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Centering and decentering of cellular components is essential for internal organization of cells and their ability to perform basic cellular functions such as division and motility . How cells achieve proper localization of their organelles is still not well-understood , especially in large cells such as oocytes . Here...	In order to survive , cells need to react to their environment and change their shape or the localization of their internal components . For example , the nucleus – the compartment that contains the genetic information – is often localized at the center of the cell , but it can also be positioned at the side , for inst...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "physics", "of", "living", "systems" ]	2020	Centering and symmetry breaking in confined contracting actomyosin networks
The new concept of mammalian sex maintenance establishes that particular key genes must remain active in the differentiated gonads to avoid genetic sex reprogramming , as described in adult ovaries after Foxl2 ablation . Dmrt1 plays a similar role in postnatal testes , but the mechanism of adult testis maintenance rema...	Scientists thought for years that the ovaries and testes are fully developed , stable organs that cannot change their structure and function in mature mammals . However , more recent studies have shown that a gene called Foxl2 is active throughout life to prevent ovary cells from becoming more like the Sertoli cells pr...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Material", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology" ]	2016	Sox9 and Sox8 protect the adult testis from male-to-female genetic reprogramming and complete degeneration
We show that a cage-shaped F-actin network is essential for maintaining a tight spatial organization of Cav1 . 3 Ca2+ channels at the synaptic ribbons of auditory inner hair cells . This F-actin network is also found to provide mechanosensitivity to the Cav1 . 3 channels when varying intracellular hydrostatic pressure ...	To hear a sound , the pressure produced by sound waves must be converted into an electrical nerve signal . The cells inside the ear that perform this transformation are called hair cells , which are so named because they have hundreds of hair-like structures on their upper surface . Pressure from sound waves causes mov...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "short", "report", "cell", "biology", "neuroscience" ]	2015	A synaptic F-actin network controls otoferlin-dependent exocytosis in auditory inner hair cells
Msp1 is a conserved AAA ATPase in budding yeast localized to mitochondria where it prevents accumulation of mistargeted tail-anchored ( TA ) proteins , including the peroxisomal TA protein Pex15 . Msp1 also resides on peroxisomes but it remains unknown how native TA proteins on mitochondria and peroxisomes evade Msp1 s...	The phrase “finding a needle in a haystack” refers to the difficulty of locating a specific target among a large number of very similar objects . Living cells face a comparable challenge whenever they carry out seek and destroy missions aimed at broken or otherwise undesirable molecules . Scientists are still figuring ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2017	The AAA protein Msp1 mediates clearance of excess tail-anchored proteins from the peroxisomal membrane
We tested a novel hypothesis , generated from representational accounts of medial temporal lobe ( MTL ) function , that the major white matter tracts converging on perirhinal cortex ( PrC ) and hippocampus ( HC ) would be differentially involved in face and scene perception , respectively . Diffusion tensor imaging was...	Perceiving an object or picture stimulates activity in the regions of the brain that make up the visual system . Some of these regions respond differently depending on what is being viewed: for example , some areas are more active when looking at faces , and others respond more when viewing places . One theory is that ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2015	Dissociable roles of the inferior longitudinal fasciculus and fornix in face and place perception
Every movement we make represents one of many possible actions . In reaching tasks with multiple targets , dorsal premotor cortex ( PMd ) appears to represent all possible actions simultaneously . However , in many situations we are not presented with explicit choices . Instead , we must estimate the best action based ...	Whether it is trying to find the light switch in a dimly lit room or reaching for your glasses when you wake in the morning , we often need to reach toward objects that we cannot see clearly . In these situations , we plan our movements based both on the limited sensory information that is available , as well as what w...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2016	Uncertainty leads to persistent effects on reach representations in dorsal premotor cortex
Herpesviruses acquire their membrane envelopes in the cytoplasm of infected cells via a molecular mechanism that remains unclear . Herpes simplex virus ( HSV ) −1 proteins pUL7 and pUL51 form a complex required for efficient virus envelopment . We show that interaction between homologues of pUL7 and pUL51 is conserved ...	Most people suffer from occasional cold sores , which are caused by the herpes simplex virus . This virus causes infections that last your entire life , but for the most part it lies dormant in your cells and reactivates only at times of stress . When it reactivates , the virus manipulates host cells to make new virus ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics", "microbiology", "and", "infectious", "disease" ]	2020	Insights into herpesvirus assembly from the structure of the pUL7:pUL51 complex
DNA double-strand breaks ( DSB ) are the most deleterious type of DNA damage . In this work , we show that SIRT6 directly recognizes DNA damage through a tunnel-like structure that has high affinity for DSB . SIRT6 relocates to sites of damage independently of signaling and known sensors . It activates downstream signa...	DNA is a double-stranded molecule in which the two strands run in opposite directions , like the lanes on a two-lane road . Also like a road , DNA can be damaged by use and adverse conditions . Double-strand breaks – where both strands of DNA snap at once – are the most dangerous type of DNA damage , so cells have syst...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2020	SIRT6 is a DNA double-strand break sensor
Many insect species are host-obligate specialists . The evolutionary mechanism driving the adaptation of a species to a toxic host is , however , intriguing . We analyzed the tight association of Drosophila sechellia to its sole host , the fruit of Morinda citrifolia , which is toxic to other members of the melanogaste...	Many insect species rely on another animal or plant species for their own reproduction . For example , a fruit fly called Drosophila sechellia—which is found in the Seychelles—will only feed and lay its eggs on the fruit of a species of tree called Morinda citrifolia . This pairing is particularly unusual because these...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "ecology", "neuroscience" ]	2014	Dopamine drives Drosophila sechellia adaptation to its toxic host
Correct orientation of the mitotic spindle in stem cells underlies organogenesis . Spindle abnormalities correlate with cancer progression in germ line-derived tumors . We discover a macromolecular complex between the scaffolding protein Gravin/AKAP12 and the mitotic kinases , Aurora A and Plk1 , that is down regulated...	The genetic material inside our cells is contained within structures called chromosomes . When a cell divides , these chromosomes are copied and then must be correctly divided between the two daughter cells so that each cell has a complete set of genetic material . The correct separation of the chromosomes depends on a...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2015	A mitotic kinase scaffold depleted in testicular seminomas impacts spindle orientation in germ line stem cells
New ages for flowstone , sediments and fossil bones from the Dinaledi Chamber are presented . We combined optically stimulated luminescence dating of sediments with U-Th and palaeomagnetic analyses of flowstones to establish that all sediments containing Homo naledi fossils can be allocated to a single stratigraphic en...	Species of ancient humans and the extinct relatives of our ancestors are typically described from a limited number of fossils . However , this was not the case with Homo naledi . More than 1500 fossils representing at least 15 individuals of this species were unearthed from the Rising Star cave system in South Africa b...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Material", "and", "methods" ]	[ "evolutionary", "biology" ]	2017	The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa
Histone H3 lysine 36 methylation ( H3K36me ) is thought to participate in a host of co-transcriptional regulatory events . To study the function of this residue independent from the enzymes that modify it , we used a ‘histone replacement’ system in Drosophila to generate a non-modifiable H3K36 lysine-to-arginine ( H3K3...	In a single human cell there is enough DNA to stretch over a meter if laid end to end . To fit this DNA inside the cell – which is less than 20 micrometers in diameter – the DNA is tightly wrapped around millions of proteins known as histones , which look like “beads” along a “string” of DNA . These histones can preven...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2017	Histone gene replacement reveals a post-transcriptional role for H3K36 in maintaining metazoan transcriptome fidelity
