrong became NASA's first civilian astronaut in 1962 when he was selected for NASA's second group, and became the first man on the Moon in 1969. It was further stipulated that candidates should be between 25 and 40 years old, no taller than , and hold a college degree in a STEM subject. The college degree requirement excluded the USAF's X-1 pilot, then-Lt Col (later Brig Gen) Chuck Yeager, the first person to exceed the speed of sound. He later became a critic of the project, ridiculing the civilian space program, labeling astronauts as "spam in a can." John Glenn did not have a college degree either, but used influential friends to make the selection committee accept him. USAF Capt. (later Col.) Joseph Kittinger, a USAF fighter pilot and stratosphere balloonist, met all the requirements but preferred to stay in his contemporary project. Other potential candidates declined because they did not believe that human spaceflight had a future beyond Project Mercury. From the original 508, 110 candidates were selected for an interview, and from the interviews, 32 were selected for further physical and mental testing. Their health, vision, and hearing were examined, together with their tolerance to noise, vibrations, g-forces, personal isolation, and heat. In a special chamber, they were tested to see if they could perform their tasks under confusing conditions. The candidates had to answer more than 500 questions about themselves and describe what they saw in different images. Navy Lt (later Capt) Jim Lovell, who was later an astronaut in the Gemini and Apollo programs, did not pass the physical tests. After these tests it was intended to narrow the group down to six astronauts, but in the end it was decided to keep seven. The astronauts went through a training program covering some of the same exercises that were used in their selection. They simulated the g-force profiles of launch and reentry in a centrifuge at the Naval Air Development Center, and were taught special breathing techniques necessary when subjected to more than 6 g. Weightlessness training took place in aircraft, first on the rear seat of a two-seater fighter and later inside converted and padded cargo aircraft. They practiced gaining control of a spinning spacecraft in a machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory called the Multi-Axis Spin-Test Inertia Facility (MASTIF), by using an attitude controller handle simulating the one in the spacecraft. A further measure for finding the right attitude in orbit was star and Earth recognition training in planetaria and simulators. Communication and flight procedures were practiced in flight simulators, first together with a single person assisting them and later with the Mission Control Center. Recovery was practiced in pools at Langley, and later at sea with frogmen and helicopter crews. Mission profile Suborbital missions A Redstone rocket was used to boost the capsule for 2 minutes and 30 seconds to an altitude of ; the capsule continued ascending on a ballistic curve after booster separation. The launch escape system was jettisoned at the same time. At the top of the curve, the spacecraft's retrorockets were fired for testing purposes; they were not necessary for reentry because orbital speed had not been attained. The spacecraft landed in the Atlantic Ocean. The suborbital mission took about 15 minutes, had an apogee altitude of , and a downrange distance of . From |
Mutina, Philippi, and Perugia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their preponderant wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th century BC. Horace makes reference to this in his address to Maecenas at the opening of his first books of Odes with the expression "atavis edite regibus" (descendant of kings). Tacitus refers to him as "Cilnius Maecenas"; it is possible that "Cilnius" was his mother's nomen – or that Maecenas was in fact a cognomen. The Gaius Maecenas mentioned in Cicero as an influential member of the equestrian order in 91 BC may have been his grandfather, or even his father. The testimony of Horace and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he had profited from the highest education of his time. His great wealth may have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and influence to his close connection with the emperor Augustus. He first appears in history in 40 BC, when he was employed by Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and afterwards in assisting to negotiate the Treaty of Brundisium and the reconciliation with Mark Antony. As a close friend and advisor he had even acted as deputy for Augustus when he was abroad. It was in 38 BC that Horace was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil into his intimacy. In the "Journey to Brundisium," in 37, Maecenas and Marcus Cocceius Nerva – great-grandfather of the future emperor Nerva – are described as having been sent on an important mission, and they were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power. During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme administrative control in the city and in Italy. He was vicegerent of Octavian during the campaign that led to the Battle of Actium, when, with great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of Lepidus the Younger; during the subsequent absences of his chief in the provinces he again held the same position. During the latter years of his life as recorded by Suetonius he fell somewhat out of favour with his master. The historian attributes the loss of the imperial favour to Maecenas' having indiscreetly revealed to Terentia, his beautiful but difficult wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which her brother Lucius Licinius Varro Murena was implicated, but according to Cassius Dio (writing in the early 3rd century AD) it was due to the emperor's relations with Terentia. Maecenas died in 8 BC, leaving the emperor sole heir to his wealth. Reputation Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to his personal character; but the testimony as to his administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous. He enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying the new empire safely through many dangers. To his influence especially were attributed the more humane policies of Octavian after his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus. The best summary of his character as a man and a statesman, by Marcus Velleius Paterculus, describes him as "of sleepless vigilance in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how to act, but in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate than a woman." Expressions in the Odes of Horace seem to imply that Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre which Romans liked to imagine was characteristic of their city. Maecenate (patronage) Maecenas is most famous for his support of young poets, hence his name has become the eponym for a "patron of arts". He supported Virgil who wrote the Georgics in his honour. It was Virgil, impressed with examples of Horace's poetry, who introduced Horace to Maecenas. Indeed, Horace begins the first poem of his Odes (Odes I.i) by addressing his new patron. Maecenas gave him full financial support as well as an estate in the | The change in seriousness of purpose between the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil was in a great measure the result of the direction given by the statesman to the poet's genius. A similar change between the earlier odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book has been ascribed by some to the same guidance. However, since the organization of the Odes is not entirely chronological, and their composition followed both books of Satires and the Epodes, this argument is plainly specious; but doubtless the milieu of Maecenas's circle influenced the writing of the Roman Odes (III.1–6) and others such as the ode to Pollio, Motum ex Metello (II.1). Maecenas endeavoured also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from harping continually on his love to themes of public interest, an effort which to some extent backfired in the ironic elegies of Book III. But if the motive of his patronage had been merely political, it never could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients. The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity. Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like equals. Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the Satires and Epistles of Horace. It has fallen to the lot of no other patron of literature to have his name associated with works of such lasting interest as the Georgics of Virgil, the first three books of Horace's Odes, and the first book of his Epistles. Works Maecenas also wrote literature himself in both prose and verse, which are now lost literary work. The some twenty fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an author than as a judge and patron of literature. His prose works on various subjects – Prometheus, dialogues like Symposium (a banquet at which Virgil, Horace, and Messalla were present), De cultu suo (on his manner of life), and a poem In Octaviam ("Against Octavia") of which the content is unclear – were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca, and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and awkward transpositions. According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas was also the inventor of a system of shorthand. Gardens of Maecenas Maecenas sited his famous gardens, the first gardens in the Hellenistic-Persian garden style in Rome, on the Esquiline Hill, atop the Servian Wall and its adjoining necropolis, near the gardens of Lamia. It contained terraces, libraries, and other aspects of Roman culture. Maecenas is said to have been the first to construct a swimming bath of hot water in Rome, which may have been in the gardens. The luxury of his gardens and villas incurred the displeasure of Seneca the Younger. Though the approximate site is known, it is not easy to reconcile literary indications to determine the gardens' exact location, whether or not they lay on both sides of the Servian ager and both north and south of the porta Esquilina. Common graves of the archaic Esquiline necropolis have been found near the north-west corner of the modern Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, that is, outside the Esquiline gate of antiquity and north of the via Tiburtina vetus; most probably the horti Maecenatiani extended north from this gate and road on both sides of the ager. The "Auditorium of Maecenas", a probable venue for dining and entertainment, may still be visited (upon reservation) on Largo Leopardi near Via Merulana. The gardens became imperial property after Maecenas's death, and Tiberius lived there after his return to Rome in 2 AD. Nero connected them with the Palatine Hill via his Domus Transitoria, and viewed the burning of that from the turris Maecenatiana. This turris was probably the "molem propinquam nubibus arduis" ("the pile, among the clouds") mentioned by Horace. Whether the horti Maecenatiani bought by Fronto actually were the former gardens of Maecenas is unknown, and the domus Frontoniana mentioned in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius may also refer to the gardens of Maecenas. Legacy His name has become a byword in many languages for a well-connected and wealthy patron. For instance, John Dewey, in his lectures Art as Experience, said "Economic patronage by wealthy and powerful individuals has at many times played a part in the encouragement of artistic production. Probably many a savage tribe had its Maecenas." He is celebrated for this role in two poems, the Elegiae in Maecenatem, which were written after his death and collected in the Appendix Vergiliana. In various languages, it has even been coined into a word for (private) patronage (mainly cultural, but sometimes wider, usually perceived as more altruistic than sponsorship). A verse of the student song "Gaudeamus igitur" wishes longevity upon the charity of the students' benefactors ("Maecenatum", genitive plural of "Maecenas"). In Poland and Western Ukraine, a lawyer would customarily be addressed with the honorific "Pan Mecenas", as lawyers were considered to be philanthropists and patrons of the arts. In The Great Gatsby, along with Midas and J. P. Morgan, Maecenas is one of the three famous wealthy men whose secrets narrator Nick Carraway hopes to find in the books he buys for his home library. Film and television portrayals Maecenas was portrayed by Alex Wyndham in the second season of the 2005 HBO television series Rome. He was portrayed by Russell Barr in the made-for-TV movie Imperium: Augustus. He is also featured in one episode of the second series of Plebs on ITV. In the 2021 TV series Domina, he was portrayed by Youssef Kerkour. See also Cilnia (gens) Maecenas-Ehrung, German Award to philanthropists Notes References Primary sources Dio Cassius Tacitus, Annals Suetonius, Augustus Horace, Odes with Scholia Horace, Satires i.8.14 – "nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus atque / aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes / albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum,/cum mihi non tantum furesque |
Australia Meander Valley Council, a rural local government area in Tasmania, Australia Geographical features Meander Dam, a concrete gravity dam across the Upper Meander River, Tasmania, Australia Meander Glacier, a large meandering tributary to Mariner Glacier in Victoria Land, Antarctica Meander River (disambiguation), several rivers that share the name Meander River (Tasmania), Australia Arts, entertainment, and media Meander (album), 1995 album by the band Carbon Leaf Meander (art), | Meander, Tasmania, a rural town in Meander Valley Council, Tasmania, Australia Meander Valley Council, a rural local government area in Tasmania, Australia Geographical features Meander Dam, a concrete gravity dam across the Upper Meander River, Tasmania, Australia Meander Glacier, a large meandering tributary to Mariner Glacier in Victoria Land, Antarctica Meander River (disambiguation), several rivers that share |
(d. 1881) 1797 – Alaric Alexander Watts, English poet and journalist (d. 1864) 1799 – Anna Atkins, English botanist and photographer (d. 1871) 1800 – Emperor Ninkō of Japan (d. 1846) 1805 – Ernst von Lasaulx, German philologist and politician (d. 1861) 1806 – Félix De Vigne, Belgian painter (d. 1862) 1808 – Hannah T. King, British-born American writer and pioneer (d. 1886) 1813 – Gaëtan de Rochebouët, French prime minister (d. 1899) 1819 – José Paranhos, Brazilian politician (d. 1880) 1820 – Enrico Tamberlik, Italian tenor (d. 1889) 1821 – Eduard Heine, German mathematician and academic (d. 1881) 1822 – Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (d. 1899) 1822 – John Pope, American general (d. 1892) 1823 – William Henry Monk, English organist and composer (d. 1889) 1825 – Camilo Castelo Branco, Portuguese writer (d. 1890) 1828 – Émile Deshayes de Marcère, French politician (d. 1918) 1834 – James Hector, Scottish geologist and surgeon (d. 1907) 1836 – Andrew Smith Hallidie, English-American engineer and inventor (d. 1900) 1839 – Sully Prudhomme, French poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907) 1839 – John Butler Yeats, Irish painter (d. 1922) 1840 – Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (d. 1931) 1840 – Georg von der Gabelentz, German linguist and sinologist (d. 1893) 1845 – Umegatani Tōtarō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 15th Yokozuna (d. 1928) 1846 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (d. 1927) 1846 – Rebecca Cole, American physician and social reformer (d. 1922) 1846 – Jurgis Bielinis, Lithuanian book smuggler (d. 1918) 1848 – Axel Heiberg, Norwegian financier and diplomat (d. 1932) 1851 – Otto Bardenhewer, German theologian (d. 1935) 1851 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (d. 1931) 1856 – Napoléon, Prince Imperial of France (d. 1879) 1857 – Charles Harding Firth, English historian (d. 1936) 1859 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist and inventor (d. 1906) 1865 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (d. 1953) 1869 – Willy Burmester, German violinist (d. 1933) 1871 – Hans Merensky, South African geologist and philanthropist (d. 1951) 1871 – Frantz Reichel, French rugby player and hurdler (d. 1932) 1874 – Frédéric François-Marsal, French prime minister (d. 1958) 1877 – Léo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian director and producer (d. 1972) 1878 – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German cardinal (d. 1946) 1878 – Paul Jouve, French painter (d. 1973) 1881 – Fannie Charles Dillon, American composer (d. 1947) 1882 – James Lightbody, American runner (d. 1953) 1883 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (d. 1958) 1884 – Eric P. Kelly, American journalist and author (d. 1960) 1885 – Giacomo Benvenuti, Italian composer and musicologist (d. 1943) 1885 – Sydney Chaplin, English actor (d. 1965) 1886 – Herbert Lindström, Swedish tug of war player (d. 1951) 1887 – Emilio Lunghi, Italian runner (d. 1925) 1887 – S. Stillman Berry, American marine zoologist (1984) 1889 – Reggie Walker, South African athlete (d. 1951) 1892 – César Vallejo, Peruvian poet (d. 1938) 1895 – Ernest Labrousse, French historian (d. 1988) 1897 – Antonio Donghi, Italian painter (d. 1963) 1897 – Conrad Nagel, American actor (d. 1970) 1900 – Cyril Hume, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 1966) 1900 – Mencha Karnicheva, Macedonian revolutionary and assassin (d. 1964) 1901–present 1901 – Alexis Chantraine, Belgian footballer (d. 1987) 1903 – Mike Mansfield, American politician and diplomat, 22nd United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 2001) 1906 – Francisco Ayala, Spanish sociologist, author, and translator (d. 2009) 1906 – Maurice Turnbull, Welsh-English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1944) 1906 – Henny Youngman, English-American violinist and comedian (d. 1998) 1908 – René Daumal, French author and poet (d. 1944) 1908 – Ernest Rogez, French water polo player (d. 1986) 1908 – Robert Rossen, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1966) 1910 – Aladár Gerevich, Hungarian fencer (d. 1991) 1910 – Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Indian-English cricketer and politician, 8th Nawab of Pataudi (d. 1952) 1911 – Pierre Harmel, former Prime Minister, later foreign minister of Belgium (d. 2009) 1911 – Josef Mengele, German physician, captain and mass-murderer (d. 1979) 1911 – Philip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (d. 2005) 1912 – Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States (d. 1993) 1913 – Rémy Raffalli, French soldier (d. 1952) 1915 – Kunihiko Kodaira, Japanese mathematician (d. 1997) 1916 – Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004) 1916 – Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese engineer and businessman (d. 2010) 1917 – Louis C. Wyman, American lawyer and politician (d. 2002) 1917 – Laure Pillay, Mauritian lawyer and jurist (d. 2017) 1917 – Mehrdad Pahlbod, Iranian politician (d. 2018) 1918 – Aldo van Eyck, Dutch architect (d. 1999) 1918 – Frederick Reines, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) 1920 – John Addison, English-American soldier and composer (d. 1998) 1920 – Sid Fleischman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1920 – Traudl Junge, German secretary (d. 2002) 1920 – Leo McKern, Australian-English actor (d. 2002) 1922 – Harding Lemay, American screenwriter and playwright (d. 2018) 1923 – Heinz Wallberg, German conductor (d. 2004) 1925 – Cornell Borchers, Lithuanian-German actress and singer (d. 2014) 1925 – Mary Hinkson, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2014) 1925 – Ervin Kassai, Hungarian basketball player and referee (d. 2012) 1925 – Luis E. Miramontes, Mexican chemist and engineer (d. 2004) 1926 – Charles Goodell, American lawyer and politician (d. 1987) 1926 – Jerry Lewis, American actor and comedian (d. 2017) 1927 – Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and astronaut (d. 1967) 1927 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2003) 1927 – Olga San Juan, American actress and dancer (d. 2009) 1928 – Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 45th Yokozuna (d. 2010) 1928 – Christa Ludwig, German opera singer (d. 2021) 1929 – Betty Johnson, American singer 1929 – Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist and academic (d. 2015) 1929 – Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress 1930 – Tommy Flanagan, American pianist and composer (d. 2001) 1930 – Minoru Miki, Japanese composer (d. 2011) 1931 – Augusto Boal, Brazilian theatre director, writer and politician (d. 2009) 1931 – Alan Heyman, American-South Korean musicologist and composer (d. 2014) 1931 – Anthony Kenny, English philosopher and academic 1931 – John Munro, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2003) 1932 – Don Blasingame, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005) 1932 – Walter Cunningham, American astronaut 1932 – Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer and author 1932 – Herbert Marx, Canadian politician (d. 2020) 1933 – Keith Critchlow, English architect and academic, co-founded Temenos Academy (d. 2020) 1933 – Sanford I. Weill, American banker, financier, and philanthropist 1934 – Jean Cournoyer, Canadian politician 1934 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (d. 2002) 1934 – Roger Norrington, English violinist and conductor 1935 – Teresa Berganza, Spanish soprano and actress 1935 – Pepe Cáceres, Colombian bullfighter (d. 1987) 1936 – Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American inventor, invented the MRI 1936 – Fred Neil, American folk singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) 1937 – David Frith, English historian, journalist, and author 1937 – Attilio Nicora, Italian cardinal (d. 2017) 1937 – Amos Tversky, Israeli-American psychologist and academic (d. 1996) 1938 – Carlos Bilardo, Argentinian footballer and manager 1939 – Yvon Côté, Canadian politician and teacher 1940 – Vagif Mustafazadeh, Azerbaijani pianist and composer (d. 1979) 1940 – Jan Pronk, Dutch academic and politician, Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment 1940 – Keith Rowe, English guitarist 1941 – Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1941 – Robert Guéï, Ivorian soldier and politician, 3rd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2002) 1941 – Chuck Woolery, American game show host and television personality 1942 – Roger Crozier, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1996) 1942 – Gijs van Lennep, Dutch race car driver 1942 – Jean-Pierre Schosteck, French politician 1942 – James Soong, Chinese-Taiwanese politician, Governor of Taiwan Province 1942 – Jerry Jeff Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) 1943 – Ursula Goodenough, American biologist, zoologist, and author 1943 – Hans Heyer, German race car driver 1943 – Álvaro de Soto, Peruvian diplomat 1944 – Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist and academic 1946 – Sigmund Groven, Norwegian harmonica player and composer 1946 – Mary Kaldor, English economist and academic 1946 – J. Z. Knight, American New Age teacher and author 1946 – Guesch Patti, French singer 1948 – Michael Owen Bruce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer-songwriter and director 1948 – Catherine Quéré, French politician 1949 – Erik Estrada, American actor 1949 – Victor Garber, Canadian actor and singer 1949 – Elliott Murphy, American-French singer-songwriter and journalist 1950 – Peter Forster, English bishop 1950 – Kate Nelligan, Canadian actress 1950 – Edhem Šljivo, Bosnian footballer 1951 – Ray Benson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1951 – Abdelmajid Bourebbou, Algerian footballer 1951 – Oddvar Brå, Norwegian skier 1951 – Joe DeLamielleure, American football player 1951 – Alexandre Gonzalez, French long-distance runner 1953 – Claus Peter Flor, German conductor 1953 – Isabelle Huppert, French actress 1953 – Rainer Knaak, German chess player 1953 – Richard Stallman, American computer scientist and programmer 1954 – David Heath, English politician 1954 – Colin Ireland, English serial killer (d. 2012) 1954 – Jimmy Nail, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1954 – Tim O'Brien, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1954 – Dav Whatmore, Sri Lankan-Australian cricketer and coach 1954 – Nancy Wilson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actress 1955 – Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach 1955 – Rimantas Astrauskas, Lithuanian physicist 1955 – Bruno Barreto, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Linda Lepomme, Belgian actress and singer 1955 – Bob Ley, American sports anchor and reporter 1955 – Andy Scott, Canadian politician (d. 2013) 1955 – Jiro Watanabe, Japanese boxer 1956 – Ozzie Newsome, American football player and manager 1956 – Clifton Powell, American actor, director, and producer 1956 – Yoriko Shono, Japanese writer 1956 – Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Swiss lawyer and politician 1958 – Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist and composer 1958 – Kate Worley, American author (d. 2004) 1958 – Jorge Ramos, Mexican-American journalist and author 1959 – Michael J. Bloomfield, American astronaut 1959 – Sebastian Currier, American composer and educator 1959 – Greg Dyer, Australian cricketer 1959 – Flavor Flav, American rapper and actor 1959 – Charles Hudson, American baseball player 1959 – Steve Marker, American musician 1959 – Jens Stoltenberg, Norwegian economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Norway, 13th Secretary General of NATO 1960 – John Hemming, English businessman and politician 1960 – Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1960 – Jenny Eclair, English comedian, actress and screenwriter 1961 – Brett Kenny, Australian rugby league player and coach 1961 – Todd McFarlane, Canadian author, illustrator, and businessman, founded McFarlane Toys 1962 – Franck Fréon, French race car driver 1962 – Liliane Gaschet, French athlete 1963 – Jerome Flynn, English actor and singer 1963 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2002) 1964 – Patty Griffin, American singer-songwriter 1964 – Jaclyn Jose, Filipino actress 1964 – Pascal Richard, Swiss racing cyclist 1964 – Gore Verbinski, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Steve Armstrong, American wrestler 1965 – Cindy Brown, American basketball player 1965 – Mark Carney, Canadian-English economist and banker 1965 – Cristiana Reali, Italian-Brazilian actress 1966 – Chrissy Redden, Canadian cross-country cyclist 1967 – Tracy Bonham, American singer and violinist 1967 – John Darnielle, American musician and novelist 1967 – Lauren Graham, American actress and producer 1967 – Ronnie McCoury, American bluegrass mandolin player, singer and songwriter 1967 – Heidi Zurbriggen, Swiss alpine skier 1968 – Trevor Wilson, American basketball player and police officer 1969 – Judah Friedlander, American comedian and actor 1969 – Ottis Gibson, Barbadian cricketer and coach 1969 – Alina Ivanova, Russian athlete 1969 – Evangelos Koronios, Greek basketball player and coach 1970 – Joakim Berg, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Franck Comba, French rugby player 1971 – Alan Tudyk, American actor 1972 – Ismaïl Sghyr, French-Moroccan long-distance runner 1973 – Andrey Mizurov, Kazakhstani road bicycle racer 1973 – Vonda Ward, American boxer 1974 – Georgios Anatolakis, Greek footballer and politician 1974 – Anne Charrier, French actress 1974 – Heath Streak, Zimbabwean cricketer 1975 – Luciano Castro, Argentine actor 1975 – Sienna Guillory, English model and actress 1975 – Lionel Torres, French archer 1976 – Blu Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1976 – Leila Lejeune, French handballer 1976 – Susanne Ljungskog, Swedish cyclist 1976 – Abraham Núñez, Dominican baseball player 1976 – Zhu Chen, Qatari chess Grandmaster 1977 – Mónica Cruz, Spanish actress and dancer 1977 – Thomas Rupprath, German swimmer 1978 – Brooke Burns, American fashion model, television personality, and actress 1978 – Annett Renneberg, German actress and singer 1979 – Christina Liebherr, Swiss equestrian 1979 – Rashad Moore, American football player 1979 – Sébastien Ostertag, French handball player 1979 – Leena Peisa, Finnish keyboard player and songwriter 1979 – Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer 1980 – Todd Heap, American football player 1980 – Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player 1981 – Andrew Bree, Irish swimmer 1981 – Curtis Granderson, American baseball player 1981 – Julien Mazet, French road bicycle racer 1981 – Fabiana Murer, Brazilian pole vaulter 1982 – Miguel Comminges, Guadeloupean footballer 1982 – Riley Cote, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1982 – Jesús Del Nero, Spanish road bicycle racer 1982 – Brian Wilson, American baseball player 1983 – Stephen Drew, American baseball player 1983 – Brandon League, American baseball player 1983 – Nicolas Rousseau, French road bicycle racer 1983 – Tramon Williams, American football player 1984 – Levi Brown, American football player 1984 – Aisling Bea, Irish comedienne and actress 1984 – Sharon Cherop, Kenyan long-distance runner 1984 – Michael Ennis, Australian rugby player 1984 – Hosea Gear, New Zealand rugby player 1984 – Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player 1985 – Teddy Atine-Venel, French athlete 1985 – Eddy Lover, Panamanian singer-songwriter 1985 – Aleksei Sokirskiy, Russian hammer thrower 1986 – Alexandra Daddario, American actress 1986 – Toney Douglas, American basketball player 1986 – Kenny Dykstra, American wrestler 1986 – T. J. Jordan, American basketball player 1986 – Boaz Solossa, Indonesian footballer 1986 – Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater 1987 – Fabien Lemoine, French football player 1988 – Jessica Gregg, Canadian speed skater 1988 – Patrick Herrmann, German footballer 1989 – Blake Griffin, American basketball player 1989 – Jung So-min, South Korean actress 1989 – Magalie Pottier, French racing cyclist 1989 – Theo Walcott, English footballer 1990 – Andre Young, American basketball player 1991 – Reggie Bullock, American basketball player 1991 – Wolfgang Van Halen, American bassist 1993 – George Ford, English rugby union player 1993 – Marine Lorphelin, Miss France 1994 – Joel Embiid, Cameroonian basketball player 1995 – Inga Janulevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater 1997 – Florian Neuhaus, German football player Deaths Pre-1600 AD 37 – Tiberius, Roman emperor (b. 42 BC) 455 – Valentinian III, Roman emperor (assassinated; | and politician (d. 1987) 1926 – Jerry Lewis, American actor and comedian (d. 2017) 1927 – Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and astronaut (d. 1967) 1927 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2003) 1927 – Olga San Juan, American actress and dancer (d. 2009) 1928 – Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 45th Yokozuna (d. 2010) 1928 – Christa Ludwig, German opera singer (d. 2021) 1929 – Betty Johnson, American singer 1929 – Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist and academic (d. 2015) 1929 – Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress 1930 – Tommy Flanagan, American pianist and composer (d. 2001) 1930 – Minoru Miki, Japanese composer (d. 2011) 1931 – Augusto Boal, Brazilian theatre director, writer and politician (d. 2009) 1931 – Alan Heyman, American-South Korean musicologist and composer (d. 2014) 1931 – Anthony Kenny, English philosopher and academic 1931 – John Munro, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2003) 1932 – Don Blasingame, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005) 1932 – Walter Cunningham, American astronaut 1932 – Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer and author 1932 – Herbert Marx, Canadian politician (d. 2020) 1933 – Keith Critchlow, English architect and academic, co-founded Temenos Academy (d. 2020) 1933 – Sanford I. Weill, American banker, financier, and philanthropist 1934 – Jean Cournoyer, Canadian politician 1934 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (d. 2002) 1934 – Roger Norrington, English violinist and conductor 1935 – Teresa Berganza, Spanish soprano and actress 1935 – Pepe Cáceres, Colombian bullfighter (d. 1987) 1936 – Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American inventor, invented the MRI 1936 – Fred Neil, American folk singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) 1937 – David Frith, English historian, journalist, and author 1937 – Attilio Nicora, Italian cardinal (d. 2017) 1937 – Amos Tversky, Israeli-American psychologist and academic (d. 1996) 1938 – Carlos Bilardo, Argentinian footballer and manager 1939 – Yvon Côté, Canadian politician and teacher 1940 – Vagif Mustafazadeh, Azerbaijani pianist and composer (d. 1979) 1940 – Jan Pronk, Dutch academic and politician, Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment 1940 – Keith Rowe, English guitarist 1941 – Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1941 – Robert Guéï, Ivorian soldier and politician, 3rd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2002) 1941 – Chuck Woolery, American game show host and television personality 1942 – Roger Crozier, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1996) 1942 – Gijs van Lennep, Dutch race car driver 1942 – Jean-Pierre Schosteck, French politician 1942 – James Soong, Chinese-Taiwanese politician, Governor of Taiwan Province 1942 – Jerry Jeff Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) 1943 – Ursula Goodenough, American biologist, zoologist, and author 1943 – Hans Heyer, German race car driver 1943 – Álvaro de Soto, Peruvian diplomat 1944 – Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist and academic 1946 – Sigmund Groven, Norwegian harmonica player and composer 1946 – Mary Kaldor, English economist and academic 1946 – J. Z. Knight, American New Age teacher and author 1946 – Guesch Patti, French singer 1948 – Michael Owen Bruce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1948 – Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer-songwriter and director 1948 – Catherine Quéré, French politician 1949 – Erik Estrada, American actor 1949 – Victor Garber, Canadian actor and singer 1949 – Elliott Murphy, American-French singer-songwriter and journalist 1950 – Peter Forster, English bishop 1950 – Kate Nelligan, Canadian actress 1950 – Edhem Šljivo, Bosnian footballer 1951 – Ray Benson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1951 – Abdelmajid Bourebbou, Algerian footballer 1951 – Oddvar Brå, Norwegian skier 1951 – Joe DeLamielleure, American football player 1951 – Alexandre Gonzalez, French long-distance runner 1953 – Claus Peter Flor, German conductor 1953 – Isabelle Huppert, French actress 1953 – Rainer Knaak, German chess player 1953 – Richard Stallman, American computer scientist and programmer 1954 – David Heath, English politician 1954 – Colin Ireland, English serial killer (d. 2012) 1954 – Jimmy Nail, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1954 – Tim O'Brien, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1954 – Dav Whatmore, Sri Lankan-Australian cricketer and coach 1954 – Nancy Wilson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actress 1955 – Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach 1955 – Rimantas Astrauskas, Lithuanian physicist 1955 – Bruno Barreto, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Linda Lepomme, Belgian actress and singer 1955 – Bob Ley, American sports anchor and reporter 1955 – Andy Scott, Canadian politician (d. 2013) 1955 – Jiro Watanabe, Japanese boxer 1956 – Ozzie Newsome, American football player and manager 1956 – Clifton Powell, American actor, director, and producer 1956 – Yoriko Shono, Japanese writer 1956 – Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Swiss lawyer and politician 1958 – Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist and composer 1958 – Kate Worley, American author (d. 2004) 1958 – Jorge Ramos, Mexican-American journalist and author 1959 – Michael J. Bloomfield, American astronaut 1959 – Sebastian Currier, American composer and educator 1959 – Greg Dyer, Australian cricketer 1959 – Flavor Flav, American rapper and actor 1959 – Charles Hudson, American baseball player 1959 – Steve Marker, American musician 1959 – Jens Stoltenberg, Norwegian economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Norway, 13th Secretary General of NATO 1960 – John Hemming, English businessman and politician 1960 – Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1960 – Jenny Eclair, English comedian, actress and screenwriter 1961 – Brett Kenny, Australian rugby league player and coach 1961 – Todd McFarlane, Canadian author, illustrator, and businessman, founded McFarlane Toys 1962 – Franck Fréon, French race car driver 1962 – Liliane Gaschet, French athlete 1963 – Jerome Flynn, English actor and singer 1963 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2002) 1964 – Patty Griffin, American singer-songwriter 1964 – Jaclyn Jose, Filipino actress 1964 – Pascal Richard, Swiss racing cyclist 1964 – Gore Verbinski, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Steve Armstrong, American wrestler 1965 – Cindy Brown, American basketball player 1965 – Mark Carney, Canadian-English economist and banker 1965 – Cristiana Reali, Italian-Brazilian actress 1966 – Chrissy Redden, Canadian cross-country cyclist 1967 – Tracy Bonham, American singer and violinist 1967 – John Darnielle, American musician and novelist 1967 – Lauren Graham, American actress and producer 1967 – Ronnie McCoury, American bluegrass mandolin player, singer and songwriter 1967 – Heidi Zurbriggen, Swiss alpine skier 1968 – Trevor Wilson, American basketball player and police officer 1969 – Judah Friedlander, American comedian and actor 1969 – Ottis Gibson, Barbadian cricketer and coach 1969 – Alina Ivanova, Russian athlete 1969 – Evangelos Koronios, Greek basketball player and coach 1970 – Joakim Berg, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1971 – Franck Comba, French rugby player 1971 – Alan Tudyk, American actor 1972 – Ismaïl Sghyr, French-Moroccan long-distance runner 1973 – Andrey Mizurov, Kazakhstani road bicycle racer 1973 – Vonda Ward, American boxer 1974 – Georgios Anatolakis, Greek footballer and politician 1974 – Anne Charrier, French actress 1974 – Heath Streak, Zimbabwean cricketer 1975 – Luciano Castro, Argentine actor 1975 – Sienna Guillory, English model and actress 1975 – Lionel Torres, French archer 1976 – Blu Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1976 – Leila Lejeune, French handballer 1976 – Susanne Ljungskog, Swedish cyclist 1976 – Abraham Núñez, Dominican baseball player 1976 – Zhu Chen, Qatari chess Grandmaster 1977 – Mónica Cruz, Spanish actress and dancer 1977 – Thomas Rupprath, German swimmer 1978 – Brooke Burns, American fashion model, television personality, and actress 1978 – Annett Renneberg, German actress and singer 1979 – Christina Liebherr, Swiss equestrian 1979 – Rashad Moore, American football player 1979 – Sébastien Ostertag, French handball player 1979 – Leena Peisa, Finnish keyboard player and songwriter 1979 – Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer 1980 – Todd Heap, American football player 1980 – Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player 1981 – Andrew Bree, Irish swimmer 1981 – Curtis Granderson, American baseball player 1981 – Julien Mazet, French road bicycle racer 1981 – Fabiana Murer, Brazilian pole vaulter 1982 – Miguel Comminges, Guadeloupean footballer 1982 – Riley Cote, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1982 – Jesús Del Nero, Spanish road bicycle racer 1982 – Brian Wilson, American baseball player 1983 – Stephen Drew, American baseball player 1983 – Brandon League, American baseball player 1983 – Nicolas Rousseau, French road bicycle racer 1983 – Tramon Williams, American football player 1984 – Levi Brown, American football player 1984 – Aisling Bea, Irish comedienne and actress 1984 – Sharon Cherop, Kenyan long-distance runner 1984 – Michael Ennis, Australian rugby player 1984 – Hosea Gear, New Zealand rugby player 1984 – Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player 1985 – Teddy Atine-Venel, French athlete 1985 – Eddy Lover, Panamanian singer-songwriter 1985 – Aleksei Sokirskiy, Russian hammer thrower 1986 – Alexandra Daddario, American actress 1986 – Toney Douglas, American basketball player 1986 – Kenny Dykstra, American wrestler 1986 – T. J. Jordan, American basketball player 1986 – Boaz Solossa, Indonesian footballer 1986 – Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater 1987 – Fabien Lemoine, French football player 1988 – Jessica Gregg, Canadian speed skater 1988 – Patrick Herrmann, German footballer 1989 – Blake Griffin, American basketball player 1989 – Jung So-min, South Korean actress 1989 – Magalie Pottier, French racing cyclist 1989 – Theo Walcott, English footballer 1990 – Andre Young, American basketball player 1991 – Reggie Bullock, American basketball player 1991 – Wolfgang Van Halen, American bassist 1993 – George Ford, English rugby union player 1993 – Marine Lorphelin, Miss France 1994 – Joel Embiid, Cameroonian basketball player 1995 – Inga Janulevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater 1997 – Florian Neuhaus, German football player Deaths Pre-1600 AD 37 – Tiberius, Roman emperor (b. 42 BC) 455 – Valentinian III, Roman emperor (assassinated; b. 419) 455 – Heraclius, Roman courtier (primicerius sacri cubiculi ) 842 – Xiao Mian, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty 933 – Takin al-Khazari, Egyptian commander and politician, Abbasid Governor of Egypt 943 – Pi Guangye, Chinese official and chancellor (b. 877) 1021 – Heribert of Cologne, German archbishop and saint (b. 970) 1072 – Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop (b. 1000) 1181 – Henry I, Count of Champagne 1185 – Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (b. 1161) 1279 – Jeanne of Dammartin, Queen consort of Castile and León (b. 1216) 1322 – Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, English general and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1276) 1405 – Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (b. 1350) 1410 – John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, French-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1373) 1457 – Ladislaus Hunyadi, Hungarian politician (b. 1433) 1485 – Anne Neville, queen of Richard III of England (b. 1456) 1559 – Anthony St. Leger, English-Irish politician Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1496) 1601–1900 1649 – Jean de Brébeuf, French-Canadian missionary and saint (b. 1593) 1679 – John Leverett, English general and politician, 19th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1616) 1698 – Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, Danish countess, author of Jammers Minde (b. 1621) 1721 – James Craggs the Elder, English politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b. 1657) 1736 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (b. 1710) 1737 – Benjamin Wadsworth, American minister and academic (b. 1670) 1738 – George Bähr, German architect, designed the Dresden Frauenkirche (b. 1666) 1747 – Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (b. 1690) 1838 – Nathaniel Bowditch, American ocean navigator and mathematician (b. 1773) 1841 – Félix Savart, French physicist and psychologist (d. 1791) 1868 – David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (b. 1814) 1884 – Art Croft, American baseball player (b. 1855) 1888 – Hippolyte Carnot, French politician (b. 1801) 1892 – Samuel F. Miller, American politician (b. 1827) 1898 – Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (b. 1872) 1899 – Joseph Medill, American journalist and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (b. 1823) 1901–present 1903 – Roy Bean, American justice of the peace (b. 1825) 1907 – John O'Leary, Irish republican and journalist (b. 1830) 1912 – Max Burckhard, Austrian theater director (b. 1854) 1914 – Gaston Calmette, French journalist (b. 1858) 1914 – Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss lawyer and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1843) 1914 – John Murray, Scottish oceanographer, biologist, and limnologist (b. 1841) 1925 – August von Wassermann, German bacteriologist and hygienist (b. 1866) 1930 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1870) 1935 – John James Rickard Macleod, Scottish physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1876) 1935 – Aron Nimzowitsch, Latvian-Danish chess player (b. 1886) 1936 – Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and activist (b. 1864) 1937 – Austen Chamberlain, English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1863) 1937 – Alexander von Staël-Holstein, Estonian orientalist and sinologist (b. 1877) 1940 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858) 1945 – Börries von Münchhausen, German poet (b. 1874) 1955 – Nicolas de Staël, French-Russian painter and illustrator (b. 1914) 1957 – Constantin Brâncuși, Romanian-French sculptor, painter, and photographer (b. 1876) 1958 – Leon Cadore, American baseball player (b. 1891) 1961 – Chen Geng, Chinese general and politician (b. 1903) 1961 – Václav Talich, Czech violinist and conductor (b. 1883) 1963 – Laura Adams Armer, American author and photographer (b. 1874) 1965 – Alice Herz, German activist (b. 1882) 1967 – Thomas MacGreevy, Irish poet (b. 1893) 1968 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American pianist and composer (b. 1895) 1968 – Gunnar Ekelöf, Swedish poet and translator (b. |
under Valerian and again in 273, earning universal respect. Emperor After the assassination of Aurelian, the army, apparently in remorse at the effects of the previous centuries' military license, which had brought about the death of the well-liked emperor, relinquished the right of choosing his successor to the Senate. After a few weeks, the throne was offered to the aged Princeps Senatus, Tacitus. According to the Historia Augusta, Tacitus, after ascertaining the sincerity of the Senate's regard for him, accepted their nomination on 25 September 275, and the choice was cordially ratified by the army. However, it's possible that much of this narrative is ficticious, as Zosimus and Zonaras report that Tacitus was actually proclaimed by the army without any intervention of the Senate. His proclamation as emperor should have happened in late November or early December. In older historiography, it was generally accepted that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, ruled in her own right before the election of Tacitus which could indicate an interregnum which lasted as long as six months. Contemporary bibliography considers that no interregnum may have existed between Aurelian's death and the coronation of the new Emperor. Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rome, where he was elected. He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian's murderers. In ancient sources, he was described as very old at that time, but in reality | considers that no interregnum may have existed between Aurelian's death and the coronation of the new Emperor. Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rome, where he was elected. He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian's murderers. In ancient sources, he was described as very old at that time, but in reality he was possibly in his fifties. Amongst the highest concerns of the new reign was the restoration of the ancient Senatorial powers. He granted substantial prerogatives to the Senate, securing to them by law the appointment of the emperor, of the consuls, and the provincial governors, as well as supreme right of appeal from every court in the empire in its judicial function, and the direction of certain branches of the revenue in its long-abeyant administrative capacity. Probus respected these changes, but after the reforms of Diocletian in the succeeding decades not a vestige would be left of them. Fighting barbarians Next he moved against the barbarian mercenaries that had been gathered by Aurelian to supplement Roman forces for his Eastern campaign. These mercenaries had plundered several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after Aurelian |
to follow international principles of saving people in distress at sea. Cocaine smuggling bust In October 2006, MV Tampa was one of two Wilhelmsen ships involved in a cocaine-smuggling operation intercepted by the New Zealand Customs Service and the Australian Federal Police. of cocaine was allegedly attached to the side of the two cargo ships bound for Australia in purpose-built metal pods, although New Zealand authorities stated they did not believe the ship's crew or owners were involved. See also Ruddock v Vadarlis References Bibliography David Marr, Maria Wilkinson: Dark Victory - How a government lied its way to political triumph. Allen 6 Unwin 2004, | crew of Tampa received the Nansen Refugee Award for 2002 from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for their efforts to follow international principles of saving people in distress at sea. Cocaine smuggling bust In October 2006, MV Tampa was one of two Wilhelmsen ships involved in a cocaine-smuggling operation intercepted by the New Zealand Customs Service and the Australian Federal Police. of cocaine was allegedly attached to the side of the two cargo ships bound for Australia in purpose-built metal pods, although New Zealand authorities stated they did not believe the ship's crew or owners were involved. See also Ruddock v Vadarlis References Bibliography David Marr, Maria Wilkinson: Dark Victory - How a government lied its way to political triumph. Allen 6 Unwin 2004, . Further reading Decision of Justice North, Federal Court of Australia 11 September 2001 Decision |
twenty vigesimal digits could be written. Numbers after 19 were written vertically in powers of twenty. The Maya used powers of twenty, just as the Hindu–Arabic numeral system uses powers of tens. For example, thirty-three would be written as one dot, above three dots atop two bars. The first dot represents "one twenty" or "1×20", which is added to three dots and two bars, or thirteen. Therefore, (1×20) + 13 = 33. Upon reaching 202 or 400, another row is started (203 or 8000, then 204 or 160,000, and so on). The number 429 would be written as one dot above one dot above four dots and a bar, or (1×202) + (1×201) + 9 = 429. Other than the bar and dot notation, Maya numerals were sometimes illustrated by face type glyphs or pictures. The face glyph for a number represents the deity associated with the number. These face number glyphs were rarely used, and are mostly seen on some of the most elaborate monumental carvings. Addition and subtraction Adding and subtracting numbers below 20 using Maya numerals is very simple. Addition is performed by combining the numeric symbols at each level: If five or more dots result from the combination, five dots are removed and replaced by a bar. If four or more bars result, four bars are removed and a dot is added to the next higher row. Similarly with subtraction, remove the elements of the subtrahend symbol from the minuend symbol: If there are not enough dots in a minuend position, a bar is replaced by five dots. If there are not enough bars, a dot is removed from the next higher minuend symbol in the column and four bars are added to the minuend symbol which is being worked on. Modified vigesimal system in the Maya calendar The "Long Count" portion of the Maya calendar uses a variation on the strictly vigesimal numbering. In the second position, only the digits up to 17 are used, and the place value of the third position is not 20×20 = 400, as would otherwise be | above four dots and a bar, or (1×202) + (1×201) + 9 = 429. Other than the bar and dot notation, Maya numerals were sometimes illustrated by face type glyphs or pictures. The face glyph for a number represents the deity associated with the number. These face number glyphs were rarely used, and are mostly seen on some of the most elaborate monumental carvings. Addition and subtraction Adding and subtracting numbers below 20 using Maya numerals is very simple. Addition is performed by combining the numeric symbols at each level: If five or more dots result from the combination, five dots are removed and replaced by a bar. If four or more bars result, four bars are removed and a dot is added to the next higher row. Similarly with subtraction, remove the elements of the subtrahend symbol from the minuend symbol: If there are not enough dots in a minuend position, a bar is replaced by five dots. If there are not enough bars, a dot is removed from the next higher minuend symbol in the column and four bars are added to the minuend symbol which is being worked on. Modified vigesimal system in the Maya calendar The "Long Count" portion of the Maya calendar uses a variation on the strictly vigesimal numbering. In the second position, only the digits up to 17 are used, and the place value |
made some radio broadcasts, in the same manner as Clement Attlee did in 1945. Members joked that they had not expected Foot to allow the slogan "Think positive, Act positive, Vote Labour" on grammatical grounds. The Daily Mirror was the only major newspaper to back Foot and the Labour Party at the 1983 general election, urging its readers to vote Labour and "Stop the waste of our nation, for your job your children and your future" in response to the mass unemployment which followed Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's monetarist economic policies to reduce inflation. Most other newspapers urged their readers to vote Conservative. The Labour Party, led by Foot, lost to the Conservatives in a landslide – a result which had been widely predicted by the opinion polls since the previous summer. The only consolation for Foot and Labour was that they did not lose their place in opposition to the SDP–Liberal Alliance, who came close to them in terms of votes but were still a long way behind in terms of seats. Despite this, Foot was very critical of the Alliance, accusing them of "siphoning" Labour support and enabling the Tories to win more seats. Foot resigned days following the bitter election defeat, and was succeeded as leader on 2 October by Neil Kinnock; who had been tipped from the outset to be Labour's choice of new leader. Backbenches and retirement Foot took a back seat in Labour politics following 1983 and retired from the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, when Labour lost to the Conservative Party (led by John Major) for the fourth election in succession, but remained politically active. From 1987 to 1992, he was the oldest sitting British MP (preceding former Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath). He defended Salman Rushdie, after Ayatollah Khomeini advocated killing the novelist in a fatwā, and took a strongly pro-interventionist position against Serbia during its conflict with Croatia and Bosnia, supporting NATO forces whilst citing defence of civilian populations in the latter countries. In addition, he was among the Patrons of the British-Croatian Society. The Guardians political editor Michael White criticised Foot's "overgenerous" support for Croatian leader Franjo Tuđman. Foot remained a high-profile member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). He wrote several books, including highly regarded biographies of Aneurin Bevan and H. G. Wells. Indeed, he was a distinguished Vice-president of the H. G. Wells Society. Many of his friends have said publicly that they regret that he ever gave up literature for politics. Michael Foot became a supporter of pro-Europeanism in the 1990s. Foot was an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association. In 1988, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. In a poll of Labour Party activists he was voted the worst post-war Labour Party leader. Though Foot is considered by many right-wingers to be a failure as Labour leader, his biographer Mervyn Jones strongly makes the case that no one else could have held Labour together at the time, particularly in the face of the controversy over the infiltration of the party by Militant. Foot is remembered with affection in Westminster as a great parliamentarian. He was widely liked, and admired for his integrity, habitual courtesy, and generosity of spirit, by both his colleagues and opponents. A portrait of Foot by the artist Robert Lenkiewicz now permanently hangs in Portcullis House, Westminster. Gordievsky's KGB allegations Oleg Gordievsky, a high-ranking KGB officer who defected from the Soviet Union to the UK in 1985, made allegations against Foot in his 1995 memoirs. Essentially, the allegations claimed that, up until 1968, Foot had spoken to KGB agents "dozens of times", passing information about politics and the trade unions, and Foot had been paid a total of around £1,500 for his information (said to be worth £37,000 in 2018). The Sunday Times, which serialised Gordievsky's book under the headline "KGB: Michael Foot was our agent", claimed in an article of 19 February that the Soviet intelligence services regarded Foot as an "agent of influence" (and a "useful idiot"), codenamed "Agent BOOT", and in the pay of the KGB for many years. Crucially, the newspaper used material from the original manuscript of the book which had not been included in the published version. At the time a leading article in The Independent newspaper asserted: "It seems extraordinary that such an unreliable figure should now be allowed, given the lack of supporting evidence, to damage the reputation of figures such as Mr Foot." In a February 1992 interview, Gordievsky declared that he had no further revelations to make about the Labour Party. Foot successfully sued the Sunday Times, winning "substantial" damages. Following Foot's death, Charles Moore writing in The Daily Telegraph in 2010, gave an account which he said had been provided to him by Gordievsky, providing additional uncorroborated information concerning his allegations, but no new evidence. No evidence has ever been revealed to show that Foot ever gave away secrets. Plymouth Argyle Foot was a passionate supporter of Plymouth Argyle Football Club from his childhood and once remarked that he wasn't going to die until he had seen them play in the Premier League. He served for several years as a director of the club, seeing two promotions under his tenure. For his 90th birthday, Foot was registered with the Football League as an honorary player and given the shirt number 90. This made him the oldest registered professional player in the history of football. Personal life Foot was married to the film-maker, author and feminist historian Jill Craigie (1911–99) from 1949 until her death fifty years later. He had no children. In February 2007, it was revealed that Foot had an extramarital affair with a woman around 35 years his junior in the early 1970s. The affair, which lasted nearly a year, put a considerable strain on his marriage. The affair is detailed in Foot's official biography, published in March 2007. On 23 July 2006, his 93rd birthday, Michael Foot became the longest-lived leader of a major British political party, passing Lord Callaghan's record of 92 years, 364 days. A staunch republican (though well liked by the Royal Family on a personal level), Foot rejected honours from the Queen and the government, including a knighthood and a peerage, on more than one occasion. He was also an atheist. , he was one of four leaders of the Labour Party to declare that they did not follow any religion. Health Foot suffered from asthma (which disqualified him from service in the Second World War) and eczema. In October 1963, he was involved in a car crash, suffering pierced lungs, broken ribs, and a broken left leg. Foot used a walking stick for the rest of his life. According to former MP Tam Dalyell, Foot had, up until the accident, been a chain-smoker, but he gave up the habit thereafter. Jill Craigie also suffered a crushed hand in this car crash. In October 1976, Foot became blind in one eye following an attack of shingles. Death Foot died at his Hampstead, north London home on the morning of 3 March 2010 at the age of 96. The House of Commons was informed of the news later that day by Justice Secretary Jack Straw, who told the House: "I am sure that this news will be received with great sadness not only in my own party but across the country as a whole." Foot's funeral was a non-religious service, held on 15 March 2010 at Golders Green Crematorium in North-West London. In popular culture "Foot Heads Arms Body" On 22 June 1978, The Guardian ran an article with the headline "Foot hits back on Nazi comparison". Reader David C. Allan of Edinburgh responded with a letter to the editor, which the paper ran on 27 June. Decrying the headline's apparent pun, Allen suggested that, if Foot were in future to be appointed Secretary of State for Defence, The Guardian might cover it under the headline "Foot Heads Arms Body". The belief later gained currency that The Times actually had run the headline. Some decades later, Martyn Cornell recalled the story as true, saying he had written the headline himself as a Times subeditor around 1986. The headline does not, however, appear in The Times Digital Archive, which includes every day's newspaper from 1785 into the 21st century. Fictional portrayals Foot was portrayed by Patrick Godfrey in the 2002 BBC production of Ian Curteis's long unproduced The Falklands Play and by Michael Pennington in the film The Iron Lady. Bibliography Cato (pen name), Guilty Men, Left Book Club (1940); by Foot, Peter Howard, and Frank Owen Cassius (pen name), Brendan and Beverley, Victor Gollancz (1940) Cassius (pen name), The Trial of Mussolini: Being a Verbatim Report of the First Great Trial for War Criminals Held in London Sometime in 1944 or 1945, Victor Gollancz (1943) The Pen and the Sword, MacGibbon and Kee (1957) ; 3rd printing (1966), The Pen & the Sword: A Year in the Life of Jonathan Swift Guilty Men, 1957, by Foot and Mervyn Jones, Gollancz (1957); US title, Guilty Men, 1957: Suez & Cyprus Aneurin Bevan, MacGibbon and Kee (volume 1:1962) (volume 2:1973) Debts of Honour, Harper and Row (1981) Another Heart and Other Pulses, Collins (1984) . H. G.: The History of Mr Wells, Doubleday (1985) Loyalists and Loners, Collins (1986) Politics of Paradise, HarperCollins (1989) "Introduction" in Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Penguin (1967) ' "Bevan's Message to the World" ' in Geoffrey Goodman, ed., The State of the Nation: The | Devon, the fourth son and fifth of seven children of Isaac Foot (1880–1960) and of the Scotswoman Eva (née Mackintosh, died 17 May 1946). Isaac Foot was a solicitor and founder of the Plymouth law firm Foot and Bowden (which amalgamated with another firm to become Foot Anstey). Isaac Foot, an active member of the Liberal Party, served as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Bodmin in Cornwall from 1922 to 1924 and again from 1929 to 1935, and as a Lord Mayor of Plymouth. Michael Foot's siblings included: Sir Dingle Foot MP (1905–78), a Liberal and subsequently Labour MP; Hugh Foot, Baron Caradon (1907–90), Governor of Cyprus (1957–60) and representative of the United Kingdom at the United Nations from 1964–70; Liberal politician John Foot, later Baron Foot (1909–99); Margaret Elizabeth Foot (1911–65); Jennifer Mackintosh Highet (1916-2002); and Christopher Isaac Foot (1917–84). Michael Foot was the uncle of campaigning journalist Paul Foot (1937–2004) and of charity worker Oliver Foot (1946–2008). Early life Foot was educated at Plymouth College Preparatory School, Forres School in Swanage, and Leighton Park School in Reading. When he left Forres School, the headmaster sent a letter to his father in which he said "he has been the leading boy in the school in every way". He then went on to read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Wadham College, Oxford. Foot was a president of the Oxford Union. He also took part in the ESU USA Tour (the debating tour of the United States run by the English-Speaking Union). Upon graduating with a second-class degree in 1934, he took a job as a shipping clerk in Birkenhead. Foot was profoundly influenced by the poverty and unemployment that he witnessed in Liverpool, which was on a different scale from anything he had seen in Plymouth. A Liberal up to this time, Foot was converted to socialism by Oxford University Labour Club president David Lewis, a Canadian Rhodes scholar, and others: "... I knew him [at Oxford] when I was a Liberal [and Lewis] played a part in converting me to socialism." Foot joined the Labour Party and first stood for parliament, aged 22, at the 1935 general election, where he contested Monmouth. During the election, Foot criticised the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, for seeking rearmament. In his election address, Foot contended that "the armaments race in Europe must be stopped now". Foot also supported unilateral disarmament, after multilateral disarmament talks at Geneva had broken down in 1933. Foot became a journalist, working briefly on the New Statesman, before joining the left-wing weekly Tribune when it was set