Damage-associated molecular patterns ( DAMPs ) are molecules released by dead cells that trigger sterile inflammation and , in vertebrates , adaptive immunity . Actin is a DAMP detected in mammals by the receptor , DNGR-1 , expressed by dendritic cells ( DCs ) . DNGR-1 is phosphorylated by Src-family kinases and recrui...	All animals must be able to detect and repair injuries quickly . To do this , the body triggers a process called inflammation at the site of injury to remove dead and damaged cells , keep the area free from infection and trigger repair . However , if an area becomes excessively inflamed , or remains inflamed for a long...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "immunology", "and", "inflammation" ]	2016	Actin is an evolutionarily-conserved damage-associated molecular pattern that signals tissue injury in Drosophila melanogaster
Lasting changes in gene expression are critical for the formation of long-term memories ( LTMs ) , depending on the conserved CrebB transcriptional activator . While requirement of distinct neurons in defined circuits for different learning and memory phases have been studied in detail , only little is known regarding ...	Our brains can store different types of memories . You may have forgotten what you had for lunch yesterday , but still be able to remember a song from your childhood . Short-term memories and long-term memories form via different mechanisms . To establish long-term memories , the brain must produce new proteins , many ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Multiple neurons encode CrebB dependent appetitive long-term memory in the mushroom body circuit
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels are involved in numerous physiological functions and various mechanisms finely tune their activity , including the Ca2+ ion itself . This is well exemplified by the Ca2+-dependent inactivation of L-type Ca2+ channels , whose alteration contributes to the dramatic disease Timothy Syndrome . F...	Neurons , muscle cells and many other types of cells use electrical signals to exchange information and coordinate their behavior . Proteins known as calcium channels sit in the membrane that surrounds the cell and can generate electrical signals by allowing calcium ions to cross the membrane and enter the cell during ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2017	Activity-dependent regulation of T-type calcium channels by submembrane calcium ions
Texture discrimination is a fundamental function of somatosensory systems , yet the manner by which texture is coded and spatially represented in the barrel cortex are largely unknown . Using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging in the rat barrel cortex during artificial whisking against different surface coarseness or c...	As nocturnal tunnel-dwelling animals , rats rely on their whiskers to enable them to navigate in the dark . By moving their whiskers back and forth in movements called whisking , rats can obtain detailed information about the shape , texture , and size of objects in their path and also work out whether they can fit thr...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2014	Texture coarseness responsive neurons and their mapping in layer 2–3 of the rat barrel cortex in vivo
The advent of a new generation of electron microscopes and direct electron detectors has realized the potential of single particle cryo-electron microscopy ( cryo-EM ) as a technique to generate high-resolution structures . Calculating these structures requires high performance computing clusters , a resource that may ...	Microscopes can be used to view objects or structural details that are not visible with the naked eye . A type of microscope called an electron microscope—which uses beams of particles called electrons—is particularly useful for examining tiny objects or structures because it can produce images with a higher level of d...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics", "tools", "and", "resources" ]	2015	Low cost, high performance processing of single particle cryo-electron microscopy data in the cloud
Gustatory pheromones play an essential role in shaping the behavior of many organisms . However , little is known about the processing of taste pheromones in higher order brain centers . Here , we describe a male-specific gustatory circuit in Drosophila that underlies the detection of the anti-aphrodisiac pheromone ( 3...	In many species of animals , the male decides to pursue a potential female mate based on how she smells and tastes . Powerful chemical signals known as pheromones control this decision . When a male fruit fly mates with a female fruit fly , he often leaves behind an anti-aphrodisiac pheromone that , when males taste it...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2015	The neuropeptide tachykinin is essential for pheromone detection in a gustatory neural circuit
Drug treatment of 3D cancer spheroids more accurately reflects in vivo therapeutic responses compared to adherent culture studies . In EGFR-mutated lung adenocarcinoma , EGFR-TKIs show enhanced efficacy in spheroid cultures . Simultaneous inhibition of multiple parallel RTKs further enhances EGFR-TKI effectiveness . We...	Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide . In non-smokers , this disease is usually caused by a mutation in a protein found on the surface of a cell , called EGFR . In healthy lung cells , these proteins trigger a chain of chemical signals that tell the cells to multiply . However , faulty fo...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cancer", "biology" ]	2020	Marked synergy by vertical inhibition of EGFR signaling in NSCLC spheroids shows SOS1 is a therapeutic target in EGFR-mutated cancer
The best characterized signaling pathway downstream of transforming growth factor β ( TGF-β ) is through SMAD2 and SMAD3 . However , TGF-β also induces phosphorylation of SMAD1 and SMAD5 , but the mechanism of this phosphorylation and its functional relevance is not known . Here , we show that TGF-β-induced SMAD1/5 pho...	Cells communicate with other cells via signaling molecules to coordinate their activities . Signals released from one cell can influence the behavior of neighboring cells . Signaling molecules belonging to the TGF-β family play crucial roles in animals . For example , these molecules guide the formation of tissues and ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2018	TGF-β uses a novel mode of receptor activation to phosphorylate SMAD1/5 and induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition
During vertebrate heart development , two progenitor populations , first and second heart fields ( FHF , SHF ) , sequentially contribute to longitudinal subdivisions of the heart tube ( HT ) , with the FHF contributing the left ventricle and part of the atria , and the SHF the rest of the heart . Here , we study the dy...	We all start life as a single cell , which – over the course of nine months – multiplies to generate the billions of cells that can be found in a newborn . As an embryo develops , the cells need to achieve two major tasks: they need to diversify into different types of cells , such as blood cells or muscle cells , and ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology" ]	2017	Live imaging of heart tube development in mouse reveals alternating phases of cardiac differentiation and morphogenesis
Histone tails harbor a plethora of post-translational modifications that direct the function of chromatin regulators , which recognize them through effector domains . Effector domain/histone interactions have been broadly studied , but largely using peptide fragments of histone tails . Here , we extend these studies in...	The human genome contains all the instructions needed to build the human body . However , each human cell does not read all of these instructions , which come in the form of genes encoded in the DNA . Instead , different subsets of genes are switched on in each type of cell , while the rest of the genes are switched of...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2018	The conformation of the histone H3 tail inhibits association of the BPTF PHD finger with the nucleosome
The ability to speak coherently is essential for effective communication but declines with age: older people more frequently produce tangential , off-topic speech . The cognitive factors underpinning this decline are poorly understood . We predicted that maintaining coherence relies on effective regulation of activated...	During a conversation , each person must plan and monitor what they say to make sure it is relevant to the discussion . This is called maintaining coherence during speech . Studies suggest that as people get older they find it harder to remain coherent , and become more likely to produce irrelevant or off-topic informa...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Poor coherence in older people's speech is explained by impaired semantic and executive processes
Messenger RNA localization is important for cell motility by local protein translation . However , while single mRNAs can be imaged and their movements tracked in single cells , it has not yet been possible to determine whether these mRNAs are actively translating . Therefore , we imaged single β-actin mRNAs tagged wit...	The instructions that a cell needs to build proteins are encoded within its genes . To make proteins , these instructions are first copied into molecules of messenger RNA ( or mRNA for short ) . Molecular machines called ribosomes then translate these mRNA molecules to produce proteins . Controlling when and where prot...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2016	Mapping translation 'hot-spots' in live cells by tracking single molecules of mRNA and ribosomes
JCVI-syn3A , a robust minimal cell with a 543 kbp genome and 493 genes , provides a versatile platform to study the basics of life . Using the vast amount of experimental information available on its precursor , Mycoplasma mycoides capri , we assembled a near-complete metabolic network with 98% of enzymatic reactions s...	One way that researchers can test whether they understand a biological system is to see if they can accurately recreate it as a computer model . The more they learn about living things , the more the researchers can improve their models and the closer the models become to simulating the original . In this approach , it...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology" ]	2019	Essential metabolism for a minimal cell
Mutation of the Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome protein and SCAR homology ( WASH ) complex subunit , SWIP , is implicated in human intellectual disability , but the cellular etiology of this association is unknown . We identify the neuronal WASH complex proteome , revealing a network of endosomal proteins . To uncover how dys...	Cells in the brain need to regulate and transport the proteins and nutrients stored inside them . They do this by sorting and packaging the contents they want to move in compartments called endosomes , which then send these packages to other parts of the cell . If the components involved in endosome trafficking mutate ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "neuroscience" ]	2021	Genetic disruption of WASHC4 drives endo-lysosomal dysfunction and cognitive-movement impairments in mice and humans
The robustness and limited plasticity of the master circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus ( SCN ) is attributed to strong intercellular communication among its constituent neurons . However , factors that specify this characteristic feature of the SCN are unknown . Here , we identified Lhx1 as a regulator of S...	As anyone who has experienced jet lag can testify , our sleeping pattern is normally synchronized with the local day–night cycle . Nevertheless , if a person is made to live in constant darkness as part of an experiment , they still continue to experience daily changes in their alertness levels . In most individuals , ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2014	Lhx1 maintains synchrony among circadian oscillator neurons of the SCN
Understanding the computations that take place in brain circuits requires identifying how neurons in those circuits are connected to one another . We describe a technique called TRACT ( TRAnsneuronal Control of Transcription ) based on ligand-induced intramembrane proteolysis to reveal monosynaptic connections arising ...	One of the main obstacles to understanding how the brain works is that we know relatively little about how its nerve cells or neurons are connected to one another . These connections make up the brain’s wiring diagram . Current methods for revealing this wiring all have limitations . The most popular method – serial el...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "tools", "and", "resources", "neuroscience" ]	2017	Tracing neuronal circuits in transgenic animals by transneuronal control of transcription (TRACT)
Vascular remodeling under conditions of growth or exercise , or during recovery from arterial restriction or blockage is essential for health , but mechanisms are poorly understood . It has been proposed that endothelial cells have a preferred level of fluid shear stress , or ‘set point’ , that determines remodeling . ...	Blood and lymphatic vessels remodel their shape , diameter and connections during development , and throughout life in response to growth , exercise and disease . This process is called vascular remodeling . The endothelial cells that line the inside of blood and lymphatic vessels are constantly exposed to the friction...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2015	Vascular remodeling is governed by a VEGFR3-dependent fluid shear stress set point
The joints of mammals are lined with cartilage , comprised of individual chondrocytes embedded in a specialized extracellular matrix . Chondrocytes experience a complex mechanical environment and respond to changing mechanical loads in order to maintain cartilage homeostasis . It has been proposed that mechanically gat...	Cartilage is a flexible tissue that cushions the joints in our body , allowing them to move smoothly . It is made of cells called chondrocytes that are surrounded by a scaffold of proteins known as the extracellular matrix . Chondrocytes regularly experience mechanical forces , which can arise from the movement of flui...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2017	Direct measurement of TRPV4 and PIEZO1 activity reveals multiple mechanotransduction pathways in chondrocytes
In solid tumors , targeted treatments can lead to dramatic regressions , but responses are often short-lived because resistant cancer cells arise . The major strategy proposed for overcoming resistance is combination therapy . We present a mathematical model describing the evolutionary dynamics of lesions in response t...	As medicine becomes increasingly personalized , more and more emphasis is being placed on the development of therapies that target specific cancer-causing mutations . But while many of these drugs are effective in the short term , and do extend patient lives , tumors tend to evolve resistance to them within a few month...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "evolutionary", "biology", "cancer", "biology" ]	2013	Evolutionary dynamics of cancer in response to targeted combination therapy
Perturbations in neural circuits can provide mechanistic understanding of the neural correlates of behavior . In M71 transgenic mice with a “monoclonal nose” , glomerular input patterns in the olfactory bulb are massively perturbed and olfactory behaviors are altered . To gain insights into how olfactory circuits can p...	The lining of the nose contains cells called olfactory sensory neurons that allow different smells to be detected . Odor molecules bind to receptor proteins that are embedded in the surface of the olfactory sensory neuron . Different receptors respond to different odors , and the nose contains hundreds of different rec...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2016	Massive normalization of olfactory bulb output in mice with a 'monoclonal nose'
Can replication and translation emerge in a single mechanism via self-assembly ? The key molecule , transfer RNA ( tRNA ) , is one of the most ancient molecules and contains the genetic code . Our experiments show how a pool of oligonucleotides , adapted with minor mutations from tRNA , spontaneously formed molecular a...	The genetic code stored within DNA contains the instructions for manufacturing all the proteins organisms need to develop , grow and survive . This requires molecular machines that ‘transcribe’ regions of the genetic code into RNA molecules which are then ‘translated’ into the string of amino acids that form the final ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics", "computational", "and", "systems", "biology" ]	2021	tRNA sequences can assemble into a replicator
Innate lymphoid cells ( ILCs ) are recently identified lymphocytes that limit infection and promote tissue repair at mucosal surfaces . However , the pathways underlying ILC development remain unclear . Here we show that the transcription factor NFIL3 directs the development of a committed bone marrow precursor that di...	The mucus-covered tissues that line the nose , mouth , and the digestive tract play an important role in protecting the body from infection . These mucosal tissues are the first line of defense against any pathogens we inhale or ingest , and help to keep communities of helpful bacteria—such as those that aid digestion—...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "stem", "cells", "and", "regenerative", "medicine", "immunology", "and", "inflammation" ]	2014	The basic leucine zipper transcription factor NFIL3 directs the development of a common innate lymphoid cell precursor
Genomic analyses of microbial populations in their natural environment remain limited by the difficulty to assemble full genomes of individual species . Consequently , the chromosome organization of microorganisms has been investigated in a few model species , but the extent to which the features described can be gener...	Microbial communities play vital roles in the environment and sustain animal and plant life . Marine microbes are part of the ocean's food chain; soil microbes support the turnover of major nutrients and facilitate plant growth; and the microbial communities residing in the human gut support digestion and the immune sy...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2014	Metagenomic chromosome conformation capture (meta3C) unveils the diversity of chromosome organization in microorganisms
Social behaviour is regulated by activity of host-associated microbiota across multiple species . However , the molecular mechanisms mediating this relationship remain elusive . We therefore determined the dynamic , stimulus-dependent transcriptional regulation of germ-free ( GF ) and GF mice colonised post weaning ( e...	In our bodies , there are at least as many microbial cells as human cells . These microbes , known collectively as the microbiome , influence the activity of our brain and also our behaviour . Studies in species from insects to primates have shown that the microbiome affects social behaviour in particular . For example...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "microbiology", "and", "infectious", "disease", "neuroscience" ]	2018	Social interaction-induced activation of RNA splicing in the amygdala of microbiome-deficient mice