up in early 1937 to support the Unity Campaign, an attempt to secure an anti-fascist united front between Labour and other left-wing parties. The campaign's members were Stafford Cripps's (Labour-affiliated) Socialist League, the Independent Labour Party and the Communist Party of Great Britain (CP). Foot resigned in 1938 after the paper's first editor, William Mellor, was sacked for refusing to adopt a new CP policy of backing a Popular Front, including non-socialist parties, against fascism and appeasement. In a 1955 interview, Foot ideologically identified as a libertarian socialist. He was an avid anti-imperialist and was heavily involved in the India League. As an Oxford graduate, he was influenced by the founder of the India League, Krishna Menon. The India League was the premier UK-based organisation that fought for the 'Liberation of India'. After Indian's independence, Foot would remain close to India and eventually became Chair of the India League. Journalism On the recommendation of Aneurin Bevan, Foot was soon hired by Lord Beaverbrook to work as a writer on his Evening Standard. (Bevan is supposed to have told Beaverbrook on the phone: "I've got a young bloody knight-errant here. They sacked his boss, so he resigned. Have a look at him.") At the outbreak of the Second World War, Foot volunteered for military service, but was rejected because of his chronic asthma. It was suggested in 2009 that he was a member of the secret Auxiliary Units. In 1940, under the pen-name "Cato" he and two other Beaverbrook journalists (Frank Owen, editor of the Standard, and Peter Howard of the Daily Express) published Guilty Men, which attacked the appeasement policy of the Chamberlain government; it became a runaway bestseller. (In so doing, Foot reversed his position of the 1935 election – when he had attacked the Conservatives as militaristic and demanded disarmament in the face of Nazi Germany.) Beaverbrook made Foot editor of the Evening Standard in 1942, when he was aged 28. During the war, Foot made a speech that was later featured in the documentary TV series The World at War broadcast in February 1974. Foot was speaking in defence of the Daily Mirror, which had criticised the conduct of the war by the Churchill government. He mocked the notion that the Government would make no more territorial demands of other newspapers if they allowed the Mirror to be censored. Foot left the Standard in 1945 to join the Daily Herald as a columnist. The Daily Herald was jointly owned by the TUC and Odhams Press, and was effectively an official Labour Party paper. He rejoined Tribune as editor from 1948 to 1952, and was again the paper's editor from 1955 to 1960. Throughout his political career he railed against the increasing corporate domination of the press. Member of Parliament Foot fought the Plymouth Devonport constituency in the 1945 general election. His election agent was Labour activist and lifelong friend Ron Lemin. He won the seat for Labour for the first time, holding it until his surprise defeat by Dame Joan Vickers at the 1955 general election. Until 1957, he was the most prominent ally of Aneurin Bevan, who had taken Cripps's place as leader of the Labour left, though Foot and Bevan fell out after Bevan renounced unilateral nuclear disarmament at the 1957 Labour Party conference. Before the Cold War began in the late 1940s, Foot favoured a 'third way' foreign policy for Europe (he was joint author with Richard Crossman and Ian Mikardo of the pamphlet Keep Left in 1947), but in the wake of the communist seizure of power in Hungary and Czechoslovakia he and Tribune took a strongly anti-communist position, eventually embracing NATO. Foot was however a critic of the West's handling of the Korean War, an opponent of West German rearmament in the early 1950s and a founder member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Under his editorship, Tribune opposed both the British government's Suez campaign and the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian Revolution in 1956. In this period he made regular television appearances on the current affairs programmes In The News (BBC) and subsequently Free Speech (ITV). "There was certainly nothing wrong with his television technique in those days", reflected Anthony Howard shortly after Foot's death. Foot returned to parliament at a by-election in Ebbw Vale, Monmouthshire, in 1960, the seat having been left vacant by Bevan's death. He had the Labour whip withdrawn in March 1961 after rebelling against the Labour leadership over air force estimates. He only returned to the Parliamentary Labour Group in 1963, when Harold Wilson became Labour leader after the sudden death of Hugh Gaitskell. Harold Wilson — the subject of an enthusiastic campaign biography by Foot published by Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press in 1964 – offered Foot a place in his first government, but Foot turned it down, instead becoming the leader of Labour's left opposition from the back benches. He opposed the government's moves to restrict immigration, join the European Communities (or "Common Market" as they were referred to) and reform the trade unions, was against the Vietnam War and Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence, and denounced the Soviet suppression of "socialism with a human face" in Czechoslovakia in 1968. He also famously allied with the Tory right-winger Enoch Powell to scupper the government's plan to abolish the voting rights of hereditary peers and create a House of Lords comprising only life peers – a "seraglio of eunuchs" as Foot put it. Foot challenged James Callaghan for the post of Treasurer of the Labour Party in 1967, but failed. In government After 1970, Labour moved to the left and Wilson came to an accommodation with Foot. Foot served in the Second Shadow Cabinet of Harold Wilson in various roles between 1970 and 1974. In April 1972, he stood for the Deputy Leadership of the party, along with Edward Short and Anthony Crosland. The first ballot saw Foot narrowly come second to Short winning 110 votes to the latter's 111. Crosland polled 61 votes and was eliminated. It was reported in the next day's The Glasgow Herald that Short was the favourite to pick up most of Crosland's votes. The second ballot saw Short increase his total to 145 votes, while Foot's only rose to 116, giving Short victory by 29 votes. When, in 1974, Labour returned to office under Wilson, Foot became Secretary of State for Employment. According to Ben Pimlott, his appointment was intended to please the left of the party and the Trade Unions. In this role, he played the major part in the government's efforts to maintain the trade unions' support. He was also responsible for the Health and Safety at Work Act, as well as the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act which repealed the Heath ministry's trade union reforms, and the Employment Protection Act, which introduced legal protections against being sacked for becoming pregnant and legislated for maternity pay. His time as Employment Secretary also saw Acas adopt its current name and modern form as a body with independence from government. Foot was one of the mainstays of the "no" campaign in the 1975 referendum on British membership of the European Communities. When Wilson retired in 1976, Foot contested the party leadership and led in the first ballot, but was ultimately defeated by James Callaghan. Later that year Foot was elected Deputy Leader, and during the Callaghan government Foot took a seat in Cabinet as Leader of the House of Commons, which gave him the unenviable task of trying to maintain the survival of the Callaghan government as its majority evaporated. However, he was able to steer numerous government proposals through the Commons, often by very narrow majorities, including increases in pension and benefit rates, the creation of the Police Complaints Board, the expansion of comprehensive schools, the establishment of a statutory responsibility to provide housing for the homeless, universal Child Benefit, the nationalisation of shipbuilding, abolishing pay beds in NHS hospitals, and housing security for agricultural workers, before the government fell in a vote of no confidence by a single vote. Whilst Leader of the Commons, Foot simultaneously held the post of Lord President of the Council. In 1975, Foot, along with Jennie Lee and others, courted controversy when they supported Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, after she prompted the declaration of a state of emergency. In December 1975, The Times ran an editorial titled 'Is Mr Foot a Fascist?' — their answer was that he was — after Norman Tebbit accused him of 'undiluted fascism' when Foot said that the Ferrybridge Six deserved dismissal for defying a closed shop. Labour leadership Following Labour's 1979 general election defeat by Margaret Thatcher, James Callaghan remained as party leader for the next 18 months before he resigned. Foot was elected Labour leader on 10 November 1980, beating Denis Healey in the second round of the leadership election (the last leadership contest to involve only Labour MPs). Foot presented himself as a compromise candidate, capable – unlike Healey – of uniting the party, which at the time was riven by the grassroots left-wing insurgency centred around Tony Benn. The Bennites were demanding revenge for what they considered to be the betrayals of the Callaghan government. They called for MPs who had acquiesced in Callaghan's policies to be replaced by left-wingers who would support unilateral nuclear disarmament, withdrawal from the European Communities, and widespread nationalisation. Benn did not stand for the leadership; apart from Foot and Healey, the other candidates (both eliminated in the first round) were John Silkin, a Tribunite like Foot, and Peter Shore, a Eurosceptic. As Steve Richards notes in 1980 Healey, not Foot, was widely expected by the media and many political figures to be the next Labour leader. However he notes that while "Healey was widely seen as the obvious successor to Callaghan", and that sections of the media ultimately reacted with "disbelief" at Labour not choosing him, to be leader the "choice of Foot was not as perverse as it seemed". He argues Labour MPs were looking for a figure from the left who could unite the wider party with the leadership which Healey could not do. Richards states that despite being on the left of the party Foot was not a "tribal politician" and had proved he could work with those of different ideologies and had been a loyal deputy to Callaghan. Thus Foot "was seen as the unity candidate" and won the election. When he became leader, Foot was already 67 years old; and frail. Following the 1979 energy crisis, Britain went into recession in 1980, which was blamed on the Conservative government's controversial monetarist policy against inflation, which had the effect of increasing unemployment. As a result, Labour had moved ahead of the Conservatives in the opinion polls. Following Foot's election as leader, opinion polls showed a double-digit lead for Labour, boosting his hopes of becoming prime minister at the next general election, which had to be held by May 1984. When Foot became leader, the Conservative politician Kenneth Baker commented: "Labour was led by Dixon of Dock Green under Jim Callaghan. Now it is led by Worzel Gummidge." Foot's nickname in the press gradually became "Worzel Gummidge", or "Worzel". This became particularly common after Remembrance Day 1981, when he attended the Cenotaph observance wearing a coat that some said resembled a donkey jacket. After his tenure as leader, Foot would be "depicted as a scarecrow on ITV’s satirical puppet show Spitting Image." Almost immediately following his election as leader, he was faced with a serious crisis. On 25 January 1981, four senior politicians on the right-wing of the Labour Party (Roy Jenkins, Shirley Williams, David Owen and William Rodgers, the so-called "Gang of Four") left Labour and formed the SDP, which was launched on 26 March 1981. This was largely seen as the consequence |
as ("Naughty stories"). Max and Moritz became the forerunners to the comic strip. The story inspired Rudolph Dirks to create The Katzenjammer Kids, which would in turn serve as inspiration for Art Clokey to create his antagonists for Gumby, the Blockheads. Story has it that Max and Moritz (along with The Katzenjammer Kids) also served as inspiration for Ragdoll Productions' British children's show Rosie and Jim, Mike Judge's animated series Beavis and Butt-Head, Terrence and Phillip of the Terrence and Phillip Show from South Park (The show's creators, Trey Parker and Matt Stone, having said South Park was inspired by Beavis and Butt-Head), and George Beard and Harold Hutchins in the "Captain Underpants" series by Dav Pilkey. After World War 2, German-U.S. composer Richard Mohaupt created together with choreographer Alfredo Bortoluzzi the dance burlesque (Tanzburleske) Max und Moritz, which premiered at Badisches Staatstheater Karlsruhe on December 18, 1949. In the early 2020s, The Efteling amusement Park would close the former Swiss Bob attraction due to being hard to operate and reportedly had some maintenance issues including technical failures, and replace it with a new Mack Rides family-friendly dueling steel powered rollercoaster named Max & Moritz, based on the German children's story of the same name. The pranks There have been several English translations of the original German verses over the years, but all have maintained the original trochaic tetrameter: Preface Ah, how oft we read or hear of Boys we almost stand in fear of! For example, take these stories Of two youths, named Max and Moritz, Who, instead of early turning Their young minds to useful learning, Often leered with horrid features At their lessons and their teachers. Look now at the empty head: he Is for mischief always ready. Teasing creatures - climbing fences, Stealing apples, pears, and quinces, Is, of course, a deal more pleasant, And far easier for the present, Than to sit in schools or churches, Fixed like roosters on their perches But O dear, O dear, O deary, When the end comes sad and dreary! 'Tis a dreadful thing to tell That on Max and Moritz fell! All they did this book rehearses, Both in pictures and in verses. First Trick: The Widow The boys tie several crusts of bread together with thread, and lay this trap in the chicken yard of Bolte (or "Tibbets" in the English version), an old widow, causing all the chickens to become fatally entangled. This prank is remarkably similar to the eighth history of the classic German prankster tales of Till Eulenspiegel. Second Trick: The Widow II As the widow cooks her chickens, the boys sneak onto her roof. When she leaves her kitchen momentarily, the boys steal the chickens using a fishing pole down the chimney. The widow hears her dog ("Spitz" in the English version) barking and hurries upstairs, finds the hearth empty and beats the dog. Third Trick: The Tailor The boys torment Böck (or "Buck" in the English version), a well-liked tailor who has a fast stream flowing in front of his house. They saw through the planks of his wooden bridge, making a precarious gap, then taunt him by making goat noises (a pun on his name being similar to the zoological expression 'buck'; in the English version they use his name for a straight pun), until he runs outside. The bridge breaks; the tailor is swept away and nearly drowns (but for two geese, which he grabs a hold of and which fly high to safety). Although Till removes the planks of the bridge instead of sawing them there are some similarities to Till Eulenspiegel (32nd History). Fourth Trick: The Teacher While their devout teacher, Lämpel, is busy at church, the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder. When he lights the pipe, the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair. But: "Time that comes will quick repair; yet the pipe retains its share." Fifth Trick: The Uncle The boys collect bags | the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair. But: "Time that comes will quick repair; yet the pipe retains its share." Fifth Trick: The Uncle The boys collect bags full of May bugs, which they promptly deposit in their Uncle Fritz's bed. Uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose. Horrified, he goes into a frenzy, killing them all before going back to sleep. Sixth Trick: The Baker The boys invade a closed bakery to steal some Easter sweets. Attempting to steal pretzels, they fall into a vat of dough. The baker returns, catches the breaded pair, and bakes them. But they survive, and escape by gnawing through their crusts. Final Trick: The Farmer Hiding out in the grain storage area of a farmer, Mecke (unnamed in the English version), the boys slit some grain sacks. Carrying away one of the sacks, farmer Mecke immediately notices the problem. He puts the boys in the sack instead, then takes it to the mill. The boys are ground to bits and devoured by the miller's ducks. Later, no one expresses regret. Media Max und Moritz was adapted into a ballet by Richard Mohaupt and Alfredo Bortuluzzi. In 1956 Norbert Schultze adapted it into a straightforward children's film, Max und Moritz (1956). Film and television Animated Spuk mit Max und Moritz (1951), by , and (1978) by Halas and Batchelor Max und Moritz (TV series, 39 episodes, 1999) Live action Max and Moritz (1956) (1965) (2005) Literature Der Fall Max und Moritz ("The Max and Moritz Case"), 1988 () by Jörg M. Günther, a satirical treatment in which the various misdeeds in the story - both by the protagonists and their surroundings - are analyzed via the regulations of the German Strafgesetzbuch. References External links in German for a single work Max und Moritz Max & Maurice, a Juvenile History in Seven Tricks (German/English) App for iPad iPhone iPod, told with animated pictures and readout function Literary duos Comic strip duos German comic strips German children's literature Fictional German people Fictional tricksters German comics characters Comedy literature characters Humor comics Gag-a-day comics Text comics 1860s comics 1865 books Child characters in comics Male characters in comics Child characters in literature Male characters in literature Public domain comics Comics characters introduced in 1865 Comics adapted into television series Comics adapted into animated series Comics adapted |
example, is celebrated in the area of the Quattro Province or Piacenza, Pavia, Alessandria and Genoa), Tuscany and Umbria. This magical-propitiatory ritual is often performed during an almsgiving in which, in exchange for gifts (traditionally eggs, wine, food or sweets), the Maggi (or maggerini) sing auspicious verses to the inhabitants of the houses they visit. Throughout the Italian peninsula these Il Maggio couplets are very diverse—most are love songs with a strong romantic theme, that young people sang to celebrate the arrival of spring. Symbols of spring revival are the trees (alder, golden rain) and flowers (violets, roses), mentioned in the verses of the songs, and with which the maggerini adorn themselves. In particular the plant alder, which grows along the rivers, is considered the symbol of life and that's why it is often present in the ritual. Calendimaggio can be historically noted in Tuscany as a mythical character who had a predominant role and met many of the attributes of the god Belenus. In Lucania, the 'Maggi' have a clear auspicious character of pagan origin. In Syracuse, Sicily, the Albero della Cuccagna (cf. "Greasy pole") is held during the month of May, a feast celebrated to commemorate the victory over the Athenians led by Nicias. However, Angelo de Gubernatis, in his work Mythology of Plants, believes that without doubt the festival was previous to that of said victory. It is a celebration that dates back to ancient peoples, and is very integrated with the rhythms of nature, such as the Celts (celebrating Beltane), Etruscans and Ligures, in which the arrival of summer was of great importance. Poland In Poland, there is a state holiday on 1 May. It is currently celebrated without a specific connotation, and as such it is May Day. However, due to historical connotations, most of the celebrations are focused around Labour Day festivities. It is customary for labour activists and left-wing political parties to organize parades in cities and towns across Poland on this day. The holiday is also commonly referred to as "Labour Day" ("Święto Pracy"). The May Day in Poland is closely followed by another state holiday, 3 May Constitution Day. The Parliamentary Act of February 20, 2004 introduced the Polish National Flag Day observed on 2 May. While not a public holiday, together with the other two it constitutes the so-called "Majówka"—a three-day celebration period often considered the beginning of the barbecue season in the country. Portugal "Maias" is a superstition throughout Portugal, with special focus on the northern territories and rarely elsewhere. Maias is the dominant naming in Northern Portugal, but it may be referred to by other names, including Dia das Bruxas (Witches' day), O Burro (the Donkey, referring to an evil spirit) or the last of April, as the local traditions preserved to this day occur on that evening only. People put the yellow flowers of broom, the bushes are known as giestas. The flowers of the bush are known as Maias, which are placed on doors or gates and every doorway of houses, windows, granaries, currently also cars, which the populace collect on the evening of 30 April when the Portuguese brooms are blooming, to defend those places from bad spirits, witches and the evil eye. The placement of the May flower or bush in the doorway must be done before midnight. These festivities are a continuum of the "Os Maios" of Galiza. In ancient times, this was done while playing traditional night-music. In some places, children were dressed in these flowers and went from place to place begging for money or bread. On May 1, people also used to sing "Cantigas de Maio", traditional songs related to this day and the whole month of May. The origin of this tradition can be traced to the Catholic Church story of Mary and Joseph fleeing to Egypt to protect Jesus from Herod. It was said that brooms could be found at the door of the house holding Jesus, but Herod soldiers arrived to the place, they found every door decorated with brooms. Romania On May Day, the Romanians celebrate the arminden (or armindeni), the beginning of summer, symbolically tied with the protection of crops and farm animals. The name comes from Slavonic Jeremiinŭ dĭnĭ, meaning prophet Jeremiah's day, but the celebration rites and habits of this day are apotropaic and pagan (possibly originating in the cult of the god Pan). The day is also called ziua pelinului ("mugwort day") or ziua bețivilor ("drunkards' day") and it is celebrated to ensure good wine in autumn and, for people and farm animals alike, good health and protection from the elements of nature (storms, hail, illness, pests). People would have parties in natural surroundings, with lăutari (fiddlers) for those who could afford it. Then it is customary to roast and eat lamb, along with new mutton cheese, and to drink mugwort-flavoured wine, or just red wine, to refresh the blood and get protection from diseases. On the way back, the men wear lilac or mugwort flowers on their hats. Other apotropaic rites include, in some areas of the country, people washing their faces with the morning dew (for good health) and adorning the gates for good luck and abundance with green branches or with birch saplings (for the houses with maiden girls). The entries to the animals' shelters are also adorned with green branches. All branches are left in place until the wheat harvest when they are used in the fire which will bake the first bread from the new wheat. On May Day eve, country women do not work in the field as well as in the house to avoid devastating storms and hail coming down on the village. Arminden is also ziua boilor (oxen day) and thus the animals are not to be used for work, or else they could die or their owners could get ill. It is said that the weather is always good on May Day to allow people to celebrate. Serbia "Prvomajski uranak" (Reveille on May 1st) is a folk tradition and feast that consists of the fact that on 1 May, people go in the nature or even leave the day before and spend the night with a camp fire. Most of the time, a dish is cooked in a kettle or in a barbecue. Among Serbs this holiday is widespread. Almost every town in Serbia has its own traditional first-of-may excursion sites, and most often these are green areas outside the city. Spain May Day is celebrated throughout the country as Los Mayos (lit. "the Mays") often in a similar way to "Fiesta de las Cruces" in many parts of Hispanic America. By way of example, in Galicia, the festival (os maios, in Galician, the local language) consists of different representations around a decorated tree or sculpture. People sing popular songs (also called maios,) making mentions to social and political events during the past year, sometimes under the form of a converse, while they walk around the sculpture with the percussion of two sticks. In Lugo and in the village of Vilagarcía de Arousa it was usual to ask a tip to the attendees, which used to be a handful of dry chestnuts (castañas maiolas), walnuts or hazelnuts. Today the tradition became a competition where the best sculptures and songs receive a prize. In the Galician city of Ourense this day is celebrated traditionally on 3 May, the day of the Holy Cross, that in the Christian tradition replaced the tree "where the health, life and resurrection are," according to the introit of that day's mass. Sweden The more traditional festivities have moved to the day before, Walpurgis Night ("Valborgsmässoafton"), known in some locales as simply "Last of April" and often celebrated with bonfires and a good bit of drinking. The first of May is instead celebrated as International Workers' Day. Turkey It has celebrated officially in Turkey for the first time in 1923. Since 2009, It is celebrated in Turkey as a public holiday on the first of May. United Kingdom England Traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole, around which dancers often circle with ribbons. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations. The earliest records of maypole celebrations date to the 14th century, and by the 15th century the maypole tradition was well established in southern Britain. The tradition persists into the 21st century in the Isle of Ely. Centenary Green part of the Octavia Hill Birthplace House, Wisbech has a flagpole which converts into a Maypole each year, used by local schools and other groups. The early May bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978; May Day itself1 Mayis not a public holiday in England (unless it falls on a Monday). In February 2011, the UK Parliament was reported to be considering scrapping the bank holiday associated with May Day, replacing it with a bank holiday in October, possibly coinciding with Trafalgar Day (celebrated on October 21), to create a "United Kingdom Day". Similarly, attempts were made by the John Major government in 1993 to abolish the May Day holiday and replace it with Trafalgar Day. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from (state) schools by itself, and not as part of a half-term or end of term holiday. This is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. (By contrast, the Easter Holiday can start as late—relative to Easter—as Good Friday, if Easter falls early in the year; or finish as early—relative to | nature. There is today some conflation with yet another tradition, the revival or marriage of Dionysus (the Greek God of theatre and wine-making). This event, however, was celebrated in ancient times not in May but in association with the Anthesteria, a festival held in February and dedicated to the goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Persephone emerged every year at the end of Winter from the Underworld. The Anthesteria was a festival of souls, plants and flowers, and Persephone's coming to earth from Hades marked the rebirth of nature, a common theme in all these traditions. What remains of the customs today, echoes these traditions of antiquity. A common, until recently, May Day custom involved the annual revival of a youth called Adonis, or alternatively of Dionysus, or of Maios (in Modern Greek Μαγιόπουλο, the Son of Maia). In a simple theatrical ritual, the significance of which has long been forgotten, a chorus of young girls sang a song over a youth lying on the ground, representing Adonis, Dionysus or Maios. At the end of the song, the youth rose up and a flower wreath was placed on his head. The most common aspect of modern May Day celebrations is the preparation of a flower wreath from wild flowers, although as a result of urbanisation there is an increasing trend to buy wreaths from flower shops. The flowers are placed on the wreath against a background of green leaves and the wreath is hung either on the entrance to the family house/apartment or on a balcony. It remains there until midsummer night. On that night, the flower wreaths are set alight in bonfires known as Saint John's fires. Youths leap over the flames consuming the flower wreaths. This custom has also practically disappeared, like the theatrical revival of Adonis/Dionysus/Maios, as a result of rising urban traffic and with no alternative public grounds in most Greek city neighbourhoods. Ireland May Day has been celebrated in Ireland since pagan times as the feast of Beltane (Bealtaine) and in latter times as Mary's day. Traditionally, bonfires were lit to mark the coming of summer and to grant luck to people and livestock. Officially Irish May Day holiday is the first Monday in May. The tradition of a MayBush was reported as being suppressed by law and the magistrates in Dublin in the 18th century. Old traditions such as bonfires are no longer widely observed, though the practice still persists in some places across the country. Limerick, Clare and many other people in other counties still keep on this tradition, including areas in Dublin city such as Ringsend. Italy In Italy it is called Calendimaggio or cantar maggio a seasonal feast held to celebrate the arrival of spring. The event takes its name from the period in which it takes place, that is, the beginning of May, from the Latin calenda maia. The Calendimaggio is a tradition still alive today in many regions of Italy as an allegory of the return to life and rebirth: among these Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna (for example, is celebrated in the area of the Quattro Province or Piacenza, Pavia, Alessandria and Genoa), Tuscany and Umbria. This magical-propitiatory ritual is often performed during an almsgiving in which, in exchange for gifts (traditionally eggs, wine, food or sweets), the Maggi (or maggerini) sing auspicious verses to the inhabitants of the houses they visit. Throughout the Italian peninsula these Il Maggio couplets are very diverse—most are love songs with a strong romantic theme, that young people sang to celebrate the arrival of spring. Symbols of spring revival are the trees (alder, golden rain) and flowers (violets, roses), mentioned in the verses of the songs, and with which the maggerini adorn themselves. In particular the plant alder, which grows along the rivers, is considered the symbol of life and that's why it is often present in the ritual. Calendimaggio can be historically noted in Tuscany as a mythical character who had a predominant role and met many of the attributes of the god Belenus. In Lucania, the 'Maggi' have a clear auspicious character of pagan origin. In Syracuse, Sicily, the Albero della Cuccagna (cf. "Greasy pole") is held during the month of May, a feast celebrated to commemorate the victory over the Athenians led by Nicias. However, Angelo de Gubernatis, in his work Mythology of Plants, believes that without doubt the festival was previous to that of said victory. It is a celebration that dates back to ancient peoples, and is very integrated with the rhythms of nature, such as the Celts (celebrating Beltane), Etruscans and Ligures, in which the arrival of summer was of great importance. Poland In Poland, there is a state holiday on 1 May. It is currently celebrated without a specific connotation, and as such it is May Day. However, due to historical connotations, most of the celebrations are focused around Labour Day festivities. It is customary for labour activists and left-wing political parties to organize parades in cities and towns across Poland on this day. The holiday is also commonly referred to as "Labour Day" ("Święto Pracy"). The May Day in Poland is closely followed by another state holiday, 3 May Constitution Day. The Parliamentary Act of February 20, 2004 introduced the Polish National Flag Day observed on 2 May. While not a public holiday, together with the other two it constitutes the so-called "Majówka"—a three-day celebration period often considered the beginning of the barbecue season in the country. Portugal "Maias" is a superstition throughout Portugal, with special focus on the northern territories and rarely elsewhere. Maias is the dominant naming in Northern Portugal, but it may be referred to by other names, including Dia das Bruxas (Witches' day), O Burro (the Donkey, referring to an evil spirit) or the last of April, as the local traditions preserved to this day occur on that evening only. People put the yellow flowers of broom, the bushes are known as giestas. The flowers of the bush are known as Maias, which are placed on doors or gates and every doorway of houses, windows, granaries, currently also cars, which the populace collect on the evening of 30 April when the Portuguese brooms are blooming, to defend those places from bad spirits, witches and the evil eye. The placement of the May flower or bush in the doorway must be done before midnight. These festivities are a continuum of the "Os Maios" of Galiza. In ancient times, this was done while playing traditional night-music. In some places, children were dressed in these flowers and went from place to place begging for money or bread. On May 1, people also used to sing "Cantigas de Maio", traditional songs related to this day and the whole month of May. The origin of this tradition can be traced to the Catholic Church story of Mary and Joseph fleeing to Egypt to protect Jesus from Herod. It was said that brooms could be found at the door of the house holding Jesus, but Herod soldiers arrived to the place, they found every door decorated with brooms. Romania On May Day, the Romanians celebrate the arminden (or armindeni), the beginning of summer, symbolically tied with the protection of crops and farm animals. The name comes from Slavonic Jeremiinŭ dĭnĭ, meaning prophet Jeremiah's day, but the celebration rites and habits of this day are apotropaic and pagan (possibly originating in the cult of the god Pan). The day is also called ziua pelinului ("mugwort day") or ziua bețivilor ("drunkards' day") and it is celebrated to ensure good wine in autumn and, for people and farm animals alike, good health and protection from the elements of nature (storms, hail, illness, pests). People would have parties in natural surroundings, with lăutari (fiddlers) for those who could afford it. Then it is customary to roast and eat lamb, along with new mutton cheese, and to drink mugwort-flavoured wine, or just red wine, to refresh the blood and get protection from diseases. On the way back, the men wear lilac or mugwort flowers on their hats. Other apotropaic rites include, in some areas of the country, people washing their faces with the morning dew (for good health) and adorning the gates for good luck and abundance with green branches or with birch saplings (for the houses with maiden girls). The entries to the animals' shelters are also adorned with green branches. All branches are left in place until the wheat harvest when they are used in the fire which will bake the first bread from the new wheat. On May Day eve, country women do not work in the field as well as in the house to avoid devastating storms and hail coming down on the village. Arminden is also ziua boilor (oxen day) and thus the animals are not to be used for work, or else they could die or their owners could get ill. It is said that the weather is always good on May Day to allow people to celebrate. Serbia "Prvomajski uranak" (Reveille on May 1st) is a folk tradition and feast that consists of the fact that on 1 May, people go in the nature or even leave the day before and spend the night with a camp fire. Most of the time, a dish is cooked in a kettle or in a barbecue. Among Serbs this holiday is widespread. Almost every town in Serbia has its own traditional first-of-may excursion sites, and most often these are green areas outside the city. Spain May Day is celebrated throughout the country as Los Mayos (lit. "the Mays") often in a similar way to "Fiesta de las Cruces" in many parts of Hispanic America. By way of example, in Galicia, the festival (os maios, in Galician, the local language) consists of different representations around a decorated tree or sculpture. People sing popular songs (also called maios,) making mentions to social and political events during the past year, sometimes under the form of a converse, while they walk around the sculpture with the percussion of two sticks. In Lugo and in the village of Vilagarcía de Arousa it was usual to ask a tip to the attendees, which used to be a handful of dry chestnuts (castañas maiolas), walnuts or hazelnuts. Today the tradition became a competition where the best sculptures and songs receive a prize. In the Galician city of Ourense this day is celebrated traditionally on 3 May, the day of the Holy Cross, that in the Christian tradition replaced the tree "where the health, life and resurrection are," according to the introit of that day's mass. Sweden The more traditional festivities have moved to the day before, Walpurgis Night ("Valborgsmässoafton"), known in some locales as simply "Last of April" and often celebrated with bonfires and a good bit of drinking. The first of May is instead celebrated as International Workers' Day. Turkey It has celebrated officially in Turkey for the first time in 1923. Since 2009, It is celebrated in Turkey as a public holiday on the first of May. United Kingdom England Traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole, around which dancers often circle with ribbons. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations. The earliest records of maypole celebrations date to the 14th century, and by the 15th century the maypole tradition was well established in southern Britain. The tradition persists into the 21st century in the Isle of Ely. Centenary Green part of the Octavia Hill Birthplace House, Wisbech has a flagpole which converts into a Maypole each year, used by local schools and other groups. The early May bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978; May Day itself1 Mayis not a public holiday in England (unless it falls on a Monday). In February 2011, the UK Parliament was reported to be considering scrapping the bank holiday associated with May Day, replacing it with a bank holiday in October, possibly coinciding with Trafalgar Day (celebrated on October 21), to create a "United Kingdom Day". Similarly, attempts were made by the John Major government in 1993 to abolish the May Day holiday and replace it with Trafalgar Day. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from (state) schools by itself, and not as part of a half-term or end of term holiday. This is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. (By contrast, the Easter Holiday can start as late—relative to Easter—as Good Friday, if Easter falls early in the year; or finish as early—relative to Easter—as Easter Monday, if Easter falls late in the year, because of the supreme significance of Good Friday and Easter Day to Christianity.) May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, but reinstated with the restoration of Charles II in 1660. 1 May 1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining the kingdoms of England (including Wales) and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In Cambridgeshire villages, young girls went May Dolling (going around the villages with dressed dolls and collecting pennies). This dressing of dolls and singing was said to have persisted into the 1960s in Swaffham Prior In Oxford, it is a centuries-old tradition for May Morning revellers to gather below the Great Tower of Magdalen College at 6am to listen to the college choir sing traditional madrigals as a conclusion to the previous night's celebrations. Since the 1980s some people then jump off Magdalen Bridge into the River Cherwell. For some years, the bridge has been closed on 1 May to prevent people from jumping, as the water under the bridge is only deep and jumping from the bridge has resulted in serious injury in the past. There are still people who climb the barriers and leap into the water, causing themselves injury. In Durham, students of the University of Durham gather on Prebend's Bridge to see the sunrise and enjoy festivities, folk music, dancing, madrigal singing and a barbecue breakfast. This is an emerging Durham tradition, with patchy observance since 2001. Kingsbury Episcopi, Somerset, has seen its yearly May Day Festival celebrations on the May bank holiday Monday burgeon in popularity in the recent years. Since it was reinstated 21 years ago it has grown in size, and on 5 May 2014 thousands of revellers were attracted from all over the south-west to enjoy the festivities, with BBC Somerset covering the celebrations. These include traditional maypole dancing and morris dancing, as well as contemporary music acts. Whitstable, Kent, hosts a good example of more traditional May Day festivities, where the Jack in the Green festival was revived in 1976 and continues to lead an annual procession of morris dancers through the town on the May bank holiday. A separate revival occurred in Hastings in 1983 and has become a major event in the town calendar. A traditional sweeps festival is performed over the May bank holiday in Rochester, Kent, where the Jack in the Green is woken at dawn on 1 May by Morris dancers. At 7:15 p.m. on 1 May each year, the Kettle Bridge Clogs morris dancing side dance across Barming Bridge (otherwise known as the Kettle Bridge), which spans the River Medway near Maidstone, to mark the |
interacting with one another, except for very brief collisions in which they exchange energy and momentum with each other or with their thermal environment. The term "particle" in this context refers to gaseous particles only (atoms or molecules), and the system of particles is assumed to have reached thermodynamic equilibrium. The energies of such particles follow what is known as Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, and the statistical distribution of speeds is derived by equating particle energies with kinetic energy. Mathematically, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is the chi distribution with three degrees of freedom (the components of the velocity vector in Euclidean space), with a scale parameter measuring speeds in units proportional to the square root of (the ratio of temperature and particle mass). The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a result of the kinetic theory of gases, which provides a simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties, including pressure and diffusion. The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution applies fundamentally to particle velocities in three dimensions, but turns out to depend only on the speed (the magnitude of the velocity) of the particles. A particle speed probability distribution indicates which speeds are more likely: a particle will have a speed selected randomly from the distribution, and is more likely to be within one range of speeds than another. The kinetic theory of gases applies to the classical ideal gas, which is an idealization of real gases. In real gases, there are various effects (e.g., van der Waals interactions, vortical flow, relativistic speed limits, and quantum exchange interactions) that can make their speed distribution different from the Maxwell–Boltzmann form. However, rarefied gases at ordinary temperatures behave very nearly like an ideal gas and the Maxwell speed distribution is an excellent approximation for such gases. Ideal plasmas, which are ionized gases of sufficiently low density, frequently also have particle distributions that are partially or entirely Maxwellian. The distribution was first derived by Maxwell in 1860 on heuristic grounds. Boltzmann later, in the 1870s, carried out significant investigations into the physical origins of this distribution. The distribution can be derived on the ground that it maximizes the entropy of the system. A list of derivations are: Maximum entropy probability distribution in the phase space, with the constraint of conservation of average energy ; Canonical ensemble. Distribution function Assuming the system of interest contains a large number of particles, the fraction of the particles within an infinitesimal element of three-dimensional velocity space, , centered on a velocity vector of magnitude , is : where is the particle mass, is the Boltzmann's constant, and thermodynamic temperature. One can write the element of velocity space as , for velocities in a standard Cartesian coordinate system, or as in a standard spherical coordinate system, where is an element of solid angle. Here is given as a probability distribution function, properly normalized so that over all velocities equals one. In plasma physics, the probability distribution is often multiplied by the particle density, so that the integral of the resulting distribution function equals the density. The Maxwellian distribution function for particles moving in only one direction, if this direction is , is which can be obtained by integrating the three-dimensional form given above over and . Recognizing the symmetry of , one can integrate over solid angle and write a probability distribution of speeds as the function This probability density function gives the probability, per unit speed, of finding the particle with a speed near . This equation is simply the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (given in the infobox) with distribution parameter . The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is equivalent to the chi distribution with three degrees of freedom and scale parameter . The simplest ordinary differential equation satisfied by the distribution is: or in unitless presentation: With the Darwin–Fowler method of mean values, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is obtained as an exact result. Relation to the 2D Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution For particles confined to move in a plane, the speed distribution is given by This distribution is used for describing systems in equilibrium. However, most systems do not start out in their equilibrium state. The evolution of a system towards its equilibrium state is governed by the Boltzmann equation. The equation predicts that for short range interactions, the equilibrium velocity distribution will follow a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. To the right is a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation in which 900 hard sphere particles are constrained to move in a rectangle. They interact via perfectly elastic collisions. The system is initialized out of equilibrium, but the | for molecular gases like diatomic oxygen. This is because despite the larger heat capacity (larger internal energy at the same temperature) due to their larger number of degrees of freedom, their translational kinetic energy (and thus their speed) is unchanged. The most probable speed, , is the speed most likely to be possessed by any molecule (of the same mass ) in the system and corresponds to the maximum value or the mode of . To find it, we calculate the derivative , set it to zero and solve for : with the solution: is the gas constant and is molar mass of the substance, and thus may be calculated as a product of particle mass, , and Avogadro constant, : For diatomic nitrogen (N2, the primary component of air) at room temperature (), this gives The mean speed is the expected value of the speed distribution, setting : The mean square speed is the second-order raw moment of the speed distribution. The "root mean square speed" is the square root of the mean square speed, corresponding to the speed of a particle with median kinetic energy, setting : In summary, the typical speeds are related as follows: The root mean square speed is directly related to the speed of sound in the gas, by where is the adiabatic index, is the number of degrees of freedom of the individual gas molecule. For the example above, diatomic nitrogen (approximating air) at , and the true value for air can be approximated by using the average molar weight of air (), yielding at (corrections for variable humidity are of the order of 0.1% to 0.6%). The average relative velocity where the three-dimensional velocity distribution is The integral can easily be done by changing to coordinates and Derivation and related distributions Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics The original derivation in 1860 by James Clerk Maxwell was an argument based on molecular collisions of the Kinetic theory of gases as well as certain symmetries in the speed distribution function; Maxwell also gave an early argument that these molecular collisions entail a tendency towards equilibrium. After Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872 also derived the distribution on mechanical grounds and argued that gases should over time tend toward this distribution, due to collisions (see H-theorem). He later (1877) derived the distribution again under the framework of statistical thermodynamics. The derivations in this section are along the lines of Boltzmann's 1877 derivation, starting with result known as Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics (from statistical thermodynamics). Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics gives the average number of particles found in a given single-particle microstate. Under certain assumptions, the logarithm of the fraction of particles in a given microstate is proportional to the ratio of the energy of that state to the temperature of the system: The assumptions of this equation are that the particles do not interact, and that they are classical; this means that each particle's state can be considered independently from the other particles' states. Additionally, the particles are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium. This relation can be written as an equation by introducing a normalizing factor: where: is the expected number of particles in the single-particle microstate , is the total number of particles in the system, is the energy of microstate , the sum over index takes into account all microstates, is the equilibrium temperature of the system, is the Boltzmann constant. The denominator in Equation () is a normalizing factor so that the ratios add up to unity — in other words it is a kind of partition function (for the single-particle system, not the usual partition function of the entire system). Because velocity and speed are related to energy, Equation () can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of gas particles. All that is needed is to discover the density of microstates in energy, which is determined by dividing up momentum space into equal sized regions. Distribution for the momentum vector The potential energy is taken to be zero, so that all energy is in the form of kinetic energy. The relationship between kinetic energy and momentum for massive non-relativistic particles is where p2 is the square of the momentum vector . We may therefore rewrite Equation () as: where Z is the partition function, corresponding to the denominator in Equation (). Here m is the molecular mass of the gas, T is the thermodynamic temperature and k is the Boltzmann constant. This distribution of is proportional to the probability density function fp for finding a molecule with these values of momentum components, so: The normalizing constant can be determined by recognizing that the probability of a molecule having some momentum must be 1. Integrating the exponential in () over all px, py, and pz yields a factor of So that the normalized distribution function is: The distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables , , and , with variance . Additionally, it can be seen that the magnitude of momentum will be distributed as a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, with . The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for the momentum (or equally for the velocities) can be obtained more fundamentally using the H-theorem at equilibrium within the Kinetic theory of gases framework. Distribution for the energy The energy distribution is found imposing where is the infinitesimal phase-space volume of momenta corresponding to the energy interval . Making use of the spherical symmetry of the energy-momentum dispersion relation , this can be expressed in terms of as Using then () in (), and expressing everything in terms of the energy , we get and finally Since the |
sanctuary to a teenage Jewish girl who had escaped Nazi Germany. With her elder sister Muriel, Margaret saved pocket money to help pay for the teenager's journey. Alfred was an alderman and a Methodist local preacher. He brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist, attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church, but Margaret was more sceptical; the future scientist told a friend that she could not believe in angels, having calculated that they needed a breastbone six feet long to support wings. Alfred came from a Liberal family but stood (as was then customary in local government) as an Independent. He served as Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School, a grammar school. Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement; her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking. She was head girl in 1942–43, and outside school, while the Second World War was ongoing, she voluntarily worked as a fire watcher in the local ARP service. Other students thought of Roberts as the "star scientist", although mistaken advice regarding cleaning ink from parquetry almost caused chlorine gas poisoning. In her upper sixth year Roberts was accepted for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, a women's college, starting in 1944. After another candidate withdrew, Roberts entered Oxford in October 1943. Oxford: 1943–1947 Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with a second-class degree in chemistry, after specialising in X-ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin. Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin. She also received the degree of Master of Arts in 1950 (as an Oxford BA, she was entitled to the degree 21 terms after her matriculation). Roberts did not only study chemistry as she intended to be a chemist only for a short period of time, already thinking about law and politics. She was reportedly prouder of becoming the first prime minister with a science degree than becoming the first female prime minister. While prime minister she attempted to preserve Somerville as a women's college. Twice a week outside study she worked in a local forces canteen. During her time at Oxford, Roberts was noted for her isolated and serious attitude. Her first boyfriend, Tony Bray (1926–2014), recalled that she was "very thoughtful and a very good conversationalist. That's probably what interested me. She was good at general subjects". Roberts's enthusiasm for politics as a girl made him think of her as "unusual" and her parents as "slightly austere" and "very proper". Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946. She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944), which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state. Post-Oxford career: 1947–1951 After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics. In 1948 she applied for a job at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as "headstrong, obstinate and dangerously self-opinionated". argues that her understanding of modern scientific research later impacted her views as prime minister. Roberts joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno, Wales, in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association. Meanwhile, she became a high-ranking affiliate of the Vermin Club, a group of grassroots Conservatives formed in response to a derogatory comment made by Aneurin Bevan. One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent, who were looking for candidates. Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply, even though she was not on the party's approved list; she was selected in January 1950 (aged 24) and added to the approved list post ante. At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1949 she met divorcé Denis Thatcher, a successful and wealthy businessman, who drove her to her Essex train. After their first meeting she described him to Muriel as "not a very attractive creature – very reserved but quite nice". In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford, where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith, part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream. She married at Wesley's Chapel and her children were baptised there, but she and her husband began attending Church of England services and would later convert to Anglicanism. Early political career In the 1950 and 1951 general elections, Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the Labour seat of Dartford. The local party selected her as its candidate because, though not a dynamic public speaker, Roberts was well-prepared and fearless in her answers; prospective candidate Bill Deedes recalled: "Once she opened her mouth, the rest of us began to look rather second-rate." She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate. She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds, but reduced the Labour majority by 6,000, and then a further 1,000. During the campaigns, she was supported by her parents and by future husband Denis Thatcher, whom she married in December 1951. Denis funded his wife's studies for the bar; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation. Later that same year their twins Carol and Mark were born, delivered prematurely by Caesarean section. Member of Parliament: 1959–1970 In 1954, Thatcher was defeated when she sought selection to be the Conservative Party candidate for the Orpington by-election of January 1955. She chose not to stand as a candidate in the 1955 general election, in later years stating: "I really just felt the twins were [...] only two, I really felt that it was too soon. I couldn't do that." Afterwards, Thatcher began looking for a Conservative safe seat and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 (narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser). She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election. Benefiting from her fortunate result in a lottery for backbenchers to propose new legislation, Thatcher's maiden speech was, unusually, in support of her private member's bill, the Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960, requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public; the bill was successful and became law. In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching as a judicial corporal punishment. On the frontbenches Thatcher's talent and drive caused her to be mentioned as a future prime minister in her early 20s although she herself was more pessimistic, stating as late as 1970: "There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime – the male population is too prejudiced." In October 1961 she was promoted to the frontbench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance by Harold Macmillan. Thatcher was the youngest woman in history to receive such a post, and among the first MPs elected in 1959 to be promoted. After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election, she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land, in which position she advocated her party's policy of giving tenants the Right to Buy their council houses. She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966 and, as Treasury spokeswoman, opposed Labour's mandatory price and income controls, arguing they would unintentionally produce effects that would distort the economy. Jim Prior suggested Thatcher as a Shadow Cabinet member after the Conservatives' 1966 defeat, but party leader Edward Heath and Chief Whip William Whitelaw eventually chose Mervyn Pike as the Conservative Shadow Cabinet's sole woman member. At the 1966 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher criticised the high-tax policies of the Labour government as being steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism", arguing that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work. Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's bill to decriminalise male homosexuality. She voted in favour of David Steel's bill to legalise abortion, as well as a ban on hare coursing. She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws. In the Shadow Cabinet In 1967, the United States Embassy chose Thatcher to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program (then called the Foreign Leader Program), a professional exchange programme that allowed her to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund. Although she was not yet a Shadow Cabinet member, the embassy reportedly described her to the State Department as a possible future prime minister. The description helped Thatcher meet with prominent people during a busy itinerary focused on economic issues, including Paul Samuelson, Walt Rostow, Pierre-Paul Schweitzer and Nelson Rockefeller. Following the visit, Heath appointed Thatcher to the Shadow Cabinet as Fuel and Power spokeswoman. Before the 1970 general election, she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokeswoman and later to Education. In 1968, Enoch Powell delivered his "Rivers of Blood" speech in which he strongly criticised Commonwealth immigration to the United Kingdom and the then-proposed Race Relations Bill. When Heath telephoned Thatcher to inform her that he would sack Powell from the Shadow Cabinet, she recalled that she "really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis". She believed that his main points about Commonwealth immigration were correct and that the selected quotations from his speech had been taken out of context. In a 1991 interview for Today, Thatcher stated that she thought Powell had "made a valid argument, if in sometimes regrettable terms". Around this time, she gave her first Commons speech as a shadow transport minister and highlighted the need for investment in British Rail. She argued: "[...] if we build bigger and better roads, they would soon be saturated with more vehicles and we would be no nearer solving the problem." Thatcher made her first visit to the Soviet Union in the summer of 1969 as the Opposition Transport spokeswoman, and in October delivered a speech celebrating her ten years in Parliament. In early 1970, she told The Finchley Press that she would like to see a "reversal of the permissive society". Education Secretary: 1970–1974 The Conservative Party, led by Edward Heath, won the 1970 general election, and Thatcher was appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science. Thatcher caused controversy when, after only a few days in office, she withdrew Labour's Circular 10/65 which attempted to force comprehensivisation, without going through a consultation process. She was highly criticised for the speed at which she carried this out. Consequently, she drafted her own new policy (Circular 10/70), which ensured that local authorities were not forced to go comprehensive. Her new policy was not meant to stop the development of new comprehensives; she said: "We shall [...] expect plans to be based on educational considerations rather than on the comprehensive principle." Thatcher supported Lord Rothschild's 1971 proposal for market forces to affect government funding of research. Although many scientists opposed the proposal, her research background probably made her sceptical of their claim that outsiders should not interfere with funding. The department evaluated proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education. Although Thatcher was committed to a tiered secondary modern-grammar school system of education and attempted to preserve grammar schools, during her tenure as education secretary she turned down only 326 of 3,612 proposals (roughly 9 per cent) for schools to become comprehensives; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent. Nevertheless, she managed to save 94 grammar schools. During her first months in office she attracted public attention due to the government's attempts to cut spending. She gave priority to academic needs in schools, while administering public expenditure cuts on the state education system, resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven. She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk but agreed to provide younger children with pint daily for nutritional purposes. She also argued that she was simply carrying on with what the Labour government had started since they had stopped giving free milk to secondary schools. Milk would still be provided to those children that required it on medical grounds, and schools could still sell milk. The aftermath of the milk row hardened her determination; she told the editor-proprietor Harold Creighton of The Spectator: "Don't underestimate me, I saw how they broke Keith , but they won't break me." Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury. Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press, leading to her being notoriously nicknamed "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher". She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography: "I learned a valuable lesson . I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit." Leader of the Opposition: 1975–1979 The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973, subsequently losing the February 1974 general election. Labour formed a minority government and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election. Heath's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt. Thatcher was not initially seen as the obvious replacement, but she eventually became the main challenger, promising a fresh start. Her main support came from the parliamentary 1922 Committee and The Spectator, but Thatcher's time in office gave her the reputation of a pragmatist rather than that of an ideologue. She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership. In the second ballot she defeated Whitelaw, Heath's preferred successor. Thatcher's election had a polarising effect on the party; her support was stronger among MPs on the right, and also among those from southern England, and those who had not attended public schools or Oxbridge. Thatcher became Conservative Party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher's leadership of the party. Television critic Clive James, writing in The Observer prior to her election as Conservative Party leader, compared her voice of 1973 to "a cat sliding down a blackboard". Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece, a former television producer. By chance, Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier, who arranged lessons with the National Theatre's voice coach. Thatcher began attending lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a think tank founded by poultry magnate Antony Fisher; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s. There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon, and became the face of the ideological movement opposing the British welfare state. Keynesian economics, they believed, was weakening Britain. The institute's pamphlets proposed less government, lower taxes, and more freedom for business and consumers. Thatcher intended to promote neoliberal economic ideas at home and abroad. Despite setting the direction of her foreign policy for a Conservative government, Thatcher was distressed by her repeated failure to shine in the House of Commons. Consequently, Thatcher decided that as "her voice was carrying little weight at home", she would "be heard in the wider world". Thatcher undertook visits across the Atlantic, establishing an international profile and promoting her economic and foreign policies. She toured the United States in 1975 and met President Gerald Ford, visiting again in 1977, when she met President Jimmy Carter. Among other foreign trips, she met Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi during a visit to Iran in 1978. Thatcher chose to travel without being accompanied by her shadow foreign secretary, Reginald Maudling, in an attempt to make a bolder personal impact. In domestic affairs, Thatcher opposed Scottish devolution (home rule) and the creation of a Scottish Assembly. She instructed Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976, which was successfully defeated, and then when new Bills were proposed she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on Scottish devolution. Britain's economy during the 1970s was so weak that then Foreign Secretary James Callaghan warned his fellow Labour Cabinet members in 1974 of the possibility of "a breakdown of democracy", telling them: "If I were a young man, I would emigrate." In mid-1978, the economy began to recover, and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead, with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility. Now prime minister, Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year, and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls. Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government "chickens", and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in, criticising Labour for "running scared". The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978–79, dubbed the "Winter of Discontent". The Conservatives attacked the Labour government's unemployment record, using advertising with the slogan "Labour Isn't Working". A general election was called after the Callaghan ministry lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979. The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons, and Thatcher became the first female British prime minister. "The 'Iron Lady In 1976, Thatcher gave her "Britain Awake" foreign policy speech which lambasted the Soviet Union, saying it was "bent on world dominance". The Soviet Army journal Red Star reported her stance in a piece headlined "Iron Lady Raises Fears", alluding to her remarks on the Iron Curtain. The Sunday Times covered the Red Star article the next day, and Thatcher embraced the epithet a week later; in a speech to Finchley Conservatives she likened it to the Duke of Wellington's nickname "The Iron Duke". The "Iron" metaphor followed her throughout ever since, and would become a generic sobriquet for other strong-willed female politicians. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom: 1979–1990 Thatcher became prime minister on 4 May 1979. Arriving at Downing Street she said, paraphrasing the Prayer of Saint Francis: In office throughout the 1980s, Thatcher was frequently referred to as the most powerful woman in | saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions. Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners, having declared "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political", Nevertheless, the British government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end. After the deaths of Sands and nine others, the strike ended. Some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners, but not official recognition of political status. Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes. Thatcher narrowly escaped injury in an IRA assassination attempt at a Brighton hotel early in the morning on 12 October 1984. Five people were killed, including the wife of minister John Wakeham. Thatcher was staying at the hotel to prepare for the Conservative Party conference, which she insisted should open as scheduled the following day. She delivered her speech as planned, though rewritten from her original draft, in a move that was widely supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her popularity with the public. On 6 November 1981, Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald had established the Anglo-Irish Inter-Governmental Council, a forum for meetings between the two governments. On 15 November 1985, Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement, which marked the first time a British government had given the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland. In protest, the Ulster Says No movement led by Ian Paisley attracted 100,000 to a rally in Belfast, Ian Gow, later assassinated by the PIRA, resigned as Minister of State in the HM Treasury, and all 15 Unionist MPs resigned their parliamentary seats; only one was not returned in the subsequent by-elections on 23 January 1986. Environment Thatcher supported an active climate protection policy; she was instrumental in the passing of the Environmental Protection Act 1990, the founding of the Hadley Centre for Climate Research and Prediction, the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the ratification of the Montreal Protocol on preserving the ozone. Thatcher helped to put climate change, acid rain and general pollution in the British mainstream in the late 1980s, calling for a global treaty on climate change in 1989. Her speeches included one to the Royal Society in 1988, followed by another to the UN General Assembly in 1989. Foreign affairs Thatcher appointed Lord Carrington, an ennobled member of the party and former Secretary of State for Defence, to run the Foreign Office in 1979. Although considered a "wet", he avoided domestic affairs and got along well with Thatcher. One issue was what to do with Rhodesia, where the white-minority had determined to rule the prosperous, black-majority breakaway colony in the face of overwhelming international criticism. With the 1975 Portuguese collapse in the continent, South Africa (which had been Rhodesia's chief supporter) realised that their ally was a liability; black rule was inevitable, and the Thatcher government brokered a peaceful solution to end the Rhodesian Bush War in December 1979 via the Lancaster House Agreement. The conference at Lancaster was attended by Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith, as well as by the key black leaders: Muzorewa, Mugabe, Nkomo and Tongogara. The result was the new Zimbabwean nation under black rule in 1980. Cold War Thatcher's first foreign-policy crisis came with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. She condemned the invasion, said it showed the bankruptcy of a détente policy and helped convince some British athletes to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics. She gave weak support to US president Jimmy Carter who tried to punish the USSR with economic sanctions. Britain's economic situation was precarious, and most of NATO was reluctant to cut trade ties. Thatcher nevertheless gave the go-ahead for Whitehall to approve MI6 (along with the SAS) to undertake "disruptive action" in Afghanistan. As well working with the CIA in Operation Cyclone, they also supplied weapons, training and intelligence to the mujaheddin. The Financial Times reported in 2011 that her government had secretly supplied Ba'athist Iraq under Saddam Hussein with "non-lethal" military equipment since 1981. Having withdrawn formal recognition from the Pol Pot regime in 1979, the Thatcher government backed the Khmer Rouge keeping their UN seat after they were ousted from power in Cambodia by the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. Although Thatcher denied it at the time, it was revealed in 1991 that, while not directly training any Khmer Rouge, from 1983 the Special Air Service (SAS) was sent to secretly train "the armed forces of the Cambodian non-communist resistance" that remained loyal to Prince Norodom Sihanouk and his former prime minister Son Sann in the fight against the Vietnamese-backed puppet regime. Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Following Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that "We're not in a Cold War now", but rather in a "new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was". She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984 and met with Gorbachev and Council of Ministers chairman Nikolai Ryzhkov. Ties with the US Despite opposite personalities, Thatcher bonded quickly with US president Ronald Reagan. She gave strong support to the Reagan administration's Cold War policies based on their shared distrust of communism. A sharp disagreement came in 1983 when Reagan did not consult with her on the invasion of Grenada. During her first year as prime minister she supported NATO's decision to deploy US nuclear cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe, permitting the US to station more than 160 cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common, starting in November 1983 and triggering mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. She bought the Trident nuclear missile submarine system from the US to replace Polaris, tripling the UK's nuclear forces at an eventual cost of more than £12 billion (at 1996–97 prices). Thatcher's preference for defence ties with the US was demonstrated in the Westland affair of 1985–86, when she acted with colleagues to allow the struggling helicopter manufacturer Westland to refuse a takeover offer from the Italian firm Agusta in favour of the management's preferred option, a link with Sikorsky Aircraft. Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine, who had supported the Agusta deal, resigned from the government in protest. In April 1986 she permitted US F-111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque, citing the right of self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter. Polls suggested that fewer than one in three British citizens approved of her decision. Thatcher was in the US on a state visit when Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in August 1990. During her talks with President George H. W. Bush, who succeeded Reagan in 1989, she recommended intervention, and put pressure on Bush to deploy troops in the Middle East to drive the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait. Bush was apprehensive about the plan, prompting Thatcher to remark to him during a telephone conversation: "This was no time to go wobbly!" Thatcher's government supplied military forces to the international coalition in the build-up to the Gulf War, but she had resigned by the time hostilities began on 17 January 1991. She applauded the coalition victory on the backbenches, while warning that "the victories of peace will take longer than the battles of war". It was disclosed in 2017 that Thatcher had suggested threatening Saddam with chemical weapons after the invasion of Kuwait. Crisis in the South Atlantic On 2 April 1982, the ruling military junta in Argentina ordered the invasion of the British possessions of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, triggering the Falklands War. The subsequent crisis was "a defining moment of premiership". At the suggestion of Harold Macmillan and Robert Armstrong, she set up and chaired a small War Cabinet (formally called ODSA, Overseas and Defence committee, South Atlantic) to oversee the conduct of the war, which by 5–6 April had authorised and dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands. Argentina surrendered on 14 June and Operation Corporate was hailed a success, notwithstanding the deaths of 255 British servicemen and 3 Falkland Islanders. Argentine fatalities totalled 649, half of them after the nuclear-powered submarine torpedoed and sank the cruiser on 2 May. Thatcher was criticised for the neglect of the Falklands' defence that led to the war, and especially by Labour MP Tam Dalyell in Parliament for the decision to torpedo the General Belgrano, but overall she was considered a competent and committed war leader. The "Falklands factor", an economic recovery beginning early in 1982, and a bitterly divided opposition all contributed to Thatcher's second election victory in 1983. Thatcher frequently referred after the war to the "Falklands spirit"; suggests that this reflected her preference for the streamlined decision-making of her War Cabinet over the painstaking deal-making of peacetime cabinet government. Negotiating Hong Kong In September 1982 she visited China to discuss with Deng Xiaoping the sovereignty of Hong Kong after 1997. China was the first communist state Thatcher had visited as prime minister, and she was the first British prime minister to visit China. Throughout their meeting, she sought the PRC's agreement to a continued British presence in the territory. Deng insisted that the PRC's sovereignty over Hong Kong was non-negotiable but stated his willingness to settle the sovereignty issue with the British government through formal negotiations. Both governments promised to maintain Hong Kong's stability and prosperity. After the two-year negotiations, Thatcher conceded to the PRC government and signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration in Beijing in 1984, agreeing to hand over Hong Kong's sovereignty in 1997. Apartheid in South Africa Despite saying that she was in favour of "peaceful negotiations" to end apartheid, Thatcher opposed sanctions imposed on South Africa by the Commonwealth and the European Economic Community (EEC). She attempted to preserve trade with South Africa while persuading its government to abandon apartheid. This included "[c]asting herself as President Botha's candid friend", and inviting him to visit the UK in 1984, in spite of the "inevitable demonstrations" against his government. Alan Merrydew of the Canadian broadcaster BCTV News asked Thatcher what her response was "to a reported ANC statement that they will target British firms in South Africa?" to which she later replied: "[...] when the ANC says that they will target British companies [...] This shows what a typical terrorist organisation it is. I fought terrorism all my life and if more people fought it, and we were all more successful, we should not have it and I hope that everyone in this hall will think it is right to go on fighting terrorism." During his visit to Britain five months after his release from prison, Nelson Mandela praised Thatcher: "She is an enemy of apartheid [...] We have much to thank her for." Europe Thatcher and her party supported British membership of the EEC in the 1975 national referendum and the Single European Act of 1986, and obtained the UK rebate on contributions, but she believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that the EEC approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation. Believing that the single market would result in political integration, Thatcher's opposition to further European integration became more pronounced during her premiership and particularly after her third government in 1987. In her Bruges speech in 1988, Thatcher outlined her opposition to proposals from the EEC, forerunner of the European Union, for a federal structure and increased centralisation of decision-making: Thatcher, sharing the concerns of French president François Mitterrand, was initially opposed to German reunification, telling Gorbachev that it "would lead to a change to postwar borders, and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security". She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO. In March 1990, Thatcher held a Chequers seminar on the subject of German reunification that was attended by members of her cabinet and historians such as Norman Stone, George Urban, Timothy Garton Ash and Gordon A. Craig. During the seminar, Thatcher described "what Urban called 'saloon bar clichés' about the German character, including 'angst, aggressiveness, assertiveness, bullying, egotism, inferiority complex sentimentality. Those present were shocked to hear Thatcher's utterances and "appalled" at how she was "apparently unaware" about the post-war German collective guilt and Germans' attempts to work through their past. The words of the meeting were leaked by her foreign-policy advisor Charles Powell and, subsequently, her comments were met with fierce backlash and controversy. During the same month, German chancellor Helmut Kohl reassured Thatcher that he would keep her "informed of all his intentions about unification", and that he was prepared to disclose "matters which even his cabinet would not know". Challenges to leadership and resignation During her premiership Thatcher had the second-lowest average approval rating (40%) of any post-war prime minister. Since Nigel Lawson's resignation as Chancellor in October 1989, polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party. A self-described conviction politician, Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings and pointed instead to her unbeaten election record. In December 1989, Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little-known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer. Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote, 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer. Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party. Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14% lead over the Conservatives, and by November, the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months. These ratings, together with Thatcher's combative personality and tendency to override collegiate opinion, contributed to further discontent within her party. In July 1989, Thatcher removed Geoffrey Howe as foreign secretary after he and Lawson had forced her to agree to a plan for Britain to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Britain joined the ERM in October 1990. On 1 November 1990, Howe, by then the last remaining member of Thatcher's original 1979 cabinet, resigned as deputy prime minister, ostensibly over her open hostility to moves towards European monetary union. In his resignation speech on 13 November, which was instrumental in Thatcher's downfall, Howe attacked Thatcher's openly dismissive attitude to the government's proposal for a new European currency competing against existing currencies (a "hard ECU"): On 14 November, Michael Heseltine mounted a challenge for the leadership of the Conservative Party. Opinion polls had indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour. Although Thatcher led on the first ballot with the votes of 204 Conservative MPs (54.8%) to 152 votes (40.9%) for Heseltine, with 16 abstentions, she was four votes short of the required 15% majority. A second ballot was therefore necessary. Thatcher initially declared her intention to "fight on and fight to win" the second ballot, but consultation with her cabinet persuaded her to withdraw. After holding an audience with the Queen, calling other world leaders, and making one final Commons speech, on 28 November she left Downing Street in tears. She reportedly regarded her ousting as a betrayal. Her resignation was a shock to many outside Britain, with such foreign observers as Henry Kissinger and Gorbachev expressing private consternation. Thatcher was replaced as head of government and party leader by Chancellor John Major, whose lead over Heseltine in the second ballot was sufficient for Heseltine to drop out. Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading to the 1992 general election, and led the party to a fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992. Thatcher had lobbied for Major in the leadership contest against Heseltine, but her support for him waned in later years. Later life Return to backbenches: 1990–1992 Thatcher returned to the backbenches as a constituency parliamentarian after leaving the premiership. Her domestic approval rating recovered after her resignation, though public opinion remained divided on whether her government had been good for the country. Aged 66, she retired from the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind. Post-Commons: 1992–2003 On leaving the Commons, Thatcher became the first former British prime minister to set up a foundation; the British wing of the Margaret Thatcher Foundation was dissolved in 2005 due to financial difficulties. She wrote two volumes of memoirs, The Downing Street Years (1993) and The Path to Power (1995). In 1991, she and her husband Denis moved to a house in Chester Square, a residential garden square in central London's Belgravia district. Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a "geopolitical consultant" in July 1992, for $250,000 per year and an annual contribution of $250,000 to her foundation. Thatcher earned $50,000 for each speech she delivered. Thatcher became an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence. Commenting on the Yugoslav Wars, in a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision, she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent and for not supplying them with arms after the Serbian-led Yugoslav Army attacked. In August 1992 she called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo, to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War, comparing the situation in Bosnia–Herzegovina to "the barbarities of Hitler's and Stalin's". She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty, describing it as "a treaty too far" and stated: "I could never have signed this treaty." She cited A. V. Dicey when arguing that, as all three main parties were in favour of the treaty, the people should have their say in a referendum. Thatcher served as honorary chancellor of the College of William & Mary in Virginia from 1993 to 2000, while also serving as chancellor of the private University of Buckingham from 1992 to 1998, a university she had formally opened in 1976 as the former education secretary. After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell", adding: "I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved." Blair responded in kind: "She was a thoroughly determined person, and that is an admirable quality." In 1998, Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations. She cited the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War. In 1999, she visited him while he was under house arrest near London. Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by Home Secretary Jack Straw. At the 2001 general election, Thatcher supported the Conservative campaign, as she had done in 1992 and 1997, and in the Conservative leadership election following its defeat, she endorsed Iain Duncan Smith over Kenneth Clarke. In 2002 she encouraged George W. Bush to aggressively tackle the "unfinished business" of Iraq under Saddam Hussein, and praised Blair for his "strong, bold leadership" in standing with Bush in the Iraq War. She broached the same subject in her Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World, which was published in April 2002 and dedicated to Ronald Reagan, writing that there would be no peace in the Middle East until Saddam was toppled. Her book also said that Israel must trade land for peace and that the European Union (EU) was a "fundamentally unreformable", "classic utopian project, a monument to the vanity of intellectuals, a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure". She argued that Britain should renegotiate its terms of membership or else leave the EU and join the North American Free Trade Area. Following several small strokes she was advised by her doctors not to engage in further public speaking. In March 2002 she announced that, on doctors' advice, she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more. On 26 June 2003, Thatcher's husband Sir Denis died aged 88; he was cremated on 3 July at Mortlake Crematorium in London. Final years: 2003–2013 On 11 June 2004, Thatcher (against doctors' orders) attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan. She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view of her health, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier. Thatcher flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. In 2005, Thatcher criticised how Blair had decided to invade Iraq two years previously. Although she still supported the intervention to topple Saddam Hussein, she said that (as a scientist) she would always look for "facts, evidence and proof" before committing the armed forces. She celebrated her 80th birthday on 13 October at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park, London; guests included the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh, Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair. Geoffrey Howe, Baron Howe of Aberavon, was also in attendance and said of his former leader: "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible." In 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington, D.C. memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the 11 September attacks on the US. She was a guest of vice-president Dick Cheney and met secretary of state Condoleezza Rice during her visit. In February 2007 Thatcher became the first living British prime minister to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament. The bronze statue stood opposite that of her political hero, Winston Churchill, and was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Thatcher in attendance; she remarked in the Members' Lobby of the Commons: "I might have preferred iron – but bronze will do [...] It won't rust." Thatcher was a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process, and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference. After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner, Thatcher, suffering low blood pressure, was admitted to St Thomas' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests. In 2009 she was hospitalised again when she fell and broke her arm. Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by artist Richard Stone, an unusual honour for a living former prime minister. Stone was previously commissioned to paint portraits of the Queen and Queen Mother. On 4 July 2011, Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a statue to Ronald Reagan, outside the US Embassy in London, but was unable to attend due to her frail health. She last attended a sitting of the House of Lords on 19 July 2010, and on 30 July 2011 it was announced that her office in the Lords had been closed. Earlier that month, Thatcher was named the most competent prime minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll. Thatcher's daughter Carol first revealed that her mother had dementia in 2005, saying "Mum doesn't read much any more because of her memory loss". In her 2008 memoir, Carol wrote that her mother "could hardly remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she got to the end". She later recounted how she was first struck by her mother's dementia when, in conversation, Thatcher confused the Falklands and Yugoslav conflicts; she recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that her husband Denis was dead. Death and funeral: 2013 Thatcher died on 8 April 2013, at the age of 87, after suffering a stroke. She had been staying at a suite in the Ritz Hotel in London since December 2012 after having difficulty with stairs at her Chester Square home in Belgravia. Her death certificate listed the primary causes of death as a "cerebrovascular accident" and "repeated transient ischaemic attack"; secondary causes were listed as a "carcinoma of the bladder" and dementia. Reactions to the news of Thatcher's death were mixed across the UK, ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain's greatest-ever peacetime prime minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of hatred and personalised vitriol. Details of Thatcher's funeral had been agreed with her in advance. She received a ceremonial funeral, including full military honours, with a church service at St Paul's Cathedral on 17 April. Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh attended her funeral, marking only the second time in the Queen's reign that she attended the funeral of any of her former prime ministers, after that of Winston Churchill, who received a state funeral in 1965. After the service at St Paul's, Thatcher's body was cremated at Mortlake, where her husband had been cremated. On 28 September, a service for Thatcher was held in the All Saints Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea's Margaret Thatcher Infirmary. In a private ceremony, Thatcher's ashes were interred in the hospital's grounds, next to her husband's. Legacy Political impact Thatcherism represented a systematic and decisive overhaul of the post-war consensus, whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism, the welfare state, nationalised industry, and close regulation of the economy, and high taxes. Thatcher generally supported the welfare state while proposing to rid it of abuses. She promised in 1982 that the highly popular National Health Service was "safe in our hands". At first, she ignored the question of privatising nationalised industries; heavily influenced by right-wing think tanks, and especially by Sir Keith Joseph, Thatcher broadened her attack. Thatcherism came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style, including moral absolutism, nationalism, liberal individualism, and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals. Thatcher defined her own political philosophy, in a major and controversial break with the one-nation conservatism of her predecessor Edward Heath, in a 1987 interview published in Woman's Own magazine: Overview The number of adults owning shares rose from 7 per cent to 25 per cent during her tenure, and more than a million families bought their council houses, giving an increase from 55 per cent to 67 per cent in owner-occupiers from 1979 to 1990. The houses were sold at a discount of 33–55 per cent, leading to large profits for some new owners. Personal wealth rose by 80 per cent in real terms during the 1980s, mainly due to rising house prices and increased earnings. Shares in the privatised utilities were sold below their market value to ensure quick and wide sales, rather than maximise national income. The "Thatcher years" were also marked by periods of high unemployment and social unrest, and many critics on the left of the political spectrum fault her economic policies for the unemployment level; many of the areas affected by mass unemployment as well as her monetarist economic policies remained blighted for decades, by such social problems as drug abuse and family breakdown. Unemployment did not fall below its May 1979 level during her tenure, only marginally falling below its April 1979 level in 1990. The long-term effects of her policies on manufacturing remain contentious. Speaking in Scotland in 2009, Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax and withdraw subsidies from "outdated industries, whose markets were in terminal decline", subsidies that created "the culture of dependency, which had done such damage to Britain". Political economist Susan Strange termed the neoliberal financial growth model "casino capitalism", reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry. Critics on the left describe her as divisive and say she condoned greed and selfishness. Leading Welsh politician Rhodri Morgan, among others, characterised Thatcher as a "Marmite" figure. Journalist Michael White, writing in the aftermath of the 2007–08 financial crisis, challenged the view that her reforms were still a net benefit. Others consider her approach to have been "a mixed bag" and " Curate's egg". Thatcher did "little to advance the political cause of women" either within her party or the government. states that some British feminists regarded her as "an enemy". says that, although Thatcher had struggled laboriously against the sexist prejudices of her day to rise to the top, she made no effort to ease the path for other women. Thatcher did not regard women's rights as requiring particular attention as she did not, especially during her premiership, consider that women were being deprived of their rights. She had once suggested the shortlisting of women by default for all public appointments yet had also proposed that those with young children ought to leave the workforce. Thatcher's stance on immigration in the late 1970s was perceived as part of a rising racist public discourse, which terms "new racism". In opposition, Thatcher believed that the National Front (NF) was winning over large numbers of Conservative voters with warnings against floods of immigrants. Her strategy was to undermine the NF narrative by acknowledging that many of their voters had serious concerns in need of addressing. In 1978 she criticised Labour's immigration policy to attract voters away from the NF to the Conservatives. Her rhetoric was followed by an increase in Conservative support at the expense |
being kinetically persistent. The particular motion or kinetics of the atoms involved has resulted in getting stuck, despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives. States of matter Metastable states of matter (also referred as metastates) range from melting solids (or freezing liquids), boiling liquids (or condensing gases) and sublimating solids to supercooled liquids or superheated liquid-gas mixtures. Extremely pure, supercooled water stays liquid below 0 °C and remains so until applied vibrations or condensing seed doping initiates crystallization centers. This is a common situation for the droplets of atmospheric clouds. Condensed matter and macromolecules Metastable phases are common in condensed matter and crystallography. Notably, this is the case for anatase, a metastable polymorph of titanium dioxide, which despite commonly being the first phase to form in many synthesis processes due to its lower surface energy, is always metastable, with rutile being the most stable phase at all temperatures and pressures. As another example, diamond is a stable phase only at very high pressures, but is a metastable form of carbon at standard temperature and pressure. It can be converted to graphite (plus leftover kinetic energy), but only after overcoming an activation energy – an intervening hill. Martensite is a metastable phase used to control the hardness of most steel. Metastable polymorphs of silica are commonly observed. In some cases, such as in the allotropes of solid boron, acquiring a sample of the stable phase is difficult. The bonds between the building blocks of polymers such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are also metastable. Adenosine triphosphate is a highly metastable molecule, colloquially described as being "full of energy" that can be used in many ways in biology. Generally speaking, emulsions/colloidal systems and glasses are metastable e.g. the metastability of silica glass is characterised by lifetimes of the order of 1098 years compared with the lifetime of the Universe which is about 14·109 years. Sandpiles are one system which can exhibit metastability if a steep slope or tunnel is present. Sand grains form a pile due to friction. It is possible for an entire large sand pile to reach a point where it is stable, but the addition of a single grain causes large parts of it to collapse. The avalanche is a well-known problem with large piles of snow and ice crystals on steep slopes. In dry conditions, snow slopes act similarly to sandpiles. An entire mountainside of snow can suddenly slide due to the presence of a skier, or even a loud noise or vibration. Quantum mechanics Aggregated systems of subatomic particles described by quantum mechanics (quarks inside nucleons, nucleons inside atomic nuclei, electrons inside atoms, molecules, or atomic clusters) are found to have many | kinetically persistent. The particular motion or kinetics of the atoms involved has resulted in getting stuck, despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives. States of matter Metastable states of matter (also referred as metastates) range from melting solids (or freezing liquids), boiling liquids (or condensing gases) and sublimating solids to supercooled liquids or superheated liquid-gas mixtures. Extremely pure, supercooled water stays liquid below 0 °C and remains so until applied vibrations or condensing seed doping initiates crystallization centers. This is a common situation for the droplets of atmospheric clouds. Condensed matter and macromolecules Metastable phases are common in condensed matter and crystallography. Notably, this is the case for anatase, a metastable polymorph of titanium dioxide, which despite commonly being the first phase to form in many synthesis processes due to its lower surface energy, is always metastable, with rutile being the most stable phase at all temperatures and pressures. As another example, diamond is a stable phase only at very high pressures, but is a metastable form of carbon at standard temperature and pressure. It can be converted to graphite (plus leftover kinetic energy), but only after overcoming an activation energy – an intervening hill. Martensite is a metastable phase used to control the hardness of most steel. Metastable polymorphs of silica are commonly observed. In some cases, such as in the allotropes of solid boron, acquiring a sample of the stable phase is difficult. The bonds between the building blocks of polymers such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are also metastable. Adenosine triphosphate is a highly metastable molecule, colloquially described as being "full of energy" that can be used in many ways in biology. Generally speaking, emulsions/colloidal systems and glasses are metastable e.g. the metastability of silica glass is characterised by lifetimes of the order of 1098 years compared with the lifetime of the Universe which is about 14·109 years. Sandpiles are one system which can exhibit metastability if a steep slope or tunnel is present. Sand grains form a pile due to friction. It is possible for an entire large sand pile to reach a point where it is stable, but the addition of a single grain causes large parts of it to collapse. The avalanche is a well-known problem with large piles of snow and ice crystals on steep slopes. In dry conditions, snow slopes act similarly to sandpiles. An entire mountainside of snow can suddenly slide due to the presence of a skier, or even a loud noise or |
legacy that has evolved over time: "for an author-activist adept in many genres ... up until the last quarter-century Wollstonecraft's life has been read much more closely than her writing". After the devastating effect of Godwin's Memoirs, Wollstonecraft's reputation lay in tatters for nearly a century; she was pilloried by such writers as Maria Edgeworth, who patterned the "freakish" Harriet Freke in Belinda (1801) after her. Other novelists such as Mary Hays, Charlotte Smith, Fanny Burney, and Jane West created similar figures, all to teach a "moral lesson" to their readers. (Hays had been a close friend, and helped nurse her in her dying days.) In contrast, there was one writer of the generation after Wollstonecraft who apparently did not share the judgmental views of her contemporaries. Jane Austen never mentioned the earlier woman by name, but several of her novels contain positive allusions to Wollstonecraft's work. The American literary scholar Anne K. Mellor notes several examples. In Pride and Prejudice, Mr Wickham seems to be based upon the sort of man Wollstonecraft claimed that standing armies produce, while the sarcastic remarks of protagonist Elizabeth Bennet about "female accomplishments" closely echo Wollstonecraft's condemnation of these activities. The balance a woman must strike between feelings and reason in Sense and Sensibility follows what Wollstonecraft recommended in her novel Mary, while the moral equivalence Austen drew in Mansfield Park between slavery and the treatment of women in society back home tracks one of Wollstonecraft's favorite arguments. In Persuasion, Austen's characterisation of Anne Eliot (as well as her late mother before her) as better qualified than her father to manage the family estate also echoes a Wollstonecraft thesis. Scholar Virginia Sapiro states that few read Wollstonecraft's works during the nineteenth century as "her attackers implied or stated that no self-respecting woman would read her work". (Still, as Craciun points out, new editions of Rights of Woman appeared in the UK in the 1840s and in the US in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s.) If readers were few, then many were inspired; one such reader was Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who read Rights of Woman at age 12 and whose poem Aurora Leigh reflected Wollstonecraft's unwavering focus on education. Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Americans who met in 1840 at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, discovered they both had read Wollstonecraft, and they agreed upon the need for (what became) the Seneca Falls Convention, an influential women's rights meeting held in 1848. Another woman who read Wollstonecraft was George Eliot, a prolific writer of reviews, articles, novels, and translations. In 1855, she devoted an essay to the roles and rights of women, comparing Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller. Fuller was an American journalist, critic, and women's rights activist who, like Wollstonecraft, had travelled to the Continent and had been involved in the struggle for reform (in this case the 1849 Roman Republic)—and she had a child by a man without marrying him. Wollstonecraft's children's tales were adapted by Charlotte Mary Yonge in 1870. Wollstonecraft's work was exhumed with the rise of the movement to give women a political voice. First was an attempt at rehabilitation in 1879 with the publication of Wollstonecraft's Letters to Imlay, with prefatory memoir by Charles Kegan Paul. Then followed the first full-length biography, which was by Elizabeth Robins Pennell; it appeared in 1884 as part of a series by the Roberts Brothers on famous women. Millicent Garrett Fawcett, a suffragist and later president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, wrote the introduction to the centenary edition (i.e. 1892) of the Rights of Woman; it cleansed the memory of Wollstonecraft and claimed her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. By 1898, Wollstonecraft was the subject of a first doctoral thesis and its resulting book. With the advent of the modern feminist movement, women as politically dissimilar from each other as Virginia Woolf and Emma Goldman embraced Wollstonecraft's life story. By 1929 Woolf described Wollstonecraft—her writing, arguments, and "experiments in living"—as immortal: "she is alive and active, she argues and experiments, we hear her voice and trace her influence even now among the living". Others, however, continued to decry Wollstonecraft's lifestyle. A biography published in 1932 refers to recent reprints of her works, incorporating new research, and to a "study" in 1911, a play in 1922, and another biography in 1924. Interest in her never completely died, with full-length biographies in 1937 and 1951. With the emergence of feminist criticism in academia in the 1960s and 1970s, Wollstonecraft's works returned to prominence. Their fortunes reflected that of the second wave of the North American feminist movement itself; for example, in the early 1970s, six major biographies of Wollstonecraft were published that presented her "passionate life in apposition to [her] radical and rationalist agenda". The feminist artwork The Dinner Party, first exhibited in 1979, features a place setting for Wollstonecraft. In the 1980s and 1990s, yet another image of Wollstonecraft emerged, one which described her as much more a creature of her time; scholars such as Claudia Johnson, Gary Kelly, and Virginia Sapiro demonstrated the continuity between Wollstonecraft's thought and other important eighteenth-century ideas regarding topics such as sensibility, economics, and political theory. Wollstonecraft's work has also had an effect on feminism outside the academy in recent years. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a political writer and former Muslim who is critical of Islam in general and its dictates regarding women in particular, cited the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel and wrote that she was "inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights". British writer Caitlin Moran, author of the best-selling How to Be a Woman, described herself as "half Wollstonecraft" to the New Yorker. She has also inspired more widely. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, the Indian economist and philosopher who first identified the missing women of Asia, draws repeatedly on Wollstonecraft as a political philosopher in The Idea of Justice. Several plaques have been erected to honour Wollstonecraft. A commemorative sculpture, A Sculpture for Mary Wollstonecraft by Maggi Hambling, was unveiled on 10 November 2020; it was criticised for its symbolic depiction rather than a lifelike representation of Wollstonecraft, which commentators felt represented stereotypical notions of beauty and the diminishing of women. In November 2020, it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom would be Wollstonecraft. Major works Educational works The majority of Wollstonecraft's early productions are about education; she assembled an anthology of literary extracts "for the improvement of young women" entitled The Female Reader and she translated two children's works, Maria Geertruida van de Werken de Cambon's Young Grandison and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's Elements of Morality. Her own writings also addressed the topic. In both her conduct book Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) and her children's book Original Stories from Real Life (1788), Wollstonecraft advocates educating children into the emerging middle-class ethos: self-discipline, honesty, frugality, and social contentment. Both books also emphasise the importance of teaching children to reason, revealing Wollstonecraft's intellectual debt to the educational views of seventeenth-century philosopher John Locke. However, the prominence she affords religious faith and innate feeling distinguishes her work from his and links it to the discourse of sensibility popular at the end of the eighteenth century. Both texts also advocate the education of women, a controversial topic at the time and one which she would return to throughout her career, most notably in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft argues that well-educated women will be good wives and mothers and ultimately contribute positively to the nation. Vindications Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) Published in response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which was a defence of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England, and an attack on Wollstonecraft's friend, the Rev. Richard Price at the Newington Green Unitarian Church, Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism. Hers was the first response in a pamphlet war that subsequently became known as the Revolution Controversy, in which Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1792) became the rallying cry for reformers and radicals. Wollstonecraft attacked not only monarchy and hereditary privilege but also the language that Burke used to defend and elevate it. In a famous passage in the Reflections, Burke had lamented: "I had thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her [Marie Antoinette] with insult.—But the age of chivalry is gone." Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as theatrical pity for the French queen—a pity they felt was at the expense of the people. Wollstonecraft was unique in her attack on Burke's gendered language. By redefining the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she undermined his rhetoric as well as his argument. Burke had associated the beautiful with weakness and femininity and the sublime with strength and masculinity; Wollstonecraft turns these definitions against him, arguing that his theatrical tableaux turn Burke's readers—the citizens—into weak women who are swayed by show. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia L. Johnson argues remains unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's defence of an unequal society founded on the passivity of women. In her arguments for republican virtue, Wollstonecraft invokes an emerging middle-class ethos in opposition to what she views as the vice-ridden aristocratic code of manners. Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, she believed in progress and derides Burke for relying on tradition and custom. She argues for rationality, pointing out that Burke's system would lead to the continuation of slavery, simply because it had been an ancestral tradition. She describes an idyllic country life in which each family can have a farm that will just suit its needs. Wollstonecraft contrasts her utopian picture of society, drawn with what she says is genuine feeling, to Burke's false feeling. The Rights of Men was Wollstonecraft's first overtly political work, as well as her first feminist work; as Johnson contends, "it seems that in the act of writing the later portions of Rights of Men she discovered the subject that would preoccupy her for the rest of her career." It was this text that made her a well-known writer. Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society and then proceeds to redefine that position, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men. Large sections of the Rights of Woman respond vitriolically to conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wanted to deny women an education. (Rousseau famously argues in Émile (1762) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men.) Wollstonecraft states that currently many women are silly and superficial (she refers to them, for example, as "spaniels" and "toys"), but argues that this is not because of an innate deficiency of mind but rather because men have denied them access to education. Wollstonecraft is intent on illustrating the limitations that women's deficient educations have placed on them; she writes: "Taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison." She implies that, without the encouragement young women receive from an early age to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, women could achieve much more. While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. What she does claim is that men and women are equal in the eyes of God. However, such claims of equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour. Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously writes: "Let it not be concluded that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequently, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God." Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word did not come into existence until the 1890s. One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing critiques in the Rights of Woman is of false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are "blown about by every momentary gust of feeling" and because they are "the prey of their senses" they cannot think rationally. In fact, she claims, they do harm not only to themselves but to the entire civilisation: these are not | A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: Born 27 April 1759: Died 10 September 1797." Posthumous, Godwin's Memoirs In January 1798 Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Although Godwin felt that he was portraying his wife with love, compassion, and sincerity, many readers were shocked that he would reveal Wollstonecraft's illegitimate children, love affairs, and suicide attempts. The Romantic poet Robert Southey accused him of "the want of all feeling in stripping his dead wife naked" and vicious satires such as The Unsex'd Females were published. Godwin's Memoirs portrays Wollstonecraft as a woman deeply invested in feeling who was balanced by his reason and as more of a religious sceptic than her own writings suggest. Godwin's views of Wollstonecraft were perpetuated throughout the nineteenth century and resulted in poems such as "Wollstonecraft and Fuseli" by British poet Robert Browning and that by William Roscoe which includes the lines: Hard was thy fate in all the scenes of life As daughter, sister, mother, friend, and wife; But harder still, thy fate in death we own, Thus mourn'd by Godwin with a heart of stone. In 1851, Wollstonecraft's remains were moved by her grandson Percy Florence Shelley to his family tomb in St Peter's Church, Bournemouth. Legacy Wollstonecraft has what scholar Cora Kaplan labelled in 2002 a "curious" legacy that has evolved over time: "for an author-activist adept in many genres ... up until the last quarter-century Wollstonecraft's life has been read much more closely than her writing". After the devastating effect of Godwin's Memoirs, Wollstonecraft's reputation lay in tatters for nearly a century; she was pilloried by such writers as Maria Edgeworth, who patterned the "freakish" Harriet Freke in Belinda (1801) after her. Other novelists such as Mary Hays, Charlotte Smith, Fanny Burney, and Jane West created similar figures, all to teach a "moral lesson" to their readers. (Hays had been a close friend, and helped nurse her in her dying days.) In contrast, there was one writer of the generation after Wollstonecraft who apparently did not share the judgmental views of her contemporaries. Jane Austen never mentioned the earlier woman by name, but several of her novels contain positive allusions to Wollstonecraft's work. The American literary scholar Anne K. Mellor notes several examples. In Pride and Prejudice, Mr Wickham seems to be based upon the sort of man Wollstonecraft claimed that standing armies produce, while the sarcastic remarks of protagonist Elizabeth Bennet about "female accomplishments" closely echo Wollstonecraft's condemnation of these activities. The balance a woman must strike between feelings and reason in Sense and Sensibility follows what Wollstonecraft recommended in her novel Mary, while the moral equivalence Austen drew in Mansfield Park between slavery and the treatment of women in society back home tracks one of Wollstonecraft's favorite arguments. In Persuasion, Austen's characterisation of Anne Eliot (as well as her late mother before her) as better qualified than her father to manage the family estate also echoes a Wollstonecraft thesis. Scholar Virginia Sapiro states that few read Wollstonecraft's works during the nineteenth century as "her attackers implied or stated that no self-respecting woman would read her work". (Still, as Craciun points out, new editions of Rights of Woman appeared in the UK in the 1840s and in the US in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s.) If readers were few, then many were inspired; one such reader was Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who read Rights of Woman at age 12 and whose poem Aurora Leigh reflected Wollstonecraft's unwavering focus on education. Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Americans who met in 1840 at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, discovered they both had read Wollstonecraft, and they agreed upon the need for (what became) the Seneca Falls Convention, an influential women's rights meeting held in 1848. Another woman who read Wollstonecraft was George Eliot, a prolific writer of reviews, articles, novels, and translations. In 1855, she devoted an essay to the roles and rights of women, comparing Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller. Fuller was an American journalist, critic, and women's rights activist who, like Wollstonecraft, had travelled to the Continent and had been involved in the struggle for reform (in this case the 1849 Roman Republic)—and she had a child by a man without marrying him. Wollstonecraft's children's tales were adapted by Charlotte Mary Yonge in 1870. Wollstonecraft's work was exhumed with the rise of the movement to give women a political voice. First was an attempt at rehabilitation in 1879 with the publication of Wollstonecraft's Letters to Imlay, with prefatory memoir by Charles Kegan Paul. Then followed the first full-length biography, which was by Elizabeth Robins Pennell; it appeared in 1884 as part of a series by the Roberts Brothers on famous women. Millicent Garrett Fawcett, a suffragist and later president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, wrote the introduction to the centenary edition (i.e. 1892) of the Rights of Woman; it cleansed the memory of Wollstonecraft and claimed her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. By 1898, Wollstonecraft was the subject of a first doctoral thesis and its resulting book. With the advent of the modern feminist movement, women as politically dissimilar from each other as Virginia Woolf and Emma Goldman embraced Wollstonecraft's life story. By 1929 Woolf described Wollstonecraft—her writing, arguments, and "experiments in living"—as immortal: "she is alive and active, she argues and experiments, we hear her voice and trace her influence even now among the living". Others, however, continued to decry Wollstonecraft's lifestyle. A biography published in 1932 refers to recent reprints of her works, incorporating new research, and to a "study" in 1911, a play in 1922, and another biography in 1924. Interest in her never completely died, with full-length biographies in 1937 and 1951. With the emergence of feminist criticism in academia in the 1960s and 1970s, Wollstonecraft's works returned to prominence. Their fortunes reflected that of the second wave of the North American feminist movement itself; for example, in the early 1970s, six major biographies of Wollstonecraft were published that presented her "passionate life in apposition to [her] radical and rationalist agenda". The feminist artwork The Dinner Party, first exhibited in 1979, features a place setting for Wollstonecraft. In the 1980s and 1990s, yet another image of Wollstonecraft emerged, one which described her as much more a creature of her time; scholars such as Claudia Johnson, Gary Kelly, and Virginia Sapiro demonstrated the continuity between Wollstonecraft's thought and other important eighteenth-century ideas regarding topics such as sensibility, economics, and political theory. Wollstonecraft's work has also had an effect on feminism outside the academy in recent years. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a political writer and former Muslim who is critical of Islam in general and its dictates regarding women in particular, cited the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel and wrote that she was "inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights". British writer Caitlin Moran, author of the best-selling How to Be a Woman, described herself as "half Wollstonecraft" to the New Yorker. She has also inspired more widely. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, the Indian economist and philosopher who first identified the missing women of Asia, draws repeatedly on Wollstonecraft as a political philosopher in The Idea of Justice. Several plaques have been erected to honour Wollstonecraft. A commemorative sculpture, A Sculpture for Mary Wollstonecraft by Maggi Hambling, was unveiled on 10 November 2020; it was criticised for its symbolic depiction rather than a lifelike representation of Wollstonecraft, which commentators felt represented stereotypical notions of beauty and the diminishing of women. In November 2020, it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom would be Wollstonecraft. Major works Educational works The majority of Wollstonecraft's early productions are about education; she assembled an anthology of literary extracts "for the improvement of young women" entitled The Female Reader and she translated two children's works, Maria Geertruida van de Werken de Cambon's Young Grandison and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's Elements of Morality. Her own writings also addressed the topic. In both her conduct book Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) and her children's book Original Stories from Real Life (1788), Wollstonecraft advocates educating children into the emerging middle-class ethos: self-discipline, honesty, frugality, and social contentment. Both books also emphasise the importance of teaching children to reason, revealing Wollstonecraft's intellectual debt to the educational views of seventeenth-century philosopher John Locke. However, the prominence she affords religious faith and innate feeling distinguishes her work from his and links it to the discourse of sensibility popular at the end of the eighteenth century. Both texts also advocate the education of women, a controversial topic at the time and one which she would return to throughout her career, most notably in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft argues that well-educated women will be good wives and mothers and ultimately contribute positively to the nation. Vindications Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) Published in response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which was a defence of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England, and an attack on Wollstonecraft's friend, the Rev. Richard Price at the Newington Green Unitarian Church, Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism. Hers was the first response in a pamphlet war that subsequently became known as the Revolution Controversy, in which Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1792) became the rallying cry for reformers and radicals. Wollstonecraft attacked not only monarchy and hereditary privilege but also the language that Burke used to defend and elevate it. In a famous passage in the Reflections, Burke had lamented: "I had thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her [Marie Antoinette] with insult.—But the age of chivalry is gone." Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as theatrical pity for the French queen—a pity they felt was at the expense of the people. Wollstonecraft was unique in her attack on Burke's gendered language. By redefining the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she undermined his rhetoric as well as his argument. Burke had associated the beautiful with weakness and femininity and the sublime with strength and masculinity; Wollstonecraft turns these definitions against him, arguing that his theatrical tableaux turn Burke's readers—the citizens—into weak women who are swayed by show. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia L. Johnson argues remains unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's defence of an unequal society founded on the passivity of women. In her arguments for republican virtue, Wollstonecraft invokes an emerging middle-class ethos in opposition to what she views as the vice-ridden aristocratic code of manners. Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, she believed in progress and derides Burke for relying on tradition and custom. She argues for rationality, pointing out that Burke's system would lead to the continuation of slavery, simply because it had been an ancestral tradition. She describes an idyllic country life in which each family can have a farm that will just suit its needs. Wollstonecraft contrasts her utopian picture of society, drawn with what she says is genuine feeling, to Burke's false feeling. The Rights of Men was Wollstonecraft's first overtly political work, as well as her first feminist work; as Johnson contends, "it seems that in the act of writing the later portions of Rights of Men she discovered the subject that would preoccupy her for the rest of her career." It was this text that made her a well-known writer. Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society and then proceeds to redefine that position, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men. Large sections of the Rights of Woman respond vitriolically to conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wanted to deny women an education. (Rousseau famously argues in Émile (1762) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men.) Wollstonecraft states that currently many women are silly and superficial (she refers to them, for example, as "spaniels" and "toys"), but argues that this is not because of an innate deficiency of mind but rather because men have denied them access to education. Wollstonecraft is intent on illustrating the limitations that women's deficient educations have placed on them; she writes: "Taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison." She implies that, without the encouragement young women receive from an early age to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, women could achieve much more. While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. What she does claim is that men and women are equal in the eyes of God. However, such claims of equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour. Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously writes: "Let it not be concluded that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequently, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God." Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word did not come into existence until the 1890s. One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing critiques in the Rights of Woman is of false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are "blown about by every momentary gust of feeling" and because they are "the prey of their senses" they cannot think rationally. In fact, she claims, they do harm not only to themselves but to the entire civilisation: these are not women who can help refine a civilisation —a popular eighteenth-century idea—but women who will destroy it. Wollstonecraft does not argue that reason and feeling should act independently of each other; rather, she believes that they should inform each other. In addition to her larger philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft also lays out a specific educational plan. In the twelfth chapter of the Rights of Woman, "On National Education", she argues that all children should be sent to a "country day school" as well as given some education at home "to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures." She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, arguing that men and women, whose marriages are "the cement of society", should be "educated after the same model." Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle-class, which she describes as the "most natural state", and in many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world. It encourages modesty and industry in its readers and attacks the uselessness of the aristocracy. But Wollstonecraft is not necessarily a friend to the poor; for example, in her national plan for education, she suggests that, after the age of nine, the poor, except for those who are brilliant, should be separated from the rich and taught in another school. Novels Both of Wollstonecraft's novels criticise what she viewed as the patriarchal institution of marriage and its deleterious effects on women. In her first novel, Mary: A Fiction (1788), the eponymous heroine is forced into a loveless marriage for economic reasons; she fulfils her desire for love and affection outside marriage with two passionate romantic friendships, one with a woman and one with a man. Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), an unfinished novel published posthumously and often considered Wollstonecraft's most radical feminist work, revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband; like Mary, Maria also finds fulfilment outside of marriage, in an affair with a fellow inmate and a friendship with one of her keepers. Neither of Wollstonecraft's novels depict successful marriages, although she posits such relationships in the Rights of Woman. At the end of Mary, the heroine believes she is going "to that world where there is neither marrying, nor giving in marriage", presumably a positive state of affairs. Both of Wollstonecraft's novels also critique the discourse of sensibility, a moral philosophy and aesthetic that had become popular at the end of the eighteenth century. Mary is itself a novel of sensibility and Wollstonecraft attempts to use the tropes of that genre to undermine sentimentalism itself, a philosophy she believed was damaging to women because it encouraged them to rely overmuch on their emotions. In The Wrongs of Woman the heroine's indulgence on romantic fantasies fostered by novels themselves is depicted as particularly detrimental. Female friendships are central to both of Wollstonecraft's novels, but it is the friendship between Maria and Jemima, the servant charged with watching over her in the insane asylum, that is the most historically significant. This friendship, based on a sympathetic |