Epithelial cells that lose attachment to the extracellular matrix undergo a specialized form of apoptosis called anoikis . Here , using large-scale RNA interference ( RNAi ) screening , we find that KDM3A , a histone H3 lysine 9 ( H3K9 ) mono- and di-demethylase , plays a pivotal role in anoikis induction . In attached...	Epithelial cells line the inside of blood vessels , intestines and other organs throughout the body . Any epithelial cells that become detached from their natural surroundings die by a process called anoikis ( a Greek word meaning “being without a home” ) . This process has an important role in preventing cancer from s...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "short", "report", "cell", "biology" ]	2016	The histone H3K9 demethylase KDM3A promotes anoikis by transcriptionally activating pro-apoptotic genes BNIP3 and BNIP3L
DNA damage accumulates with age ( Lombard et al . , 2005 ) . However , whether and how robust DNA repair machinery promotes longevity is elusive . Here , we demonstrate that ATM-centered DNA damage response ( DDR ) progressively declines with senescence and age , while low dose of chloroquine ( CQ ) activates ATM , pro...	As cells live and divide , their genetic material gets damaged . The DNA damage response is a network of proteins that monitor , recognize and fix the damage , which is also called DNA lesions . For example , an enzyme called ATM senses when DNA is broken and then begins a process that will get it repaired , while anot...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology" ]	2018	Boosting ATM activity alleviates aging and extends lifespan in a mouse model of progeria
Sumoylation during genotoxic stress regulates the composition of DNA repair complexes . The yeast metalloprotease Wss1 clears chromatin-bound sumoylated proteins . Wss1 and its mammalian analog , DVC1/Spartan , belong to minigluzincins family of proteases . Wss1 proteolytic activity is regulated by a cysteine switch me...	DNA repair is essential for cell survival . Every time DNA is damaged , several protein complexes sense the damage and act to repair it . These complexes need to be carefully regulated . One way this is achieved is by the addition of molecular tags that change the activity of these complexes . Sumoylation is one such m...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2015	Wss1 metalloprotease partners with Cdc48/Doa1 in processing genotoxic SUMO conjugates
The CRISPR-associated endonuclease Cas9 from Streptococcus pyogenes ( SpyCas9 ) , along with a programmable single-guide RNA ( sgRNA ) , has been exploited as a significant genome-editing tool . Despite the recent advances in determining the SpyCas9 structures and DNA cleavage mechanism , the cleavage-competent conform...	The DNA inside human cells provides instructions for all of the processes that happen inside the body . Errors in the DNA may lead to cancer , sickle cell disease , cystic fibrosis , Huntington’s disease , or other genetic disorders . Medical researchers are exploring whether it is possible to replace or repair the fau...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "short", "report", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2019	Structural and functional insights into the bona fide catalytic state of Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 HNH nuclease domain
Episodic memory retrieval of events at a specific place and time is effective for future planning . Sequential reactivation of the hippocampal place cells along familiar paths while the animal pauses is well suited to such a memory retrieval process . It is , however , unknown whether this awake replay represents event...	Place cells are neurons that respond to a particular location in the physical world . For example , as a rat runs around a maze , some place cells will become active when the rat reaches one corner . When the rat moves on towards a different corner , other place cells activate instead . The real-time activity of these ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2015	Episodic-like memory trace in awake replay of hippocampal place cell activity sequences
Across species , aging is associated with an increased ability to choose delayed over immediate gratification . These experiments used young and aged rats to test the role of the basolateral amygdala ( BLA ) in intertemporal decision making . An optogenetic approach was used to inactivate the BLA in young and aged rats...	One marshmallow now or two in 15 minutes ? That was the choice offered to young children in a classic psychology experiment known as the Stanford marshmallow test . Children who chose to wait went on to do better at school and to show healthier body weights in later life than those who ate the single marshmallow . A br...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2019	Optogenetic dissection of basolateral amygdala contributions to intertemporal choice in young and aged rats
The Apelin receptor ( Aplnr ) is essential for heart development , controlling the early migration of cardiac progenitors . Here we demonstrate that in zebrafish Aplnr modulates Nodal/TGFβ signaling , a key pathway essential for mesendoderm induction and migration . Loss of Aplnr function leads to a reduction in Nodal ...	In one of the first events that happens as an embryo develops , cells become the different stem cell populations that form the body’s organs . So what makes a cell become one stem cell type rather than another ? In the case of the heart , the first important event is the activity of a signaling pathway called the Nodal...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology", "short", "report" ]	2016	The Apelin receptor enhances Nodal/TGFβ signaling to ensure proper cardiac development
NG2 cells , oligodendrocyte progenitors , receive a major synaptic input from interneurons in the developing neocortex . It is presumed that these precursors integrate cortical networks where they act as sensors of neuronal activity . We show that NG2 cells of the developing somatosensory cortex form a transient and st...	Neurons are outnumbered in the brain by cells called glial cells . The brain contains various types of glial cells that perform a range of different jobs , including the supply of nutrients and the removal of dead neurons . The role of glial cells called oligodendrocytes is to produce a material called myelin: this is ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2015	Interneurons and oligodendrocyte progenitors form a structured synaptic network in the developing neocortex
Toll-dependent patterning of the dorsoventral axis in Drosophila represents one of the best understood gene regulatory networks . However , its evolutionary origin has remained elusive . Outside the insects Toll is not known for a patterning function , but rather for a role in pathogen defense . Here , we show that in ...	How an animal develops from a fertilized egg has fascinated scientists for decades . As such , much effort has gone into answering the related question: what makes the belly ( or underside ) of an animal develop differently from its back ? Like almost all other biological processes , the development of an embryo is con...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology" ]	2015	Dynamic BMP signaling polarized by Toll patterns the dorsoventral axis in a hemimetabolous insect
Ageing is associated with physical decline and the development of age-related diseases such as metabolic disorders and cancer . Few conditions are known that attenuate the adverse effects of ageing , including calorie restriction ( CR ) and reduced signalling through the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 ( mTOR...	The risks of major diseases including type II diabetes , cancer and Alzheimer’s are linked to the biological process of ageing . By finding ways to slow ageing , we can help more people to live longer healthier lives while avoiding these illnesses . Placing some animals on a diet that contains only two-thirds as many c...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "cell", "biology" ]	2018	Reduced expression of C/EBPβ-LIP extends health and lifespan in mice
Recent evidence suggests that capillary pericytes are contractile and play a crucial role in the regulation of microcirculation . However , failure to detect components of the contractile apparatus in capillary pericytes , most notably α-smooth muscle actin ( α-SMA ) , has questioned these findings . Using strategies t...	Blood vessels in animals’ bodies are highly organized . The large blood vessels from the heart branch to smaller vessels that are spread throughout the tissues . The smallest vessels , the capillaries , allow oxygen and nutrients to pass from the blood to nearby cells in tissues . Some capillaries , including those at ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Capillary pericytes express α-smooth muscle actin, which requires prevention of filamentous-actin depolymerization for detection