Calculation Molecular masses are calculated from the atomic masses of each nuclide present in the molecule, while relative molecular masses are calculated from the standard atomic weights of each element. The standard atomic weight takes into account the isotopic distribution of the element in a given sample (usually assumed to be "normal"). For example, water has a relative molecular mass of 18.0153(3), but individual water molecules have molecular masses which range between 18.010 564 6863(15) Da (1H16O) and 22.027 7364(9) Da (2H18O). Atomic and molecular masses are usually reported in daltons which is defined relative to the mass of the isotope 12C (carbon 12). Relative atomic and molecular mass values as defined are dimensionless. However, the "unit" Dalton is still used in common practice. For example, the relative molecular mass and molecular mass of methane, whose molecular formula is CH4, are calculated respectively as follows: The uncertainty in molecular mass reflects variance (error) in measurement not the natural variance in isotopic abundances across the globe. In high-resolution mass spectrometry the mass isotopomers 12C1H4 and 13C1H4 are observed as distinct molecules, with molecular masses of approximately 16.031 Da and 17.035 Da, respectively. The intensity of the mass-spectrometry peaks is proportional to the isotopic abundances in the molecular species. 12C 2H 1H3 can also be observed with molecular mass of 17 Da. Determination Mass spectrometry In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element. Note that this also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass of the many possibilities. The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not found on a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of | usually reported in daltons which is defined relative to the mass of the isotope 12C (carbon 12). Relative atomic and molecular mass values as defined are dimensionless. However, the "unit" Dalton is still used in common practice. For example, the relative molecular mass and molecular mass of methane, whose molecular formula is CH4, are calculated respectively as follows: The uncertainty in molecular mass reflects variance (error) in measurement not the natural variance in isotopic abundances across the globe. In high-resolution mass spectrometry the mass isotopomers 12C1H4 and 13C1H4 are observed as distinct molecules, with molecular masses of approximately 16.031 Da and 17.035 Da, respectively. The intensity of the mass-spectrometry peaks is proportional to the isotopic abundances in the molecular species. 12C 2H 1H3 can also be observed with molecular mass of 17 Da. Determination Mass spectrometry In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element. Note that this also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass of the many possibilities. The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not found on a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element. A theoretical average molecular mass can be calculated using the standard atomic weights found on a typical periodic table, since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms representing the isotopes throughout the molecule. The average molecular mass of a sample, however, usually differs substantially from this since a single sample average is not the same as the average of many geographically distributed samples. Mass photometry Mass photometry (MP) is a rapid, in-solution, label-free method of obtaining the molecular mass of proteins, lipids, sugars & nucleic acids at the single-molecule level. The technique is based on interferometric scattered light microscopy. Contrast from scattered light by a single binding event at the interface between the protein solution and glass slide |
and thermal analysis made it possible to study the structure of crystalline solids, including metals and their alloys; and phase diagrams were developed. Despite all this progress, the nature of intermetallic compounds and alloys largely remained a mystery and their study was often merely empirical. Chemists generally steered away from anything that did not seem to follow Dalton's laws of multiple proportions; and the problem was considered the domain of a different science, metallurgy. The nearly-free electron model was eagerly taken up by some researchers in this field, notably Hume-Rothery, in an attempt to explain why certain intermetallic alloys with certain compositions would form and others would not. Initially Hume-Rothery's attempts were quite successful. His idea was to add electrons to inflate the spherical Fermi-balloon inside the series of Brillouin-boxes and determine when a certain box would be full. This predicted a fairly large number of alloy compositions that were later observed. As soon as cyclotron resonance became available and the shape of the balloon could be determined, it was found that the assumption that the balloon was spherical did not hold, except perhaps in the case of caesium. This finding reduced many of the conclusions to examples of how a model can sometimes give a whole series of correct predictions, yet still be wrong. The nearly-free electron debacle showed researchers that any model that assumed that ions were in a sea of free electrons needed modification. So, a number of quantum mechanical models—such as band structure calculations based on molecular orbitals or the density functional theory—were developed. In these models, one either departs from the atomic orbitals of neutral atoms that share their electrons or (in the case of density functional theory) departs from the total electron density. The free-electron picture has, nevertheless, remained a dominant one in education. The electronic band structure model became a major focus not only for the study of metals but even more so for the study of semiconductors. Together with the electronic states, the vibrational states were also shown to form bands. Rudolf Peierls showed that, in the case of a one-dimensional row of metallic atoms—say, hydrogen—an instability had to arise that would lead to the breakup of such a chain into individual molecules. This sparked an interest in the general question: when is collective metallic bonding stable and when will a more localized form of bonding take its place? Much research went into the study of clustering of metal atoms. As powerful as the concept of the band structure model proved to be in describing metallic bonding, it has the drawback of remaining a one-electron approximation of a many-body problem. In other words, the energy states of each electron are described as if all the other electrons simply form a homogeneous background. Researchers such as Mott and Hubbard realized that this was perhaps appropriate for strongly delocalized s- and p-electrons; but for d-electrons, and even more for f-electrons, the interaction with electrons (and atomic displacements) in the local environment may become stronger than the delocalization that leads to broad bands. Thus, the transition from localized unpaired electrons to itinerant ones partaking in metallic bonding became more comprehensible. The nature of metallic bonding The combination of two phenomena gives rise to metallic bonding: delocalization of electrons and the availability of a far larger number of delocalized energy states than of delocalized electrons. The latter could be called electron deficiency. In 2D Graphene is an example of two-dimensional metallic bonding. Its metallic bonds are similar to aromatic bonding in benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, ovalene, etc. In 3D Metal aromaticity in metal clusters is another example of delocalization, this time often in three-dimensional arrangements. Metals take the delocalization principle to its extreme, and one could say that a crystal of a metal represents a single molecule over which all conduction electrons are delocalized in all three dimensions. This means that inside the metal one can generally not distinguish molecules, so that the metallic bonding is neither intra- nor inter-molecular. 'Nonmolecular' would perhaps be a better term. Metallic bonding is mostly non-polar, because even in alloys there is little difference among the electronegativities of the atoms participating in the bonding interaction (and, in pure elemental metals, none at all). Thus, metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of covalent bonding. In a sense, metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all. It describes the bonding only as present in a chunk of condensed matter: be it crystalline solid, liquid, or even glass. Metallic vapors, in contrast, are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules, such as Na2, held together by a more conventional covalent bond. This is why it is not correct to speak of a single 'metallic bond'. Delocalization is most pronounced for s- and p-electrons. Delocalization in caesium is so strong that the electrons are virtually freed from the caesium atoms to form a gas constrained only by the surface of the metal. For caesium, therefore, the picture of Cs+ ions held together by a negatively charged electron gas is not inaccurate. For other elements the electrons are less free, in that they still experience the potential of the metal atoms, sometimes quite strongly. They require a more intricate quantum mechanical treatment (e.g., tight binding) in which the atoms are viewed as neutral, much like the carbon atoms in benzene. For d- and especially f-electrons the delocalization is not strong at all and this explains why these electrons are able to continue behaving as unpaired electrons that retain their spin, adding interesting magnetic properties to these metals. Electron deficiency and mobility Metal atoms contain few electrons in their valence shells relative to their periods | a far larger number of delocalized energy states than of delocalized electrons. The latter could be called electron deficiency. In 2D Graphene is an example of two-dimensional metallic bonding. Its metallic bonds are similar to aromatic bonding in benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, ovalene, etc. In 3D Metal aromaticity in metal clusters is another example of delocalization, this time often in three-dimensional arrangements. Metals take the delocalization principle to its extreme, and one could say that a crystal of a metal represents a single molecule over which all conduction electrons are delocalized in all three dimensions. This means that inside the metal one can generally not distinguish molecules, so that the metallic bonding is neither intra- nor inter-molecular. 'Nonmolecular' would perhaps be a better term. Metallic bonding is mostly non-polar, because even in alloys there is little difference among the electronegativities of the atoms participating in the bonding interaction (and, in pure elemental metals, none at all). Thus, metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of covalent bonding. In a sense, metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all. It describes the bonding only as present in a chunk of condensed matter: be it crystalline solid, liquid, or even glass. Metallic vapors, in contrast, are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules, such as Na2, held together by a more conventional covalent bond. This is why it is not correct to speak of a single 'metallic bond'. Delocalization is most pronounced for s- and p-electrons. Delocalization in caesium is so strong that the electrons are virtually freed from the caesium atoms to form a gas constrained only by the surface of the metal. For caesium, therefore, the picture of Cs+ ions held together by a negatively charged electron gas is not inaccurate. For other elements the electrons are less free, in that they still experience the potential of the metal atoms, sometimes quite strongly. They require a more intricate quantum mechanical treatment (e.g., tight binding) in which the atoms are viewed as neutral, much like the carbon atoms in benzene. For d- and especially f-electrons the delocalization is not strong at all and this explains why these electrons are able to continue behaving as unpaired electrons that retain their spin, adding interesting magnetic properties to these metals. Electron deficiency and mobility Metal atoms contain few electrons in their valence shells relative to their periods or energy levels. They are electron-deficient elements and the communal sharing does not change that. There remain far more available energy states than there are shared electrons. Both requirements for conductivity are therefore fulfilled: strong delocalization and partly filled energy bands. Such electrons can therefore easily change from one energy state to a slightly different one. Thus, not only do they become delocalized, forming a sea of electrons permeating the structure, but they are also able to migrate through the structure when an external electrical field is applied, leading to electrical conductivity. Without the field, there are electrons moving equally in all directions. Within such a field, some electrons will adjust their state slightly, adopting a different wave vector. Consequently, there will be more moving one way than another and a net current will result. The freedom of electrons to migrate also gives metal atoms, or layers of them, the capacity to slide past each other. Locally, bonds can easily be broken and replaced by new ones after a deformation. This process does not affect the communal metallic bonding very much, which gives rise to metals' characteristic malleability and ductility. This is particularly true for pure elements. In the presence of dissolved impurities, the normally easily formed cleavages may be blocked and the material become harder. Gold, for example, is very soft in pure form (24-karat), which is why alloys are preferred in jewelry. Metals are typically also good conductors of heat, but the conduction electrons only contribute partly to this phenomenon. Collective (i.e., delocalized) vibrations of the atoms, known as phonons that travel through the solid as a wave, are bigger contributors. However, a substance such as diamond, which conducts heat quite well, is not an electrical conductor. This is not a consequence of delocalization being absent in diamond, but simply that carbon is not electron deficient. Electron deficiency is important in distinguishing metallic from more conventional covalent bonding. Thus, we should amend the expression given above to: Metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of electron-deficient covalent bonding. Metallic radius The metallic radius is defined as one-half of the distance between the two adjacent metal ions in the metallic structure. This radius depends on the nature of the atom as well as its environment—specifically, on the coordination number (CN), which in turn depends on the temperature and applied pressure. When comparing periodic trends in the size of atoms it is often desirable to apply the so-called Goldschmidt correction, which converts atomic radii to the values the atoms would have if they were 12-coordinated. Since metallic radii are largest for the highest coordination number, correction for less dense coordinations involves multiplying by x, where 0 < x < 1. Specifically, for CN = 4, x = 0.88; for CN = 6, x = 0.96, and for CN = 8, x = 0.97. The correction is named after Victor Goldschmidt who obtained the numerical values quoted above. The radii follow general periodic trends: they decrease across the period due to the increase in the effective nuclear charge, which is not offset by the increased number of valence electrons; but the radii increase down the group due to an increase in the principal quantum number. Between the 4d and 5d elements, the lanthanide contraction is observed—there is very little increase of the radius down the group due to the presence of poorly shielding f orbitals. Strength of the bond The atoms in metals have a strong attractive force between them. Much energy is required to overcome it. Therefore, metals often have high boiling points, with tungsten (5828 K) being extremely high. A remarkable exception is the elements of the zinc group: Zn, Cd, and Hg. Their electron configurations end in ...ns2, which resembles a noble gas configuration, like that of helium, more and more when going down the periodic table, because the energy differential to the empty np orbitals becomes larger. These metals are therefore relatively volatile, and are avoided in ultra-high vacuum systems. Otherwise, metallic bonding can be very strong, even |
related Grignard reagents are often considered to be salts of ""; and though the model may be useful for description and analysis, it is only a useful fiction. Such reagents are generally prepared from the methyl halides: 2 M + CH3X → MCH3 + MX where M is an alkali metal. Methyl radical The methyl radical has the formula . It exists in dilute gases, but in more concentrated form it readily dimerizes to ethane. It can be produced by thermal decomposition of only certain compounds, especially those with an –N=N– linkage. Reactivity The reactivity of a methyl group depends on the adjacent substituents. Methyl groups can be quite unreactive. For example, in organic compounds, the methyl group resists attack by even the strongest acids. Oxidation The oxidation of a methyl group occurs widely in nature and industry. The oxidation products derived from methyl are CH2OH, CHO, and CO2H. For example, permanganate often converts a methyl group to a carboxyl (–COOH) group, e.g. the conversion of toluene to benzoic acid. Ultimately oxidation of methyl groups gives protons and carbon dioxide, as seen in combustion. Methylation Demethylation (the transfer of the methyl group to another compound) is a common process, and reagents that undergo this reaction are called methylating agents. Common methylating agents are dimethyl sulfate, methyl iodide, and methyl triflate. Methanogenesis, the source of natural gas, arises via a demethylation reaction. Together with ubiquitin and phosphorylation, methylation is a major biochemical process for modifying protein function. Deprotonation Certain methyl groups can be deprotonated. For example, the acidity of the methyl groups in acetone ((CH3)2CO) is about 1020 times more acidic than methane. The resulting carbanions are key intermediates in many reactions in organic synthesis and biosynthesis. Fatty acids are produced in this way. Free radical reactions When placed in benzylic or allylic positions, the strength of the C–H bond is decreased, and the reactivity of the methyl group increases. One manifestation of this enhanced reactivity is the photochemical chlorination of the methyl group in toluene to give benzyl chloride. Chiral methyl In the special case where one hydrogen is replaced by deuterium (D) and another hydrogen | formula . It exists in dilute gases, but in more concentrated form it readily dimerizes to ethane. It can be produced by thermal decomposition of only certain compounds, especially those with an –N=N– linkage. Reactivity The reactivity of a methyl group depends on the adjacent substituents. Methyl groups can be quite unreactive. For example, in organic compounds, the methyl group resists attack by even the strongest acids. Oxidation The oxidation of a methyl group occurs widely in nature and industry. The oxidation products derived from methyl are CH2OH, CHO, and CO2H. For example, permanganate often converts a methyl group to a carboxyl (–COOH) group, e.g. the conversion of toluene to benzoic acid. Ultimately oxidation of methyl groups gives protons and carbon dioxide, as seen in combustion. Methylation Demethylation (the transfer of the methyl group to another compound) is a common process, and reagents that undergo this reaction are called methylating agents. Common methylating agents are dimethyl sulfate, methyl iodide, and methyl triflate. Methanogenesis, the source of natural gas, arises via a demethylation reaction. Together with ubiquitin and phosphorylation, methylation is a major biochemical process for modifying protein function. Deprotonation Certain methyl groups can be deprotonated. For example, the acidity of the methyl groups in acetone ((CH3)2CO) is about 1020 times more acidic than methane. The resulting carbanions are key intermediates in many reactions in organic synthesis and biosynthesis. Fatty acids are produced in this way. Free radical reactions When placed in benzylic or allylic positions, the strength of the C–H bond is decreased, and the reactivity of the methyl group increases. One manifestation of this enhanced reactivity is the photochemical chlorination of the methyl group in toluene to give benzyl chloride. Chiral methyl In the special case where one hydrogen is replaced by deuterium (D) and another hydrogen by tritium (T), the methyl substituent becomes chiral. Methods exist to produce optically pure methyl compounds, e.g., chiral acetic acid (CHDTCO2H). Through the use of chiral methyl groups, the stereochemical course of several biochemical transformations have been analyzed. Rotation A methyl group may rotate around the R—C axis. This is a free rotation only in the simplest cases like gaseous CClH3. In most molecules, the remainder R breaks the C∞ symmetry of the R—C axis and creates a potential V(φ) that restricts the free motion of the three protons. For the model case of C2H6 this is discussed under the name ethane barrier. In condensed phases, neighbour molecules also contribute to the potential. Methyl group rotation |
beer, it suffered the largest cut in gravity when breweries had to limit the average OG of their beer to 1.030. In order to be able to produce some stronger beer - which was exempt from price controls and thus more profitable - mild was reduced to 1.025 or lower. Modern dark mild varies from dark amber to near-black in colour and is very light-bodied. Its flavour is dominated by malt, sometimes with roasty notes derived from the use of black malt, with a subdued hop character, though there are some quite bitter examples. Most are in the range 1.030–1.036 (3–3.6% abv). Light mild is generally similar, but paler in colour. Some dark milds are created by the addition of caramel to a pale beer. Until the 1960s mild was the most popular beer style in England. Pockets of demand remain, particularly in the West Midlands and North West England, but has been largely ousted by bitter and lager elsewhere. In 2002, only 1.3% of beer sold in pubs was Mild. Mild's popularity in Wales, in particular, persisted as a relatively low-alcohol, sweet drink for coal miners. Some brewers have continued to produce mild, but have found it sells better under a different name: for instance, Brains's mild was renamed Dark. Outside the United Kingdom mild is virtually unknown, with the exception of Old in New South Wales and some microbrewery recreations in North America and Scandinavia. Some notable examples of Milds are: Bank's Mild, Cain's Dark Mild, Highgate Dark Mild, Brain's Dark, Moorhouse's Black Cat and Theakston Traditional Mild. Brown and mild A popular drink in the West Midlands, "brown and mild" (also known as a "boilermaker") is a half pint of draught mild served mixed with a half pint of bottled brown ale in a pint glass. In North West England, a mixture of half a pint of mild and half a pint of bitter is known as a "mixed". In Norfolk, the same mixture was called a pint of "twos". Brewing Mild ales are generally based on mild malt or pale malt. Most milds contain, in addition, a quantity of crystal malt; dark milds, meanwhile, make use of chocolate malt, black malt or dark brewing sugars. Milds tend to be lightly hopped compared to pale ale and are usually low in alcohol; strong mild ales used to reach six or seven per cent abv, but very few such beers | down to about 1.045, still considerably stronger than modern versions. The draconian measures applied to the brewing industry during the First World War had a particularly dramatic effect upon mild. As the biggest-selling beer, it suffered the largest cut in gravity when breweries had to limit the average OG of their beer to 1.030. In order to be able to produce some stronger beer - which was exempt from price controls and thus more profitable - mild was reduced to 1.025 or lower. Modern dark mild varies from dark amber to near-black in colour and is very light-bodied. Its flavour is dominated by malt, sometimes with roasty notes derived from the use of black malt, with a subdued hop character, though there are some quite bitter examples. Most are in the range 1.030–1.036 (3–3.6% abv). Light mild is generally similar, but paler in colour. Some dark milds are created by the addition of caramel to a pale beer. Until the 1960s mild was the most popular beer style in England. Pockets of demand remain, particularly in the West Midlands and North West England, but has been largely ousted by bitter and lager elsewhere. In 2002, only 1.3% of beer sold in pubs was Mild. Mild's popularity in Wales, in particular, persisted as a relatively low-alcohol, sweet drink for coal miners. Some brewers have continued to produce mild, but have found it sells better under a different name: for instance, Brains's mild was renamed Dark. Outside the United Kingdom mild is virtually unknown, with the exception of Old in New South Wales and some microbrewery recreations in North America and Scandinavia. Some notable examples of Milds are: Bank's Mild, Cain's Dark Mild, Highgate Dark Mild, Brain's Dark, Moorhouse's Black Cat and Theakston Traditional Mild. Brown and mild A popular drink in the West Midlands, "brown and mild" |
considers that those must be adapted to the specific cultural and political context of France and Europe. The main activities of Association Planète Mars are devoted to public communication, through conferences, exhibits, events, media appearances (TV, radio, magazines...). It also acts occasionally as an adviser for journalists or film makers. Whenever possible, it cooperates with other associations or science outreach organisms, which permits to reinforce its action and reach a wider public. Association Planète Mars seeks to interest younger people: 25% of its paid members are under the age of 25. It aims to encourage Mars-related projects to be undertaken by engineering students. The association also encourages the formation of working groups on miscellaneous topics. Today, three groups are active, respectively on mission safety, Martian architecture and medical aspects. It has participated in several MDRS and FMARS missions, including a prototype of a "Cliff Exploration Vehicle". Another major field of action is lobbying, aiming at both political and institutional groups, in France and at the European level (European Council, ESA). In doing so, it relies on the networks established by some of its managers. On the occasion of most critical events, the association publishes political documents to support its views, which are distributed both to opinion formers and to the press. This has been the case in June 2004, in the wake of the US Space Exploration Initiative, and in September 2008 in preparation of the ESA ministerial council. Germany The German Chapter of the Mars Society (Mars Society Deutschland e.V. | eingetragener Verein | - MSD) was founded in 2001 based on the Founding Declaration of the Mars Society of the US from 1998 and has about 230 members. The MSD is registered in Germany as a non-profit association (gemeinnütziger Verein). Registered members pay a yearly membership fee of 60 Euro. However, students and firms pay a different fee. The activities of the MSD are focused on technical-scientific projects such as the Mars Balloon Probe ARCHIMEDES as well as on all Mars exploration and general manned space matters. The main means of communication with members and the general public is the MSD Website with information on the ARCHIMEDES project, publications on Mars and other space subjects, the regular news, which can be commented by visitors of the website, the Space Forum and informative meetings. The MSD Board comprises five members. Since June 2009 its president is the Space Physicist Dr. Michael Danielides. The development of ARCHIMEDES is led by Dipl. Ing. Hannes Griebel, who is also a member of the MSD Board and prepares his doctorate thesis on ARCHIMEDES. ARCHIMEDES is presently under development and the major project of the MSD since 2001. Starting in 2006, flight tests have been undertaken for testing the innovative balloon system in the low-gravity environment. Test carriers were so far the Airbus A300 for short duration parabolic flights and the sounding rocket test campaigns REXUS3-REGINA and REXUS4-MIRIAM for longer duration flight tests under free space conditions. Further flights tests are planned for the coming years (e.g. MIRIAM II) with the objective of qualifying ARCHIMEDES for its Mars mission by 2018. ARCHIMEDES will be carried to Mars on board an AMSAT Mars Probe or a similar satellite. ARCHIMEDES is developed by the MSD with the support of the Bundeswehr University Munich, of the IABG in Ottobrunn, the DLR-MORABA for rocket flight opportunities, other universities, and several industrial companies supporting specific technical areas. Netherlands The Mars Society Netherlands chapter was wound up in 2011. The board and members moved over to a new Mars-oriented organization. The Dutch Mars Society is being relaunched in 2019. Poland The Polish Mars society (Mars Society Polska (MSP)) is actively participating in the creation of the Polish space industry. Since this sector is still developing, the organization is taking the opportunity to provide a strong Mars-related element for the years to come. Poland was the last member state of the EU to sign the cooperation agreement with ESA. Most projects in Poland currently focus on satellite technology, so MSP is the only leading organization promoting exploration and manned spaceflight. Besides private sponsors, it relies on resources obtained from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and local authorities, proposing projects to be undertaken with local communities and thus engaging with the general public. MSP's first project was the Polish MPV (pressurized rover) design, for which some hardware was produced. This enabled development of the Polish Mars Society itself, together with a number of educational activities for Polish schools. This was followed by the joint organization of the Polish edition of the Red Rover Goes to Mars contest and organization of a Mars colonization negotiation game (Columbia Memorial Negotiations). In 2007 MSP organized the first Mars Festival, a two-day event which drew 600 visitors, with Discovery Channel as the main sponsor. Mars Festival 2008 was smaller due to the efforts being made in other projects, particularly the Polish URC rover, named Skarabeusz. The flagship MSP project is the Polish Martian habitat, based on a design by Janek Kozicki. It has three inflatable modules attached and a usable surface of 900 m². The habitat is to be located close to a large town, meaning that beyond its role as a test site, largely for materials and design, it will be accessible to the wider public and media. MSP has established a constant presence in the mainstream Polish media and is working on a documentary about itself. It is also developing software projects, IT systems for the future martian habitat, with a Virtual Mars Base and remote access. Jan Kotlarz of MSP has created RODM software for the modeling of the Martian surface based on high-resolution photographs from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. RODM is currently being tested by NASA and ESA. Switzerland The Mars Society Switzerland ("MSS") was founded in February 2010. It covers the French and German speaking parts of Switzerland. It keeps close links with the French branch ("association planète Mars", see above). Its aim is to convince the Swiss public of the interest and feasibility of the Martian exploration with inhabited flights through the Mars direct concept such as described by Robert Zubrin. It wants to gather around the scientists working on Mars in Switzerland, all people who share their interest on the matter. In November 2010, MSS participated to the 8th Swiss Geoscience Meeting which was the opportunity to discuss the main topics related to Mars geology, the making of the planet, the role of water and the atmosphere. In 2011 (September 30 until October 2), MSS held the 11th European Mars Convention ("EMC11") in the frame of the University of Neuchâtel. Through 24 presentations and two debates with major Swiss media, this convention covered all subjects related to Mars exploration; from astronautics to architecture, including the study of geology which remains its key objective. On September 10, 2012, in the Natural History Museum Bern ("NHMB"), it held a conference on the theme "Searching for Life on Mars". The conference was centered upon a presentation by Professor André Maeder (a well-known astrophysicist at the University of Geneva) following the publishing of his book "L'unique Terre habitée?" (Favre editions). Another presentation was made by Dr. Beda Hofmann, Head of the Earth Science Dept. of the NHMB. He showed and commented photos of primitive forms of life which he gathered to serve as references for the observations to be made by the ESA ExoMars mission (to be launched in 2018). Pierre Brisson, president of the Mars Society Switzerland introduced the conference, speaking about the instruments aboard Curiosity and the targets of exploration of the rover. In October (12th till 14th) The Mars Society Switzerland participated to the 12th EMC ("EMC12") in Neubiberg, Germany (University of the German Armed Forces, near Münich). In this frame, Pierre Brisson discussed the past possibility of an Ocean in the Northern Lowlands of the planet. A key event of the year 2013 (March 26), was a conference organized with "Club 44" in La Chaux de Fonds, during which Professor Michel Cabane, LATMOS and co-PI of the SAM Instruments aboard Curiosity, presented the findings of his instruments dedicated to the study of the molecular and atomic compositions of the rocks and atmosphere of the planet Mars. United Kingdom The Mars Society UK is the oldest Mars Society outside the United States. It held its first public meeting on July 4, 1998, in London. Professor Colin Pillinger, head of the Beagle 2 project, was | Reality – a multi-phase effort to build virtual reality tools to support the human exploration of Mars, and train the crewmembers at the Mars Desert Research Station. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite - a program to design, build, and launch a satellite rotated to artificially provide partial gravity of 0.38g, equivalent to that of Mars, and hosting a small population of mice, to study the health effects of partial gravity, as opposed to zero gravity; this originated as a Mars Society initiative and is now supported by the YourNameIntoSpace web portal The Mars balloon mission ARCHIMEDES, due to launch in 2018 (conducted by the German Chapter of Mars Society) Tempo3 The Tethered Experiment for Mars inter-Planetary Operations, a CubeSat based satellite that will demonstrate artificial gravity generation using two tethered masses In addition, the Society: gives talks and presentations on Mars Direct to schools, colleges, universities, professional bodies and the general public promotes the teaching of science, astronomy and spaceflight-related subjects in schools campaigns for greater investment on the part of individual countries in space research and development hosts the largest annual conferences on Mars exploration in the United States, Europe and Australia actively supports NASA, ESA and other space agencies in their on-going exploration of Mars The current board of directors of the Mars Society includes Robert Zubrin (chairman), Tony Muscatello, and James Heiser. Notable members of its steering committee include Buzz Aldrin and Peter H. Smith. Notable former members of the board of directors or steering committee of the Mars Society include Kim Stanley Robinson, Michael D. Griffin, Christopher McKay, Pascal Lee and Elon Musk. The Society is an organization member of the Alliance for Space Development. North American Chapters of the Mars Society The Mars Society has chapters in the U.S. and around the world. Many of these chapters undertake scientific, engineering and political initiatives to further the Mars Society's goals. Some accomplishments of Mars Society chapters are listed below: Canada Mars Society of Canada: hosted the Third International Mars Society Convention in 2000 (Toronto) organized a month-long multi-national research expedition (known as Expedition One) to the Mars Desert Research Station in the Utah desert in 2003 organized a second multi-national research expedition (known as Expedition Two) in the Australian outback in 2004 organized a series of training expeditions (beginning with Expedition Alpha, Beta etc.) United States California Northern California Chapter of the Mars Society: hosted the Fourth International Mars Society Convention in 2001 (Stanford University) raised over $100,000 for the Mars Society hosting a fundraiser banquet with James Cameron, May 5, 2001 provides Mission Support services and analog spacesuit designs and refurbishment for crews at the Mars Desert Research Station starting in 2002 The San Diego Chapter of the Mars Society provides Crewmembers and Mission Support services for the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) and the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) since 2002 TMS-SD provides public outreach events to classrooms, libraries, museums and other organizations throughout the Southern California region with seven different multimedia programs: "Invasion from Earth - The Robotic Exploration of Mars"; "Mars Exploration Rovers - Year 4"; "Mars on Earth - The Adventures of Space Pioneers in the Utah Desert"; "Mars on Earth - The Adventures of Space Pioneers in the Canadian Arctic: "Humans to Mars - How We'll Get There"; "A Close Look at Mars"; and "Mars in the Movies" TMS-SD offers a 1/4-scale radio controlled Mars Exploration Rover with wireless video that children (of all ages) can operate holds monthly chapter meetings, as well as special program events throughout the year hosts a monthly Mars Movie Night in conjunction with The Mars Movie Guide Texas Dallas Chapter of the Mars Society: hosted the Mars Track of the National Space Society's International Space Development Conference in 2007 Planning Publicizing, and Politicking a vision of Mars colonization in the Dallas area and beyond. Washington Mars Society Seattle: Hosting Space Expo 2018 with Seattle's Museum of Flight. Hosted MarsFest with Seattle's Museum of Flight in 1999 (Polar Lander), 2007 (Phoenix), and 2012 (Curiosity). Staffed outreach table at local events: NSTA conference, Yuri's Night, Norwescon, Rustycon, AIAA, and others. Speaker series (co-sponsored with NSS Seattle) every first Sunday of the month at 7pm in the Red Barn classroom at the Museum of Flight. Website development for the Mars Society in the early days, helped set up chapters.marssociety.org and initial task force websites. European Chapters of the Mars Society Austria The ASF (Österreichisches Weltraum Forum, OeWF) is a national network for aerospace and space enthusiasts, being the Austrian chapter of the Mars Society. The Forum serves as a communication platform between the space sector and the public; it is embedded in a global network of specialists from the space industry, research and policy. Hence, the OeWF facilitates a strengthening of the national space sector through enhancing the public visibility of space activities, technical workshops, and conferences as well as Forum-related projects. Their research focus is Mars Analogue Research, e.g. the AustroMars mission with roughly 130 volunteers supporting a mission simulation at the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) and the ongoing PolAres, a multi-year research program which encompass the development of a Mars analogue rover system and a novel spacesuit prototype dubbed "Aouda.X", culminating in an arctic expedition in 2011. The Forum has a small, but a highly active pool of professional members contributing to space endeavors, mostly in cooperation with other nations as well as international space organizations. The spectrum of their activities ranges from simple classroom presentation to 15.000-visitors space exhibitions, from expert reports for the Austrian Federal Ministry for Technology to space technology transfer activities for terrestrial applications. France The Mars Society French chapter (Association Planète Mars) was established in 1999 as "Association Planète Mars", a non-profit organization with its headquarters in Paris. Its founder and president is Richard Heidmann, a space propulsion engineer, who participated in the founding convention of the Mars Society in August 1998 and is a member of the Mars Society Steering Committee. While fully supporting the ideas and actions of the Mars Society, it considers that those must be adapted to the specific cultural and political context of France and Europe. The main activities of Association Planète Mars are devoted to public communication, through conferences, exhibits, events, media appearances (TV, radio, magazines...). It also acts occasionally as an adviser for journalists or film makers. Whenever possible, it cooperates with other associations or science outreach organisms, which permits to reinforce its action and reach a wider public. Association Planète Mars seeks to interest younger people: 25% of its paid members are under the age of 25. It aims to encourage Mars-related projects to be undertaken by engineering students. The association also encourages the formation of working groups on miscellaneous topics. Today, three groups are active, respectively on mission safety, Martian architecture and medical aspects. It has participated in several MDRS and FMARS missions, including a prototype of a "Cliff Exploration Vehicle". Another major field of action is lobbying, aiming at both political and institutional groups, in France and at the European level (European Council, ESA). In doing so, it relies on the networks established by some of its managers. On the occasion of most critical events, the association publishes political documents to support its views, which are distributed both to opinion formers and to the press. This has been the case in June 2004, in the wake of the US Space Exploration Initiative, and in September 2008 in preparation of the ESA ministerial council. Germany The German Chapter of the Mars Society (Mars Society Deutschland e.V. | eingetragener Verein | - MSD) was founded in 2001 based on the Founding Declaration of the Mars Society of the US from 1998 and has about 230 members. The MSD is registered in Germany as a non-profit association (gemeinnütziger Verein). Registered members pay a yearly membership fee of 60 Euro. However, students and firms pay a different fee. The activities of the MSD are focused on technical-scientific projects such as the Mars Balloon Probe ARCHIMEDES as well as on all Mars exploration and general manned space matters. The main means of communication with members and the general public is the MSD Website with information on the ARCHIMEDES project, publications on Mars and other space subjects, the regular news, which can be commented by visitors of the website, the Space Forum and informative meetings. The MSD Board comprises five members. Since June 2009 its president is the Space Physicist Dr. Michael Danielides. The development of ARCHIMEDES is led by Dipl. Ing. Hannes Griebel, who is also a member of the MSD Board and prepares his doctorate thesis on ARCHIMEDES. ARCHIMEDES is presently under development and the major project of the MSD since 2001. Starting in 2006, flight tests have been undertaken for testing the innovative balloon system in the low-gravity environment. Test carriers were so far the Airbus A300 for short duration parabolic flights and the sounding rocket test campaigns REXUS3-REGINA and REXUS4-MIRIAM for longer duration flight tests under free space conditions. Further flights tests are planned for the coming years (e.g. MIRIAM II) with the objective of qualifying ARCHIMEDES for its Mars mission by 2018. |
the gods. This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods. Minerva and Medusa Medusa was once a beautiful human, a priestess of Minerva. Later on, Minerva found out that Neptune and Medusa were kissing in a temple dedicated to Minerva herself. Because of this Minerva turned her into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm. Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone. When Perseus approached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her. He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on her Aegis. Taming of Pegasus When Perseus beheaded Medusa some of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it came Pegasus. Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to the Muses. It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus which opened the fountain Hippocrene. When Bellerophon later went to fight the Chimera he sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera. Turning Aglauros to Stone Metamorphoses by Ovid tell the story of Minerva and Aglauros. When Mercury comes to seduce mortal virgin Herse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance of Envy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that she turns to stone. Mercury fails to seduce Herse. Minerva and Hercules Minerva assisted the hero Hercules. In Hyginus' Fabulae she is said to have helped him kill the Hydra (30.3). Minerva and Odysseus Minerva assisted the hero Odysseus. Hyginus describes in his work Fabulae that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126). Inventing the Flute Minerva is thought to have invented the flute by piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by a satyr. Worship in Rome and Italy Minerva was worshipped at many locations in Rome, most prominently as part of the Capitoline Triad. She was also worshipped at the Temple of Minerva Medica, and at the "Delubrum Minervae", a temple founded around 50 BC by Pompey on the site now occupied by the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the neuter plural, Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, an artisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts. According to Ovid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association. Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated the Quinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions. A lesser version, the Minusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute. In 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic. As Minerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. As Minerva Achaea, she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts and arms said to be those of Diomedes were preserved in her temple. We know due to the Acta Arvalia that a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows. In Fasti III, Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works" due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere. According to Livy's History of Rome (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail into to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level. Roman coinage Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman emperors. She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes. Worship in Britain during Roman occupation During the Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings. Bath During Roman rule Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddess Sulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably. and was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located in Bath. Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions as Minerva Medica she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath. Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing. The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire which burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood. Carrawburgh There is evidence of worship of Minerva Medica in Carrawburgh due to archaeological evidence such as a relief depicting her and Aesculapius. Etruscan Menrva Stemming from an Italic moon goddess ('She who measures'), the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, , thereby calling her Menrva. It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena. Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth. By a process of folk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to the root men- in Latin words such as mens meaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The word mens is built from the Proto-Indo-European root *men- 'mind' (linked with memory as in Greek Mnemosyne/μνημοσύνη and /μνῆστις: memory, remembrance, recollection, in Sanskrit meaning mind). The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Capitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva. Modern depictions and references of Minerva Universities and educational establishments As a patron goddess of wisdom, Minerva frequently features in statuary, as an image on seals, and in other forms at educational institutions. Listings of this can be found on Minerva in the emblems of educational establishments. Societies and governments The Seal of California depicts the Goddess | was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus which opened the fountain Hippocrene. When Bellerophon later went to fight the Chimera he sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera. Turning Aglauros to Stone Metamorphoses by Ovid tell the story of Minerva and Aglauros. When Mercury comes to seduce mortal virgin Herse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance of Envy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that she turns to stone. Mercury fails to seduce Herse. Minerva and Hercules Minerva assisted the hero Hercules. In Hyginus' Fabulae she is said to have helped him kill the Hydra (30.3). Minerva and Odysseus Minerva assisted the hero Odysseus. Hyginus describes in his work Fabulae that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126). Inventing the Flute Minerva is thought to have invented the flute by piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by a satyr. Worship in Rome and Italy Minerva was worshipped at many locations in Rome, most prominently as part of the Capitoline Triad. She was also worshipped at the Temple of Minerva Medica, and at the "Delubrum Minervae", a temple founded around 50 BC by Pompey on the site now occupied by the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the neuter plural, Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, an artisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts. According to Ovid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association. Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated the Quinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions. A lesser version, the Minusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute. In 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic. As Minerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. As Minerva Achaea, she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts and arms said to be those of Diomedes were preserved in her temple. We know due to the Acta Arvalia that a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows. In Fasti III, Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works" due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere. According to Livy's History of Rome (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail into to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level. Roman coinage Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman emperors. She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes. Worship in Britain during Roman occupation During the Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings. Bath During Roman rule Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddess Sulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably. and was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located in Bath. Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions as Minerva Medica she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath. Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing. The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire which burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood. Carrawburgh There is evidence of worship of Minerva Medica in Carrawburgh due to archaeological evidence such as a relief depicting her and Aesculapius. Etruscan Menrva Stemming from an Italic moon goddess ('She who measures'), the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, , thereby calling her Menrva. It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena. Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth. By a process of folk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to the root men- in Latin words such as mens meaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The word mens is built from the Proto-Indo-European root *men- 'mind' |