The inducible innate immune response to infection requires a concerted process of gene expression that is regulated at multiple levels . Most global analyses of the innate immune response have focused on transcription induced by defined immunostimulatory ligands , such as lipopolysaccharide . However , the response to ...	We are constantly exposed to microbes that are capable of causing disease , but our immune system is generally able to protect us by producing specific proteins that help kill the microbes . In response , many infectious microbes have developed ways to obstruct the immune system of their host . For example , a bacteriu...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "microbiology", "and", "infectious", "disease", "immunology", "and", "inflammation" ]	2017	Global analysis of gene expression reveals mRNA superinduction is required for the inducible immune response to a bacterial pathogen
Coding of information in the peripheral olfactory system depends on two fundamental factors: interaction of individual odors with subsets of the odorant receptor repertoire and mode of signaling that an individual receptor-odor interaction elicits , activation or inhibition . We develop a cheminformatics pipeline that ...	Although our sense of smell is regarded as inferior to that of many other species , we can nevertheless distinguish between roughly 10 , 000 different odors . These are made up of molecules called odorants , each of which activates a specific subset of odorant receptors in the nose . However , much of what we know abou...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2013	Expanding the olfactory code by in silico decoding of odor-receptor chemical space
Glutaminase ( GLS ) isoenzymes GLS1 and GLS2 are key enzymes for glutamine metabolism . Interestingly , GLS1 and GLS2 display contrasting functions in tumorigenesis with elusive mechanism; GLS1 promotes tumorigenesis , whereas GLS2 exhibits a tumor-suppressive function . In this study , we found that GLS2 but not GLS1 ...	Healthy cells in the body derive most of their energy from a sugar called glucose . However , cancer cells grow and divide much more rapidly than normal cells and so require larger amounts of energy to sustain themselves . Therefore , many cancer cells can alter their metabolism so that they can obtain more energy from...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression" ]	2016	Glutaminase 2 is a novel negative regulator of small GTPase Rac1 and mediates p53 function in suppressing metastasis
Successful treatment decisions in cancer depend on the accurate assessment of patient risk . To improve our understanding of the molecular alterations that underlie deadly malignancies , we analyzed the genomic profiles of 17 , 879 tumors from patients with known outcomes . We find that mutations in almost all cancer d...	Cancers are not created equal: even when the disease affects the same organ , it can run different courses between individuals . For example , amongst people with early-stage bowel cancer who undergo surgery , 60% will go on to live cancer-free but the remaining patients will see the illness come back within a few year...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "tools", "and", "resources", "cancer", "biology" ]	2018	Systematic identification of mutations and copy number alterations associated with cancer patient prognosis
Bcl-2 family proteins reorganize mitochondrial membranes during apoptosis , to form pores and rearrange cristae . In vitro and in vivo analysis integrated with human genetics reveals a novel homeostatic mitochondrial function for Bcl-2 family protein Bid . Loss of full-length Bid results in apoptosis-independent , irre...	Cells contain specialized structures called mitochondria , which help to convert fuel into energy . These tiny energy factories have a unique double membrane , with a smooth outer and a folded inner lining . The folds , called cristae , provide a scaffold for the molecular machinery that produces chemical energy that t...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2018	Bid maintains mitochondrial cristae structure and function and protects against cardiac disease in an integrative genomics study
Mesenchymal ( lamellipodial ) migration is heterogeneous , although whether this reflects progressive variability or discrete , 'switchable' migration modalities , remains unclear . We present an analytical toolbox , based on quantitative single-cell imaging data , to interrogate this heterogeneity . Integrating superv...	During an animal’s lifetime , many of its cells will move from one location in the body to another . For example , skin cells can migrate to repair wounds . Prior to migration , cells are usually attached to a scaffold called the extracellular-matrix , which helps to hold them in a particular location within a tissue ....	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology", "cell", "biology", "tools", "and", "resources" ]	2016	An analysis toolbox to explore mesenchymal migration heterogeneity reveals adaptive switching between distinct modes
RNA-protein ( RNP ) granules have been proposed to assemble by forming solid RNA/protein aggregates or through phase separation into a liquid RNA/protein phase . Which model describes RNP granules in living cells is still unclear . In this study , we analyze P bodies in budding yeast and find that they have liquid-like...	Genes consist of long stretches of DNA that code for proteins . The DNA is first ‘transcribed’ to produce an RNA molecule , which is then translated into a protein . In most cells , RNA molecules are present within a structure called ribonucleoprotein ( RNP for short ) granules . These contain the protein machinery nee...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2015	Promiscuous interactions and protein disaggregases determine the material state of stress-inducible RNP granules
Mutations in Park8 , encoding for the multidomain Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ( LRRK2 ) protein , comprise the predominant genetic cause of Parkinson's disease ( PD ) . G2019S , the most common amino acid substitution activates the kinase two- to threefold . This has motivated the development of LRRK2 kinase inhibitor...	Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the nervous system that affects approximately 1% of the elderly population . Mutations in the gene that encodes an enzyme known as LRRK2 are the most common causes of the inherited form of the disease . Such mutations generally increase the activity of LRRK2 and so drug...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2016	Phosphoproteomics reveals that Parkinson's disease kinase LRRK2 regulates a subset of Rab GTPases
The coordinated control of Ca2+ signaling is essential for development in eukaryotes . Cyclic nucleotide-gated channel ( CNGC ) family members mediate Ca2+ influx from cellular stores in plants ( Charpentier et al . , 2016; Gao et al . , 2016; Frietsch et al . , 2007; Urquhart et al . , 2007 ) . Here , we report the un...	Plants constantly monitor and respond to changes in their environment . Central to this surveillance system is the movement of calcium ions into and out of cells . Calcium ions are normally kept at very low levels inside of cells and subtle changes in these levels relay information about the external environment . In t...	[ "Abstract", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "short", "report", "plant", "biology" ]	2017	A quantitative hypermorphic CNGC allele confers ectopic calcium flux and impairs cellular development
Accurate lineage reconstruction of mammalian pre-implantation development is essential for inferring the earliest cell fate decisions . Lineage tracing using global fluorescence labeling techniques is complicated by increasing cell density and rapid embryo rotation , which hampers automatic alignment and accurate cell ...	A mouse embryo starts with one cell , which divides to create identical daughters that quickly start to multiply . Within three to four days , certain cells begin to specialize and take on specific roles . Scientists want to track these early events to understand how they give rise to an individual formed of huge numbe...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology", "tools", "and", "resources" ]	2019	Primed Track, high-fidelity lineage tracing in mouse pre-implantation embryos using primed conversion of photoconvertible proteins
The RAS family of proteins is amongst the most highly mutated in human cancers and has so far eluded drug therapy . Currently , much effort is being made to discover mutant RAS inhibitors and in vitro screening for RAS-binding drugs must be followed by cell-based assays . Here , we have developed a robust set of biolum...	A group of proteins known as the RAS family plays a critical role in controlling animal cell growth and division . RAS proteins are normally active only some of the time , but genetic mutations can create permanently active forms of the proteins . These constantly interact with other proteins called effectors . In resp...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "tools", "and", "resources", "cancer", "biology" ]	2018	BRET-based RAS biosensors that show a novel small molecule is an inhibitor of RAS-effector protein-protein interactions
Schistosomiasis is a debilitating parasitic disease infecting hundreds of millions of people . Schistosomes use aquatic snails as intermediate hosts . A promising avenue for disease control involves leveraging innate host mechanisms to reduce snail vectorial capacity . In a genome-wide association study of Biomphalaria...	Schistosomiasis is a widespread parasitic disease , affecting over 200 million people in tropical countries . It is caused by schistosome worms , which are carried by freshwater snails . These snails release worm larvae into the water , where they can infect humans – for example , after bathing or swimming . Treatment ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "short", "report", "epidemiology", "and", "global", "health", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2020	Clusters of polymorphic transmembrane genes control resistance to schistosomes in snail vectors