and on the surface of Mars (e.g. from solar flares) would be provided by a dedicated "storm shelter" in the core of the vehicle. The Mars Habitat Unit would also include a small pressurized rover that is stored in the lower deck area and assembled on the surface of Mars. Powered by a methane engine, it is designed to extend the range over which astronauts can explore the surface of Mars out to 320 km. Since it was first proposed as a part of Mars Direct, the Mars Habitat Unit has been adopted by NASA as a part of their Mars Design Reference Mission, which uses two Mars Habitat Units – one of which flies to Mars uncrewed, providing a dedicated laboratory facility on Mars, together with the capacity to carry a larger rover vehicle. The second Mars Habitat Unit flies to Mars with the crew, its interior given over completely to living and storage space. To prove the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit, the Mars Society has implemented the Mars Analogue Research Station Program (MARS), which has established a number of prototype Mars Habitat Units around the world. Reception Baker pitched Mars Direct at the Marshall Spaceflight Center in April 1990, where reception was very positive. The engineers flew around the country to present their plan, which generated significant interest. When their tour culminated in a demonstration at the National Space Society they received a standing ovation. The plan gained rapid media attention shortly afterwards. Resistance to the plan came from teams within NASA working on the Space Station and advanced propulsion concepts. The NASA administration rejected Mars Direct. Zubrin remained committed to the strategy, and after parting with David Baker attempted to convince the new NASA administration of Mars Direct's merits in 1992. After being granted a small research fund at Martin Marietta, Zubrin and his colleagues successfully demonstrated an in-situ propellant generator which achieved an efficiency of 94%. No chemical engineers partook in the development of the demonstration hardware. After showing the positive results to the Johnson Space Center, the NASA administration still held several reservations about the plan. In November 2003, Zubrin was invited to speak to the U.S. Senate committee on the future of space exploration. Two months later the Bush administration announced the creation of the Constellation program, a human spaceflight initiative with the goal of sending humans to the Moon by 2020. While a Mars mission was not specifically detailed, a plan to reach Mars based on utilizing the Orion spacecraft was tentatively developed for implementation in the 2030s. In 2009 the Obama administration began a review of the Constellation program, and after budgetary concerns the program was cancelled in 2010. There are a variety of psychological and sociological issues that could affect long-duration expeditionary space missions. Early human spaceflight missions to Mars are expected by some to have significant psycho-social problems to overcome, as well as provide considerable data for refining mission design, mission planning, and crew selection for future missions. Revisions Since Mars Direct was initially conceived, it has undergone regular review and development by Zubrin himself, the Mars Society, NASA, Stanford University and others. Mars Semi-Direct Zubrin and Weaver developed a modified version of Mars Direct, called Mars Semi-Direct, in response to some specific criticisms. This mission consists of three spacecraft and includes a "Mars Ascent Vehicle" (MAV). The ERV remains in Mars orbit for the return journey, while the uncrewed MAV lands and manufactures propellants for the ascent back up to Mars orbit. The Mars Semi-Direct architecture has been used as the basis of a number of studies, including the NASA Design Reference Missions. When subjected to the same cost-analysis as the 90-day report, Mars Semi-Direct was predicted to cost 55 billion dollars over 10 years, capable of fitting into the existing NASA budget. Mars Semi-Direct became the basis of the Design Reference Mission 1.0 of NASA, replacing the Space Exploration Initiative. Design Reference Mission The NASA model, referred to as the Design Reference Mission, on version 5.0 as of September 1, 2012, calls for a significant upgrade in hardware (at least three launches per mission, rather than two), and sends the ERV to Mars fully fueled, parking it in orbit above the planet for subsequent rendezvous with the MAV. Mars Direct and SpaceX With the potentially imminent advent of low-cost heavy lift capability, Zubrin has posited a dramatically lower cost human Mars mission using hardware developed by space transport company SpaceX. In this simpler plan, a crew of two would be sent to Mars by a single Falcon Heavy launch, the Dragon spacecraft acting as their interplanetary cruise habitat. Additional living space for the journey would be enabled through the use of inflatable add-on modules if required. The problems associated with long-term weightlessness would be addressed in the same manner as the baseline Mars Direct plan, a tether between the Dragon habitat and the TMI (Trans-Mars Injection) stage acting to allow rotation of the craft. The Dragon's heatshield characteristics could allow for a safe descent if landing rockets of sufficient power were made available. Research at NASA's Ames Research Center has demonstrated that a robotic Dragon would be capable of a fully propulsive landing on the Martian surface. On the surface, the crew would have at their disposal two Dragon spacecraft with inflatable modules as habitats, two ERVs, two Mars ascent vehicles and 8 tonnes of cargo. Other Studies The Mars Society and Stanford studies retain the original two-vehicle mission profile of Mars Direct, but increase the crew size to six. Mars Society Australia developed their own four-person Mars Oz reference mission, based on Mars Semi-Direct. This study uses horizontally landing, bent biconic shaped modules, and relies on solar power and chemical propulsion throughout, where Mars Direct and the DRMs used nuclear reactors for surface power and, in the case of the DRMs for propulsion as well. The Mars Oz reference mission also differs in assuming, based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not be required. Mars Analogue Research Stations The Mars Society has argued the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit concept through their Mars Analogue Research Station program. These are two or three decked vertical cylinders ~8 m in diameter and 8 m high. Mars Society Australia plans to build its own station based on the Mars Oz design. The Mars Oz design features a horizontal cylinder 4.7 m in diameter and 18 m long, with a tapered nose. A second similar module will function as a garage and power and logistics module. Mars Direct was featured on a Discovery Channel programs Mars: The Next Frontier in which issues were | prove the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit, the Mars Society has implemented the Mars Analogue Research Station Program (MARS), which has established a number of prototype Mars Habitat Units around the world. Reception Baker pitched Mars Direct at the Marshall Spaceflight Center in April 1990, where reception was very positive. The engineers flew around the country to present their plan, which generated significant interest. When their tour culminated in a demonstration at the National Space Society they received a standing ovation. The plan gained rapid media attention shortly afterwards. Resistance to the plan came from teams within NASA working on the Space Station and advanced propulsion concepts. The NASA administration rejected Mars Direct. Zubrin remained committed to the strategy, and after parting with David Baker attempted to convince the new NASA administration of Mars Direct's merits in 1992. After being granted a small research fund at Martin Marietta, Zubrin and his colleagues successfully demonstrated an in-situ propellant generator which achieved an efficiency of 94%. No chemical engineers partook in the development of the demonstration hardware. After showing the positive results to the Johnson Space Center, the NASA administration still held several reservations about the plan. In November 2003, Zubrin was invited to speak to the U.S. Senate committee on the future of space exploration. Two months later the Bush administration announced the creation of the Constellation program, a human spaceflight initiative with the goal of sending humans to the Moon by 2020. While a Mars mission was not specifically detailed, a plan to reach Mars based on utilizing the Orion spacecraft was tentatively developed for implementation in the 2030s. In 2009 the Obama administration began a review of the Constellation program, and after budgetary concerns the program was cancelled in 2010. There are a variety of psychological and sociological issues that could affect long-duration expeditionary space missions. Early human spaceflight missions to Mars are expected by some to have significant psycho-social problems to overcome, as well as provide considerable data for refining mission design, mission planning, and crew selection for future missions. Revisions Since Mars Direct was initially conceived, it has undergone regular review and development by Zubrin himself, the Mars Society, NASA, Stanford University and others. Mars Semi-Direct Zubrin and Weaver developed a modified version of Mars Direct, called Mars Semi-Direct, in response to some specific criticisms. This mission consists of three spacecraft and includes a "Mars Ascent Vehicle" (MAV). The ERV remains in Mars orbit for the return journey, while the uncrewed MAV lands and manufactures propellants for the ascent back up to Mars orbit. The Mars Semi-Direct architecture has been used as the basis of a number of studies, including the NASA Design Reference Missions. When subjected to the same cost-analysis as the 90-day report, Mars Semi-Direct was predicted to cost 55 billion dollars over 10 years, capable of fitting into the existing NASA budget. Mars Semi-Direct became the basis of the Design Reference Mission 1.0 of NASA, replacing the Space Exploration Initiative. Design Reference Mission The NASA model, referred to as the Design Reference Mission, on version 5.0 as of September 1, 2012, calls for a significant upgrade in hardware (at least three launches per mission, rather than two), and sends the ERV to Mars fully fueled, parking it in orbit above the planet for subsequent rendezvous with the MAV. Mars Direct and SpaceX With the potentially imminent advent of low-cost heavy lift capability, Zubrin has posited a dramatically lower cost human Mars mission using hardware developed by space transport company SpaceX. In this simpler plan, a crew of two would be sent to Mars by a single Falcon Heavy launch, the Dragon spacecraft acting as their interplanetary cruise habitat. Additional living space for the journey would be enabled through the use of inflatable add-on modules if required. The problems associated with long-term weightlessness would be addressed in the same manner as the baseline Mars Direct plan, a tether between the Dragon habitat and the TMI (Trans-Mars Injection) stage acting to allow rotation of the craft. The Dragon's heatshield characteristics could allow for a safe descent if landing rockets of sufficient power were made available. Research at NASA's Ames Research Center has demonstrated that a robotic Dragon would be capable of a fully propulsive landing on the Martian surface. On the surface, the crew would have at their disposal two Dragon spacecraft with inflatable modules as habitats, two ERVs, two Mars ascent vehicles and 8 tonnes of cargo. Other Studies The Mars Society and Stanford studies retain the original two-vehicle mission profile of Mars Direct, but increase the crew size to six. Mars Society Australia developed their own four-person Mars Oz reference mission, based on Mars Semi-Direct. This study uses horizontally landing, bent biconic shaped modules, and relies on solar power and chemical propulsion throughout, where Mars Direct and the DRMs used nuclear reactors for surface power and, in the case of the DRMs for propulsion as well. The Mars Oz reference mission also differs in assuming, based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not be |
University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become the Ernest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University in New York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professor A. P. Wills. He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926, and was succeeded by Erwin Schrödinger. Family In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), and Erwin (1893–1945). After the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors from University of Berlin lived nearby, among them theologian Adolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such as Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner were frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home of Helmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly from tuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During the First World War Planck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action at Verdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945, Erwin, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by the Nazi Volksgerichtshof because of his participation in the failed attempt to assassinate Hitler in July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: "In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook". Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, "dry, somewhat impersonal" according to Lise Meitner, "using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard" according to an English participant, James R. Partington, who continues: "There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture." Planck did not establish an actual "school"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: 1897 Max Abraham (1875–1922) 1903 Max von Laue (1879–1960) 1904 Moritz Schlick (1882–1936) 1906 Walther Meissner (1882–1974) 1907 Fritz Reiche (1883–1960) 1912 Walter Schottky (1886–1976) 1914 Walther Bothe (1891–1957) Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem of black-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: "how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on the frequency of the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment agreed with experimental values. Wilhelm Wien proposed Wien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. The Rayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe" at high frequencies. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what Planck called the "principle of elementary disorder", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the entropy of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. Planck revised his approach, deriving the first version of the famous Planck black-body radiation law, which described the experimentally observed black-body spectrum well. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not use statistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion. In November 1900 Planck revised this first approach, relying on Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics as a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. As Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach, his recourse to them was, as he later put it, "an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as the Planck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: where is Planck's constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), and is the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented by and not simply by . Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequency will have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal to multiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only "a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ..."; nowadays this assumption, incompatible with classical physics, is regarded as the birth of quantum physics and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career (Ludwig Boltzmann had been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of Planck's constant enabled him to define a new universal set of physical units (such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants upon which much of quantum theory is based. In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 (he actually received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. "My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble." Even several years later, other physicists like Rayleigh, Jeans, and Lorentz set Planck's constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. "I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as Hegel was for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit." Max Born wrote about Planck: "He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics." Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers by Albert Einstein were published in the journal Annalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the special theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classical action. Einstein's hypothesis of light quanta (photons), based on Heinrich Hertz's 1887 discovery (and further investigation by Philipp Lenard) of the photoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completely Maxwell's theory of electrodynamics. "The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age when Christiaan Huygens dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of Isaac Newton ..." In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior of specific heat at low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck and Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the First Solvay Conference (Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. First World War At the onset of the First World War Planck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, "Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble." Planck also signed the infamous "Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to his Swiss citizenship). In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, he voted successfully for | the University of Munich. Under Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum, but transferred to theoretical physics. In 1877, he went to the Friedrich Wilhelms University in Berlin for a year of study with physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff and mathematician Karl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study of Clausius's writings, which led him to choose thermodynamics as his field. In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertation, Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie (On the second law of thermodynamics). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe. The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics. He then presented his thesis called Gleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen (Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures), which earned him a habilitation. Academic career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaid Privatdozent (German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field of heat theory and discovered one after another the same thermodynamical formalism as Gibbs without realizing it. Clausius's ideas on entropy occupied a central role in his work. In April 1885, the University of Kiel appointed Planck as associate professor of theoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied in physical chemistry, followed. He published his Treatise on Thermodynamics in 1897. He proposed a thermodynamic basis for Svante Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation. In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin – presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offered Boltzmann's position in Vienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become the Ernest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University in New York City. A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professor A. P. Wills. He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926, and was succeeded by Erwin Schrödinger. Family In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), and Erwin (1893–1945). After the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21. Several other professors from University of Berlin lived nearby, among them theologian Adolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center. Numerous well-known scientists, such as Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner were frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home of Helmholtz. After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly from tuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born. During the First World War Planck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action at Verdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945, Erwin, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by the Nazi Volksgerichtshof because of his participation in the failed attempt to assassinate Hitler in July 1944. Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945. Professor at Berlin University As a professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: "In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook". Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, "dry, somewhat impersonal" according to Lise Meitner, "using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard" according to an English participant, James R. Partington, who continues: "There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture." Planck did not establish an actual "school"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: 1897 Max Abraham (1875–1922) 1903 Max von Laue (1879–1960) 1904 Moritz Schlick (1882–1936) 1906 Walther Meissner (1882–1974) 1907 Fritz Reiche (1883–1960) 1912 Walter Schottky (1886–1976) 1914 Walther Bothe (1891–1957) Black-body radiation In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem of black-body radiation. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: "how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on the frequency of the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?". The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment agreed with experimental values. Wilhelm Wien proposed Wien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. The Rayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe" at high frequencies. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what Planck called the "principle of elementary disorder", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the entropy of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. Planck revised his approach, deriving the first version of the famous Planck black-body radiation law, which described the experimentally observed black-body spectrum well. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901. This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not use statistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion. In November 1900 Planck revised this first approach, relying on Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics as a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. As Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach, his recourse to them was, as he later put it, "an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics". The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as the Planck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit: where is Planck's constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), and is the frequency of the radiation. Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented by and not simply by . Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequency will have its own specific and unique energy. The total energy at that frequency is then equal to multiplied by the number of photons at that frequency. At first Planck considered that quantisation was only "a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ..."; nowadays this assumption, incompatible with classical physics, is regarded as the birth of quantum physics and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career (Ludwig Boltzmann had been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The discovery of Planck's constant enabled him to define a new universal set of physical units (such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants upon which much of quantum theory is based. In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 (he actually received the award in 1919). Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. "My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble." Even several years later, other physicists like Rayleigh, Jeans, and Lorentz set Planck's constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. "I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as Hegel was for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit." Max Born wrote about Planck: "He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics." Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905, the three epochal papers by Albert Einstein were published in the journal Annalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the special theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. For example, he recast the theory in terms of classical action. Einstein's hypothesis of light quanta (photons), based on Heinrich Hertz's 1887 discovery (and further investigation by Philipp Lenard) of the |
1986 – Sergio Ramos, Spanish footballer 1987 – Trent Barreta, American wrestler 1987 – Calum Elliot, Scottish footballer 1987 – Kwok Kin Pong, Hong Kong footballer 1987 – Marc-Édouard Vlasic, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Will Matthews, Australian rugby league player 1988 – Thanasis Papazoglou, Greek footballer 1988 – Richard Sherman, American football player 1988 – Larisa Yurkiw, Canadian alpine skier 1989 – Chris Sale, American baseball player 1989 – João Sousa, Portuguese tennis player 1990 – Thomas Rhett, American country music singer and songwriter 1990 – Michal Březina, Czech figure skater 1992 – Palak Muchhal, Indian playback singer 1993 – Anitta, Brazilian singer and entertainer 1994 – Jetro Willems, Dutch footballer 1998 – Kalyn Ponga, Australian rugby league player 2000 – Colton Herta, American race car driver Deaths Pre-1600 116 – Quirinus of Neuss, Roman martyr and saint 365 – Ai of Jin, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 341) 943 – Li Bian, emperor of Southern Tang (b. 889) 987 – Arnulf II, Count of Flanders (b. 960) 1180 – Al-Mustadi, Caliph (b. 1142) 1202 – Joachim of Fiore, Italian mystic and theologian (b. 1135) 1465 – Isabella of Clermont, queen consort of Naples (b. c. 1424) 1472 – Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy (b. 1435) 1486 – Thomas Bourchier, English cardinal (b. 1404) 1526 – Konrad Mutian, German humanist (b. 1471) 1540 – Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg, German cardinal (b. 1469) 1559 – Adam Ries, German mathematician and academic (b. 1492) 1587 – Ralph Sadler, English politician, Secretary of State for England (b. 1507) 1601–1900 1662 – François le Métel de Boisrobert, French poet and playwright (b. 1592) 1689 – Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Polish atheist and philosopher (b. 1634) 1707 – Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, French general and engineer (b. 1633) 1764 – Pietro Locatelli, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1695) 1783 – William Hunter, Scottish anatomist and physician (b. 1718) 1804 – Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, French general and politician, French Secretary of State for War (b. 1718) 1806 – Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire (b. 1757) 1830 – Louis I, Grand Duke of Baden (b. 1763) 1840 – Beau Brummell, English-French fashion designer (b. 1778) 1842 – Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, French painter (b. 1755) 1864 – Louis Schindelmeisser, German clarinet player, composer, and conductor (b. 1811) 1873 – Bénédict Morel, Austrian-French psychiatrist and physician (b. 1809) 1879 – Thomas Couture, French painter and educator (b. 1815) 1886 – Joseph-Alfred Mousseau, Canadian judge and politician, 6th Premier of Quebec (b. 1838) 1896 – Charilaos Trikoupis, Greek politician, 55th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1832) 1901–present 1912 – Karl May, German author (b. 1842) 1925 – Rudolf Steiner, Austrian philosopher and author (b. 1861) 1935 – Romanos Melikian, Armenian composer (b. 1883) 1936 – Conchita Supervía, Spanish soprano and actress (b. 1895) 1940 – Sir John Gilmour, 2nd Baronet Scottish soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland (b. 1876) 1943 – Jan Bytnar, Polish lieutenant; WWII resistance fighter (b. 1921) 1943 – Maciej Aleksy Dawidowski, Polish sergeant; WWII resistance fighter (b. 1920) 1945 – Béla Balogh, Hungarian actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885) 1949 – Friedrich Bergius, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1884) 1949 – Dattaram Hindlekar, Indian cricketer (b. 1909) 1950 – Léon Blum, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (b. 1872) 1952 – Jigme Wangchuck, Bhutanese king (b. 1905) 1955 – Harl McDonald, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1899) 1956 – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, English author and poet (b. 1875) 1959 – Daniil Andreyev, Russian mystic and poet (b. 1906) 1959 – John Auden, English solicitor, deputy coroner and a territorial soldier (b. 1894) 1959 – Riccardo Zanella, Italian politician (b. 1875) 1960 – Joseph Haas, German composer and educator (b. 1879) 1961 – Philibert Jacques Melotte, English astronomer (b. 1880) 1963 – Aleksandr Gauk, Russian conductor and composer (b. 1893) 1964 – Nella Larsen, American nurse and author (b. 1891) 1965 – Philip Showalter Hench, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1896) 1966 – Newbold Morris, American lawyer and politician (b. 1902) 1966 – Maxfield Parrish, American painter and illustrator (b. 1870) 1966 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (b. 1893) 1967 – Frank Thorpe, Australian public servant (b. 1885) 1967 – Jean Toomer, American poet and novelist (b. 1894) 1969 – Lucien Bianchi, Belgian racing driver (b. 1934) 1970 – Heinrich Brüning, German economist and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1885) 1972 – Mahir Çayan, Turkish politician (b. 1946) 1972 – Gabriel Heatter, American radio commentator (b. 1890) 1973 – Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton, Scottish pilot and politician (b. 1903) 1973 – Yves Giraud-Cabantous, French racing driver (b. 1904) 1975 – Peter Bamm, German journalist and author (b. 1897) 1977 – Levko Revutsky, Ukrainian composer and educator (b. 1889) 1978 – George Paine, English cricketer and coach (b. 1908) 1978 – Memduh Tağmaç, Turkish general (b. 1904) 1979 – Airey Neave, English colonel, lawyer, and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (b. 1916) 1979 – Ray Ventura, French pianist and bandleader (b. 1908) 1981 – DeWitt Wallace, American publisher, co-founded Reader's Digest (b. 1889) 1984 – Karl Rahner, German-Austrian priest and theologian (b. 1904) 1985 – Harold Peary, American actor and singer (b. 1908) 1986 – James Cagney, American actor and dancer (b. 1899) 1986 – John Ciardi, American poet and etymologist (b. 1916) 1988 – Edgar Faure, French historian and politician, Prime Minister of France (b. 1908) 1990 – Harry Bridges, Australian-born American activist and trade union leader (b. 1901) 1992 – Manolis Andronikos, Greek archaeologist and academic (b. 1919) 1993 – S. M. Pandit, Indian painter (b. 1916) 1993 – Richard Diebenkorn, American painter (b. 1922) 1995 – Rozelle Claxton, American pianist (b. 1913) 1995 – Tony Lock, English-Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1929) 1995 – Paul A. Rothchild, American record producer (b. 1935) 1996 – Hugh Falkus, English pilot and author (b. 1917) 1996 – Ryoei Saito, Japanese businessman (b. 1916) 2000 – Rudolf Kirchschläger, Austrian judge and politician, 8th President of Austria (b. 1915) 2002 – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (b. 1900) 2002 – Anand Bakshi, Indian poet and lyricist (b. 1930) 2003 – Michael Jeter, American actor (b. 1952) 2003 – Valentin Pavlov, Russian banker and politician, 11th Prime Minister of the Soviet Union (b. 1937) 2004 – Alistair Cooke, English-American journalist and author (b. 1908) 2004 – Michael King, New Zealand historian and author (b. 1945) 2004 – Timi Yuro, American singer and songwriter (b. 1940) 2005 – Robert Creeley, American novelist, essayist, and poet (b. 1926) 2005 – Milton Green, American hurdler and soldier (b. 1913) 2005 – Fred Korematsu, American political activist (b. 1919) 2005 – O. V. Vijayan, Indian author and illustrator (b. 1930) 2005 – Mitch Hedberg, American stand-up comedian (b. 1968) 2006 – Red Hickey, American football player and coach (b. 1917) 2006 – John McGahern, Irish author and educator (b. 1934) 2007 – John Roberts, Canadian political scientist, academic, and politician, 46th Secretary of State for Canada (b. 1933) 2008 – Roland Fraïssé, French mathematical logician (b. 1920) 2008 – David Leslie, Scottish racing driver (b. 1953) 2008 – Richard Lloyd, English racing driver (b. 1945) 2008 – Dith Pran, Cambodian-American photographer and journalist (b. 1942) 2010 – Jaime Escalante, Bolivian-American educator (b. 1930) 2010 – Morris R. Jeppson, American lieutenant and physicist (b. 1922) 2010 – Martin Sandberger, German SS officer (b. 1911) 2012 – Janet Anderson Perkin, Canadian baseball player and curler (b. 1921) 2012 – Aquila Berlas Kiani, Indian-Canadian sociologist and academic (b. 1921) 2012 – Francesco Mancini, Italian footballer and coach (b. 1968) 2012 – Granville Semmes, American businessman, founded 1-800-Flowers (b. 1928) 2012 – Leonid Shebarshin, Russian KGB officer (b. 1935) 2013 – Daniel Hoffman, American poet and academic (b. 1923) 2013 – Bobby Parks, American basketball player and coach (b. 1962) 2013 – Phil Ramone, South African-American songwriter and producer, co-founded A & R Recording (b. 1934) 2013 – Edith Schaeffer, Chinese-Swiss religious leader and author, co-founded L'Abri (b. 1914) 2013 – Bob Turley, American baseball player and coach (b. 1930) 2014 – Ray Hutchison, American lawyer and politician (b. 1932) 2014 – Kate O'Mara, English actress (b. 1939) 2015 – Helmut Dietl, German director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1944) 2015 – Roger Slifer, American author, illustrator, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1954) 2015 – Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld, Dutch astronomer and academic (b. 1921) 2018 – Bill Maynard, English actor (b. 1928) 2020 – Bill Withers, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938) 2021 – G. Gordon Liddy, chief operative in the Watergate scandal (b. 1930) 2021 - Myra Frances, British actress (b. 1942) Holidays | Sewell, English author (d. 1878) 1820 – James Whyte, Scottish-Australian politician, 6th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1882) 1844 – Paul Verlaine, French poet (d. 1896) 1853 – Vincent van Gogh, Dutch-French painter and illustrator (d. 1890) 1853 – Arnoldo Sartorio, German composer, pianist, and teacher (d. 1936) 1857 – Léon Charles Thévenin, French engineer (d. 1926) 1858 – Siegfried Alkan, German composer (d. 1941) 1863 – Mary Calkins, American philosopher and psychologist (d. 1930) 1864 – Franz Oppenheimer, German-American sociologist and economist (d. 1943) 1874 – Charles Lightoller, English 2nd officer on the RMS Titanic (d. 1952) 1874 – Josiah McCracken, American hammer thrower, shot putter, and football player (d. 1962) 1874 – Nicolae Rădescu, Romanian general and politician, Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953) 1875 – Thomas Xenakis, Greek-American gymnast (d. 1942) 1879 – Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (d. 1954) 1880 – Seán O'Casey, Irish dramatist, playwright, and memoirist (d. 1964) 1882 – Melanie Klein, Austrian-English psychologist and author (d. 1960) 1888 – J. R. Williams, Canadian-born cartoonist (d. 1957) 1891 – Chunseong, Korean monk, writer and philosopher (d. 1977) 1892 – Stefan Banach, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1945) 1892 – Fortunato Depero, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1960) 1892 – Erhard Milch, German field marshal (d. 1972) 1892 – Johannes Pääsuke, Estonian photographer and director (d. 1918) 1892 – Erwin Panofsky, German historian and academic (d. 1968) 1894 – Tommy Green, English race walker (d. 1975) 1894 – Sergey Ilyushin, Russian engineer, founded Ilyushin Aircraft Company (d. 1977) 1895 – Jean Giono, French author and poet (d. 1970) 1895 – Carl Lutz, Swiss vice-consul to Hungary during WWII, credited with saving over 62,000 Jews (d. 1975) 1895 – Charlie Wilson, English footballer (d. 1971) 1899 – Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay, Indian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1970) 1901–present 1902 – Brooke Astor, American socialite and philanthropist (d. 2007) 1902 – Ted Heath, English trombonist and composer (d. 1969) 1903 – Joy Ridderhof, American missionary (d. 1984) 1904 – Ripper Collins, American baseball player and coach (d. 1970) 1905 – Archie Birkin, English motorcycle racer (d. 1927) 1905 – Mikio Oda, Japanese triple jumper and academic (d. 1998) 1905 – Albert Pierrepoint, English hangman (d. 1992) 1907 – Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, German general (d. 1994) 1910 – Józef Marcinkiewicz, Polish soldier, mathematician, and academic (d. 1940) 1911 – Ekrem Akurgal, Turkish archaeologist and academic (d. 2002) 1912 – Jack Cowie, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1994) 1912 – Alvin Hamilton, Canadian lieutenant and politician, 18th Canadian Minister of Agriculture (d. 2004) 1913 – Marc Davis, American animator (d. 2000) 1913 – Richard Helms, American soldier and diplomat, 8th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2002) 1913 – Frankie Laine, American singer-songwriter (d. 2007) 1913 – Ċensu Tabone, Maltese general, physician, and politician, 4th President of Malta (d. 2012) 1914 – Sonny Boy Williamson I, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1948) 1915 – Pietro Ingrao, Italian journalist and politician (d. 2015) 1917 – Els Aarne, Ukrainian-Estonian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1995) 1919 – McGeorge Bundy, American intelligence officer and diplomat, 6th United States National Security Advisor (d. 1996) 1919 – Robin Williams, New Zealand mathematician, university administrator and public servant (d. 2013) 1921 – André Fontaine, French historian and journalist (d. 2013) 1922 – Turhan Bey, American actor (d. 2012) 1922 – Arthur Wightman, American physicist and academic (d. 2013) 1923 – Milton Acorn, Canadian poet and playwright (d. 1986) 1926 – Ingvar Kamprad, Swedish businessman, founded IKEA (d. 2018) 1927 – Wally Grout, Australian cricketer (d. 1968) 1928 – Robert Badinter, French lawyer and politician, French Minister of Justice 1928 – Colin Egar, Australian cricket umpire (d. 2008) 1928 – Tom Sharpe, English-Spanish author and educator (d. 2013) 1929 – Richard Dysart, American actor (d. 2015) 1929 – Ray Musto, American soldier and politician (d. 2014) 1929 – István Rózsavölgyi, Hungarian runner (d. 2012) 1930 – John Astin, American actor 1930 – Rolf Harris, Australian singer-songwriter 1933 – Jean-Claude Brialy, French actor and director (d. 2007) 1933 – Joe Ruby, American animator (d. 2020) 1934 – Paul Crouch, American broadcaster, co-founded the Trinity Broadcasting Network (d. 2013) 1934 – Hans Hollein, Austrian architect and academic, designed Haas House (d. 2014) 1935 – Karl Berger, German pianist and composer 1935 – Willie Galimore, American football player (d. 1964) 1935 – Gordon Mumma, American composer 1937 – Warren Beatty, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Ian MacLaurin, Baron MacLaurin of Knebworth, English businessman 1938 – John Barnhill, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013) 1938 – Klaus Schwab, German economist and engineer, founded the World Economic Forum 1940 – Norman Gifford, English cricketer 1940 – Jerry Lucas, American basketball player and educator 1940 – Hans Ragnemalm, Swedish lawyer and judge (d. 2016) 1941 – Graeme Edge, English singer-songwriter and drummer 1941 – Ron Johnston, English geographer and academic (d. 2020) 1941 – Wasim Sajjad, Pakistani lawyer and politician, President of Pakistan 1941 – Bob Smith, American soldier and politician 1942 – Ruben Kun, Nauruan lawyer and politician, 14th President of Nauru (d. 2014) 1942 – Tane Norton, New Zealand rugby player 1942 – Kenneth Welsh, Canadian actor 1943 – Jay Traynor, American pop and doo-wop singer (d. 2014) 1944 – Mark Wylea Erwin, American businessman and diplomat 1944 – Brian Wilshire, Australian radio host 1945 – Eric Clapton, English guitarist and singer-songwriter 1947 – Dick Roche, Irish politician, Minister of State for European Affairs 1947 – Terje Venaas, Norwegian bassist 1948 – Nigel Jones, Baron Jones of Cheltenham, English computer programmer and politician 1948 – Eddie Jordan, Irish racing driver and team owner, founded Jordan Grand Prix 1948 – Mervyn King, English economist and academic 1948 – Jim "Dandy" Mangrum, American rock singer 1949 – Liza Frulla, Canadian talk show host and politician, 3rd Minister of Canadian Heritage 1949 – Dana Gillespie, English singer-songwriter and actress 1949 – Naomi Sims, American model and author (d. 2009) 1950 – Janet Browne, English-American historian and academic 1950 – Robbie Coltrane, Scottish actor 1950 – Grady Little, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1952 – Stuart |
appreciated Dixit's performance. Tripat Narayanan of New Straits Times wrote "The Madhuri magic looms large throughout the film. As she emotes through dance, you simply cannot take your eyes off her." In a retrospect review, Rediff wrote, "Madhuri's Nisha was stunning, enthused, plucky and irresistible." Film critic K Hariharan noted, "She is seducing every person on screen, but does it in ways that are so graceful, there is a good balance between profanity and the sacred." The film won two National Award's, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and in the Millennium Edition of the "Guinness Book of World Records", Hum Aapke Hain Kaun became Bollywood's highest-grossing film. Dixit achieved further success when she reunited with Indra Kumar for the romantic drama Raja opposite Sanjay Kapoor. She portrayed Madhu, a rich girl who falls for her childhood friend (played by Kapoor), however, she finds it tough to convince her two brothers of this relationship. It emerged as the third highest-grossing film of the year and its success was attributed to Dixit's immense popularity. She won a second Screen Award for Best Actress for her performance. Her next release was David Dhawan's Yaraana opposite Rishi Kapoor, in which she played Lalita, a dancer on the run from her abusive lover. The film underperformed at the box office. Both the films earned her nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. The following year, both her films Prem Granth and Rajkumar flopped at the box office. In 1997, Dixit received critical acclaim for her portrayal of Ketki Singh, a village woman who struggles to confront and defeat the forces of oppression and male domination in Prakash Jha's Mrityudand alongside Shabana Azmi and Shilpa Shirodkar. In a review for India Today, Anupama Chopra wrote, " Dixit gives her career's best performance. Simply dressed, she looks stunning and acts even better. She is by turns romantic, vulnerable, angry - the perfect foil to Azmi's long-suffering 'badi bahu'." Screen magazine deemed her portrayal "fiery" and appreciated the lack of glamour in the part. For her performance, Dixit won a third Screen Award for Best Actress. She next starred in the dramas Koyla, Mahaanta and Mohabbat. With the exception of Koyla, none of these films performed well either critically or commercially. Dixit's fifth and final release of 1997 was Yash Chopra's musical romantic drama Dil To Pagal Hai. Co-starring Shah Rukh Khan, Karisma Kapoor and Akshay Kumar, the film depicts the love stories of the dancers in a musical dance troupe. Her role of Pooja, a woman faced with a moral dilemma in a love triangle fetched her a fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actress and the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female. Dil To Pagal Hai emerged as a 'blockbuster' and was the highest-grossing film of the year in India. At the 45th National Film Awards, the film won three awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. She next starred in the N.Chandra- directed drama Wajood (1998) opposite Nana Patekar and Mukul Dev. She played Apoorva, a very rich girl who is misunderstood by Malhar, played by Patekar. Suparn Verma of Rediff commented: "..She nevertheless shows that even a weak role cannot stifle her as she animates the screen like only she can. Truly, the coming together of Nana, Madhuri and Chandra in one film is a tour de force." The same year, she appeared in a cameo role in the comedy Bade Miyan Chote Miyan, once again playing herself onscreen after Dharavi. Her next and only release of 1999 was the romance Aarzoo (1999) opposite Akshay Kumar and Saif Ali Khan. Upon release, the film emerged commercially unsuccessful. 2000s: Further acclaim and sabbaticals In 2000, Dixit starred in Rajkumar Santoshi's Pukar opposite Anil Kapoor. A love story based on the backdrop of the Indian Army, the film was shot over a course of 350 days. Dixit's portrayal of Anjali, a heartbroken and jealous woman who swears revenge on Jai (played by Kapoor) for rejecting her, garnered her several Best Actress nominations at various award ceremonies, including Filmfare and Screen. A review in Filmfare said that both "Anil Kapoor and Madhuri, veterans in their field, outdo themselves in the film". It won two National Film Awards, including the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. She then played the title character in Gaja Gamini, the first feature film directed by painter M. F. Husain. Hussain got fixated with Dixit, and watched her movie Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! several times, and was certain that he would make a film only with her. The film followed the story of Gaja Gamini, who appears in various incarnations as Mona Lisa, Shakuntala and others. Pukar was an average grosser, while the latter underperformed at the box office. In 2001, Dixit starred in Deepak Shivdasani's love triangle Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke opposite Ajay Devgan and Preity Zinta. Upon release, the film met with largely negative reviews. Critic Gautam Buragohain, however, described her as "the saving grace of the film", adding that "she gives a delightful performance". Commercially too, the film failed to do well. Subsequently, Dixit reunited with Rajkumar Santoshi for the social drama Lajja (2001). Dealing with the issue of gender inequality, Dixit played Janki, a theatre actress who gets pre-maritally pregnant. Anita Bora of Rediff.com wrote: "Madhuri slips into her role as Janaki..with consummate ease..and..dazzles us with a class act." The film was a box-office failure in India but was an overseas success. Dixit's performance fetched her a Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination and won her the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female. Dixit's first release of 2002 was the love triangle Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam opposite Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan, where she played Radha whose married life blemishes when she gets obsessed with the career of her friend. A remake of director K. S. Adhiyaman's own Tamil film Thotta Chinungi (1995), the film took six years in making, with huge sabbaticals in between shoots due to several production problems. The film emerged moderately successful at the Indian box office. Few critics noted that the delay made the film look outdated. Dixit's next release was Sanjay Leela Bhansali's period romance Devdas, co-starring Shah Rukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai. It was based on Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel of the same name. She portrayed Chandramukhi, a courtesan who is in love with the title character. Sita Menon of Rediff.com wrote: "The most understated role and perhaps the one that is most lingering, in terms of virtuosity, is that played by Madhuri Dixit. As Chandramukhi, she is simply stunning, lending passion, fire and gentleness with such consummate ease that watching her perform is sheer delight." The film was screened at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and was featured by Time in their listing of the "10 best films of the millennium". The film emerged as a major commercial success with revenues of over . Devdas was chosen as India's official entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. At the 50th National Film Awards, the film won five awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. Dixit eventually won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in the film. Post Devdas, Dixit took a break from actively working in films to focus on her married life in Denver, Colorado. In 2007, Dixit made her first comeback as an actress after five years with a leading role in cinematographer Anil Mehta's dance film Aaja Nachle. She played Dia, a choreographer who returns to her town to save the endangered theatre where she learnt to dance. A box office failure, the film generated positive reviews for Dixit's portrayal. Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN criticised the plot, while he wrote about Dixit's performance: "It's hard to take your eyes off the screen when she's up there, dazzling you with her spontaneity, her easy charm and her 100-watt smile." Her performance earned her another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. 2010s: Comebacks and sporadic work Dixit relocated to India with her family in 2011 and was felicitated by Filmfare with a special jury recognition for completing 25 years in the Indian film industry. In 2013, Dixit made a special appearance in the romantic comedy-drama Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani as 'Mohini', a callback to her character from the 1988 film Tezaab. Dixti appeared in the item song "Ghagra" alongside Ranbir Kapoor. In 2014, Dixit first starred in the black comedy Dedh Ishqiya, a sequel to the 2010 film Ishqiya She played a con-woman "Begum Para" opposite Naseeruddin Shah, Arshad Warsi and Huma Qureshi and expressed that she agreed to do the film because of the "unapologetic way" director Abhishek Chaubey presented Vidya Balan's character in Ishqiya. The film opened to positive response from critics who called it "one of the year's most important releases". Anupama Chopra called Dixit "compelling", while Deepanjana Pal of Firstpost wrote "She's still capable of keeping an audience glued to their seats when the credits start rolling, all because she's dancing on screen.". The film earned Dixit her fourteenth nomination for Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Dedh Ishqiya earned little at the box-office. Her next release of the year was debutant director Soumik Sen's Gulaab Gang, alongside Juhi Chawla. Dixit portrayed Rajjo, the leader of a women's activist group, inspired by the real vigilante activist Sampat Pal Devi and her group Gulabi Gang. Pal filed a case against the film claiming that the makers did not take permission to make a film on her life, but the court later lifted the stay from the film. To prepare for her role, Dixit practised Shaolin Kung fu, stick training, and close combat. Gulaab Gang failed at the box office, earning mixed reviews. Subhash K. Jha labelled Dixit's performance and demeanour "inconsistent". However, Sampat Pal claimed that in Dixit's character she finds a "reflection of her own life so stark" that it makes her feel "it was she on screen". The film was a box-office failure. Four years later, Dixit made her debut in Marathi Cinema with the comedy-drama Bucket List. She played Madhura Sane, a middle aged housewife who takes the initiative to complete the bucket list of her deceased teenage heart donor. Dixit garnered critical acclaim for her portrayal; Mihir Bhanage of The Times of India wrote "Madhuri owns the film and sails through it with flying colours." Kunal Guha of Mumbai Mirror said, "Madhuri Dixit long-overdue debut in Marathi cinema is a comfort watch even if a tad predictable and sappy." Dixit reunited with Anil Kapoor and Ajay Devgn in Indra Kumar's adventure comedy Total Dhamaal (2019). She portrayed Bindu Patel, who along with a group of people learns about a hidden treasure and then races to claim it. The film received mixed to negative reviews, however, Dixit's performance received a mixed-to-positive reception. Lakshana N Palat of India Today wrote: "The little respite in this adventure-comedy is the pairing of Anil Kapoor and Madhuri Dixit, who prove that they still have the same impeccable chemistry and partnership almost two decades later." Total Dhamaal emerged as a major commercial success at the box office, grossing more than worldwide, and ranks as the ninth highest-grossing Hindi film of the year. Dixit produced the Marathi Netflix-drama 15 August under her production company RnM Moving Pictures. In an interview with Scroll.in, Dixit said, "The film is about the freedom to love, the freedom to choose your career and the freedom to die". She next starred in Abhishek Varman's period drama Kalank, featuring an ensemble cast including Sonakshi Sinha, Alia Bhatt, Varun Dhawan, Aditya Roy Kapur and Sanjay Dutt. Set in the 1940s prior to the partition of India, the film featured her as Bahaar Begum, the madam of a brothel. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote, "In the blinding glow of Dixit's presence as a nautch girl who can turn on the magic at will, the younger cast members pale somewhat in comparison. She lights up the screen as only she can, pushing the others to strive harder." It did not perform well at the box office; however, she gained a third nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress. Dixit will next produce Panchak, a Marathi film under her company RnM Moving Pictures and will next star in Netflix's series The Fame Game. Other ventures Television In 1985, Dixit made her television debut in the Rajshri Production's series Paying Guest, in which she played Neena. In 2002, Dixit hosted Sony Entertainment's matrimonial show Kahi Na Kahi Koi Hai. Dixit featured as a talent judge for four seasons of the dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa alongside Remo D'Souza and Malaika Arora Khan for the fourth season and alongside Remo D'Souza and Karan Johar for the fifth, sixth and seventh seasons. In 2011, she featured as an anchor to launch a new entertainment channel, Life OK. The same year, she hosted a competitive cooking game show, Food Food Maha Challenge along with Sanjeev Kapoor. In 2016, Dixit featured as one of the jury of So You Think You Can Dance (India), an officially licensed version of the So You Think You Can Dance franchise, based on the original American production created by Dick Clark Productions. Dixit co-judged three seasons of Colors TV's Dance Deewane, which gives an opportunity to contestants from three different generations. Dancing and stage performances Dixit has participated in several stage shows, concert tours and televised award ceremonies. Since the mid 1990s to early 2000s, she performed at the "Madhuri Dixit Live" concert in India, the Middle East and United States. In 2000, she performed at the Pepsi W2K Millennium Concert in Mumbai. Between July to August 2008, Dixit and actors Abhishek Bachchan, Preity Zinta, Ritesh Deshmukh and Aishwarya Rai starred in Amitabh Bachchan's "Unforgettable World Tour" stage production in a 40-day show staged in 11 cities across North America, Europe and the Caribbean. The same year, she joined the fourth instalment of "Temptation Reloaded" where she performed with Khan, Rani Mukerji, Fernandez and Meiyang Chang in Auckland, Perth, Sydney and Dubai; and in 2014 she performed in Malaysia with Khan, Mukerji and Arijit Singh. Dixit also performed in SLAM! The Tour which was held in the US, Canada, and London. In 2015, Dixit participated in the show Fusion in Houston, along with Akshay Kumar, Sonakshi Sinha and Prabhu Deva. In 2018, she performed at the inaugural ceremony of Men's Hockey World Cup. In 2013, Dixit launched her own online dance academy "Dance With Madhuri", where the users get an opportunity to learn to dance various dance styles and have one-on-one lessons. Social and humanitarian work During her years in the film industry, Dixit has been actively involved in promoting children's education and the safety of women. She featured in a series of one-minute telespots on preventing AIDS for the Maharashtra State AIDS Control Society in 2000. In 2001, Dixit won on Kaun Banega Crorepati, a game show then in its first season on the air. She donated her winnings for the welfare of the victims of 2001 Gujarat earthquake and to an orphanage in Pune. In 2009, Dixit performed for NDTV Toyota Greenathon—India's first-ever nationwide campaign for saving the environment and creating awareness about environmental issues. NDTV organised India's first 24-hour live telethon, a fund-raising event that brings in people to donate money to support TERI's initiative—Lighting a Billion Lives which aims at providing solar power to villages without electricity. On 3 February 2011, Dixit spent an evening with 75 orphanage kids of farmers at an ashram in Trimbakeshwar and participated in the birthdays of two children: Hrishikesh and Rani. "We artists are ready to help such children. People from the higher society should come forward and stand firmly behind them," she said on the occasion. Dixit is a Goodwill Ambassador and a patron for "Emeralds for Elephants" – a charity project for the conservation of Asian elephants and other endangered species. The project has been designed to create awareness and raise vital funds for the protection of the critically endangered Asian elephant. A collaborative project between the World Land Trust (a UK based nonprofit environmental organisation) and the Wildlife Trust of India that is creating protected wildlife corridors connecting National Parks and protected areas to others. Speaking about the issue she said: "Elephants are one of my favourite animals and I love them. So what we need to do today is to see how we can preserve our animals. I feel very strongly about this." Two years later, she made donations to the Uttarakhand flood relief. Since 2014, Dixit began working with UNICEF to advocate the rights of children and prevent child labour and child trafficking. She participated in a fashion show organised by Lilavati hospital, to support the 'Save & Empower the Girl Child' initiative by the organisation. The same year, the Government of Madhya Pradesh appointed her as the brand ambassador for its Mamta Abhiyaan (maternal and child health) campaign. Dixit collaborated with Vogue for its Vogue Empower series on a short film on gender policing, 'Boys don't cry', directed by Vinil Mathew. She was appointed as the brand ambassador for the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao campaign, by the Government of India in 2015, that aims to generate awareness and improve the efficiency of welfare services intended for girls. She lent her voice for narrating the story of one of the eight girls who featured in Girl Rising: Woh Padhegi, Woh Udegi, a film on the education and empowerment of girls. Dixit was appointed the brand ambassador and launched MAA (Mothers Absolute Affection), a flagship programme to ensure adequate awareness is generated on the benefits of breastfeeding. Additionally, Dixit has made public appearances to support charities and causes. On 4 February 2012, Madhuri Dixit interacted with Cancer affected children on World Cancer Day which was organised by Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd at Juhu, Mumbai. In 2013, she launched Sanofi India's campaign on World Diabetes Day (WDD), that encourages people to take proactive steps to effectively prevent, manage and control diabetes. A year later, on 24 February 2014, she visited a school in Andheri, Mumbai to support the "Support My School" campaign. She participated in 'Set Beautiful Free'– an event by One Foundation to provide home, education, food and healthcare to the daughters of trafficking victims. In 2018, she | the official Indian submission for the 1990 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film but was not nominated. Rediff.com opined that Dixit added "touching vulnerability and soft focus appeal to the heavy duty proceedings". Also that year, after Prem Pratigya she starred in Ilaaka, Mujrim (both opposite Mithun Chakrobarty) and all three were hits. Other films such as Paap Ka Ant (opposite Govinda) and Kanoon Apna Apna (opposite Sanjay Dutt) was an average grosser. 1990s: Rise to prominence and widespread success In 1990, Dixit appeared in nine films. Five of them—Maha-Sangram, Deewana Mujh Sa Nahin, Jeevan Ek Sanghursh, Sailaab and Jamai Raja—were commercially unsuccessful. Her next release that year was Rakesh Roshan's action comedy Kishen Kanhaiya (alongside Anil Kapoor and Shilpa Shirodkar). It tells the story of twin brothers who are separated at birth and re-unite in their youth. Dixit and Shirodkar played the love interests of Kapoor's characters. It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year in India. Dixit next played a strong-willed woman in the box-office average action drama Izzatdaar. She won her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress for portraying Madhu, a rich and arrogant girl who falls in love with a poorer boy, in Indra Kumar's romantic drama Dil opposite Aamir Khan. It emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year. Rediff.com hailed her performance, commenting "..she showed her range as a performer. She breathed fire as the rebellious lover defying her family, or the forlorn estranged wife longing to be with her ailing better half." Dixit's final release of the year was the action drama Thanedaar, opposite Dutt, which was another commercial hit. In 1991, Dixit had five film releases, the first of which was the romance Pyar Ka Devta. She next starred alongside Jackie Shroff in the psychological thriller 100 Days. She played Devi, a clairvoyant woman who has a vision of a murder and sets out to uncover the truth. The film was a moderately successful. She next starred in Saajan opposite Dutt and Salman Khan. A major critical and commercial success, the film earned Dixit praise for her portrayal of Pooja Saxena, who is in love with her idol - Sagar. She received her fourth Best Actress nomination at Filmfare for her work in the film. Tatineni Rama Rao's Pratikar and Nana Patekar's Prahaar were her other releases. In 1992, Dixit starred in Sudhir Mishra's Dharavi starring Om Puri, Shabana Azmi and Anil Kapoor. Dixit appears in the film as part of the lead character's (played by Puri) escapist dreams, portraying the fictional version of herself. The film was a joint NFDC-Doordarshan production and went on to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi. Dixit's next release of the year was Kumar's drama Beta, co-starring Anil Kapoor and Aruna Irani. Dixit's portrayal of Saraswati, an educated woman who rebels against her manipulative mother-in-law, earned her critical acclaim. Sukanya Verma mentioned that Dixit delivered "a powerhouse performance against an equally lethal looking Irani, even as Kapoor was overshadowed between the ladies." The film finished up as the biggest hit of the year and won her a second Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Following the film's success, Dixit became famously known as the "Dhak Dhak Girl". Zindagi Ek Jua, Prem Deewane, Khel and Sangeet were her other releases of the year. In 1993, Dixit appeared in Ramesh Talwar's Sahibaan which was commercially successful. Dixit next reunited with Sanjay Dutt and Jackie Shroff in Subhash Ghai's crime drama Khalnayak. Her portrayal of Ganga, a police officer, who volunteers to go undercover, to trap an escaped criminal, garnered her critical acclaim. India Today wrote, "..she grinds and thrusts in her trademark dhak dhak style. The whistles grow deafening when she stares into the camera, looks at every man in the dark, and promises him her heart-and much more. In one Bangalore theatre, the police were kept on stand-by in case the crowds went berserk." Dixit's performance in Khalnayak earned her a sixth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress and became the second highest-grossing film of the year in India. Singeetam Srinivasa Rao's Phool and Lawrence D'Souza's Dil Tera Aashiq were her other releases of the year. In 1994, Dixit starred in Rahul Rawail's psychological thriller Anjaam, which marked her first of many collaborations with Shah Rukh Khan. Dixit's portrayal of Shivani Chopra, a revenge-seeking wife and mother earned her a seventh nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. The film performed moderately well at the box office. Her next release was Rajshri Productions' family drama Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! opposite Salman Khan. The film emerged as one of the biggest hits in the history of Hindi cinema and made 1.35 billion worldwide, breaking the record of the film Sholay (1975). It became the highest grossing Bollywood film in Hindi cinema history after its theatrical run and held the record for 7 years till the release of Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001). Dixit's portrayal of Nisha, who falls in love with Prem (Khan's character) but their plans to be together are put in jeopardy when Nisha's sister dies, fetched her a third Filmfare Award for Best Actress and her first Screen Award for Best Actress. Critics believed the film to be "too sweet" but appreciated Dixit's performance. Tripat Narayanan of New Straits Times wrote "The Madhuri magic looms large throughout the film. As she emotes through dance, you simply cannot take your eyes off her." In a retrospect review, Rediff wrote, "Madhuri's Nisha was stunning, enthused, plucky and irresistible." Film critic K Hariharan noted, "She is seducing every person on screen, but does it in ways that are so graceful, there is a good balance between profanity and the sacred." The film won two National Award's, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and in the Millennium Edition of the "Guinness Book of World Records", Hum Aapke Hain Kaun became Bollywood's highest-grossing film. Dixit achieved further success when she reunited with Indra Kumar for the romantic drama Raja opposite Sanjay Kapoor. She portrayed Madhu, a rich girl who falls for her childhood friend (played by Kapoor), however, she finds it tough to convince her two brothers of this relationship. It emerged as the third highest-grossing film of the year and its success was attributed to Dixit's immense popularity. She won a second Screen Award for Best Actress for her performance. Her next release was David Dhawan's Yaraana opposite Rishi Kapoor, in which she played Lalita, a dancer on the run from her abusive lover. The film underperformed at the box office. Both the films earned her nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. The following year, both her films Prem Granth and Rajkumar flopped at the box office. In 1997, Dixit received critical acclaim for her portrayal of Ketki Singh, a village woman who struggles to confront and defeat the forces of oppression and male domination in Prakash Jha's Mrityudand alongside Shabana Azmi and Shilpa Shirodkar. In a review for India Today, Anupama Chopra wrote, " Dixit gives her career's best performance. Simply dressed, she looks stunning and acts even better. She is by turns romantic, vulnerable, angry - the perfect foil to Azmi's long-suffering 'badi bahu'." Screen magazine deemed her portrayal "fiery" and appreciated the lack of glamour in the part. For her performance, Dixit won a third Screen Award for Best Actress. She next starred in the dramas Koyla, Mahaanta and Mohabbat. With the exception of Koyla, none of these films performed well either critically or commercially. Dixit's fifth and final release of 1997 was Yash Chopra's musical romantic drama Dil To Pagal Hai. Co-starring Shah Rukh Khan, Karisma Kapoor and Akshay Kumar, the film depicts the love stories of the dancers in a musical dance troupe. Her role of Pooja, a woman faced with a moral dilemma in a love triangle fetched her a fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actress and the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female. Dil To Pagal Hai emerged as a 'blockbuster' and was the highest-grossing film of the year in India. At the 45th National Film Awards, the film won three awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. She next starred in the N.Chandra- directed drama Wajood (1998) opposite Nana Patekar and Mukul Dev. She played Apoorva, a very rich girl who is misunderstood by Malhar, played by Patekar. Suparn Verma of Rediff commented: "..She nevertheless shows that even a weak role cannot stifle her as she animates the screen like only she can. Truly, the coming together of Nana, Madhuri and Chandra in one film is a tour de force." The same year, she appeared in a cameo role in the comedy Bade Miyan Chote Miyan, once again playing herself onscreen after Dharavi. Her next and only release of 1999 was the romance Aarzoo (1999) opposite Akshay Kumar and Saif Ali Khan. Upon release, the film emerged commercially unsuccessful. 2000s: Further acclaim and sabbaticals In 2000, Dixit starred in Rajkumar Santoshi's Pukar opposite Anil Kapoor. A love story based on the backdrop of the Indian Army, the film was shot over a course of 350 days. Dixit's portrayal of Anjali, a heartbroken and jealous woman who swears revenge on Jai (played by Kapoor) for rejecting her, garnered her several Best Actress nominations at various award ceremonies, including Filmfare and Screen. A review in Filmfare said that both "Anil Kapoor and Madhuri, veterans in their field, outdo themselves in the film". It won two National Film Awards, including the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. She then played the title character in Gaja Gamini, the first feature film directed by painter M. F. Husain. Hussain got fixated with Dixit, and watched her movie Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! several times, and was certain that he would make a film only with her. The film followed the story of Gaja Gamini, who appears in various incarnations as Mona Lisa, Shakuntala and others. Pukar was an average grosser, while the latter underperformed at the box office. In 2001, Dixit starred in Deepak Shivdasani's love triangle Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke opposite Ajay Devgan and Preity Zinta. Upon release, the film met with largely negative reviews. Critic Gautam Buragohain, however, described her as "the saving grace of the film", adding that "she gives a delightful performance". Commercially too, the film failed to do well. Subsequently, Dixit reunited with Rajkumar Santoshi for the social drama Lajja (2001). Dealing with the issue of gender inequality, Dixit played Janki, a theatre actress who gets pre-maritally pregnant. Anita Bora of Rediff.com wrote: "Madhuri slips into her role as Janaki..with consummate ease..and..dazzles us with a class act." The film was a box-office failure in India but was an overseas success. Dixit's performance fetched her a Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination and won her the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female. Dixit's first release of 2002 was the love triangle Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam opposite Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan, where she played Radha whose married life blemishes when she gets obsessed with the career of her friend. A remake of director K. S. Adhiyaman's own Tamil film Thotta Chinungi (1995), the film took six years in making, with huge sabbaticals in between shoots due to several production problems. The film emerged moderately successful at the Indian box office. Few critics noted that the delay made the film look outdated. Dixit's next release was Sanjay Leela Bhansali's period romance Devdas, co-starring Shah Rukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai. It was based on Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel of the same name. She portrayed Chandramukhi, a courtesan who is in love with the title character. Sita Menon of Rediff.com wrote: "The most understated role and perhaps the one that is most lingering, in terms of virtuosity, is that played by Madhuri Dixit. As Chandramukhi, she is simply stunning, lending passion, fire and gentleness with such consummate ease that watching her perform is sheer delight." The film was screened at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and was featured by Time in their listing of the "10 best films of the millennium". The film emerged as a major commercial success with revenues of over . Devdas was chosen as India's official entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. At the 50th National Film Awards, the film won five awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. Dixit eventually won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in the film. Post Devdas, Dixit took a break from actively working in films to focus on her married life in Denver, Colorado. In 2007, Dixit made her first comeback as an actress after five years with a leading role in cinematographer Anil Mehta's dance film Aaja Nachle. She played Dia, a choreographer who returns to her town to save the endangered theatre where she learnt to dance. A box office failure, the film generated positive reviews for Dixit's portrayal. Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN criticised the plot, while he wrote about Dixit's performance: "It's hard to take your eyes off the screen when she's up there, dazzling you |