Native PKD2-L1 channel subunits are present in primary cilia and other restricted cellular spaces . Here we investigate the mechanism for the channel's unusual regulation by external calcium , and rationalize this behavior to its specialized function . We report that the human PKD2-L1 selectivity filter is partially se...	Most of our cells have a single tiny-hair like structure called a primary cilium that projects outwards from the cell surface . Many cilia contain an ion channel protein called PKD2-L1 that allows calcium ions to pass through the membrane that surrounds each cell . There are many different calcium channels and they are...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2016	Atypical calcium regulation of the PKD2-L1 polycystin ion channel
Active whisking is an important model sensorimotor behavior , but the function of the cerebellum in the rodent whisker system is unknown . We have made patch clamp recordings from Purkinje cells in vivo to identify whether cerebellar output encodes kinematic features of whisking including the phase and set point . We s...	Many animals actively move their whiskers back and forth to explore their surroundings and search for objects of interest . This behavior is important for navigation and the animals’ sense of touch . It relies on specialized circuits of cells in the brain to carry information about whisker movement patterns and process...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Conclusions", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2016	The cerebellum linearly encodes whisker position during voluntary movement
We have previously proposed that complexin cross-links multiple pre-fusion SNARE complexes via a trans interaction to function as a clamp on SNARE-mediated neurotransmitter release . A recent NMR study was unable to detect the trans clamping interaction of complexin and therefore questioned the previous interpretation ...	Molecules called neurotransmitters are used to carry signals between neurons . The neurotransmitters in the first neuron are stored in small bubble-like structures called synaptic vesicles . When this neuron is ready to send a signal to a second neuron , the membrane that encloses the synaptic vesicle fuses with the ce...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "short", "report", "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2015	Re-visiting the trans insertion model for complexin clamping
We demonstrate that prostate cancer can be identified by flow cytometric profiling of blood immune cell subsets . Herein , we profiled natural killer ( NK ) cell subsets in the blood of 72 asymptomatic men with Prostate-Specific Antigen ( PSA ) levels < 20 ng ml-1 , of whom 31 had benign disease ( no cancer ) and 41 ha...	With an estimated 1 . 8 million new cases in 2018 alone , prostate cancer is the fourth most common cancer in the world . Catching the disease early increases the chances of survival , but this cancer remains difficult to detect . The best diagnostic test currently available measures the blood level of a protein called...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology", "cancer", "biology" ]	2020	Identifying prostate cancer and its clinical risk in asymptomatic men using machine learning of high dimensional peripheral blood flow cytometric natural killer cell subset phenotyping data
Blood-sucking insects experience thermal stress at each feeding event on endothermic vertebrates . We used thermography to examine how kissing-bugs Rhodnius prolixus actively protect themselves from overheating . During feeding , these bugs sequester and dissipate the excess heat in their heads while maintaining an abd...	Many insect species have adopted the blood of birds and mammals as their main or even only food . Yet , blood is not freely available in nature , but it circulates inside vessels hidden under the skin of animals much bigger than the insect and capable of defending themselves from getting bitten . To succeed in getting ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "ecology" ]	2017	Countercurrent heat exchange and thermoregulation during blood-feeding in kissing bugs
How insects navigate complex odor plumes , where the location and timing of odor packets are uncertain , remains unclear . Here we imaged complex odor plumes simultaneously with freely-walking flies , quantifying how behavior is shaped by encounters with individual odor packets . We found that navigation was stochastic...	When walking along a city street , you might encounter a range of scents and odors , from the smells of coffee and food to those of exhaust fumes and garbage . The odors are swept to your nose by air currents that move scents in two different ways . They carry them downwind in a process called advection , but they also...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "physics", "of", "living", "systems", "neuroscience" ]	2020	Walking Drosophila navigate complex plumes using stochastic decisions biased by the timing of odor encounters
Dpp , a member of the BMP family , is a morphogen that specifies positional information in Drosophila wing precursors . In this tissue , Dpp expressed along the anterior-posterior boundary forms a concentration gradient that controls the expression domains of target genes , which in turn specify the position of wing ve...	From the wings of a butterfly to the fingers of a human hand , living tissues often have complex and intricate patterns . Developmental biologists have long been fascinated by the signals – called morphogens – that guide how these kinds of pattern develop . Morphogens are substances that are produced by groups of cells...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2017	Dpp controls growth and patterning in Drosophila wing precursors through distinct modes of action
Defense against infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Mtb ) is mediated by CD4 T cells . CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes ( IMs ) have been implicated in Mtb-specific CD4 T cell responses but their in vivo contribution remains unresolved . Herein , we show that transient ablation of IMs during infection prevents Mtb de...	Tuberculosis is a disease that kills more than one million people every year . It is caused by mycobacteria , notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis , and the World Health Organization estimates that about one third of the world’s population has latent tuberculosis , although only one person in 10 goes on to develop an act...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "microbiology", "and", "infectious", "disease", "immunology", "and", "inflammation" ]	2013	Essential yet limited role for CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes during Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T cell priming
Standard treatment for metastatic prostate cancer ( CaP ) prevents ligand-activation of androgen receptor ( AR ) . Despite initial remission , CaP progresses while relying on AR . AR transcriptional output controls CaP behavior and is an alternative therapeutic target , but its molecular regulation is poorly understood...	Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths in men in the Western world . Almost all of these deaths happen when the main treatment for advanced prostate cancers stops working . The treatment , known as androgen deprivation therapy , targets a protein called the androgen receptor . This receptor is act...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cancer", "biology" ]	2017	A comprehensive analysis of coregulator recruitment, androgen receptor function and gene expression in prostate cancer
Despite marked advances in breast cancer therapy , basal-like breast cancer ( BBC ) , an aggressive subtype of breast cancer usually lacking estrogen and progesterone receptors , remains difficult to treat . In this study , we report the identification of MELK as a novel oncogenic kinase from an in vivo tumorigenesis s...	Not all cancers are the same . There are , for example , at least five types of breast cancer . Different types of cancer can have different mutations and express different genes that determine how aggressively the tumors grow and how well they respond to different therapies . By exploiting these differences , scientis...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "cancer", "biology" ]	2014	MELK is an oncogenic kinase essential for mitotic progression in basal-like breast cancer cells
Toll-like receptors ( TLRs ) detect microbial infections and trigger innate immune responses . Among vertebrate TLRs , the role of TLR13 and its ligand are unknown . Here we show that TLR13 detects the 23S ribosomal RNA of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria . A sequence containing 13 nucleotides near the act...	A central feature of the immune system is the ability to detect bacteria , viruses and other pathogens so that they can be repelled or neutralized before they cause lasting damage to an organism . Cells employ a number of different receptors that can detect these pathogens or the molecules they produce . Many of these ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "immunology", "and", "inflammation" ]	2012	Sequence specific detection of bacterial 23S ribosomal RNA by TLR13