to explode and, therefore, proposes colonization of Earth to turn it into their new homeworld. The cards depict futuristic battle scenes and bizarre methods of Martian attack, torture and slaughter of humans, as well as various Earth nations being attacked. The story concludes with an expeditionary force of humans volunteering to embark on a counterattack on Mars, in which the Earth force attacks the Martians in their manner (bayoneting and bullets). This necessitates the Martians that are still on Mars to defend their homeworld. The Earth attack forces, after destroying the Martian cities and killing the Martians, depart just before Mars is destroyed in the predicted cataclysm, thus ensuring the peace and safety of Earth as the Martian race is seemingly doomed to extinction. Scholar Nathan Brownstone noted that "The Mars Attacks cards achieved their popularity at the very time when the Cuban Missile Crisis captured the headlines, the moment when Cold War came closest to become radioactively hot. That was when a brutal zero-sum game scenario - for Humanity to survive the Martians must die - established a solid niche in Americana popular culture". The cards proved popular with children, but depictions of explicit gore and implied sexual content caused an outcry, leading the company to halt production. The cards have since become collectors' items, with certain cards commanding over $3,500 at auction. In the 1980s, Topps began developing merchandise based on the Mars Attacks storyline, including mini-comic books and card reprints. An expanded set of 100 cards called Mars Attacks Archives was issued in 1994 by Topps and spawned a second round of merchandising. Director Tim Burton released a feature film called Mars Attacks! in 1996 based on the series, spawning a third round of merchandising, including an intercompany crossover with the Image Universe, titled Mars Attacks Image and published by Image Comics. In 2012, Topps released a 50th anniversary expanded set of 75 cards called Mars Attacks Heritage, leading to a fourth round of merchandising that continued into 2017 with the release of an official sequel series, Mars Attacks: The Revenge! Trading cards The Mars Attacks trading card series was created by Topps in 1962. Product developer Len Brown, inspired by Wally Wood's cover for EC Comics' Weird Science #16, pitched the idea to Woody Gelman. Gelman and Brown created the story — with Brown writing the copy — and created rough sketches. They enlisted Wood to flesh out the sketches and Bob Powell to finish them. Norman Saunders painted most of the 55-card set (Maurice Blumenfeld painted 10 - 20% of them, but Saunders provided the finishing touches to all of the images). The cards, which sold for five cents per pack of five, were test marketed by Topps through the dummy corporation Bubbles, Inc. under the name Attack from Space. Sales were sufficient to expand the marketing and the name was changed to Mars Attacks. The cards sparked parental and community outrage over their graphic violence and implied sexuality. Topps responded initially by repainting 13 of the 55 cards to reduce the gore and sexuality. However, inquiries from a Connecticut district attorney caused Topps to halt production of the series altogether before the replacements could even be printed. Adaptations and merchandising In 1984, the first official item was released since the original set appeared: a direct copy of the original set of 55 cards, plus a 56th card that reprinted the wrapper graphics, was released by Renata Galasso Inc. through an agreement with Topps. In 1994, Topps re-released the cards as the expanded Mars Attacks Archives, with the original 55 cards and 45 "New Visions" cards. The new cards are further divided into a | auction. In the 1980s, Topps began developing merchandise based on the Mars Attacks storyline, including mini-comic books and card reprints. An expanded set of 100 cards called Mars Attacks Archives was issued in 1994 by Topps and spawned a second round of merchandising. Director Tim Burton released a feature film called Mars Attacks! in 1996 based on the series, spawning a third round of merchandising, including an intercompany crossover with the Image Universe, titled Mars Attacks Image and published by Image Comics. In 2012, Topps released a 50th anniversary expanded set of 75 cards called Mars Attacks Heritage, leading to a fourth round of merchandising that continued into 2017 with the release of an official sequel series, Mars Attacks: The Revenge! Trading cards The Mars Attacks trading card series was created by Topps in 1962. Product developer Len Brown, inspired by Wally Wood's cover for EC Comics' Weird Science #16, pitched the idea to Woody Gelman. Gelman and Brown created the story — with Brown writing the copy — and created rough sketches. They enlisted Wood to flesh out the sketches and Bob Powell to finish them. Norman Saunders painted most of the 55-card set (Maurice Blumenfeld painted 10 - 20% of them, but Saunders provided the finishing touches to all of the images). The cards, which sold for five cents per pack of five, were test marketed by Topps through the dummy corporation Bubbles, Inc. under the name Attack from Space. Sales were sufficient to expand the marketing and the name was changed to Mars Attacks. The cards sparked parental and community outrage over their graphic violence and implied sexuality. Topps responded initially by repainting 13 of the 55 cards to reduce the gore and sexuality. However, inquiries from a Connecticut district attorney caused Topps to halt production of the series altogether before the replacements could even be printed. Adaptations and merchandising In 1984, the first official item was released since the original set appeared: a direct copy of the original set of 55 cards, plus a 56th card that reprinted the wrapper graphics, was released by Renata Galasso Inc. through an agreement with Topps. In 1994, Topps re-released the cards as the expanded Mars Attacks Archives, with the original 55 cards and 45 "New Visions" cards. The new cards are further divided into a #0 card, three subsets ("The Unpublished 11" (with 11 cards)), "Mars Attacks: The Comics" (with 10 cards) and "Visions: New and Original" (a.k.a. "New Visions"; with 22 cards)) and one card called "Norm Saunders: A Self-Portrait". 21 artists collaborated on the new cards, including Zina Saunders, the daughter of the original artist Norman Saunders. Topps Comics, in conjunction with the trading cards, issued a five-issue comic book miniseries based on the original 55 cards written by Keith Giffen and drawn by Charles Adlard. Topps Comics continued the story in an ongoing series that lasted seven issues, a one-shot special and three more miniseries. Wizard magazine and Topps Comics also published a #1/2 issue and an Ace Edition issue (#65). In 1995, one year after the Archives series, Screamin' Productions and Topps released a tie-in set of eight Mars Attacks vinyl model kits with an accompanying series of eight new trading cards, each one inside one of the kits. Bonus items that could be acquired by sending in proof-of-purchase certificates from all eight of the kits were two new nearly identical bonus cards (one oversized card with the Mars Attacks logo on the top of it and one regular-sized card without it) and a limited edition ninth vinyl model kit. In 1996, Warner Bros. released Tim Burton's feature film adaptation Mars Attacks!. In conjunction, two hardcover novels were released: Mars Attacks: Martian Deathtrap by Nathan Archer; and Mars Attacks: War Dogs of the Golden Horde by Ray W. Murrill. Each contained two new trading cards inside the middle of each book (the paperback editions, however, did not have the trading cards inside them). A paperback movie tie-in novelization by the film's screenwriter was also published, in addition to two comic book intercompany crossovers with Image Comics continuing the Topps Comics run, titled Mars Attacks the Savage Dragon and Mars Attacks Image while respectively depicting the Martians battling the Image Comics superhero the Savage Dragon, and the Martians battling other characters from the wider Image Universe. Trendmasters also produced a series of toy figures based on the film. In 2012, to commemorate the franchise's 50th anniversary, Topps partnered with a variety of companies on comic books (via IDW Publishing), bobbleheads and vinyl figures (Funko POP!), action figures and plush toys (Mezco Toyz), costumes (Incogneato), statues and |
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel was also established as the technology and economics advisory body to the Montreal Protocol Parties. The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides, at the request of Parties, technical information related to the alternative technologies that have been investigated and employed to make it possible to virtually eliminate use of Ozone Depleting Substances (such as CFCs and Halons), that harm the ozone layer. The TEAP is also tasked by the Parties every year to assess and evaluate various technical issues including evaluating nominations for essential use exemptions for CFCs and halons, and nominations for critical use exemptions for methyl bromide. TEAP's annual reports are a basis for the Parties' informed decision-making. Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs for developing countries. For developed countries, reduction of HCFC consumption and production began in 2004 and 2010, respectively, with 100% reduction set for 2020. Developing countries agreed to start reducing its consumption and production of HCFCs by 2015, with 100% reduction set for 2030. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, commonly known as HCFCs, are a group of man-made compounds containing hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They are not found anywhere in nature. HCFC production began to take off after countries agreed to phase out the use of CFCs in the 1980s, which were found to be destroying the ozone layer. Like CFCs, HCFCs are used for refrigeration, aerosol propellants, foam manufacture and air conditioning. Unlike the CFCs, however, most HCFCs are broken down in the lowest part of the atmosphere and pose a much smaller risk to the ozone layer. Nevertheless, HCFCs are very potent greenhouse gases, despite their very low atmospheric concentrations, measured in parts per trillion (million million). The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of ozone depletion potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01 – 0.5). In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 – 2,270). Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) On 1 January 2019 the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol came into force. Under the Kigali Amendment countries promised to reduce the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by more than 80% over the next 30 years. By 27 December 2018, 65 countries had ratified the Amendment. Produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) replaced CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine. They are, however, greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs. In 2009, a study calculated that a fast phasedown of high-GWP HFCs could potentially prevent the equivalent of up to 8.8 Gt CO2-eq per year in emissions by 2050. A proposed phasedown of HFCs was hence projected to avoid up to 0.5C of warming by 2100 under the high-HFC growth scenario, and up to 0.35C under the low-HFC growth scenario. Recognizing the opportunity presented for fast and effective phasing down of HFCs through the Montreal Protocol, starting in 2009 the Federated States of Micronesia proposed an amendment to phase down high-GWP HFCs, with the U.S., Canada, and Mexico following with a similar proposal in 2010. After seven years of negotiations, in October 2016 at the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali Amendment whereby the Parties agreed to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol. The amendment to the legally-binding Montreal Protocol will ensure that industrialised countries bring down their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent compared to their annual average values in the period 2011–2013. A group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045. India and some other developing countries – Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait – will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024-26 by the year 2047. On 17 November 2017, ahead of the 29th Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol, Sweden became the 20th Party to ratify the Kigali Amendment, pushing the Amendment over its ratification threshold ensuring that the Amendment would enter into force 1 January 2019. History In 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem. The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton. But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.) After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade. Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jon Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal, Canada to take the issue seriously. Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole by SAGE 2 it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal, Canada. But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation." And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change..." Multilateral Fund The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries). It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons. The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the executive committee: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through its OzonAction Programme. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). World Bank. Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities. The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices. Parties As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue as well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below), with South Sudan being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments. Effect Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because of many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone. In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years, however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size. The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery." However, a more recent study seems to point to a relative increase in CFCs due to an unknown source. Reported in 1997, significant production of CFCs occurred in Russia for sale on the black market to the EU throughout the 90s. Related US production and consumption was enabled by fraudulent reporting due to poor enforcement mechanisms. Similar illegal markets for CFCs were detected in Taiwan, Korea, and Hong Kong. The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States. However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate. Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other. Regional detections of non-compliance In 2018, scientists monitoring the atmosphere following the 2010 phaseout date have reported evidence of continuing industrial production of CFC-11, likely in eastern Asia, with detrimental global effects on the ozone layer. A monitoring study detected fresh atmospheric releases of carbon tetrachloride from China's Shandong province, beginning sometime after 2012, and accounting for a large part of emissions exceeding global estimates under the Montreal Protocol. 25th anniversary celebrations The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, | (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem. The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton. But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.) After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade. Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jon Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal, Canada to take the issue seriously. Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole by SAGE 2 it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal, Canada. But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation." And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, "we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria. At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions. There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change..." Multilateral Fund The main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries). It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons. The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the executive committee: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through its OzonAction Programme. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). World Bank. Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities. The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices. Parties As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue as well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below), with South Sudan being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments. Effect Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because of many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone. In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years, however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size. The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery." However, a more recent study seems to point to a relative increase in CFCs due to an unknown source. Reported in 1997, significant production of CFCs occurred in Russia for sale on the black market to the EU throughout the 90s. Related US production and consumption was enabled by fraudulent reporting due to poor enforcement mechanisms. Similar illegal markets for CFCs were detected in Taiwan, Korea, and Hong Kong. The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health. A 2015 report by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States. However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate. Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other. Regional detections of non-compliance In 2018, scientists monitoring the atmosphere following the 2010 phaseout date have reported evidence of continuing industrial production of CFC-11, likely in eastern Asia, with detrimental global effects on the ozone layer. A monitoring study detected fresh atmospheric releases of carbon tetrachloride from China's Shandong province, beginning sometime after 2012, and accounting for a large part of emissions exceeding global estimates under the Montreal Protocol. 25th anniversary celebrations The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, the Montreal Protocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicize its considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future. Among its accomplishments are: The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge; the first to embrace the "precautionary principle" in its design for science-based policymaking; the first treaty where independent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reported directly to Parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect; the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing a multilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemical phase-out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and, the first treaty with a financial mechanism managed democratically by an executive board with equal representation by developed and developing countries. Within 25 years of signing, parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones. Significantly, the world has phased-out 98% of the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide; every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first global regime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013. UNEP received accolades for achieving global consensus that "demonstrates the world’s commitment to ozone protection, and more broadly, to global environmental protection". See also Action for Climate Empowerment Carbon footprint Copenhagen Accord Net capacity factor International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer Paris Agreement R-134a Vienna Conference (1985) Notes References (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection) Further reading Andersen, S. O. and K. M. Sarma. (2002). Protecting the Ozone Layer: the United Nations History, Earthscan Press. London. Andersen, S. O., K. M. Sarma and K. N. Taddonio. (2007). Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change. Earthscan Press, London. Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.) Brodeur, Paul (1986). "Annals of Chemistry: In the Face of Doubt." The New Yorker, 9 June 1986, pp. 70–87. Chasek, Pam, David Downie, and J.W. Brown (2013 – forthcoming). Global Environmental Politics, 6th Edition, Boulder: Westview Press. Dotto, Lydia and Harold Schiff (1978). The Ozone War. New York: Double Day. Downie, David (1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection." Political Science (NZ) 45(2): (December): 186–197. Downie, David (1995). "Road Map or False Trail: Evaluating the Precedence of the Ozone Regime as Model and Strategy for Global Climate Change," International Environmental Affairs, 7(4):321–345 (Fall 1995). Downie, David (1999). "The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Politics as a Common Pool Resource Problem", in J. Barkin and G. Shambaugh (eds.) Anarchy |
was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction. Magnetic Hill, on the city's northwest outskirts, is the city's most famous attraction. The Magnetic Hill area includes (in addition to the phenomenon itself), a golf course, major water park, zoo, and an outdoor concert facility. A $90 million casino/hotel/entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010. Culture Moncton's Capitol Theatre, an 800-seat restored 1920s-era vaudeville house on Main Street, is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city. The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada. The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals. The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2,000 seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups. The Moncton-based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion. Théâtre l'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street. The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville. There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area, including the Capitol Theatre's own performing arts school. The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries. Among other tenants, the centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom, the principal private art gallery in the city. The city's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton. The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre. The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city's transportation heritage. The city also has several recognized historical sites. The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England-style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum. The Thomas Williams House, a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883, is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations. The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology. It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick. In film production, the city has since 1974 been home to the National Film Board of Canada's French-language Studio Acadie. Moncton is home to the Frye Festival, an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world-renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye. This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April. The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza, held each July, is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada. Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August, The HubCap Comedy Festival, and the World Wine Festival, both held in the spring. Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral is the location of an interpretation centre, Monument for Recognition in the 21st century (MR21). Sports Facilities The Avenir Centre is an 8,800-seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and sporting events and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League and the Moncton Magic of the National Basketball League of Canada. The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property. It includes ten ballfields, six soccer fields, an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces (the Superior Propane Centre) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome, an indoor air supported multi-use building. The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year-round football, soccer and golf activities. A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities, as well as three indoor pools. The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a swimming pool with diving towers. The new Moncton Stadium, also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships. It has a permanent seating for 10,000, but is expandable to a capacity of over 20,000 for events such as professional Canadian football. The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe. It has since been closed after 17 years of existence due to safety concerns in May 2018. The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs. Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area, including a new $18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009. Sports teams The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). They won the President's Cup, the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010. Historically there has been a longstanding presence of a Moncton-based team in the Maritime Junior A Hockey League, but the Dieppe Commandos (formerly known as the Moncton Beavers) relocated to Edmundston at the end of the 2017 season. Historically, Moncton also was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994. The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981–1982. The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006. In 2015, the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League. They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL. In 2011, the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada. The franchise failed at the end of the 2016/17 season, to be immediately replaced by a new NBL franchise, the Moncton Magic, who played their inaugural season in 2017/18. The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey, soccer, and volleyball. These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program. Major events Moncton has hosted many large sporting events. The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts. Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports (CIS) Men's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008. The World Men's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009; the second time this event has taken place in the city. Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics. This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada, with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance. The new 10,000 seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus. The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos, which was held on September 26, 2010. This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20,750. Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013, and again on August 25, 2019. Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include: 1968 Canadian Junior Baseball Championships 1974 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1975 Macdonald Lassies Championship 1975 Intercontinental Cup (baseball) 1977 Skate Canada International 1978 CIS University Cup (hockey) 1980 World Men's Curling Championships 1982 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships 1982 CIS University Cup 1983 CIS University Cup 1984 Canadian Men's and Women's Broomball Championships 1985 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1985 Labatt Brier (curling) 1992 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1997 World Junior Baseball Championships 2000 Canadian Junior Curling Championships 2004 Canadian Senior Baseball Championships 2006 Memorial Cup (hockey) 2007 CIS University Cup 2008 CIS University Cup 2009 World Men's Curling Championship 2009 Fred Page Cup (hockey) 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics 2010 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto & Edmonton) 2011 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton & Calgary) 2012 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 2013 Canadian Track & Field Championships 2013 Football Canada Cup (national U18 football championship) 2013 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton & Montreal) 2014 Canadian Track & Field Championships 2014 FIFA U20 Women's World Cup 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup 2017 Canadian U18 Curling Championships 2019 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto & Montreal) Government The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four-year terms of office. The council is non-partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman, casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote. There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate. Day-to-day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager. Moncton is in the federal riding of Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe. Portions of Dieppe are in the federal riding of Beauséjour, and portions of Riverview are in the riding of Fundy Royal. In the current federal parliament, all three members from the metropolitan area belong to the Liberal party. Military Aside from locally formed militia units, the military did not have a significant presence in the Moncton area until the beginning of the Second World War. In 1940, a large military supply base (later known as CFB Moncton) was constructed on a railway spur line north of downtown next to the CNR shops. This base served as the main supply depot for the large wartime military establishment in the Maritimes. In addition, two Commonwealth Air Training Plan bases were also built in the Moncton area during the war: No. 8 Service Flying Training School, RCAF, and No. 31 Personnel Depot, RAF. The RCAF also operated No. 5 Supply Depot in Moncton. A naval listening station was also constructed in Coverdale (Riverview) in 1941 to help in coordinating radar activities in the North Atlantic. Military flight training in the Moncton area terminated at the end of World War II and the naval listening station closed in 1971. CFB Moncton remained open to supply the maritime military establishment until just after the end of the Cold War. With the closure of CFB Moncton in the early 1990s, the military presence in Moncton has been significantly reduced. The northern portion of the former base property has been turned over to the Canada Lands Corporation and is slowly being redeveloped. The southern part of the former base remains an active DND property and is now termed the Moncton Garrison. It is affiliated with CFB Gagetown. Resident components of the garrison include the 1 Engineer Support Unit(Regular force). The garrison also houses the 37 Canadian Brigade Group Headquarters (reserve force) and one of the 37 Brigades constituent units; the 8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise's), which is an armoured reconnaissance regiment. 3 Area support unit Det Moncton, and 42 Canadian Forces Health Services Centre Det Moncton provide logistical support for the base. In 2013, the last regular forces units left the Moncton base, but the reserve units remain active and Moncton remains the 37 Canadian Brigade Unit headquarters. Infrastructure Health facilities There are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in Moncton. The Moncton Hospital has approximately 381 inpatient beds and is affiliated with Dalhousie University Medical School. It is home to the Northumberland family medicine residency training program and is a site for third and fourth year clinical training for medical students in the Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick Training Program. The hospital hosts UNB degree programs in nursing and medical x-ray technology and professional internships in fields such as dietetics. Specialized medical services at the hospital include neurosurgery, peripheral and neuro-interventional radiology, vascular surgery, thoracic surgery, hepatobiliary surgery, orthopedics, trauma, burn unit, medical oncology, neonatal intensive care, and adolescent psychiatry. A$48 million expansion to the hospital was completed in 2009 and contains a new laboratory, ambulatory care centre, and provincial level one trauma centre. A new oncology clinic was built at the hospital and opened in late 2014. The Moncton Hospital is managed by Horizon Health Network (formerly the South East Regional Health Authority). The Dr. Georges-L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre has about 302 beds and hosts a medical training program through the local CFMNB and distant Université de Sherbrooke Medical School. There are also degree programs in nursing, medical x-ray technology, medical laboratory technology and inhalotherapy which are administered by Université de Moncton. Specialized medical services include medical oncology, radiation oncology, orthopedics, vascular surgery, and nephrology. A cardiac cath lab is being studied for the hospital and a new PET/CT scanner has been installed. A$75 million expansion for ambulatory care, expanded surgery suites, and medical training is currently under construction. The hospital is also the location of the Atlantic Cancer Research Institute. This hospital is managed by francophone Vitalité Health Network. The internal working languages of the hospitals are English for the Moncton Hospital (Horizon Health Network) and French for the Dumont Hospital (Vitalité). However both health networks and their hospitals are required to provide services to the public in both official languages, in accordance with the New Brunswick Official Languages Act. Transportation Air Moncton is served by the Greater Moncton Roméo LeBlanc International Airport (YQM). It was renamed for former Canadian Governor-General (and native son) Roméo LeBlanc in 2016. A new airport terminal with an international arrivals area was opened in 2002 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The GMIA handles about 677,000 passengers per year, making it the second busiest airport in the Maritimes in terms of passenger volume. The GMIA is the 10th busiest airport in Canada in terms of freight. Regular scheduled destinations include Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto. Scheduled service providers include Air Canada, Air Canada Rouge, Westjet and Porter Airlines. Seasonal direct air service is provided to destinations in Cuba, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Florida, with operators including Sunwing Airlines, Air Transat, and Westjet. FedEx, UPS, and Purolator all have their Atlantic Canadian air cargo bases at the facility. The GMIA is the home of the Moncton Flight College; the largest pilot training institution in Canada, and is also the base for the regional RCMP air service, the New Brunswick Air Ambulance Service and the regional Transport Canada hangar and depot. There is a second smaller aerodrome near Elmwood Drive. McEwen Airfield (CCG4) is a private airstrip used for general aviation. Skydive Moncton operates the province's only nationally certified sports parachute club out of this facility. The Moncton Area Control Centre is one of only seven regional air traffic control centres in Canada. This centre monitors over 430,000 flights a year, 80% of which are either entering or leaving North American airspace. Highways Moncton lies on Route 2 of the Trans-Canada Highway, which leads to Nova Scotia in the east and to Fredericton and Quebec in the west. Route 15 intersects Route 2 at the eastern outskirts of Moncton, heads northeast leading to Shediac and northern New Brunswick, Route 16 connects to route 15 at Shediac and leads to Port Elgin and Prince Edward Island. Route 1 intersects Route 2 approximately west of the city and leads to Saint John and the U.S. border. Wheeler Boulevard (Route 15) serves as an internal ring road, extending from the Petitcodiac River Causeway to Dieppe before exiting the city and heading for Shediac. Inside the city it is an expressway bounded at either end by traffic circles. Public transit Greater Moncton is served by Codiac Transpo, which is operated by the City of Moncton. It operates 40 buses on 19 routes throughout Moncton, Dieppe, and Riverview. Maritime Bus provides intercity service to the region. Moncton is the largest hub in the system. All other major centres in New Brunswick, as well as Charlottetown, Halifax, and Truro are served out of the Moncton terminal. Railways Freight rail transportation in Moncton is provided by Canadian National Railway. Although the presence of the CNR in Moncton has diminished greatly since the 1970s, the railway still maintains a large classification yard and intermodal facility in the west end of the city, and the regional headquarters for Atlantic Canada is still located here as well. Passenger rail transportation is provided by Via Rail Canada, with their train the Ocean serving the Moncton railway station three days per week to Halifax and to Montreal, Quebec. The downtown Via station has been refurbished and also serves as the terminal for the Maritime Bus intercity bus service. Education The South School Board administers 10 Francophone schools, including high schools École Mathieu-Martin and École L'Odyssée. The East School Board administers 25 Anglophone schools including Moncton, Harrison Trimble, Bernice MacNaughton, and Riverview high schools. Post secondary education in Moncton: The Université de Moncton is a publicly funded provincial comprehensive university and is the largest francophone Canadian university outside of Quebec. Crandall University is a private undergraduate liberal arts university. The University of New Brunswick has a satellite health sciences campus at Moncton Hospital offering degrees in nursing and medical X-ray technology. The Moncton campus of the New Brunswick Community College has 1600 full-time students and also hundreds of part-time students. The Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick offers training in trades and technologies. Medavie HealthEd, a subsidiary of Medavie Health Services, is a Canadian Medical Association-accredited school providing training in primary and advanced care paramedicine, as well as the Advanced Emergent Care (AEC) program of the Department of National Defence (Canada). Eastern College offers programs are offered in the areas of business and administration, art and design, health care, social sciences & justice, tourism & hospitality, and trades. Moncton Flight College is one of Canada's oldest and largest flight schools. McKenzie College specializes in graphic design, digital media, and animation. The private Oulton College provides training in business, paramedical, dental sciences, pharmacy, veterinary, youth care and paralegal programs. Media Moncton's daily newspaper is the Times & Transcript, which has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in New Brunswick. More than 60 percent of city households subscribe daily, and more than 90 percent of Moncton residents read the Times & Transcript at least once a week. The city's other publications include L'Acadie Nouvelle, a French newspaper published in Caraquet in northern New Brunswick. There are 17 broadcast radio stations in the city covering a variety of genres and interests, all on the FM dial or online streaming. Eleven of these stations are English and six are French. Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters and main production facilities in Moncton and broadcasts on two community channels, Cable 9 in French and Cable 10 in English. The French-language arm of the CBC, Radio-Canada, maintains its Atlantic Canadian headquarters in Moncton. There are three other broadcast television stations in Moncton and these represent all of the major national networks. Notable people Moncton has been the home of a number of notable people, including National Hockey League Hall of Famer and NHL scoring champion Gordie Drillon, World and Olympic champion curler Russ Howard, distinguished literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye, former Governor-General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, and former Supreme Court Justice Ivan Cleveland Rand, developer of the Rand Formula and Canada's representative on the UNSCOP commission. Trudy Mackay FRS, renowned quantitative geneticist, member of the Royal Society and National Academy of Sciences, and recipient of the prestigious Wolf Prize for agriculture (2016), was born in Moncton. Robb Wells, the actor who plays Ricky on the Showcase hit comedy Trailer Park Boys hails from Moncton, along with Julie Doiron, an indie rock musician, and Holly Dignard the actress who plays Nicole Miller on the CTV series Whistler. Harry Currie, noted Canadian conductor, musician, educator, journalist and author was born in Moncton and graduated from MHS. Antonine Maillet, a francophone author, recipient of the Order of Canada and the "Prix Goncourt", the highest honour in francophone literature, is also from Moncton. France Daigle, another acclaimed Acadian novelist and playwright, was born and resides in Moncton, and is noted for her pioneering use of chiac in Acadian literature, was the recipient of the 2012 Governor General's Literary Prize in French Fiction, for her novel Pour Sûr (translated into English as "For Sure"). Canadian hockey star Sidney Crosby graduated from Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton. Sister cities Lafayette, Louisiana, United States North Bay, Ontario, | November and consistent snow cover on the ground does not happen until late December. The Fundy coast of New Brunswick occasionally experiences the effects of post-tropical storms. The stormiest weather of the year, with the greatest precipitation and the strongest winds, usually occurs during the fall/winter transition (November to mid-January). The highest temperature ever recorded in Moncton was on August 18 & 19, 1935. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on February 5, 1948. Cityscape Moncton generally remains a "low rise" city. The city's skyline however encompasses many buildings and structures with varying architectural styles from many periods. The most dominant structure in the city is the Bell Aliant Tower, a microwave communications tower built in 1971. When it was constructed, it was the tallest microwave communications tower of its kind in North America. It remains the tallest structure in Moncton, dwarfing the neighbouring Place L’Assomption by . Indeed, the Bell Aliant Tower is also the tallest free-standing structure in all four Atlantic provinces. Assumption Place is a 20-story office building and is the headquarters of Assumption Mutual Life Insurance. This building is in height and is tied with Brunswick Square (Saint John) as the tallest building in the province. The Blue Cross Centre is a large nine-story building in Downtown Moncton. Although only nine stories tall, the building is architecturally distinctive, encompasses a full city block, and is the largest office building in the city in terms of square footage. It is the home of Medavie Blue Cross and the Moncton Public Library. There are about a half dozen other buildings in Moncton that range between eight and twelve stories in height, including the Delta Beausejour and Brunswick Crowne Plaza Hotels and the Terminal Plaza office complex. Urban parks The most popular park in the area is Centennial Park, which contains an artificial beach, lighted cross country skiing and hiking trails, the city's largest playground, lawn bowling and tennis facilities, a boating pond, a treetop adventure course, and Rocky Stone Field, a city owned 2,500 seat football stadium with artificial turf, and home to the Moncton Minor Football Association. The city's other main parks are Mapleton Park in the city's north end, Irishtown Nature Park (one of the largest urban nature parks in Canada) and St. Anselme Park (located in Dieppe). The numerous neighbourhood parks throughout the metro Moncton area include Bore View Park (which overlooks the Petitcodiac River), and the downtown Victoria Park, which features a bandshell, flower gardens, fountain, and the city's cenotaph. There is an extensive system of hiking and biking trails in Metro Moncton. The Riverfront Trail is part of the Trans Canada Trail system, and various monuments and pavilions can be found along its length. Demography The population of Moncton is 71,889 (2016 Census). Along with Fredericton and Halifax, Moncton is one of only three Maritime cities to register a population increase in recent years. The median age in Moncton is 41.4, close to the national median age of 41.2. Moncton is a bilingual city. About two-thirds of its residents are native English speakers, while the remaining third is French-speaking. Almost all Monctonians speak English (64.6%) or French (31.9%) as first languages; 1.6% speak both languages as a first language, and 6.9% speak another language. About 46% of the city population is bilingual and understands both English and French; the only other Canadian cities that approach this level of linguistic duality are Ottawa, Sudbury, and Montreal. Moncton became the first officially bilingual city in the country in 2002. This means that all municipal services, as well as public notices and information, are available in both French and English. The adjacent city of Dieppe is about 73% Francophone and has benefited from an ongoing rural depopulation of the Acadian Peninsula and areas in northern and eastern New Brunswick. The town of Riverview meanwhile is heavily (95%) Anglophone. As of 2016, approximately 87.6% of Moncton's residents were European, while 7.4% were ethnic minorities and 5% were aboriginal. The largest ethnic minority groups in Moncton were Black (2.6%), Arab (1.3%), Chinese (0.9%), and Korean, Southeast Asian, South Asian and Filipino (0.5% each). The Moncton census metropolitan area (CMA) had a population of 144,810 in 2016, ranking it as the 29th largest CMA in Canada. Economy The underpinnings of the local economy are based on Moncton's heritage as a commercial, distribution, transportation, and retailing centre. This is due to Moncton's central location in the Maritimes: it has the largest catchment area in Atlantic Canada with 1.6 million people living within a three-hour drive of the city. The insurance, information technology, educational, and health care sectors also are major factors in the local economy with the city's two hospitals alone employing over five thousand people. Moncton has garnered national attention because of the strength of its economy. The local unemployment rate averages around 6%, which is below the national average. In 2004 Canadian Business magazine named it "The best city for business in Canada", and in 2007 FDi magazine named it the fifth most business-friendly small-sized city in North America. A number of nationally or regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in Moncton including Atlantic Lottery Corporation, Assumption Life Insurance, Medavie Blue Cross Insurance, Armour Transportation Systems and Major Drilling Group International. Moncton also has federal public service employment, with regional head offices for Corrections Canada, Transport Canada, the Gulf Fisheries Centre and the Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency. There are 37 call centres in the city which employ over 5000 people. Some of the larger centres include Asurion, Numeris (formerly BBM Canada), Exxon Mobil, Royal Bank of Canada, Tangerine Bank (formerly ING Direct), UPS, Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, Rogers Communications, and Nordia Inc. A growing high tech sector includes companies such as Nanoptix, International Game Technology, OAO Technology Solutions, BMM Test Labs, TrustMe, and BelTek Systems Design. TD Bank announced in 2018 a new banking services centre to be located in Moncton which will employ over 1,000 people (including a previously announced customer contact centre). Several arms of the Irving corporation have their head offices and/or major operations in greater Moncton. These include Midland Transport, Majesta/Royale Tissues, Irving Personal Care, Master Packaging, Brunswick News, and Cavendish Farms. Kent Building Supplies (an Irving subsidiary) opened their main distribution centre in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2014. The Irving group of companies employs several thousand people in the Moncton region. There are three large industrial parks in the metropolitan area. The Irving operations are concentrated in the Dieppe Industrial Park. The Moncton Industrial Park in the city's west end has been expanded. Molson/Coors opened a brewery in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2007, its first new brewery in over fifty years. All three industrial parks also have large concentrations of warehousing and regional trucking facilities. A new four-lane Gunningsville Bridge was opened in 2005, connecting downtown Riverview directly with downtown Moncton. On the Moncton side, the bridge connects with an extension of Vaughan Harvey Boulevard as well as to Assumption Boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for economic growth in the downtown area. This has become already evident as an expansion to the Blue Cross Centre was completed in 2006 and a Marriott Residence Inn opened in 2008. The new regional law courts on Assumption Blvd opened in 2011. A new 8,800 seat downtown arena (the Avenir Centre) recently opened in September 2018. On the Riverview side, the Gunningsville Bridge now connects to a new ring road around the town and is expected to serve as a catalyst for development in east Riverview. The retail sector in Moncton has become one of the most important pillars of the local economy. Major retail projects such as Champlain Place in Dieppe and the Wheeler Park Power Centre on Trinity Drive have become major destinations for locals and for tourists alike. Tourism is an important industry in Moncton and historically owes its origins to the presence of two natural attractions, the tidal bore of the Petitcodiac River (see above) and the optical illusion of Magnetic Hill. The tidal bore was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction. Magnetic Hill, on the city's northwest outskirts, is the city's most famous attraction. The Magnetic Hill area includes (in addition to the phenomenon itself), a golf course, major water park, zoo, and an outdoor concert facility. A $90 million casino/hotel/entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010. Culture Moncton's Capitol Theatre, an 800-seat restored 1920s-era vaudeville house on Main Street, is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city. The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada. The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals. The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2,000 seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups. The Moncton-based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion. Théâtre l'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street. The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville. There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area, including the Capitol Theatre's own performing arts school. The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries. Among other tenants, the centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom, the principal private art gallery in the city. The city's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton. The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre. The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city's transportation heritage. The city also has several recognized historical sites. The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England-style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum. The Thomas Williams House, a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883, is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations. The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology. It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick. In film production, the city has since 1974 been home to the National Film Board of Canada's French-language Studio Acadie. Moncton is home to the Frye Festival, an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world-renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye. This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April. The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza, held each July, is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada. Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August, The HubCap Comedy Festival, and the World Wine Festival, both held in the spring. Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral is the location of an interpretation centre, Monument for Recognition in the 21st century (MR21). Sports Facilities The Avenir Centre is an 8,800-seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and sporting events and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League and the Moncton Magic of the National Basketball League of Canada. The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property. It includes ten ballfields, six soccer fields, an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces (the Superior Propane Centre) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome, an indoor air supported multi-use building. The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year-round football, soccer and golf activities. A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities, as well as three indoor pools. The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a swimming pool with diving towers. The new Moncton Stadium, also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships. It has a permanent seating for 10,000, but is expandable to a capacity of over 20,000 for events such as professional Canadian football. The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe. It has since been closed after 17 years of existence due to safety concerns in May 2018. The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs. Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area, including a new $18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009. Sports teams The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). They won the President's Cup, the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010. Historically there has been a longstanding presence of a Moncton-based team in the Maritime Junior A Hockey League, but the Dieppe Commandos (formerly known as the Moncton Beavers) relocated to Edmundston at the end of the 2017 season. Historically, Moncton also was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994. The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981–1982. The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006. In 2015, the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League. They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL. In 2011, the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada. The franchise failed at the end of the 2016/17 season, to be immediately replaced by a new NBL franchise, the Moncton Magic, who played their inaugural season in 2017/18. The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey, soccer, and volleyball. These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program. Major events Moncton has hosted many large sporting events. The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts. Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports (CIS) Men's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008. The World Men's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009; the second time this event has taken place in the city. Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics. This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada, with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance. The new 10,000 seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus. The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos, which was held on September 26, 2010. This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20,750. Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013, and again on August 25, 2019. Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include: 1968 Canadian Junior Baseball Championships 1974 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1975 Macdonald Lassies Championship 1975 Intercontinental Cup (baseball) 1977 Skate Canada International 1978 CIS University Cup (hockey) 1980 World Men's Curling Championships 1982 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships 1982 CIS University Cup 1983 CIS University Cup 1984 Canadian Men's and Women's Broomball Championships 1985 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1985 Labatt Brier (curling) 1992 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 1997 World Junior Baseball Championships 2000 Canadian Junior Curling Championships 2004 Canadian Senior Baseball Championships 2006 Memorial Cup (hockey) 2007 CIS University Cup 2008 CIS University Cup 2009 World Men's Curling Championship 2009 Fred Page Cup (hockey) 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics 2010 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto & Edmonton) 2011 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton & Calgary) 2012 Canadian Figure Skating Championships 2013 Canadian Track & Field Championships 2013 Football Canada Cup (national U18 football championship) 2013 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton & Montreal) 2014 Canadian Track & Field Championships 2014 FIFA U20 Women's World Cup 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup 2017 Canadian U18 Curling Championships 2019 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto & Montreal) Government The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four-year terms of office. The council is non-partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman, casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote. There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate. Day-to-day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager. Moncton is in the federal riding |