Understanding how our use of antimicrobial drugs shapes future levels of drug resistance is crucial . Recently , there has been debate over whether an aggressive ( i . e . , high dose ) or more moderate ( i . e . , lower dose ) treatment of individuals will most limit the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria . In...	Antibiotics are chemical compounds used to treat bacterial infections . The discovery of antibiotics , starting with penicillin in 1929 , revolutionized medicine , making it possible to cure or prevent life-threatening infections such as tetanus and pneumonia . However , many bacteria have become resistant to one or mo...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Materials", "and", "methods", "Results", "Discussion" ]	[ "epidemiology", "and", "global", "health", "microbiology", "and", "infectious", "disease" ]	2015	How competition governs whether moderate or aggressive treatment minimizes antibiotic resistance
During development , neurons form synapses with their fate-determined targets . While we begin to elucidate the mechanisms by which extracellular ligand-receptor interactions enhance synapse specificity by inhibiting synaptogenesis , our knowledge about their intracellular mechanisms remains limited . Here we show that...	Genes do more than just direct the color of our hair or eyes . They produce proteins that are involved in almost every process in the body . In humans , the majority of active genes can be found in the brain , where they help it to develop and work properly – effectively controlling how we move and behave . The brain’s...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Rap2 and TNIK control Plexin-dependent tiled synaptic innervation in C. elegans
BubR1 is a key component of the spindle assembly checkpoint ( SAC ) . Mutations that reduce BubR1 abundance cause aneuploidization and tumorigenesis in humans and mice , whereas BubR1 overexpression protects against these . However , how supranormal BubR1 expression exerts these beneficial physiological impacts is poor...	Human DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes , which must be duplicated before a cell divides and are then shared equally between the two new cells . When this process goes awry , the new cells either have too many or too few chromosomes . This situation – known as aneuploidy – frequently occurs in cancer cells , and is ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "cancer", "biology" ]	2016	BubR1 alterations that reinforce mitotic surveillance act against aneuploidy and cancer
In many songbird species , males sing to attract females and repel rivals . How can gregarious , non-territorial songbirds such as zebra finches , where females have access to numerous males , sustain monogamy ? We found that the dopaminergic reward circuitry of zebra finches can simultaneously promote social cohesion ...	While monogamy is rare within the animal kingdom , some species – including humans and many birds – can be highly social and yet sustain monogamous relationships . Zebra finches , for example , are among a number of species of songbirds in which numerous males and females live closely together but maintain monogamous p...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2017	Sexual dimorphism in striatal dopaminergic responses promotes monogamy in social songbirds
CIDE-N domains mediate interactions between the DNase Dff40/CAD and its inhibitor Dff45/ICAD . In this study , we report that the CIDE-N protein Drep-2 is a novel synaptic protein important for learning and behavioral adaptation . Drep-2 was found at synapses throughout the Drosophila brain and was strongly enriched at...	Synapses are specialized structures that connect nerve cells to one another and allow information to be transmitted between the cells . Synapses are essential for learning and storing memories . Many proteins that regulate how signals are transmitted at synapses have already been studied . In this manner , much has bee...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2014	Drep-2 is a novel synaptic protein important for learning and memory
Apart from glucose , fatty acid-derived ketone bodies provide metabolic energy for the brain during fasting and neonatal development . We investigated the evolution of HMGCS2 , the key enzyme required for ketone body biosynthesis ( ketogenesis ) . Unexpectedly , we found that three mammalian lineages , comprising cetac...	Our brain requires a lot of energy to work properly . Sugars are usually the main type of fuel for the body , but when they run low – for example during a food shortage – fat , in the form of fatty acids , can be used instead . However , the brain cannot directly process these molecules; instead , fatty acids need to g...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "evolutionary", "biology", "short", "report", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2018	Recurrent loss of HMGCS2 shows that ketogenesis is not essential for the evolution of large mammalian brains
Protein modification by SUMO helps orchestrate the elaborate events of meiosis to faithfully produce haploid gametes . To date , only a handful of meiotic SUMO targets have been identified . Here , we delineate a multidimensional SUMO-modified meiotic proteome in budding yeast , identifying 2747 conjugation sites in 77...	Most mammalian , yeast and other eukaryote cells have two sets of chromosomes , one from each parent , which contain all the cell’s DNA . Sex cells – like the sperm and egg – however , have half the number of chromosomes and are formed by a specialized type of cell division known as meiosis . At the start of meiosis , ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2021	SUMO is a pervasive regulator of meiosis
Executive function develops during adolescence , yet it remains unknown how structural brain networks mature to facilitate activation of the fronto-parietal system , which is critical for executive function . In a sample of 946 human youths ( ages 8-23y ) who completed diffusion imaging , we capitalized upon recent adv...	Adolescents are known for taking risks , from driving too fast to experimenting with drugs and alcohol . Such behaviors tend to decrease as individuals move into adulthood . Most people in their mid-twenties have greater self-control than they did as teenagers . They are also often better at planning , sustaining atten...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2020	Optimization of energy state transition trajectory supports the development of executive function during youth
Premature fusion of the cranial sutures ( craniosynostosis ) , affecting 1 in 2000 newborns , is treated surgically in infancy to prevent adverse neurologic outcomes . To identify mutations contributing to common non-syndromic midline ( sagittal and metopic ) craniosynostosis , we performed exome sequencing of 132 pare...	The bones in the front , back and sides of the human skull are not fused to one another at birth in order to allow the brain to double in size during the first year of life and continue growing into adulthood . However , one in 2 , 000 infants is born with a condition called craniosynostosis in which some of these bone...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2016	Two locus inheritance of non-syndromic midline craniosynostosis via rare SMAD6 and common BMP2 alleles
Serotonin receptors ( 5-HT3AR ) play a crucial role in regulating gut movement , and are the principal target of setrons , a class of high-affinity competitive antagonists , used in the management of nausea and vomiting associated with radiation and chemotherapies . Structural insights into setron-binding poses and the...	Serotonin is perhaps best known as a chemical messenger in the brain , where it regulates mood , appetite and sleep . But as a hormone , serotonin works in other parts of the body too . Serotonin is predominantly made in the gut , where it binds receptor proteins that help to regulate the movement of substances through...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "biochemistry", "and", "chemical", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2020	High-resolution structures of multiple 5-HT3AR-setron complexes reveal a novel mechanism of competitive inhibition
The incubation period for typhoid , polio , measles , leukemia and many other diseases follows a right-skewed , approximately lognormal distribution . Although this pattern was discovered more than sixty years ago , it remains an open question to explain its ubiquity . Here , we propose an explanation based on evolutio...	When one child goes to school with a throat infection , many of his or her classmates will often start to come down with a sore throat after two or three days . A few of the children will get sick sooner , the very next day , while others may take about a week . As such , there is a distribution of incubation periods –...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology" ]	2017	Evolutionary dynamics of incubation periods
Touch is encoded by cutaneous sensory neurons with diverse morphologies and physiological outputs . How neuronal architecture influences response properties is unknown . To elucidate the origin of firing patterns in branched mechanoreceptors , we combined neuroanatomy , electrophysiology and computation to analyze mous...	Sensory receptors in the skin supply us with information about objects in the world around us , including their shape and texture . These receptors also detect pressure , temperature , and pain , enabling us to respond appropriately to stimuli that could be potentially harmful . The activation of a touch receptor—for e...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2014	Computation identifies structural features that govern neuronal firing properties in slowly adapting touch receptors