Boolean algebras there is a natural dual topological space, which consists exactly of the complete -types over . The topology generated by sets of the form for single formulas . This is called the Stone space of n-types over A. This topology explains some of the terminology used in model theory: The compactness theorem says that the Stone Space is a compact topological space, and a type p is isolated if and only if p is an isolated point in the Stone topology. While types in algebraically closed fields correspond to the spectrum of the polynomial ring, the topology on the type space is the constructible topology: a set of types is basic open iff it is of the form or of the form . This is finer than the Zariski topology. Constructing models Realising and omitting types Constructing models that realise certain types and do not realise others is an important task in model theory. Not realising a type is referred to as omitting it, and is generally possible by the (Countable) Omitting types theorem: Let be a theory in a countable signature and let be a countable set of non-isolated types over the empty set. Then there is a model of which omits every type in . This implies that if a theory in a countable signature has only countably many types over the empty set, then this theory has an atomic model. On the other hand, there is always an elementary extension in which any set of types over a fixed parameter set is realised: Let be a structure and let be a set of complete types over a given parameter set Then there is an elementary extension of which realises every type in . However, since the parameter set is fixed and there is no mention here of the cardinality of , this does not imply that every theory has a saturated model. In fact, whether every theory has a saturated model is independent of the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory, and is true if the generalised continuum hypothesis holds. Ultraproducts Ultraproducts are used as a general technique for constructing models that realise certain types. An ultraproduct is obtained from the direct product of a set of structures over an index set I by identifying those tuples that agree on almost all entries, where almost all is made precise by an ultrafilter U on I. An ultraproduct of copies of the same structure is known as an ultrapower. The key to using ultraproducts in model theory is Łoś's theorem: Let be a set of -structures indexed by an index set I and U an ultrafilter on I. Then any -formula is true in the ultraproduct of the by if the set of all for which lies in U. In particular, any ultraproduct of models of a theory is itself a model of that theory, and thus if two models have isomorphic ultrapowers, they are elementarily equivalent. The Keisler-Shelah theorem provides a converse: If and are elementary equivalent, then there is a set I and an ultrafilter U on I such that the ultrapowers by U of and : are isomorphic. Therefore, ultraproducts provide a way to talk about elementary equivalence that avoids mentioning first-order theories at all. Basic theorems of model theory such as the compactness theorem have alternative proofs using ultraproducts, and they can be used to construct saturated elementary extensions if they exist. Categoricity A theory was originally called categorical if it determines a structure up to isomorphism. It turns out that this definition is not useful, due to serious restrictions in the expressivity of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that if a theory T has an infinite model for some infinite cardinal number, then it has a model of size κ for any sufficiently large cardinal number κ. Since two models of different sizes cannot possibly be isomorphic, only finite structures can be described by a categorical theory. However, the weaker notion of κ-categoricity for a cardinal κ has become a key concept in model theory. A theory T is called κ-categorical if any two models of T that are of cardinality κ are isomorphic. It turns out that the question of κ-categoricity depends critically on whether κ is bigger than the cardinality of the language (i.e. + |σ|, where |σ| is the cardinality of the signature). For finite or countable signatures this means that there is a fundamental difference between -cardinality and κ-cardinality for uncountable κ. ω-categoricity -categorical theories can be characterised by properties of their type space: For a complete first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature the following conditions are equivalent: T is -categorical. Every type in Sn(T) is isolated. For every natural number n, Sn(T) is finite. For every natural number n, the number of formulas φ(x1, ..., xn) in n free variables, up to equivalence modulo T, is finite. The theory of , which is also the theory of , is -categorical, as every n-type over the empty set is isolated by the pairwise order relation between the . This means that every countable dense linear order is order-isomorphic to the rational number line. On the other hand, the theories of , and as fields are not -categorical. This follows from the fact that in all those fields, any of the infinitely many natural numbers can be defined by a formula of the form . -categorical theories and their countable models also have strong ties with oligomorphic groups: A complete first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature is -categorical if and only if its automorphism group is oligomorphic. The equivalent charcaterisations of this subsection, due independently to Engeler, Ryll-Nardzewski and Svenonius, are sometimes referred to as the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem. In combinatorial signatures, a common source of -categorical theories are Fraïssé limits, which are obtained as the limit of amalgamating all possible configurations of a class of finite relational structures. Uncountable categoricity Michael Morley showed in 1963 that there is only one notion of uncountable categoricity for theories in countable languages. Morley's categoricity theorem If a first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature is κ-categorical for some uncountable cardinal κ, then T is κ-categorical for all uncountable cardinals κ. Morley's proof revealed deep connections between uncountable categoricity and the internal structure of the models, which became the starting point of classification theory and stability theory. Uncountably categorical theories are from many points of view the most well-behaved theories. In particular, complete strongly minimal theories are uncountably categorical. This shows that the theory of algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic is uncountably categorical, with the transcendence degree of the field determining its isomorphism type. A theory that is both -categorical and uncountably categorical is called totally categorical. Stability theory A key factor in the structure of the class of models of a first-order theory is its place in the stability hierarchy. A complete theory T is called -stable for a cardinal if for any model of T and any parameter set of :cardinality not exceeding , there are at most complete T-types over A. A theory is called stable if it is -stable for some infinite cardinal . Traditionally, theories that are -stable are called -stable. The stability hierarchy A fundamental result in stability theory is the stability spectrum theorem, which implies that every complete theory T in a countable signature falls in one of the following classes: There are no cardinals such that T is -stable. T is -stable if and only if (see Cardinal exponentiation for an explanation of ). T is -stable for any (where is the cardinality of the continuum). A theory of the first type is called unstable, a theory of the second type is called strictly stable and a theory of the third type is called superstable. Furthermore, if a theory is -stable, it is stable in every infinite cardinal, so -stability is stronger than superstability. Many construction in model theory are easier when restricted to stable theories; for instance, every model of a stable theory has a saturated elementary extension, regardless of whether the generalised continuum hypothesis is true. Shelah's original motivation for studying stable theories was to decide how many models a countable theory has of any uncountable cardinality. If a theory is uncountably categorical, then it is -stable. More generally, the Main gap theorem implies that if there is an uncountable cardinal such that a theory T has less than models of cardinality , then T is superstable. Geometric stability theory The stability hierarchy is also crucial for analysing the geometry of definable sets within a model of a theory. In -stable theories, Morley rank is an important dimension notion for definable sets S within a model. It is defined by transfinite induction: The Morley rank is at least 0 if S is non-empty. For α a successor ordinal, the Morley rank is at least α if in some elementary extension N of M, the set S has infinitely many disjoint definable subsets, each of rank at least α − 1. For α a non-zero limit ordinal, the Morley rank is at least α if it is at least β for all β less than α. A theory T in which every definable set has well-defined Morley Rank is called totally transcendental; if T is countable, then T is totally transcendental if and only if T is -stable. Morley Rank can be extended to types by setting the Morley Rank of a type to be the minimum of the Morley ranks of the formulas in the type. Thus, one can also speak of the Morley rank of an element a over a parameter set A, defined as the Morley rank of the type of a over A. There are also analogues of Morley rank which are well-defined if and only if a theory is superstable (U-rank) or merely stable (Shelah's -rank). Those dimension notions can be used to define notions of independence and of generic extensions. More recently, stability has been decomposed into simplicity and "not the independence property" (NIP). Simple theories are those theories in which a well-behaved notion of independence can be defined, while NIP theories generalise o-minimal structures. They are related to stability since a theory is stable if and only if it is NIP and simple, and various aspects of stability theory have been generalised to theories in one of these classes. Non-elementary model theory Model-theoretic results have been generalised beyond elementary classes, that is, classes axiomatisable by a first-order theory. Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics. This is made concrete by Lindstrom's theorem, stating roughly that first-order logic is essentially the strongest logic in which both the Löwenheim-Skolem theorems and compactness hold. However, model theoretic techniques have been developed extensively for these logics too. It turns out, however, that much of the model theory of more expressive logical languages is independent of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory. More recently, alongside the shift in focus to complete stable and categorical theories, there has been work on classes of models defined semantically rather than axiomatised by a logical theory. One example is homogeneous model theory, which studies the class of substructures of arbitrarily large homogeneous models. Fundamental results of stability theory and geometric stability theory generalise to this setting. As a generalisation of strongly minimal theories, quasiminimally excellent classes are those in which every definable set is either countable or co-countable. They are key to the model theory of the complex exponential function. The most general semantic framework in which stability is studied are abstract elementary classes, which are defined by a strong substructure relation generalising that of an elementary substructure. Even though its definition is purely semantic, every abstract elementary class can be presented as the models of a first-order theory which omit certain types. Generalising stability-theoretic notions to abstract elementary classes is an ongoing research program. Selected applications Among the early successes of model theory are Tarski's proofs of quantifier elimination for various algebraically interesting classes, such as the real closed fields, Boolean algebras and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic. Quantifier elimination allowed Tarski to show that the first-order theories of real-closed and algebraically closed fields as well as the first-order theory of Boolean algebras are decidable, classify the Boolean algebras up to elementary equivalence and show that the theories of real-closed fields and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic are unique. Furthermore, quantifier elimination provided a precise description of definable relations on algebraically closed fields as algebraic varieties and of the definable relations on real-closed fields as semialgebraic sets In the 1960s, the introduction of the ultraproduct construction led to new applications in algebra. This includes Ax's work on pseudofinite fields, proving that the theory of finite fields is decidable, and Ax and Kochen's proof of as special case of Artin's conjecture on diophantine equations, the Ax-Kochen theorem. ultraproduct construction led to the development of non-standard analysis by Abraham Robinson. The ultraproduct construction also led to Abraham Robinson's development of nonstandard analysis, which aims to provide a rigorous calculus of infinitesimals. More recently, the connection between stability and the geometry of definable sets led to several applications from algebraic and diophantine geometry, including Ehud Hrushovski's 1996 proof of the geometric Mordell-Lang conjecture in all characteristics In 2001, similar methods were used to prove a generalisation of the Manin-Mumford conjecture. In 2011, Jonathan Pila applied techniques around o-minimality to prove the André-Oort conjecture for products of Modular curves. In a separate strand of inquiries that also grew around stable theories, Laskowski showed in 1992 that NIP theories describe exactly those definable classes that are PAC-learnable in machine learning theory. This has led to several interactions between these separate areas. In 2018, the correspondence was extended as Hunter and Chase showed that stable theories correspond to online learnable classes. History Model theory as a subject has existed since approximately the middle of the 20th century, and the name was coined by Alfred Tarski, a member of the Lwów–Warsaw school, in 1954. However some earlier research, especially in mathematical logic, is often regarded as being of a model-theoretical nature in retrospect. The first significant result in what is now model theory was a special case of the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, published by Leopold Löwenheim in 1915. The compactness theorem was implicit in work by Thoralf Skolem, but it was first published in 1930, as a lemma in Kurt Gödel's proof of his completeness theorem. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem received their respective general forms in 1936 and 1941 from Anatoly Maltsev. The development of model theory as an independent discipline was brought on by Alfred Tarski during the interbellum. Tarski's work included logical consequence, deductive systems, the algebra of logic, the theory of definability, and the semantic definition of truth, among other topics. His semantic methods culminated in the model theory he and a number of his Berkeley students developed in the 1950s and '60s. In the further history of the discipline, different strands began to emerge, and the focus of the subject shifted. In the 1960s, techniques around ultraproducts became a popular tool in model theory. At the same time, researchers such as James Ax were investigating the first-order model theory of various algebraic classes, and others such as H. Jerome Keisler were extending the concepts and results of first-order model theory to other logical systems. Then, inspired by Morley's problem, Shelah developed stability theory. His work around stability changed the complexion of model theory, giving rise to a whole new class of concepts. This is known as the paradigm shift Over the next decades, it became clear that the resulting stability hierarchy is closely connected to the geometry of sets that are definable in those models; this gave rise to the subdiscipline now known as geometric stability theory. An example of an influential proof from geometric model theory is Hrushovski's proof of the Mordell–Lang conjecture for function fields. Connections to related branches of mathematical logic Finite model theory Finite model theory, which concentrates on finite structures, diverges significantly from the study of infinite structures in both the problems studied and the techniques used. In particular, many central results of classical model theory that fail when restricted to finite structures. This includes the compactness theorem, Gödel's completeness theorem, and the method of ultraproducts for first-order logic. At the interface of finite and infinite model theory are algorithmic or computable model theory and the study of 0-1 laws, where the infinite models of a generic theory of a class of structures provide information on the distribution of finite models. Prominent application areas of FMT are descriptive complexity theory, database theory and formal language theory. Set theory Any set theory (which is expressed in a countable language), if it is consistent, has a countable model; this is known as Skolem's paradox, since there are sentences in set theory which postulate the existence of uncountable sets and yet these sentences are true in our countable model. Particularly the proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis requires considering sets in models which appear to be uncountable when viewed from within the model, but are countable to someone outside the model. The model-theoretic viewpoint has been useful in set theory; for example in Kurt Gödel's work on the constructible universe, which, along with the method of forcing developed by Paul Cohen can be shown to prove the (again philosophically interesting) independence of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis from the other axioms of set theory. In the other direction, model theory is itself formalised within Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory. For instance, the development of the fundamentals of model theory (such as the compactness theorem) rely on the | elementary substructure, called the Tarski–Vaught test. It follows from this criterion that a theory T is model-complete if and only if every first-order formula φ(x1, ..., xn) over its signature is equivalent modulo T to an existential first-order formula, i.e. a formula of the following form: , where ψ is quantifier free. A theory that is not model-complete may have a model completion, which is a related model-complete theory that is not, in general, an extension of the original theory. A more general notion is that of a model companion. Minimality In every structure, every finite subset is definable with parameters: Simply use the formula . Since we can negate this formula, every cofinite subset (which includes all but finitely many elements of the domain) is also always definable. This leads to the concept of a minimal structure. A structure is called minimal if every subset definable with parameters from is either finite or cofinite. The corresponding concept at the level of theories is called strong minimality: A theory T is called strongly minimal if every model of T is minimal. A structure is called strongly minimal if the theory of that structure is strongly minimal. Equivalently, a structure is strongly minimal if every elementary extension is minimal. Since the theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination, every definable subset of an algebraically closed field is definable by a quantifier-free formula in one variable. Quantifier-free formulas in one variable express Boolean combinations of polynomial equations in one variable, and since a nontrivial polynomial equation in one variable has only a finite number of solutions, the theory of algebraically closed fields is strongly minimal. On the other hand, the field of real numbers is not minimal: Consider, for instance, the definable set . This defines the subset of non-negative real numbers, which is neither finite nor cofinite. One can in fact use to define arbitrary intervals on the real number line. It turns out that these suffice to represent every definable subset of . This generalisation of minimality has been very useful in the model theory of ordered structures. A densely totally ordered structure in a signature including a symbol for the order relation is called o-minimal if every subset definable with parameters from is a finite union of points and intervals. Definable and interpretable structures Particularly important are those definable sets that are also substructures, i. e. contain all constants and are closed under function application. For instance, one can study the definable subgroups of a certain group. However, there is no need to limit oneself to substructures in the same signature. Since formulas with n free variables define subsets of , n-ary relations can also be definable. Functions are definable if the function graph is a definable relation, and constants are definable if there is a formula such that a is the only element of such that is true. In this way, one can study definable groups and fields in general structures, for instance, which has been important in geometric stability theory. One can even go one step further, and move beyond immediate substructures. Given a mathematical structure, there are very often associated structures which can be constructed as a quotient of part of the original structure via an equivalence relation. An important example is a quotient group of a group. One might say that to understand the full structure one must understand these quotients. When the equivalence relation is definable, we can give the previous sentence a precise meaning. We say that these structures are interpretable. A key fact is that one can translate sentences from the language of the interpreted structures to the language of the original structure. Thus one can show that if a structure interprets another whose theory is undecidable, then itself is undecidable. Types Basic notions For a sequence of elements of a structure and a subset A of , one can consider the set of all first-order formulas with parameters in A that are satisfied by . This is called the complete (n-)type realised by over A. If there is an automorphism of that is constant on A and sends to respectively, then and realise the same complete type over A. The real number line , viewed as a structure with only the order relation {<}, will serve as a running example in this section. Every element satisfies the same 1-type over the empty set. This is clear since any two real numbers a and b are connected by the order automorphism that shifts all numbers by b-a. The complete 2-type over the empty set realised by a pair of numbers depends on their order: either , or . Over the subset of integers, the 1-type of a non-integer real number a depends on its value rounded down to the nearest integer. More generally, whenever is a structure and A a subset of , a (partial) n-type over A is a set of formulas p with at most n free variables that are realised in an elementary extension of . If p contains every such formula or its negation, then p is complete. The set of complete n-types over A is often written as . If A is the empty set, then the type space only depends on the theory of . The notation is commonly used for the set of types over the empty set consistent with . If there is a single formula such that the theory of implies for every formula in p, then p is called isolated. Since the real numbers are Archimedean, there is no real number larger than every integer. However, a compactness argument shows that there is an elementary extension of the real number line in which there is an element larger than any integer. Therefore, the set of formulas is a 1-type over that is not realised in the real number line . A subset of that can be expressed as exactly those elements of realising a certain type over A is called type-definable over A. For an algebraic example, suppose is an algebraically closed field. The theory has quantifier elimination . This allows us to show that a type is determined exactly by the polynomial equations it contains. Thus the set of complete -types over a subfield corresponds to the set of prime ideals of the polynomial ring , and the type-definable sets are exactly the affine varieties. Structures and types While not every type is realised in every structure, every structure realises its isolated types. If the only types over the empty set that are realised in a structure are the isolated types, then the structure is called atomic. On the other hand, no structure realises every type over every parameter set; if one takes all of as the parameter set, then every 1-type over realised in is isolated by a formula of the form a = x for an . However, any proper elementary extension of contains an element that is not in . Therefore a weaker notion has been introduced that captures the idea of a structure realising all types it could be expected to realise. A structure is called saturated if it realises every type over a parameter set that is of smaller cardinality than itself. While an automorphism that is constant on A will always preserve types over A, it is generally not true that any two sequences and that satisfy the same type over A can be mapped to each other by such an automorphism. A structure in which this converse does holds for all A of smaller cardinality than is called homogeneous. The real number line is atomic in the language that contains only the order , since all n-types over the empty set realised by in are isolated by the order relations between the . It is not saturated, however, since it does not realise any 1-type over the countable set that implies x to be larger than any integer. The rational number line is saturated, in contrast, since is itself countable and therefore only has to realise types over finite subsets to be saturated. Stone Spaces The set of definable subsets of over some parameters is a Boolean algebra. By Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras there is a natural dual topological space, which consists exactly of the complete -types over . The topology generated by sets of the form for single formulas . This is called the Stone space of n-types over A. This topology explains some of the terminology used in model theory: The compactness theorem says that the Stone Space is a compact topological space, and a type p is isolated if and only if p is an isolated point in the Stone topology. While types in algebraically closed fields correspond to the spectrum of the polynomial ring, the topology on the type space is the constructible topology: a set of types is basic open iff it is of the form or of the form . This is finer than the Zariski topology. Constructing models Realising and omitting types Constructing models that realise certain types and do not realise others is an important task in model theory. Not realising a type is referred to as omitting it, and is generally possible by the (Countable) Omitting types theorem: Let be a theory in a countable signature and let be a countable set of non-isolated types over the empty set. Then there is a model of which omits every type in . This implies that if a theory in a countable signature has only countably many types over the empty set, then this theory has an atomic model. On the other hand, there is always an elementary extension in which any set of types over a fixed parameter set is realised: Let be a structure and let be a set of complete types over a given parameter set Then there is an elementary extension of which realises every type in . However, since the parameter set is fixed and there is no mention here of the cardinality of , this does not imply that every theory has a saturated model. In fact, whether every theory has a saturated model is independent of the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory, and is true if the generalised continuum hypothesis holds. Ultraproducts Ultraproducts are used as a general technique for constructing models that realise certain types. An ultraproduct is obtained from the direct product of a set of structures over an index set I by identifying those tuples that agree on almost all entries, where almost all is made precise by an ultrafilter U on I. An ultraproduct of copies of the same structure is known as an ultrapower. The key to using ultraproducts in model theory is Łoś's theorem: Let be a set of -structures indexed by an index set I and U an ultrafilter on I. Then any -formula is true in the ultraproduct of the by if the set of all for which lies in U. In particular, any ultraproduct of models of a theory is itself a model of that theory, and thus if two models have isomorphic ultrapowers, they are elementarily equivalent. The Keisler-Shelah theorem provides a converse: If and are elementary equivalent, then there is a set I and an ultrafilter U on I such that the ultrapowers by U of and : are isomorphic. Therefore, ultraproducts provide a way to talk about elementary equivalence that avoids mentioning first-order theories at all. Basic theorems of model theory such as the compactness theorem have alternative proofs using ultraproducts, and they can be used to construct saturated elementary extensions if they exist. Categoricity A theory was originally called categorical if it determines a structure up to isomorphism. It turns out that this definition is not useful, due to serious restrictions in the expressivity of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that if a theory T has an infinite model for some infinite cardinal number, then it has a model of size κ for any sufficiently large cardinal number κ. Since two models of different sizes cannot possibly be isomorphic, only finite structures can be described by a categorical theory. However, the weaker notion of κ-categoricity for a cardinal κ has become a key concept in model theory. A theory T is called κ-categorical if any two models of T that are of cardinality κ are isomorphic. It turns out that the question of κ-categoricity depends critically on whether κ is bigger than the cardinality of the language (i.e. + |σ|, where |σ| is the cardinality of the signature). For finite or countable signatures this means that there is a fundamental difference between -cardinality and κ-cardinality for uncountable κ. ω-categoricity -categorical theories can be characterised by properties of their type space: For a complete first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature the following conditions are equivalent: T is -categorical. Every type in Sn(T) is isolated. For every natural number n, Sn(T) is finite. For every natural number n, the number of formulas φ(x1, ..., xn) in n free variables, up to equivalence modulo T, is finite. The theory of , which is also the theory of , is -categorical, as every n-type over the empty set is isolated by the pairwise order relation between the . This means that every countable dense linear order is order-isomorphic to the rational number line. On the other hand, the theories of , and as fields are not -categorical. This follows from the fact that in all those fields, any of the infinitely many natural numbers can be defined by a formula of the form . -categorical theories and their countable models also have strong ties with oligomorphic groups: A complete first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature is -categorical if and only if its automorphism group is oligomorphic. The equivalent charcaterisations of this subsection, due independently to Engeler, Ryll-Nardzewski and Svenonius, are sometimes referred to as the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem. In combinatorial signatures, a common source of -categorical theories are Fraïssé limits, which are obtained as the limit of amalgamating all possible configurations of a class of finite relational structures. Uncountable categoricity Michael Morley showed in 1963 that there is only one notion of uncountable categoricity for theories in countable languages. Morley's categoricity theorem If a first-order theory T in a finite or countable signature is κ-categorical for some uncountable cardinal κ, then T is κ-categorical for all uncountable cardinals κ. Morley's proof revealed deep connections between uncountable categoricity and the internal structure of the models, which became the starting point of classification theory and stability theory. Uncountably categorical theories are from many points of view the most well-behaved theories. In particular, complete strongly minimal theories are uncountably categorical. This shows that the theory of algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic is uncountably categorical, with the transcendence degree of the field determining its isomorphism type. A theory that is both -categorical and uncountably categorical is called totally categorical. Stability theory A key factor in the structure of the class of models of a first-order theory is its place in the stability hierarchy. A complete theory T is called -stable for a cardinal if for any model of T and any parameter set of :cardinality not exceeding , there are at most complete T-types over A. A theory is called stable if it is -stable for some infinite cardinal . Traditionally, theories that are -stable are called -stable. The stability hierarchy A fundamental result in stability theory is the stability spectrum theorem, which implies that every complete theory T in a countable signature falls in one of the following classes: There are no cardinals such that T is -stable. T is -stable if and only if (see Cardinal exponentiation for an explanation of ). T is -stable for any (where is the cardinality of the continuum). A theory of the first type is called unstable, a theory of the second type is called strictly stable and a theory of the third type is called superstable. Furthermore, if a theory is -stable, it is stable in every infinite cardinal, so -stability is stronger than superstability. Many construction in model theory are easier when restricted to stable theories; for instance, every model of a stable theory has a saturated elementary extension, regardless of whether the generalised continuum hypothesis is true. Shelah's original motivation for studying stable theories was to decide how many models a countable theory has of any uncountable cardinality. If a theory is uncountably categorical, then it is -stable. More generally, the Main gap theorem implies that if there is an uncountable cardinal such that a theory T has less than models of cardinality , then T is superstable. Geometric stability theory The stability hierarchy is also crucial for analysing the geometry of definable sets within a model of a theory. In -stable theories, Morley rank is an important dimension notion for definable sets S within a model. It is defined by transfinite induction: The Morley rank is at least 0 if S is non-empty. For α a successor ordinal, the Morley rank is at least α if in some elementary extension N of M, the set S has infinitely many disjoint definable subsets, each of rank at least α − 1. For α a non-zero limit ordinal, the Morley rank is at least α if it is at least β for all β less than α. A theory T in which every definable set has well-defined Morley Rank is called totally transcendental; if T is countable, then T is totally transcendental if and only if T is -stable. Morley Rank can be extended to types by setting the Morley Rank of a type to be the minimum of the Morley ranks of the formulas in the type. Thus, one can also speak of the Morley rank of an element a over a parameter set A, defined as the Morley rank of the type of a over A. There are also analogues of Morley rank which are well-defined if and only if a theory is superstable (U-rank) or merely stable (Shelah's -rank). Those dimension notions can be used to define notions of independence and of generic extensions. More recently, stability has been decomposed into simplicity and "not the independence property" (NIP). Simple theories are those theories in which a well-behaved notion of independence can be defined, while NIP theories generalise o-minimal structures. They are related to stability since a theory is stable if and only if it is NIP and simple, and various aspects of stability theory have been generalised to theories in one of these classes. Non-elementary model theory Model-theoretic results have been generalised beyond elementary classes, that is, classes axiomatisable by a first-order theory. Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics. This is made concrete by Lindstrom's theorem, stating roughly |
feast on the whale's carcass, tied to the ship, saying that their nature is to be voracious, but they must overcome it. The whale is prepared, beheaded, and barrels of oil are tried out. Standing at the head of the whale, Ahab begs it to speak of the depths of the sea. The Pequod next encounters the Jeroboam, which not only lost its chief mate to Moby Dick, but also is now plagued by an epidemic. The whale carcass still lies in the water. Queequeg mounts it, tied to Ishmael's belt by a monkey-rope as if they were Siamese twins. Stubb and Flask kill a right whale whose head is fastened to a yardarm opposite the sperm whale's head. Ishmael compares the two heads in a philosophical way: the right whale is Lockean, stoic, and the sperm whale is Kantean, platonic. Tashtego cuts into the head of the sperm whale and retrieves buckets of spermaceti. He falls into the head, which in turn falls off the yardarm into the sea. Queequeg dives after him and frees his mate with his sword. The Pequod next gams with the Jungfrau from Bremen. Both ships sight whales simultaneously, with the Pequod winning the contest. The three harpooneers dart their harpoons, and Flask delivers the mortal strike with a lance. The carcass sinks, and Queequeg barely manages to escape. The Pequods next gam is with the French whaler Bouton de Rose, whose crew is ignorant of the ambergris in the gut of the diseased whale in their possession. Stubb talks them out of it, but Ahab orders him away before he can recover more than a few handfuls. Days later, Pip, a little African American cabin-boy, jumps in panic from Stubb's whale boat and the whale must be cut loose because Pip is entangled in the line; a few days later Pip jumps in panic again, and is left alone in the sea and has gone insane by the time he is picked up. Cooled spermaceti congeals and must be squeezed back into liquid state; blubber is boiled in the try-pots on deck; the warm oil is decanted into casks, and then stowed in the ship. After the operation, the decks are scrubbed. The coin hammered to the main mast shows three Andes summits, one with a flame, one with a tower, and one a crowing cock. Ahab stops to look at the doubloon and interprets the coin as signs of his firmness, volcanic energy, and victory; Starbuck takes the high peaks as evidence of the Trinity; Stubb focuses on the zodiacal arch over the mountains; and Flask sees nothing of any symbolic value at all. The Manxman mutters in front of the mast, and Pip declines the verb "look". The Pequod next gams with the Samuel Enderby of London, captained by Boomer, a down-to-earth fellow who lost his right arm to Moby Dick. Nevertheless, he carries no ill will toward the whale, which he regards not as malicious, but as awkward. Ahab puts an end to the gam by rushing back to his ship. The narrator now discusses the subjects of (1) whalers supply; (2) a glen in Tranque in the Arsacides islands full of carved whale bones, fossil whales, whale skeleton measurements; (3) the chance that the magnitude of the whale will diminish and that the leviathan might perish. Leaving the Samuel Enderby, Ahab wrenches his ivory leg and orders the carpenter to fashion him another. Starbuck informs Ahab of oil leakage in the hold. Reluctantly, Ahab orders the harpooneers to inspect the casks. Queequeg, sweating all day below decks, develops a chill and soon is almost mortally feverish. The carpenter makes a coffin for Queequeg, who fears an ordinary burial at sea. Queequeg tries it for size, with Pip sobbing and beating his tambourine, standing by and calling himself a coward while he praises Queequeg for his gameness. Yet Queequeg suddenly rallies, briefly convalesces, and leaps up, back in good health. Henceforth, he uses his coffin for a spare seachest, which is later caulked and pitched to replace the Pequods life buoy. The Pequod sails northeast toward Formosa and into the Pacific Ocean. Ahab, with one nostril, smells the musk from the Bashee isles, and with the other, the salt of the waters where Moby Dick swims. Ahab goes to Perth, the blacksmith, with a bag of racehorse shoenail stubs to be forged into the shank of a special harpoon, and with his razors for Perth to melt and fashion into a harpoon barb. Ahab tempers the barb in blood from Queequeg, Tashtego, and Daggoo. The Pequod gams next with the Bachelor, a Nantucket ship heading home full of sperm oil. Every now and then, the Pequod lowers for whales with success. On one of those nights in the whaleboat, Fedallah prophesies that neither hearse nor coffin can be Ahab's, that before he dies, Ahab must see two hearses — one not made by mortal hands and the other made of American wood — that Fedallah will precede his captain in death, and finally that only hemp can kill Ahab. As the Pequod approaches the Equator, Ahab scolds his quadrant for telling him only where he is and not where he will be. He dashes it to the deck. That evening, an impressive typhoon attacks the ship. Lightning strikes the mast, setting the doubloon and Ahab's harpoon aglow. Ahab delivers a speech on the spirit of fire, seeing the lightning as a portent of Moby Dick. Starbuck sees the lightning as a warning, and feels tempted to shoot the sleeping Ahab with a musket. The next morning, when he finds that the lightning disoriented the compass, Ahab makes a new one out of a lance, a maul, and a sailmaker's needle. He orders the log be heaved, but the weathered line snaps, leaving the ship with no way to fix its location. The Pequod is now heading southeast toward Moby Dick. A man falls overboard from the mast. The life buoy is thrown, but both sink. Now Queequeg proposes that his superfluous coffin be used as a new life buoy. Starbuck orders the carpenter to seal and waterproof it. The next morning, the ship meets in another truncated gam with the Rachel, commanded by Captain Gardiner from Nantucket. The Rachel is seeking survivors from one of her whaleboats which had gone after Moby Dick. Among the missing is Gardiner's young son. Ahab refuses to join the search. Twenty-four hours a day, Ahab now stands and walks the deck, while Fedallah shadows him. Suddenly, a sea hawk grabs Ahab's slouched hat and flies off with it. Next, the Pequod, in a ninth and final gam, meets the Delight, badly damaged and with five of her crew left dead by Moby Dick. Her captain shouts that the harpoon which can kill the white whale has yet to be forged, but Ahab flourishes his special lance and once more orders the ship forward. Ahab shares a moment of contemplation with Starbuck. Ahab speaks about his wife and child, calls himself a fool for spending 40 years on whaling, and claims he can see his own child in Starbuck's eye. Starbuck tries to persuade Ahab to return to Nantucket to meet both their families, but Ahab simply crosses the deck and stands near Fedallah. On the first day of the chase, Ahab smells the whale, climbs the mast, and sights Moby Dick. He claims the doubloon for himself, and orders all boats to lower except for Starbuck's. The whale bites Ahab's boat in two, tosses the captain out of it, and scatters the crew. On the second day of the chase, Ahab leaves Starbuck in charge of the Pequod. Moby Dick smashes the three boats that seek him into splinters and tangles their lines. Ahab is rescued, but his ivory leg and Fedallah are lost. Starbuck begs Ahab to desist, but Ahab vows to slay the white whale, even if he would have to dive through the globe itself to get his revenge. On the third day of the chase, Ahab sights Moby Dick at noon, and sharks appear, as well. Ahab lowers his boat for a final time, leaving Starbuck again on board. Moby Dick breaches and destroys two boats. Fedallah's corpse, still entangled in the fouled lines, is lashed to the whale's back, so Moby Dick turns out to be the hearse Fedallah prophesied. "Possessed by all the fallen angels", Ahab plants his harpoon in the whale's flank. Moby Dick smites the whaleboat, tossing its men into the sea. Only Ishmael is unable to return to the boat. He is left behind in the sea, and so is the only crewman of the Pequod to survive the final encounter. The whale now fatally attacks the Pequod. Ahab then realizes that the destroyed ship is the hearse made of American wood in Fedallah's prophecy. The whale returns to Ahab, who stabs at him again. As he does so, the line gets tangled, and Ahab bends over to free it. In doing so the line loops around Ahab's neck, and as the stricken whale swims away, the captain is drawn with him out of sight. Queequeg's coffin comes to the surface, the only thing to escape the vortex when Pequod sank. For a day and a night, Ishmael floats on it, until the Rachel, still looking for its lost seamen, rescues him. Structure Point of view Ishmael is the narrator, shaping his story with use of many different genres including sermons, stage plays, soliloquies, and emblematical readings. Repeatedly, Ishmael refers to his writing of the book: "But how can I hope to explain myself here; and yet, in some dim, random way, explain myself I must, else all these chapters might be naught." Scholar John Bryant calls him the novel's "central consciousness and narrative voice." Walter Bezanson first distinguishes Ishmael as narrator from Ishmael as character, whom he calls "forecastle Ishmael", the younger Ishmael of some years ago. Narrator Ishmael, then, is "merely young Ishmael grown older." A second distinction avoids confusion of either of both Ishmaels with the author Herman Melville. Bezanson warns readers to "resist any one-to-one equation of Melville and Ishmael." Chapter structure According to critic Walter Bezanson, the chapter structure can be divided into "chapter sequences", "chapter clusters", and "balancing chapters". The simplest sequences are of narrative progression, then sequences of theme such as the three chapters on whale painting, and sequences of structural similarity, such as the five dramatic chapters beginning with "The Quarter-Deck" or the four chapters beginning with "The Candles". Chapter clusters are the chapters on the significance of the color white, and those on the meaning of fire. Balancing chapters are chapters of opposites, such as "Loomings" versus the "Epilogue," or similars, such as "The Quarter-Deck" and "The Candles". Scholar Lawrence Buell describes the arrangement of the non-narrative chapters as structured around three patterns: first, the nine meetings of the Pequod with ships that have encountered Moby Dick. Each has been more and more severely damaged, foreshadowing the Pequods own fate. Second, the increasingly impressive encounters with whales. In the early encounters, the whaleboats hardly make contact; later there are false alarms and routine chases; finally, the massive assembling of whales at the edges of the China Sea in "The Grand Armada". A typhoon near Japan sets the stage for Ahab's confrontation with Moby Dick. The third pattern is the cetological documentation, so lavish that it can be divided into two subpatterns. These chapters start with the ancient history of whaling and a bibliographical classification of whales, getting closer with second-hand stories of the evil of whales in general and of Moby Dick in particular, a chronologically ordered commentary on pictures of whales. The climax to this section is chapter 57, "Of whales in paint etc.", which begins with the humble (a beggar in London) and ends with the sublime (the constellation Cetus). The next chapter ("Brit"), thus the other half of this pattern, begins with the book's first description of live whales, and next the anatomy of the sperm whale is studied, more or less from front to rear and from outer to inner parts, all the way down to the skeleton. Two concluding chapters set forth the whale's evolution as a species and claim its eternal nature. Some "ten or more" of the chapters on whale killings, beginning at two-fifths of the book, are developed enough to be called "events". As Bezanson writes, "in each case a killing provokes either a chapter sequence or a chapter cluster of cetological lore growing out of the circumstance of the particular killing," thus these killings are "structural occasions for ordering the whaling essays and sermons". Buell observes that the "narrative architecture" is an "idiosyncratic variant of the bipolar observer/hero narrative", that is, the novel is structured around the two main characters, Ahab and Ishmael, who are intertwined and contrasted with each other, with Ishmael the observer and narrator. As the story of Ishmael, remarks Robert Milder, it is a "narrative of education". Bryant and Springer find that the book is structured around the two consciousnesses of Ahab and Ishmael, with Ahab as a force of linearity and Ishmael a force of digression. While both have an angry sense of being orphaned, they try to come to terms with this hole in their beings in different ways: Ahab with violence, Ishmael with meditation. And while the plot in Moby-Dick may be driven by Ahab's anger, Ishmael's desire to get a hold of the "ungraspable" accounts for the novel's lyricism. Buell sees a double quest in the book: Ahab's is to hunt Moby Dick, Ishmael's is "to understand what to make of both whale and hunt". One of the most distinctive features of the book is the variety of genres. Bezanson mentions sermons, dreams, travel account, autobiography, Elizabethan plays, and epic poetry. He calls Ishmael's explanatory footnotes to establish the documentary genre "a Nabokovian touch". Nine meetings with other ships A significant structural device is the series of nine meetings (gams) between the Pequod and other ships. These meetings are important in three ways. First, their placement in the narrative. The initial two meetings and the last two are both close to each other. The central group of five gams are separated by about 12 chapters, more or less. This pattern provides a structural element, remarks Bezanson, as if the encounters were "bones to the book's flesh". Second, Ahab's developing responses to the meetings plot the "rising curve of his passion" and of his monomania. Third, in contrast to Ahab, Ishmael interprets the significance of each ship individually: "each ship is a scroll which the narrator unrolls and reads." Bezanson sees no single way to account for the meaning of all of these ships. Instead, they may be interpreted as "a group of metaphysical parables, a series of biblical analogues, a masque of the situation confronting man, a pageant of the humors within men, a parade of the nations, and so forth, as well as concrete and symbolic ways of thinking about the White Whale". Scholar Nathalia Wright sees the meetings and the significance of the vessels along other lines. She singles out the four vessels which have already encountered Moby Dick. The first, the Jeroboam, is named after the predecessor of the biblical King Ahab. Her "prophetic" fate is "a message of warning to all who follow, articulated by Gabriel and vindicated by the Samuel Enderby, the Rachel, the Delight, and at last the Pequod". None of the other ships has been completely destroyed because none of their captains shared Ahab's monomania; the fate of the Jeroboam reinforces the structural parallel between Ahab and his biblical namesake: "Ahab did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (I Kings 16:33). Themes An early enthusiast for the Melville Revival, British author E. M. Forster, remarked in 1927: "Moby-Dick is full of meanings: its meaning is a different problem." Yet he saw as "the essential" in the book "its prophetic song", which flows "like an undercurrent" beneath the surface action and morality. The hunt for the whale is a metaphor for an epistemological quest. In the words of biographer Laurie Robertson-Lorant, "man's search for meaning in a world of deceptive appearances and fatal delusions." Ishmael's taxonomy of whales merely demonstrates "the limitations of scientific knowledge and the impossibility of achieving certainty". She also contrasts Ishmael and Ahab's attitudes toward life, with Ishmael's open-minded and meditative, "polypositional stance" as antithetical to Ahab's monomania, adhering to dogmatic rigidity. Melville biographer Andrew Delbanco cites race as an example of this search for truth beneath surface differences, noting that all races are represented among the crew members of the Pequod. Although Ishmael initially is afraid of Queequeg as a tattooed cannibal, he soon decides "Better sleep with a sober cannibal than a drunken Christian." While it may be rare for a mid-19th century American book to feature Black characters in a nonslavery context, slavery is frequently mentioned. The theme of race is primarily carried by Pip, the diminutive Black cabin boy. When Pip has almost drowned, and Ahab, genuinely touched by Pip's suffering, questions him gently, Pip "can only parrot the language of an advertisement for the return of a fugitive slave: 'Pip! Reward for Pip!'". Editors Bryant and Springer suggest perception is a central theme, the difficulty of seeing and understanding, which makes deep reality hard to discover and truth hard to pin down. Ahab explains that, like all things, the evil whale wears a disguise: "All visible objects, man, are but pasteboard masks" — and Ahab is determined to "strike through the mask! How can the prisoner reach outside, except by thrusting through the wall? To me, the white whale is that wall" (Ch. 36, "The Quarter-Deck"). This theme pervades the novel, perhaps never so emphatically as in "The Doubloon" (Ch. 99), where each crewmember perceives the coin in a way shaped by his own personality. Later, the American edition has Ahab "discover no sign" (Ch. 133) of the whale when he is staring into the deep. In fact, Moby Dick is then swimming up at him. In the British edition, Melville changed the word "discover" to "perceive", and with good reason, for "discovery" means finding what is already there, but "perceiving", or better still, perception, is "a matter of shaping what exists by the way in which we see it". The point is not that Ahab would discover the whale as an object, but that he would perceive it as a symbol of his making. Yet Melville does not offer easy solutions. Ishmael and Queequeg's sensual friendship initiates a kind of racial harmony that is shattered when the crew's dancing erupts into racial conflict in "Midnight, Forecastle" (Ch. 40). Fifty chapters later, Pip suffers mental disintegration after he is reminded that as a slave he would be worth less money than a whale. Commodified and brutalized, "Pip becomes the ship's conscience". His views of property are another example of wrestling with moral choice. In Chapter 89, "Fast-Fish and Loose-Fish, Ishmael expounds the legal concept "fast-fish and loose-fish", which gives right of ownership to those who take possession of an abandoned fish or ship; he compares the concept to events in history, such as the European colonization of the Americas, the partitions of Poland, and the Mexican–American War. The novel has also been read as critical of the contemporary literary and philosophical movement Transcendentalism, attacking the thought of leading Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson in particular. The life and death of Ahab has been read as an attack on Emerson's philosophy of self-reliance, for one, in its destructive potential and potential justification for egoism. Richard Chase writes that for Melville, 'Death–spiritual, emotional, physical–is the price of self-reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all-sufficient self.' In that regard, Chase sees Melville's art as antithetical to that of Emerson's thought, in that Melville '[points] up the dangers of an exaggerated self-regard, rather than, as ... Emerson loved to do, [suggested] the vital possibilities of the self.' Newton Arvin further suggests that self-reliance was, for Melville, really the '[masquerade in kingly weeds of] a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive.' Style "Above all", say the scholars Bryant and Springer, Moby-Dick is language: "nautical, biblical, Homeric, Shakespearean, Miltonic, cetological, alliterative, fanciful, colloquial, archaic and unceasingly allusive". Melville stretches grammar, quotes well-known or obscure sources, or swings from calm prose to high rhetoric, technical exposition, seaman's slang, mystic speculation, or wild prophetic archaism. Melville coined words, critic Newton Arvin recognizes, as if the English vocabulary were too limited for the complex things he had to express. Perhaps the most striking example is the use of verbal nouns, mostly plural, such as allurings, coincidings, and leewardings. Equally abundant are unfamiliar adjectives and adverbs, including participial adjectives such as officered, omnitooled, and uncatastrophied; participial adverbs such as intermixingly, postponedly, and uninterpenetratingly; rarities such as the adjectives unsmoothable, spermy, and leviathanic, and adverbs such as sultanically, Spanishly, and Venetianly; and adjectival compounds ranging from odd to magnificent, such as "the message-carrying air", "the circus-running sun", and "teeth-tiered sharks". It is rarer for Melville to create his own verbs from nouns, but he does this with what Arvin calls "irresistible effect", such as in "who didst thunder him higher than a throne", and "my fingers ... began ... to serpentine and spiralize". For Arvin, the essence of the writing style of Moby-Dick lies in the manner in which the parts of speech are 'intermixingly' assorted in Melville's style--so that the distinction between verbs and nouns, substantives and modifiers, becomes a half unreal one—this is the prime characteristic of his language. No feature of it could express more tellingly the awareness that lies below and behind Moby-Dick—the awareness that action and condition, movement and stasis, object and idea, are but surface aspects of one underlying reality. Later critics have expanded Arvin's categories. The superabundant vocabulary can be broken down into strategies used individually and in combination. First, the original modification of words as "Leviathanism" and the exaggerated repetition of modified words, as in the series "pitiable", "pity", "pitied" and "piteous" (Ch. 81, "The Pequod Meets the Virgin"). Second, the use of existing words in new ways, as when the whale "heaps" and "tasks". Third, words lifted from specialized fields, as "fossiliferous". Fourth, the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in "concentrating brow" and "immaculate manliness" (Ch. 26, "Knights and Squires"). Fifth, using the participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words "preluding" and "foreshadowing" ("so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ..."; "In this foreshadowing interval ..."). Other characteristic stylistic elements are the echoes and overtones, both imitation of distinct styles and habitual use of sources to shape his own work. His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton. The novel uses several levels of rhetoric. The simplest is "a relatively straightforward expository style", such as in the cetological chapters, though they are "rarely sustained, and serve chiefly as transitions" between more sophisticated levels. A second level is the "poetic", such as in Ahab's quarter-deck monologue, to the point that it can be set as blank verse. Set over a metrical pattern, the rhythms are "evenly controlled—too evenly perhaps for prose," Bezanson suggests. A third level is the idiomatic, and just as the poetic it hardly is present in pure form. Examples of this are "the consistently excellent idiom" of Stubb, such as in the way he encourages the rowing crew in a rhythm of speech that suggests "the beat of the oars takes the place of the metronomic meter". The fourth and final level of rhetoric is the composite, "a magnificent blending" of the first three and possible other elements: The Nantucketer, he alone resides and riots on the sea; he alone, in Bible language, goes down to it in ships; to and fro ploughing it as his own special plantation. There is his home; there lies his business, which a Noah's flood would not interrupt, though it overwhelmed all the millions in China. He lives on the sea, as prairie cocks in the prairie; he hides among the waves, he climbs them as chamois hunters climb the Alps. For years he knows not the land; so that when he comes to it at last, it smells like another world, more strangely than the moon would to an Earthsman. With the landless gull, that at sunset folds her wings and is rocked to sleep between billows; so at nightfall, the Nantucketer, out of sight of land, furls his sails, and lays him to his rest, while under his very pillow rush herds of walruses and whales. ("Nantucket", Ch. 14). Bezanson calls this chapter a comical "prose poem" that blends "high and low with a relaxed assurance". Similar passages include the "marvelous hymn to spiritual democracy" in the middle of "Knights and Squires". The elaborate use of the Homeric simile may not have been learned from Homer himself, yet Matthiessen finds the writing "more consistently alive" on the Homeric than on the Shakespearean level, especially during the final chase the "controlled accumulation" of such similes emphasizes Ahab's hubris through a succession of land-images, for instance: "The ship tore on; leaving such a furrow in the sea as when a cannon-ball, missent, becomes a ploughshare and turns up the level field" ("The Chase – Second Day", Ch. 134). A paragraph-long simile describes how the 30 men of the crew became a single unit: For as the one ship that held them all; though it was put together of all contrasting things—oak, and maple, and pine wood; iron, and pitch, and hemp—yet all these ran into each other in the one concrete hull, which shot on its way, both balanced and directed by the long central keel; even so, all the individualities of the crew, this man's valor, that man's fear; guilt and guiltiness, all varieties were welded into oneness, and were all directed to that fatal goal which Ahab their one lord and keel did point to. ("The Chase – Second Day", Ch. 134). The final phrase fuses the two halves of the comparison; the men become identical with the ship, which follows Ahab's direction. The concentration only gives way to more imagery, with the "mastheads, like the tops of tall palms, were outspreadingly tufted with arms and legs". All these images contribute their "startling energy" to the advance of the narrative. When the boats are lowered, the imagery serves to dwarf everything but Ahab's will in the presence of Moby Dick. These similes, with their astonishing "imaginative abundance," not only create dramatic movement, Matthiessen observes: "They are no less notable for breadth; and the more sustained among them, for an heroic dignity." Assimilation of Shakespeare F. O. Matthiessen, in 1941, declared that Melville's "possession by Shakespeare went far beyond all other influences" in that it made Melville discover his own full strength "through the challenge of the most abundant imagination in history". This insight was then reinforced by the study of Melville's annotatations in his reading copy of Shakespeare, which show that he immersed himself in Shakespeare when he was preparing for Moby-Dick, especially King Lear and Macbeth. Reading Shakespeare, Matthiessen observes, was "a catalytic agent", one that transformed his writing "from limited reporting to the expression of profound natural forces". The creation of Ahab, Melville biographer Leon Howard discovered, followed an observation by Coleridge in his lecture on Hamlet: "one of Shakespeare's modes of creating characters is to conceive any one intellectual or moral faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself. ... thus mutilated or diseased, under given circumstances". Coleridge's vocabulary is echoed in some phrases that describe Ahab. Ahab seemed to have "what seems a half-wilful over-ruling morbidness at the bottom of his nature", and "all men tragically great", Melville added, "are made so through a certain morbidness; "all mortal greatness is but disease". In addition to this, in Howard's view, the self-references of Ishmael as a "tragic dramatist", and his defense of his choice of a hero who lacked "all outward majestical trappings" is evidence that Melville "consciously thought of his protagonist as a tragic hero of the sort found in Hamlet and King Lear". Matthiessen demonstrates the extent to which Melville was in full possession of his powers in the description of Ahab, which ends in language "that suggests Shakespeare's but is not an imitation of it: 'Oh, Ahab! what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!' The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, "but its two key words appear only once each in the plays ... and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination." Melville's assimilation of Shakespeare, Matthiessen concludes, gave Moby-Dick "a kind of diction that depended upon no source", and that could, as D.H. Lawrence put it, convey something "almost superhuman or inhuman, bigger than life". The prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on "a sense of speech rhythm". Matthiessen finds debts to Shakespeare, whether hard or easy to recognize, on almost every page. He points out that the phrase "mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing" at the end of "Cetology" (Ch.32) echo the famous phrase in Macbeth: "Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing." Matthiessen shows that Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the "Quarter-Deck" (Ch.36), is "virtually blank verse, and can be printed as such": In addition to this sense of rhythm, Matthiessen shows that Melville "now mastered Shakespeare's mature secret of how to make language itself dramatic". He had learned three essential things, Matthiessen sums up: To rely on verbs of action, "which lend their dynamic pressure to both movement and meaning." The effective tension caused by the contrast of "thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds" and "there's that in here that still remains indifferent" in "The Candles" (Ch. 119) makes the last clause lead to a "compulsion to strike the breast", which suggests "how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words;" The Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds was not lost on him ("full-freighted"); And, finally, Melville learned how to handle "the quickened sense of life that comes from making one part of speech act as another—for example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or the coining of 'placeless', an adjective from a noun." Renaissance Humanism Melville also borrowed stylistic qualities from Renaissance Humanists such as Thomas Browne and Robert Burton. Melville's biographer Hershel Parker notes that during the composition of Moby-Dick, Melville read Thomas Browne, Robert Burton, and Rabelais and adopted not only their poetic and conversational prose styles, but also their skeptical attitudes towards religion. Browne's statement "I love to lose my selfe in a mystery to pursue my reason to an ob altitudo" mirrors both in ethos and poetics Ishmael's "I love to sail forbidden seas, and land on barbarous coasts. Not ignoring what is good, I am quick to perceive a horror, and could still be social with it." Ishmael also mirrors the epistemological uncertainty of Renaissance humanists. For instance, Browne argues that "where there is an obscurity too deepe for our reason...[reason] becomes more humble and submissive unto the subtilties of faith... I believe there was already a tree whose fruit our unhappy parents tasted, though in the same chapter, when God forbids it, 'tis positivley said, the plants of the field were not yet growne." Ishmael similarly embraces paradox when he proclaims "Doubts of all things earthly, and intuitions of some things heavenly; this combination makes neither believer nor infidel, but makes a man who regards them both with equal eye." Scholars have also noted similarities between Melville's style and that of Robert Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholy. Scholar William Engel notes that "Because Melville had Robert Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy at his side, this encyclopedic work will serve as a conceptual touchstone for analyzing his looking back to an earlier aesthetic practice." Additionally, Melville's biographer Hershel Parker writes that "in 1847, Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy served as Melville's sonorous textbook on morbid psychology" and then "in 1848 [Melville] bought Michel de Montaigne's works, where he read the Essays, finding there a worldly wise skepticism that braced him against the superficial pieties demanded by his time." Finally, Melville then read Thomas Browne's Religio Medici which Melville adored, describing Browne to a friend as "a kind of 'crack'd archangel.'" Background Autobiographical elements Moby-Dick draws on Melville's experience on the whaler Acushnet, but is not autobiographical. On December 30, 1840, Melville signed on as a green hand for the maiden voyage of the Acushnet, planned to last for 52 months. Its owner, Melvin O. Bradford, like Bildad, was a Quaker: on several instances when he signed documents, he erased the word "swear" and replaced it with "affirm". But the shareholders of the Acushnet were relatively wealthy, whereas the owners of the Pequod included poor widows and orphaned children. The model for the Whaleman's Chapel of chapter 7 is the Seamen's Bethel on Johnny Cake Hill. Melville attended a service there shortly before he shipped out on the Acushnet, and he heard a sermon by Reverend Enoch Mudge, who is at least in part the inspiration for Father Mapple. Even the topic of Jonah and the Whale may be authentic, for Mudge contributed sermons on Jonah to Sailor's Magazine The crew was not as heterogenous or exotic as the crew of the Pequod. Five were foreigners, four of them Portuguese, and the others were American either at birth or naturalized. Three black men were in the crew, two seamen and the cook. Fleece, the black cook of the Pequod, was probably modeled on this Philadelphia-born William Maiden. A first mate, actually called Edward C. Starbuck was discharged at Tahiti under mysterious circumstances. The second mate, John Hall, is identified as Stubb in an annotation in the book's copy of crew member Henry Hubbard, who also identified the model for Pip: John Backus, a little black man added to the crew during the voyage. Hubbard witnessed Pip's fall into the water. Ahab seems to have had no model, though his death may have been based on an actual event. Melville was aboard The Star in May 1843 with two sailors from the Nantucket who could have told him that they had seen their second mate "taken out of a whaleboat by a foul line and drowned". Whaling sources In addition to his own experience on the whaling ship Acushnet, two actual events served as the genesis for Melville's tale. One was the sinking of the Nantucket ship Essex in 1820, after a sperm whale rammed her 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the western coast of South America. First mate Owen Chase, one of eight survivors, recorded the events in his 1821 Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex. The other event was the alleged killing in the late 1830s of the albino sperm whale Mocha Dick, in the waters off the Chilean island of Mocha. Mocha Dick was rumored to have 20 or so harpoons in his back from other whalers, and appeared to attack ships with premeditated ferocity. One of his battles with a whaler served as subject for an article by explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds in the May 1839 issue of The Knickerbocker or New-York Monthly Magazine. Melville was familiar with the article, which described: Significantly, Reynolds writes a first-person narration that serves as a frame for the story of a whaling captain he meets. The captain resembles Ahab and suggests a similar symbolism and single-minded motivation in hunting this whale, in that when his crew first encounters Mocha Dick and cowers from him, the captain rallies them: Mocha Dick had over 100 encounters with whalers in the decades between 1810 and the 1830s. He was described as being gigantic and covered in barnacles. Although he was the most famous, Mocha Dick was not the only white whale in the sea, nor the only whale to attack hunters. While an accidental collision with a sperm whale at night accounted for sinking of the Union in 1807, it was not until August 1851 that the whaler Ann Alexander, while hunting in the Pacific off the Galápagos Islands, became the second vessel since the Essex to be attacked, holed, and sunk by a whale. Melville remarked, "Ye Gods! What a commentator is this Ann Alexander whale. What he has to say is short & pithy & very much to the point. I wonder if my evil art has raised this monster." While Melville had already drawn on his different sailing experiences in his previous novels, such as Mardi, he had never focused specifically on whaling. The 18 months he spent as an ordinary seaman aboard the whaler Acushnet in 1841–42, and one incident in particular, now served as inspiration. During a mid-ocean "gam" (rendezvous at sea between ships), he met Chase's son William, who lent him his father's book. Melville later wrote: The book was out of print, and rare. Melville let his interest in the book be known to his father-in-law, Lemuel Shaw, whose friend in Nantucket procured an imperfect but clean copy which Shaw gave to Melville in April 1851. Melville read this copy avidly, made copious notes in it, and had it bound, keeping it in his library for the rest of his life. Moby-Dick contains large sections—most of them narrated by Ishmael—that seemingly have nothing to do with the plot, but describe aspects of the whaling business. Although a successful earlier novel about Nantucket whalers had been written, Miriam Coffin or The Whale-Fisherman (1835) by Joseph C. Hart, which is credited with influencing elements of Melville's work, most accounts of whaling tended to be sensational tales of bloody mutiny, and Melville believed that no book up to that time had portrayed the whaling industry in as fascinating or immediate a way as he had experienced it. Melville found the bulk of his data on whales and whaling in five books, the most important of which was by the English ship's surgeon Thomas Beale, Natural History of the Sperm Whale (1839), a book of reputed authority which Melville bought on July 10, 1850. "In scale and complexity," scholar Steven Olsen-Smith writes, "the significance of [this source] to the composition of Moby-Dick surpasses that of any other source book from which Melville is known to have drawn." According to scholar Howard P. Vincent, the general influence of this source is to supply the arrangement of whaling data in chapter groupings. Melville followed Beale's grouping closely, yet adapted it to what art demanded, and he changed the original's prosaic phrases into graphic figures of speech. The second most important whaling book is Frederick Debell Bennett, A Whaling Voyage Round the Globe, from the Year 1833 to 1836 (1840), from which Melville also took the chapter organization, but in a lesser degree than he learned from Beale. The third book was the one Melville reviewed for the Literary World in 1847, J. Ross Browne's Etchings of a Whaling Cruise (1846), which may have given Melville the first thought for a whaling book, and in any case contains passages embarrassingly similar to passages in Moby-Dick. The fourth book, Reverend Henry T. Cheever's The Whale and His Captors (1850), was used for two episodes in Moby-Dick but probably appeared too late in the writing of the novel to be of much more use. Melville did plunder a fifth book, William Scoresby, Jr., An Account of the Arctic Regions with a History and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery (1820), though—unlike the other four books—its subject is the Greenland whale rather than the sperm whale. Although the book became the standard whaling reference soon after publication, Melville satirized and parodied it on several occasions—for instance in the description of narwhales in the chapter "Cetology", where he called Scoresby "Charley Coffin" and gave his account "a humorous twist of fact": "Scoresby will help out Melville several times, and on each occasion Melville will satirize him under a pseudonym." Vincent suggests several reasons for Melville's attitude towards Scoresby, including his dryness and abundance of irrelevant data, but the major reason seems to have been that the Greenland whale was the sperm whale's closest competitor for the public's attention, so Melville felt obliged to dismiss anything dealing with it. In addition to cetological works, Melville also consulted scattered literary works that mention or discuss whales, as the opening "Extracts" section of the novel demonstrates. For instance, Thomas Browne's essay "Of Sperma-Ceti, and the Sperma-Ceti Whale" from his Pseudodoxia Epidemica is consulted not only in the extracts, but the chapter titled "Cetology." Ishmael notes that "Many are the men, small and great, old and new, landsmen and seamen, who have at large or in little, written of the whale. Run over a few:—The Authors of the Bible; Aristotle; Pliny; Aldrovandi; Sir Thomas Browne." Browne's playful examination of whales that values philosophical interpretations over scientifically accurate examinations helped shape the novel's style. Browne's comment that "the [Sperm-Whale's] eyes but small, the pizell [penis] large, and prominent" likely helped shape the comical chapter concerning whale penises, "The Cassock." Composition Scholars have concluded that Melville composed Moby-Dick in two or even three stages. Reasoning from biographical evidence, analysis of the functions of characters, and a series of unexplained but perhaps meaningful inconsistencies in the final version, they hypothesize that reading Shakespeare and his new friendship with Hawthorne, in the words of Lawrence Buell, inspired Melville to rewrite a "relatively straightforward" whaling adventure into "an epic of cosmic encyclopedic proportions". The earliest surviving mention of what became | Israel that were before him" (I Kings 16:33). Themes An early enthusiast for the Melville Revival, British author E. M. Forster, remarked in 1927: "Moby-Dick is full of meanings: its meaning is a different problem." Yet he saw as "the essential" in the book "its prophetic song", which flows "like an undercurrent" beneath the surface action and morality. The hunt for the whale is a metaphor for an epistemological quest. In the words of biographer Laurie Robertson-Lorant, "man's search for meaning in a world of deceptive appearances and fatal delusions." Ishmael's taxonomy of whales merely demonstrates "the limitations of scientific knowledge and the impossibility of achieving certainty". She also contrasts Ishmael and Ahab's attitudes toward life, with Ishmael's open-minded and meditative, "polypositional stance" as antithetical to Ahab's monomania, adhering to dogmatic rigidity. Melville biographer Andrew Delbanco cites race as an example of this search for truth beneath surface differences, noting that all races are represented among the crew members of the Pequod. Although Ishmael initially is afraid of Queequeg as a tattooed cannibal, he soon decides "Better sleep with a sober cannibal than a drunken Christian." While it may be rare for a mid-19th century American book to feature Black characters in a nonslavery context, slavery is frequently mentioned. The theme of race is primarily carried by Pip, the diminutive Black cabin boy. When Pip has almost drowned, and Ahab, genuinely touched by Pip's suffering, questions him gently, Pip "can only parrot the language of an advertisement for the return of a fugitive slave: 'Pip! Reward for Pip!'". Editors Bryant and Springer suggest perception is a central theme, the difficulty of seeing and understanding, which makes deep reality hard to discover and truth hard to pin down. Ahab explains that, like all things, the evil whale wears a disguise: "All visible objects, man, are but pasteboard masks" — and Ahab is determined to "strike through the mask! How can the prisoner reach outside, except by thrusting through the wall? To me, the white whale is that wall" (Ch. 36, "The Quarter-Deck"). This theme pervades the novel, perhaps never so emphatically as in "The Doubloon" (Ch. 99), where each crewmember perceives the coin in a way shaped by his own personality. Later, the American edition has Ahab "discover no sign" (Ch. 133) of the whale when he is staring into the deep. In fact, Moby Dick is then swimming up at him. In the British edition, Melville changed the word "discover" to "perceive", and with good reason, for "discovery" means finding what is already there, but "perceiving", or better still, perception, is "a matter of shaping what exists by the way in which we see it". The point is not that Ahab would discover the whale as an object, but that he would perceive it as a symbol of his making. Yet Melville does not offer easy solutions. Ishmael and Queequeg's sensual friendship initiates a kind of racial harmony that is shattered when the crew's dancing erupts into racial conflict in "Midnight, Forecastle" (Ch. 40). Fifty chapters later, Pip suffers mental disintegration after he is reminded that as a slave he would be worth less money than a whale. Commodified and brutalized, "Pip becomes the ship's conscience". His views of property are another example of wrestling with moral choice. In Chapter 89, "Fast-Fish and Loose-Fish, Ishmael expounds the legal concept "fast-fish and loose-fish", which gives right of ownership to those who take possession of an abandoned fish or ship; he compares the concept to events in history, such as the European colonization of the Americas, the partitions of Poland, and the Mexican–American War. The novel has also been read as critical of the contemporary literary and philosophical movement Transcendentalism, attacking the thought of leading Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson in particular. The life and death of Ahab has been read as an attack on Emerson's philosophy of self-reliance, for one, in its destructive potential and potential justification for egoism. Richard Chase writes that for Melville, 'Death–spiritual, emotional, physical–is the price of self-reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all-sufficient self.' In that regard, Chase sees Melville's art as antithetical to that of Emerson's thought, in that Melville '[points] up the dangers of an exaggerated self-regard, rather than, as ... Emerson loved to do, [suggested] the vital possibilities of the self.' Newton Arvin further suggests that self-reliance was, for Melville, really the '[masquerade in kingly weeds of] a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive.' Style "Above all", say the scholars Bryant and Springer, Moby-Dick is language: "nautical, biblical, Homeric, Shakespearean, Miltonic, cetological, alliterative, fanciful, colloquial, archaic and unceasingly allusive". Melville stretches grammar, quotes well-known or obscure sources, or swings from calm prose to high rhetoric, technical exposition, seaman's slang, mystic speculation, or wild prophetic archaism. Melville coined words, critic Newton Arvin recognizes, as if the English vocabulary were too limited for the complex things he had to express. Perhaps the most striking example is the use of verbal nouns, mostly plural, such as allurings, coincidings, and leewardings. Equally abundant are unfamiliar adjectives and adverbs, including participial adjectives such as officered, omnitooled, and uncatastrophied; participial adverbs such as intermixingly, postponedly, and uninterpenetratingly; rarities such as the adjectives unsmoothable, spermy, and leviathanic, and adverbs such as sultanically, Spanishly, and Venetianly; and adjectival compounds ranging from odd to magnificent, such as "the message-carrying air", "the circus-running sun", and "teeth-tiered sharks". It is rarer for Melville to create his own verbs from nouns, but he does this with what Arvin calls "irresistible effect", such as in "who didst thunder him higher than a throne", and "my fingers ... began ... to serpentine and spiralize". For Arvin, the essence of the writing style of Moby-Dick lies in the manner in which the parts of speech are 'intermixingly' assorted in Melville's style--so that the distinction between verbs and nouns, substantives and modifiers, becomes a half unreal one—this is the prime characteristic of his language. No feature of it could express more tellingly the awareness that lies below and behind Moby-Dick—the awareness that action and condition, movement and stasis, object and idea, are but surface aspects of one underlying reality. Later critics have expanded Arvin's categories. The superabundant vocabulary can be broken down into strategies used individually and in combination. First, the original modification of words as "Leviathanism" and the exaggerated repetition of modified words, as in the series "pitiable", "pity", "pitied" and "piteous" (Ch. 81, "The Pequod Meets the Virgin"). Second, the use of existing words in new ways, as when the whale "heaps" and "tasks". Third, words lifted from specialized fields, as "fossiliferous". Fourth, the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in "concentrating brow" and "immaculate manliness" (Ch. 26, "Knights and Squires"). Fifth, using the participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words "preluding" and "foreshadowing" ("so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ..."; "In this foreshadowing interval ..."). Other characteristic stylistic elements are the echoes and overtones, both imitation of distinct styles and habitual use of sources to shape his own work. His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton. The novel uses several levels of rhetoric. The simplest is "a relatively straightforward expository style", such as in the cetological chapters, though they are "rarely sustained, and serve chiefly as transitions" between more sophisticated levels. A second level is the "poetic", such as in Ahab's quarter-deck monologue, to the point that it can be set as blank verse. Set over a metrical pattern, the rhythms are "evenly controlled—too evenly perhaps for prose," Bezanson suggests. A third level is the idiomatic, and just as the poetic it hardly is present in pure form. Examples of this are "the consistently excellent idiom" of Stubb, such as in the way he encourages the rowing crew in a rhythm of speech that suggests "the beat of the oars takes the place of the metronomic meter". The fourth and final level of rhetoric is the composite, "a magnificent blending" of the first three and possible other elements: The Nantucketer, he alone resides and riots on the sea; he alone, in Bible language, goes down to it in ships; to and fro ploughing it as his own special plantation. There is his home; there lies his business, which a Noah's flood would not interrupt, though it overwhelmed all the millions in China. He lives on the sea, as prairie cocks in the prairie; he hides among the waves, he climbs them as chamois hunters climb the Alps. For years he knows not the land; so that when he comes to it at last, it smells like another world, more strangely than the moon would to an Earthsman. With the landless gull, that at sunset folds her wings and is rocked to sleep between billows; so at nightfall, the Nantucketer, out of sight of land, furls his sails, and lays him to his rest, while under his very pillow rush herds of walruses and whales. ("Nantucket", Ch. 14). Bezanson calls this chapter a comical "prose poem" that blends "high and low with a relaxed assurance". Similar passages include the "marvelous hymn to spiritual democracy" in the middle of "Knights and Squires". The elaborate use of the Homeric simile may not have been learned from Homer himself, yet Matthiessen finds the writing "more consistently alive" on the Homeric than on the Shakespearean level, especially during the final chase the "controlled accumulation" of such similes emphasizes Ahab's hubris through a succession of land-images, for instance: "The ship tore on; leaving such a furrow in the sea as when a cannon-ball, missent, becomes a ploughshare and turns up the level field" ("The Chase – Second Day", Ch. 134). A paragraph-long simile describes how the 30 men of the crew became a single unit: For as the one ship that held them all; though it was put together of all contrasting things—oak, and maple, and pine wood; iron, and pitch, and hemp—yet all these ran into each other in the one concrete hull, which shot on its way, both balanced and directed by the long central keel; even so, all the individualities of the crew, this man's valor, that man's fear; guilt and guiltiness, all varieties were welded into oneness, and were all directed to that fatal goal which Ahab their one lord and keel did point to. ("The Chase – Second Day", Ch. 134). The final phrase fuses the two halves of the comparison; the men become identical with the ship, which follows Ahab's direction. The concentration only gives way to more imagery, with the "mastheads, like the tops of tall palms, were outspreadingly tufted with arms and legs". All these images contribute their "startling energy" to the advance of the narrative. When the boats are lowered, the imagery serves to dwarf everything but Ahab's will in the presence of Moby Dick. These similes, with their astonishing "imaginative abundance," not only create dramatic movement, Matthiessen observes: "They are no less notable for breadth; and the more sustained among them, for an heroic dignity." Assimilation of Shakespeare F. O. Matthiessen, in 1941, declared that Melville's "possession by Shakespeare went far beyond all other influences" in that it made Melville discover his own full strength "through the challenge of the most abundant imagination in history". This insight was then reinforced by the study of Melville's annotatations in his reading copy of Shakespeare, which show that he immersed himself in Shakespeare when he was preparing for Moby-Dick, especially King Lear and Macbeth. Reading Shakespeare, Matthiessen observes, was "a catalytic agent", one that transformed his writing "from limited reporting to the expression of profound natural forces". The creation of Ahab, Melville biographer Leon Howard discovered, followed an observation by Coleridge in his lecture on Hamlet: "one of Shakespeare's modes of creating characters is to conceive any one intellectual or moral faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself. ... thus mutilated or diseased, under given circumstances". Coleridge's vocabulary is echoed in some phrases that describe Ahab. Ahab seemed to have "what seems a half-wilful over-ruling morbidness at the bottom of his nature", and "all men tragically great", Melville added, "are made so through a certain morbidness; "all mortal greatness is but disease". In addition to this, in Howard's view, the self-references of Ishmael as a "tragic dramatist", and his defense of his choice of a hero who lacked "all outward majestical trappings" is evidence that Melville "consciously thought of his protagonist as a tragic hero of the sort found in Hamlet and King Lear". Matthiessen demonstrates the extent to which Melville was in full possession of his powers in the description of Ahab, which ends in language "that suggests Shakespeare's but is not an imitation of it: 'Oh, Ahab! what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!' The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, "but its two key words appear only once each in the plays ... and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination." Melville's assimilation of Shakespeare, Matthiessen concludes, gave Moby-Dick "a kind of diction that depended upon no source", and that could, as D.H. Lawrence put it, convey something "almost superhuman or inhuman, bigger than life". The prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on "a sense of speech rhythm". Matthiessen finds debts to Shakespeare, whether hard or easy to recognize, on almost every page. He points out that the phrase "mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing" at the end of "Cetology" (Ch.32) echo the famous phrase in Macbeth: "Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing." Matthiessen shows that Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the "Quarter-Deck" (Ch.36), is "virtually blank verse, and can be printed as such": In addition to this sense of rhythm, Matthiessen shows that Melville "now mastered Shakespeare's mature secret of how to make language itself dramatic". He had learned three essential things, Matthiessen sums up: To rely on verbs of action, "which lend their dynamic pressure to both movement and meaning." The effective tension caused by the contrast of "thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds" and "there's that in here that still remains indifferent" in "The Candles" (Ch. 119) makes the last clause lead to a "compulsion to strike the breast", which suggests "how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words;" The Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds was not lost on him ("full-freighted"); And, finally, Melville learned how to handle "the quickened sense of life that comes from making one part of speech act as another—for example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or the coining of 'placeless', an adjective from a noun." Renaissance Humanism Melville also borrowed stylistic qualities from Renaissance Humanists such as Thomas Browne and Robert Burton. Melville's biographer Hershel Parker notes that during the composition of Moby-Dick, Melville read Thomas Browne, Robert Burton, and Rabelais and adopted not only their poetic and conversational prose styles, but also their skeptical attitudes towards religion. Browne's statement "I love to lose my selfe in a mystery to pursue my reason to an ob altitudo" mirrors both in ethos and poetics Ishmael's "I love to sail forbidden seas, and land on barbarous coasts. Not ignoring what is good, I am quick to perceive a horror, and could still be social with it." Ishmael also mirrors the epistemological uncertainty of Renaissance humanists. For instance, Browne argues that "where there is an obscurity too deepe for our reason...[reason] becomes more humble and submissive unto the subtilties of faith... I believe there was already a tree whose fruit our unhappy parents tasted, though in the same chapter, when God forbids it, 'tis positivley said, the plants of the field were not yet growne." Ishmael similarly embraces paradox when he proclaims "Doubts of all things earthly, and intuitions of some things heavenly; this combination makes neither believer nor infidel, but makes a man who regards them both with equal eye." Scholars have also noted similarities between Melville's style and that of Robert Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholy. Scholar William Engel notes that "Because Melville had Robert Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy at his side, this encyclopedic work will serve as a conceptual touchstone for analyzing his looking back to an earlier aesthetic practice." Additionally, Melville's biographer Hershel Parker writes that "in 1847, Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy served as Melville's sonorous textbook on morbid psychology" and then "in 1848 [Melville] bought Michel de Montaigne's works, where he read the Essays, finding there a worldly wise skepticism that braced him against the superficial pieties demanded by his time." Finally, Melville then read Thomas Browne's Religio Medici which Melville adored, describing Browne to a friend as "a kind of 'crack'd archangel.'" Background Autobiographical elements Moby-Dick draws on Melville's experience on the whaler Acushnet, but is not autobiographical. On December 30, 1840, Melville signed on as a green hand for the maiden voyage of the Acushnet, planned to last for 52 months. Its owner, Melvin O. Bradford, like Bildad, was a Quaker: on several instances when he signed documents, he erased the word "swear" and replaced it with "affirm". But the shareholders of the Acushnet were relatively wealthy, whereas the owners of the Pequod included poor widows and orphaned children. The model for the Whaleman's Chapel of chapter 7 is the Seamen's Bethel on Johnny Cake Hill. Melville attended a service there shortly before he shipped out on the Acushnet, and he heard a sermon by Reverend Enoch Mudge, who is at least in part the inspiration for Father Mapple. Even the topic of Jonah and the Whale may be authentic, for Mudge contributed sermons on Jonah to Sailor's Magazine The crew was not as heterogenous or exotic as the crew of the Pequod. Five were foreigners, four of them Portuguese, and the others were American either at birth or naturalized. Three black men were in the crew, two seamen and the cook. Fleece, the black cook of the Pequod, was probably modeled on this Philadelphia-born William Maiden. A first mate, actually called Edward C. Starbuck was discharged at Tahiti under mysterious circumstances. The second mate, John Hall, is identified as Stubb in an annotation in the book's copy of crew member Henry Hubbard, who also identified the model for Pip: John Backus, a little black man added to the crew during the voyage. Hubbard witnessed Pip's fall into the water. Ahab seems to have had no model, though his death may have been based on an actual event. Melville was aboard The Star in May 1843 with two sailors from the Nantucket who could have told him that they had seen their second mate "taken out of a whaleboat by a foul line and drowned". Whaling sources In addition to his own experience on the whaling ship Acushnet, two actual events served as the genesis for Melville's tale. One was the sinking of the Nantucket ship Essex in 1820, after a sperm whale rammed her 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the western coast of South America. First mate Owen Chase, one of eight survivors, recorded the events in his 1821 Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex. The other event was the alleged killing in the late 1830s of the albino sperm whale Mocha Dick, in the waters off the Chilean island of Mocha. Mocha Dick was rumored to have 20 or so harpoons in his back from other whalers, and appeared to attack ships with premeditated ferocity. One of his battles with a whaler served as subject for an article by explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds in the May 1839 issue of The Knickerbocker or New-York Monthly Magazine. Melville was familiar with the article, which described: Significantly, Reynolds writes a first-person narration that serves as a frame for the story of a whaling captain he meets. The captain resembles Ahab and suggests a similar symbolism and single-minded motivation in hunting this whale, in that when his crew first encounters Mocha Dick and cowers from him, the captain rallies them: Mocha Dick had over 100 encounters with whalers in the decades between 1810 and the 1830s. He was described as being gigantic and covered in barnacles. Although he was the most famous, Mocha Dick was not the only white whale in the sea, nor the only whale to attack hunters. While an accidental collision with a sperm whale at night accounted for sinking of the Union in 1807, it was not until August 1851 that the whaler Ann Alexander, while hunting in the Pacific off the Galápagos Islands, became the second vessel since the Essex to be attacked, holed, and sunk by a whale. Melville remarked, "Ye Gods! What a commentator is this Ann Alexander whale. What he has to say is short & pithy & very much to the point. I wonder if my evil art has raised this monster." While Melville had already drawn on his different sailing experiences in his previous novels, such as Mardi, he had never focused specifically on whaling. The 18 months he spent as an ordinary seaman aboard the whaler Acushnet in 1841–42, and one incident in particular, now served as inspiration. During a mid-ocean "gam" (rendezvous at sea between ships), he met Chase's son William, who lent him his father's book. Melville later wrote: The book was out of print, and rare. Melville let his interest in the book be known to his father-in-law, Lemuel Shaw, whose friend in Nantucket procured an imperfect but clean copy which Shaw gave to Melville in April 1851. Melville read this copy avidly, made copious notes in it, and had it bound, keeping it in his library for the rest of his life. Moby-Dick contains large sections—most of them narrated by Ishmael—that seemingly have nothing to do with the plot, but describe aspects of the whaling business. Although a successful earlier novel about Nantucket whalers had been written, Miriam Coffin or The Whale-Fisherman (1835) by Joseph C. Hart, which is credited with influencing elements of Melville's work, most accounts of whaling tended to be sensational tales of bloody mutiny, and Melville believed that no book up to that time had portrayed the whaling industry in as fascinating or immediate a way as he had experienced it. Melville found the bulk of his data on whales and whaling in five books, the most important of which was by the English ship's surgeon Thomas Beale, Natural History of the Sperm Whale (1839), a book of reputed authority which Melville bought on July 10, 1850. "In scale and complexity," scholar Steven Olsen-Smith writes, "the significance of [this source] to the composition of Moby-Dick surpasses that of any other source book from which Melville is known to have drawn." According to scholar Howard P. Vincent, the general influence of this source is to supply the arrangement of whaling data in chapter groupings. Melville followed Beale's grouping closely, yet adapted it to what art demanded, and he changed the original's prosaic phrases into graphic figures of speech. The second most important whaling book is Frederick Debell Bennett, A Whaling Voyage Round the Globe, from the Year 1833 to 1836 (1840), from which Melville also took the chapter organization, but in a lesser degree than he learned from Beale. The third book was the one Melville reviewed for the Literary World in 1847, J. Ross Browne's Etchings of a Whaling Cruise (1846), which may have given Melville the first thought for a whaling book, and in any case contains passages embarrassingly similar to passages in Moby-Dick. The fourth book, Reverend Henry T. Cheever's The Whale and His Captors (1850), was used for two episodes in Moby-Dick but probably appeared too late in the writing of the novel to be of much more use. Melville did plunder a fifth book, William Scoresby, Jr., An Account of the Arctic Regions with a History and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery (1820), though—unlike the other four books—its subject is the Greenland whale rather than the sperm whale. Although the book became the standard whaling reference soon after publication, Melville satirized and parodied it on several occasions—for instance in the description of narwhales in the chapter "Cetology", where he called Scoresby "Charley Coffin" and gave his account "a humorous twist of fact": "Scoresby will help out Melville several times, and on each occasion Melville will satirize him under a pseudonym." Vincent suggests several reasons for Melville's attitude towards Scoresby, including his dryness and abundance of irrelevant data, but the major reason seems to have been that the Greenland whale was the sperm whale's closest competitor for the public's attention, so Melville felt obliged to dismiss anything dealing with it. In addition to cetological works, Melville also consulted scattered literary works that mention or discuss whales, as the opening "Extracts" section of the novel demonstrates. For instance, Thomas Browne's essay "Of Sperma-Ceti, and the Sperma-Ceti Whale" from his Pseudodoxia Epidemica is consulted not only in the extracts, but the chapter titled "Cetology." Ishmael notes that "Many are the men, small and great, old and new, landsmen and seamen, who have at large or in little, written of the whale. Run over a few:—The Authors of the Bible; Aristotle; Pliny; Aldrovandi; Sir Thomas Browne." Browne's playful examination of whales that values philosophical interpretations over scientifically accurate examinations helped shape the novel's style. Browne's comment that "the [Sperm-Whale's] eyes but small, the pizell [penis] large, and prominent" likely helped shape the comical chapter concerning whale penises, "The Cassock." Composition Scholars have concluded that Melville composed Moby-Dick in two or even three stages. Reasoning from biographical evidence, analysis of the functions of characters, and a series of unexplained but perhaps meaningful inconsistencies in the final version, they hypothesize that reading Shakespeare and his new friendship with Hawthorne, in the words of Lawrence Buell, inspired Melville to rewrite a "relatively straightforward" whaling adventure into "an epic of cosmic encyclopedic proportions". The earliest surviving mention of what became Moby-Dick is a letter Melville wrote to Richard Henry Dana, Jr. on May 1, 1850: Bezanson objects that the letter contains too many ambiguities to assume "that Dana's 'suggestion' would obviously be that Melville do for whaling what he had done for life on a man-of-war in White-Jacket. Dana had experienced how incomparable Melville was in dramatic storytelling when he met him in Boston, so perhaps "his 'suggestion' was that Melville do a book that captured that gift". And the long sentence in the middle of the above quotation simply acknowledges that Melville is struggling with the problem, not of choosing between fact and fancy but of how to interrelate them. The most positive statements are that it will be a strange sort of a book and that Melville means to give the truth of the thing, but what thing exactly is not clear. Melville may have found the plot before writing or developed it after the writing process was underway. Considering his elaborate use of sources, "it is safe to say" that they helped him shape the narrative, its plot included. Scholars John Bryant and Haskell Springer cite the development of the character Ishmael as another factor which prolonged Melville's process of composition and which can be deduced from the structure of the final version of the book. Ishmael, in the early chapters, is simply the narrator, just as the narrators in Melville's earlier sea adventures had been, but in later chapters becomes a mystical stage manager who is central to the tragedy. Less than two months after mentioning the project to Dana, Melville reported in a letter of June 27 to Richard Bentley, his English publisher: Nathaniel Hawthorne and his family had moved to a small red farmhouse near Lenox, Massachusetts, at the end of March 1850. He met Melville on August 5, 1850, when the authors met at a picnic hosted by a mutual friend that included, among others, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and James T. Fields. Melville wrote an unsigned review of Hawthorne's short story collection Mosses from an Old Manse titled "Hawthorne and His Mosses", which appeared in The Literary World on August 17 and 24. Bezanson finds the essay "so deeply related to Melville's imaginative and intellectual world while writing Moby-Dick" that it could be regarded as a virtual preface and should be "everybody's prime piece of contextual reading". In the essay, Melville compares Hawthorne to Shakespeare and Dante, and his "self-projection" is evident in the repeats of the word "genius", the more than two dozen references to Shakespeare, and in the insistence that Shakespeare's "unapproachability" is nonsense for an American. The most intense work on the book was done during the winter of 1850–1851, when Melville had changed the noise of New York City for a farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. The move may well have delayed finishing the book. During these months, he wrote several excited letters to Hawthorne, including one of June 1851 in which he summarizes his career: "What I feel most moved to write, that is banned,—it will not pay. Yet, altogether, write the other way I cannot. So the product is a final hash, and all my books are botches." This is the stubborn Melville who stood by Mardi and talked about his other, more commercial books with contempt. The letter also reveals how Melville experienced his development from his 25th year: "Three weeks have scarcely passed, at any time between then and now, that I have not unfolded within myself. But I feel that I am now come to the inmost leaf of the bulb, and that shortly the flower must fall to the mould." Buell finds the evidence that Melville changed his ambitions during writing "on the whole convincing", since the impact of Shakespeare and Hawthorne was "surely monumental", but others challenge the theories of the composition in three ways. The first raises objections on the use of evidence and the evidence itself. Bryant finds "little concrete evidence, and nothing at all conclusive, to show that Melville radically altered the structure or conception of the book". and scholar Robert Milder sees "insufficient evidence and doubtful methodology" at work. A second type of objection is based on assumptions about Melville's intellectual development. Bryant and Springer object to the conclusion that Hawthorne inspired Melville to write Ahab's tragic obsession into the book; Melville already had experienced other encounters which could just as well have triggered his imagination, such as the Bible's Jonah and Job, Milton's Satan, Shakespeare's King Lear, Byron's heroes. Bezanson is also not convinced that before he met Hawthorne, "Melville was not ready for the kind of book Moby-Dick became", because in his letters from the time Melville denounces his last two "straight narratives, Redburn and White-Jacket, as two books written just for the money, and he firmly stood by Mardi as the kind of book he believed in. His language is already "richly steeped in 17th-century mannerisms", characteristics of Moby-Dick. A third type calls upon the literary nature of passages used as evidence. According to Milder, the cetological chapters cannot be leftovers from an earlier stage of composition and any theory that they are "will eventually founder on the stubborn meaningfulness of these chapters", because no scholar adhering to the theory has yet explained how these chapters "can bear intimate thematic relation to a symbolic story not yet conceived". Buell finds that theories based on a combination of selected passages from letters and what are perceived as "loose ends" in the book not only "tend to dissolve into guesswork", but he also suggests that these so-called loose ends may be intended by the author: repeatedly the book mentions "the necessary unfinishedness of immense endeavors". Publication history Melville first proposed the British publication in a June 27, 1850, letter to Richard Bentley, London publisher of his earlier works. Textual scholar G. Thomas Tanselle explains that for these earlier books, American proof sheets had been sent to the British publisher and that publication in the United States had been held off until the work had been set in type and published in England. This procedure was intended to provide the best (though still uncertain) claim for the UK copyright of an American work. In the case of Moby-Dick, Melville had taken almost a year longer than promised, and could not rely on Harpers to prepare the proofs as they had done for the earlier books. Indeed, Harpers had denied him an advance, and since he was already in debt to them for almost $700, he was forced to borrow money and to arrange for the typesetting and plating himself. John Bryant suggests that he did so "to reduce the number of hands playing with his text". The final stages of composition overlapped with the early stages of publication. At the end of May 1851, Melville delivered the bulk of his manuscript to Harper's for plating and printing of proof sheets. In June, he wrote to Hawthorne that he was in New York to "work and slave on my 'Whale' while it is driving through the press". He was staying with Allan and Sophia in a small room to correct proofs, and to (re)write the closing pages. By the end of the month, "wearied with the long delay of printers", Melville came back to finish work on the book in Pittsfield. Three weeks later, the typesetting was almost done, as he announced to Bentley on July 20: "I am now passing thro' the press, the closing sheets of my new work". While Melville was simultaneously writing and proofreading what had been set, the corrected proof would be plated, that is, the type fixed in final form. Since earlier chapters were already plated when he was revising the later ones, Melville must have "felt restricted in the kinds of revisions that were feasible". On July 3, 1851, Bentley offered Melville £150 and "half profits", that is, half the profits that remained after the expenses of production and advertising. On July 20, Melville accepted, after which Bentley drew up a contract on August 13. Melville signed and returned the contract in early September, and then went to New York with the proof sheets, made from the finished plates, which he sent to London by his brother Allan on September 10. For over a month, these proofs had been in Melville's possession, and because the book would be set anew in London he could devote all his time to correcting and revising them. He still had no American publisher, so the usual hurry about getting the British publication to precede the American was not present. Only on September 12 was the Harper publishing contract signed. Bentley received the proof sheets with Melville's corrections and revisions marked on them on September 24. He published the book less than four weeks later. In the October 1851 issue of Harper's New Monthly Magazine "The Town Ho's Story" was published, with a footnote reading: "From 'The Whale'. The title of a new work by Mr. Melville, in the press of Harper and Brothers, and now publishing in London by Mr. Bentley." On October 18, the British edition, The Whale, was published in a printing of only 500 copies, fewer than Melville's previous books. Their slow sales had convinced Bentley that a smaller number was more realistic. The London Morning Herald on October 20 printed the earliest known review. On November 14, the American edition, Moby-Dick, was published and the same day reviewed in both the Albany Argus and the Morning Courier and New-York Enquirer. On November 19, Washington received the copy to be deposited for copyright purposes. The first American printing of 2,915 copies was almost the same as the first of Mardi, but the first printing of Melville's other three Harper books had been a thousand copies more. Melville's revisions and British editorial revisions The British edition, set by Bentley's printers from the American page proofs with Melville's revisions and corrections, differs from the American edition in over 700 wordings and thousands of punctuation and spelling changes. Excluding the preliminaries and the one extract, the three volumes of the British edition came to 927 pages and the single American volume to 635 pages. Accordingly, the dedication to Hawthorne in the American edition—"this book is inscribed to"—became "these volumes are inscribed to" in the British. The table of contents in the British edition generally follows the actual chapter titles in the American edition, but 19 titles in the American table of contents differ from the titles above the chapters themselves. This list was probably drawn up by Melville himself: the titles of chapters describing encounters of the Pequod with other ships had—apparently to stress the parallelisms between these chapters—been standardized to "The Pequod meets the ...," with the exception of the already published 'The Town-Ho's Story'. For unknown reasons, the "Etymology" and "Extracts" were moved to the end of the third volume. An epigraph from Paradise Lost, taken from the second of the two quotations from that work in the American edition, appears on the title page of each of the three British volumes. Melville's involvement with this rearrangement is not clear: if it was Bentley's gesture toward accommodating Melville, as Tanselle suggests, its selection put an emphasis on the quotation Melville might not have agreed with. The largest of Melville's revisions is the addition to the British edition of a 139-word footnote in Chapter 87 explaining the word "gally". The edition also contains six short phrases and some 60 single words lacking in the American edition. In addition, about 35 changes produce genuine improvements, as opposed to mere corrections: "Melville may not have made every one of the changes in this category, but it seems certain that he was responsible for the great majority of them." British censorship and missing "Epilogue" The British publisher hired one or more revisers who were, in the evaluation of scholar Steven Olsen-Smith, responsible for "unauthorized changes ranging from typographical errors and omissions to acts of outright censorship". According to biographer Robertson-Lorant, the result was that the British edition was "badly mutilated". The expurgations fall into four categories, ranked according to the apparent priorities of the censor: Sacrilegious passages, more than 1,200 words: Attributing human failures to God was grounds for excision or revision, as was comparing human shortcomings to divine ones. For example, in chapter 28, "Ahab", Ahab stands with "a crucifixion in |
Games Underground (role-playing game), a satirical superhero game Underground, an expansion pack for Tom Clancy's The Division Medal of Honor: Underground, a 2000 first-person shooter Need for Speed: Underground, a 2003 racing video game Need for Speed: Underground 2, a 2004 racing video game Tony Hawk's Underground, a 2003 skateboarding video game Tony Hawk's Underground 2, a 2004 skateboarding video game Underground Zone, the first level in Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (8-bit) Hedgehog 2(8-bit) Literature Underground (Dreyfus book), a 1997 nonfiction book about computer hacking Underground (McGahan novel), by Andrew McGahan Underground (Murakami book), a 1998 collection of interviews about the Tokyo sarin gas attack The Underground (Animorphs), by K. A. Applegate The Underground (Left Behind: The Kids), by Jerry B. Jenkins and Tim LaHaye Underground comix Music Albums Underground (The Electric Prunes album), 1967 Underground (Thelonious Monk album), 1968 Memphis Underground, Herbie Mann album, 1968 Underground (Twinkle Brothers album), Underground (Phil Keaggy album), 1983 Underground (Graham Bonnet album), 1997 Underground (Jayo Felony album), 1999 Underground (Courtney Pine album), 1997 Underground (Chris Potter album), 2006 Underground (soundtrack), by Goran Bregović, 2000 Underground, by Analog Pussy, Underground Vol. 1: 1991–1994, a compilation album by Three 6 Mafia, 1999 Underground Vol. 2: Club Memphis, a compilation album by Three 6 Mafia, 1999 Songs "Underground", a song by Curtis Mayfield | Circa Zero from Circus Hero "Underground", a song by Decadence from Undergrounder, 2017 "Underground", a song by Eminem from Relapse "Underground", a song by Jane's Addiction from The Great Escape Artist "Underground", a song by Pokey LaFarge from Something In The Water "Underground", a song by The Tea Party from Triptych "The Underground", a song by Mani Spinx Other uses in music Underground music, a variety of music subgenres Television Underground (TV series), a 2016 American television drama series TCM Underground, a weekly cult-film showcase The Underground (TV series), a sketch comedy show "Underground" (1958 TV play), a British television drama, part of Armchair Theatre "Underground" (Stargate Atlantis), an episode of Stargate Atlantis "Underground" (BoJack Horseman), an episode of BoJack Horseman "Underground", a Transformers: Armada episode Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media Underground (play), by Michael Sloane Underground press, independent counterculture publications Underground producciones, an Argentine producer of TV series The Underground, a satirical student newspaper at the University of British Columbia Groups and organizations Narodnaya Volya, an underground group in late 19th-century Russia Resistance movement Resistance during World War II, with some groups sometimes referred to informally as "The Underground" Polish Underground State (), 1939-1945 Weather Underground, a clandestine far-left terrorist group which operated in the United States of America between 1969 and 1977 Other uses UK underground, a counter-cultural movement in the United Kingdom Underground city, a series of linked subterranean spaces Underground economy, a market system operating outside of legal regulations Underground City, Montreal Underground living, refers simply to living below the ground's surface Underground mining (hard rock), removal of valuable minerals from below the Earth's surface Underground Railroad, an informal network of secret routes and safe houses The Underground (roller coaster), a wooden roller coaster at Adventureland (Iowa) See |
the measuring party and their methods. The Madeira is the biggest tributary of the Amazon, accounting for about 15% of the water in the basin. A map from Emanuel Bowen in 1747, held by the David Rumsey Map Collection, refers to the Madeira by the pre-colonial, indigenous name Cuyari: The River of Cuyari, called by the Portuguese Madeira or the Wood River, is formed by two great rivers, which join near its mouth. It was by this River, that the Nation of Topinambes passed into the River Amazon. Climate The mean inter-annual precipitations on the great basins vary from , the entire upper Madeira basin receiving . The greatest extremes of rainfall are between . Even just below the confluence that forms it, the Madeira is one of the largest rivers of the world, with a mean inter-annual discharge of , i.e., per year, approximately half the discharge of the Congo River. On the further course towards the Amazon, the mean discharge of the Madeira increases up to . Course Between Guajará-Mirim and the falls of Teotônio, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north-eastern slopes of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Cuzco, the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Mato Grosso and the northern slope of the Chiquitos sierras. In total this catchment area, which is slightly more than the combined area of all headwaters, is , almost equal in area to France and Spain combined. The waters flow into the Madeira from many large rivers, the principal of which, (from east to west), are the Guaporé or Iténez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonamas or San Miguel, the Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios or Mayutata, all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents. The climate of the upper catchment area varies from humid in the western edge with the origin of the river's main stem by volume (Río Madre de Dios, Río Beni) to semi arid in the southernmost part with the Andine headwaters of the main stem by length (Río Caine, Río Rocha, Río Grande, Mamoré). All of the upper branches of the river Madeira find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos and Beni plains, of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about for a period of from three to four months. From its source in the confluence of Madre de Dios and Mamoré rivers and downstream to Abuna River the Madeira flows northward forming border between Bolivia and Brazil. Below its confluence with the latter tributary the flow of river changes to north-eastward direction, inland of Rondônia state of Brazil. The section of the river from the border to Porto Velho has notable drop of bed and was not navigable. Before 2012 the falls of Teotônio and of San Antônio existed here, they had higher flow rate and bigger level drop than more famous Boyoma Falls in Africa. Currently these rapids are submerged by the reservoir of Santo Antônio Dam. Below Porto Velho the Madeira meanders north-eastward through the Rondônia and Amazonas states of north west Brazil to its junction with the Amazon. The Rio Madeira Sustainable Development Reserve, created in 2006, extends along the north bank of the river opposite the town of Novo Aripuanã. At its mouth is Ilha Tupinambaranas, an extensive marshy region formed by the Madeira's distributaries. Navigation The Madeira river rises more than during the rainy season, and ocean vessels may ascend it to the Falls of San Antonio, near Porto Velho, Brazil, above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing about of water. The Madeira-Mamoré Railroad runs in a loop around the unnavigable section to Guajará-Mirim on the Mamoré River, but is not functional, limiting shipping from the Atlantic at | of the south-western slope of Brazilian Mato Grosso and the northern slope of the Chiquitos sierras. In total this catchment area, which is slightly more than the combined area of all headwaters, is , almost equal in area to France and Spain combined. The waters flow into the Madeira from many large rivers, the principal of which, (from east to west), are the Guaporé or Iténez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonamas or San Miguel, the Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios or Mayutata, all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents. The climate of the upper catchment area varies from humid in the western edge with the origin of the river's main stem by volume (Río Madre de Dios, Río Beni) to semi arid in the southernmost part with the Andine headwaters of the main stem by length (Río Caine, Río Rocha, Río Grande, Mamoré). All of the upper branches of the river Madeira find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos and Beni plains, of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about for a period of from three to four months. From its source in the confluence of Madre de Dios and Mamoré rivers and downstream to Abuna River the Madeira flows northward forming border between Bolivia and Brazil. Below its confluence with the latter tributary the flow of river changes to north-eastward direction, inland of Rondônia state of Brazil. The section of the river from the border to Porto Velho has notable drop of bed and was not navigable. Before 2012 the falls of Teotônio and of San Antônio existed here, they had higher flow rate and bigger level drop than more famous Boyoma Falls in Africa. Currently these rapids are submerged by the reservoir of Santo Antônio Dam. Below Porto Velho the Madeira meanders north-eastward through the Rondônia and Amazonas states of north west Brazil to its junction with the Amazon. The Rio Madeira Sustainable Development Reserve, created in 2006, extends along the north bank of the river opposite the town of Novo Aripuanã. At its mouth is Ilha Tupinambaranas, an extensive marshy region formed by the Madeira's distributaries. Navigation The Madeira river rises more than during the rainy season, and ocean vessels may ascend it to the Falls of San Antonio, near Porto Velho, Brazil, above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing about of water. The Madeira-Mamoré Railroad runs in a loop around the unnavigable section to Guajará-Mirim on the Mamoré River, but is not functional, limiting shipping from the Atlantic at Porto Velho. Today, it is also one of the Amazon basin's most active waterways, and helps export close to four million tons of grains, which are loaded onto barges in Porto Velho, where both Cargill and Amaggi have loading facilities, and then shipped down the Madeira to the ports of Itacoatiara, near the mouth of the Madeira, just upstream on the left bank of the Amazon, or further down the Amazon, to the port of Santarem, at the mouth of the Tapajos River. From these two ports, Panamax-type ships then export the grains - mainly soy and corn - to Europe and Asia. The Madeira waterway is |
the "Grand Canyon of the Amazon". Most of this section of the river is in a canyon that is up to 3000 m deep on both sides – over twice the depth of the Colorado's Grand Canyon. It is in dry, desert-like terrain, much of which receives only 250–350 mm/rain per year (10–14 in/yr) with parts such as from Balsas to Jaén known as the hottest infierno area of Peru. The Marañon Grand Canyon section flows by the village of Calemar, where Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría based one of his most important novels, La serpiente de oro (1935). Historical journeys La Condamine, 1743 One of the first popular descents of the Marañon River occurred in 1743, when Frenchman Charles Marie de La Condamine journeyed from the Chinchipe confluence all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. La Condamine did not descend the initial section of the Marañon by boat due to the pongos. From where he began his boating descent at the Chiriaco confluence, La Condamine still had to confront several pongos, including the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo) and the Pongo de Manseriche. The Grand Canyon of the Amazon The upper Marañon River has seen a number of descents. An attempt to paddle the river was made by Herbert Rittlinger in 1936. Sebastian Snow was an adventurer who journeyed down most of the river by trekking to Chiriaco River starting at the source near Lake Niñacocha. In 1976 and/or 1977, Laszlo Berty descended the section from Chagual to the jungle in raft. In 1977, a group composed of Tom Fisher, Steve Gaskill, Ellen Toll, and John Wasson spent over a month descending the river from Rondos to Nazareth with kayaks and a raft. In 2004, Tim Biggs and | Candoshi, and the Cocama-Cocamilla peoples. A 552-km (343-mi) section of the Marañon River between Puente Copuma (Puchka confluence) and Corral Quemado is a class IV raftable river that is similar in many ways to the Grand Canyon of the United States, and has been labeled the "Grand Canyon of the Amazon". Most of this section of the river is in a canyon that is up to 3000 m deep on both sides – over twice the depth of the Colorado's Grand Canyon. It is in dry, desert-like terrain, much of which receives only 250–350 mm/rain per year (10–14 in/yr) with parts such as from Balsas to Jaén known as the hottest infierno area of Peru. The Marañon Grand Canyon section flows by the village of Calemar, where Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría based one of his most important novels, La serpiente de oro (1935). Historical journeys La Condamine, 1743 One of the first popular descents of the Marañon River occurred in 1743, when Frenchman Charles Marie de La Condamine journeyed from the Chinchipe confluence all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. La Condamine did not descend the initial section of the Marañon by boat due to the pongos. From where he began his boating descent at the Chiriaco confluence, La Condamine still had to confront several pongos, including the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo) and the Pongo de Manseriche. The Grand Canyon of the Amazon The upper Marañon River has seen a number of descents. An attempt to paddle the river was made by Herbert Rittlinger in 1936. Sebastian Snow was an adventurer who journeyed down most of the river by trekking to Chiriaco River starting at the source near Lake Niñacocha. In 1976 and/or 1977, Laszlo Berty descended the section from Chagual to the jungle in raft. In 1977, a group composed of Tom Fisher, Steve Gaskill, Ellen Toll, and John Wasson spent over a month descending the river from Rondos to Nazareth with kayaks and a raft. In 2004, Tim Biggs and companions kayaked the entire river from the Nupe River to Iquitos. In 2012, Rocky Contos descended the entire river with various companions along the way. Hydroelectric dams The Marañon River may supply 20 hydroelectric megadams planned in the Andes, and most of the power is thought to be |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.