During meiosis homologous chromosomes undergo crossover recombination . Sequence differences between homologs can locally inhibit crossovers . Despite this , nucleotide diversity and population-scaled recombination are positively correlated in eukaryote genomes . To investigate interactions between heterozygosity and r...	The genomes of plants and animals consist of several long DNA molecules that are called chromosomes . Most organisms carry two copies of each chromosome: one inherited from each parent . This means that an individual has two copies of each gene . Some of these gene copies may be identical ( known as ‘homozygous’ ) , bu...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2015	Juxtaposition of heterozygous and homozygous regions causes reciprocal crossover remodelling via interference during Arabidopsis meiosis
Disproportionate reactions to unexpected stimuli in the environment are a cardinal symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . Here , we test whether these heightened responses are associated with disruptions in distinct components of reinforcement learning . Specifically , using functional neuroimaging , a los...	Posttraumatic stress disorder , or PTSD for short , is a serious psychiatric disorder that sometimes occurs after someone has experienced a dangerous or threatening event . People with PTSD are prone to overreact to unexpected reminders of these events , and are often hypervigilant for danger . Why these symptoms occur...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Associability-modulated loss learning is increased in posttraumatic stress disorder
Perfringolysin O ( PFO ) is a prototypical member of a large family of pore-forming proteins that undergo a significant reduction in height during the transition from the membrane-assembled prepore to the membrane-inserted pore . Here , we show that targeted application of compressive forces can catalyze this conformat...	Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids that need to fold into intricate three-dimensional shapes to work correctly . But some proteins also have to change their shape drastically when they work . Mechanical forces that change the shape of a protein can therefore be used to determine how a protein folds and how i...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "short", "report", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2015	Single molecule compression reveals intra-protein forces drive cytotoxin pore formation
The tomato russet mite , Aculops lycopersici , is among the smallest animals on earth . It is a worldwide pest on tomato and can potently suppress the host’s natural resistance . We sequenced its genome , the first of an eriophyoid , and explored whether there are genomic features associated with the mite’s minute size...	Arthropods are a group of invertebrates that include insects – such as flies or beetles – arachnids – like spiders or scorpions – and crustaceans – including shrimp and woodlice . One of the tiniest species of arthropods , measuring less than 0 . 2 millimeters , is the tomato russet mite Aculops lycopersici . This arac...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "evolutionary", "biology", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2020	Genome streamlining in a minute herbivore that manipulates its host plant
Rhythmic activity in the theta range is thought to promote neuronal communication between brain regions . In this study , we performed chronic telemetric recordings in socially behaving rats to monitor electrophysiological activity in limbic brain regions linked to social behavior . Social encounters were associated wi...	For the brain to function correctly , the activities of multiple regions must be coordinated . This coordination is thought to be carried out by waves of electrical activity in the brain . One of the most prominent signals within these waves is called the theta rhythm . The theta rhythm is thought to help coordinate ne...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2015	Different types of theta rhythmicity are induced by social and fearful stimuli in a network associated with social memory
The Glucocorticoid Receptor ( GR ) alters transcriptional activity in response to hormones by interacting with chromatin at GR binding sites ( GBSs ) throughout the genome . Our work in human breast cancer cells identifies three classes of GBSs with distinct epigenetic characteristics and reveals that BRG1 interacts wi...	Steroid hormones play a number of roles in the body , including controlling the immune system and the body’s response to stress . Artificially produced steroid hormones may also be used as part of treatments for cancer . The hormones affect the behavior of cells by binding to and activating hormone receptor proteins . ...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression" ]	2018	BRG1 governs glucocorticoid receptor interactions with chromatin and pioneer factors across the genome
Most cortical neurons fire regularly when excited by a constant stimulus . In contrast , irregular-spiking ( IS ) interneurons are remarkable for the intrinsic variability of their spike timing , which can synchronize amongst IS cells via specific gap junctions . Here , we have studied the biophysical mechanisms of thi...	Neurons send information to other neurons in the brain by generating fast electrical pulses called action potentials ( or spikes ) . When stimulated by input signals of a constant size , neurons generally respond with regular patterns of spiking leading to rhythmical brain activity . However , neurons known as irregula...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology", "neuroscience" ]	2016	Stochastic and deterministic dynamics of intrinsically irregular firing in cortical inhibitory interneurons
Dopamine ( DA ) neurons of the ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) integrate cholinergic inputs to regulate key functions such as motivation and goal-directed behaviors . Yet the temporal dynamic range and mechanism of action of acetylcholine ( ACh ) on the modulation of VTA circuits and reward-related behaviors are not kno...	Acetylcholine is one of the most abundant chemicals in the brain , with key roles in learning , memory and attention . Neurons throughout the brain use acetylcholine to exchange messages . Acetylcholine binds to two different classes of receptors on neurons: nicotinic and muscarinic . As the name suggests , nicotinic r...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2018	Manipulating midbrain dopamine neurons and reward-related behaviors with light-controllable nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
The soluble isoform of leptin receptor ( sOb-R ) , secreted by the liver , regulates leptin bioavailability and bioactivity . Its reduced levels in diet-induced obesity ( DIO ) contribute to hyperleptinemia and leptin resistance , effects that are regulated by the endocannabinoid ( eCB ) /CB1R system . Here we show tha...	When the human body has stored enough energy from food , it releases a hormone called leptin that travels to the brain and stops feelings of hunger . This hormone moves through the bloodstream and can affect other organs , such as the liver , which also help control our body’s energy levels . Most people with obesity h...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2020	CB1R regulates soluble leptin receptor levels via CHOP, contributing to hepatic leptin resistance
Myosin V and VI are antagonistic motors that cohabit membrane vesicles in cells . A systematic study of their collective function , however , is lacking and forms the focus of this study . We functionally reconstitute a two-dimensional actin-myosin interface using myosin V and VI precisely patterned on DNA nanostructur...	Proteins and other molecules can be moved around a cell within bubble-like compartments called vesicles . These vesicles can travel along filaments made of a protein called actin , which forms a network that criss-crosses the cell . A family of motor proteins called myosin bind to the vesicles and are responsible for p...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology", "structural", "biology", "and", "molecular", "biophysics" ]	2015	Tuning myosin-driven sorting on cellular actin networks
Tactile information available to the rat vibrissal system begins as external forces that cause whisker deformations , which in turn excite mechanoreceptors in the follicle . Despite the fundamental mechanical origin of tactile information , primary sensory neurons in the trigeminal ganglion ( Vg ) have often been descr...	Animals must gather sensory information from the world around them and act on that information . Specialized sensory cells convert physical information from the environment into electrical signals that the brain can interpret . In the case of hearing , this physical information consists of changes in air pressure , and...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology", "neuroscience" ]	2016	Decoupling kinematics and mechanics reveals coding properties of trigeminal ganglion neurons in the rat vibrissal system
The rapid evolution of a trait in a clade of organisms can be explained by the sustained action of natural selection or by a high mutational variance , that is the propensity to change under spontaneous mutation . The causes for a high mutational variance are still elusive . In some cases , fast evolution depends on th...	Heritable characteristics or traits of a group of organisms , for example the large brain size of primates or the hooves of a horse , are determined by genes , the environment , and by the interactions between them . Traits can change over time and generations when enough mutations in these genes have spread in a speci...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "evolutionary", "biology", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2020	A broad mutational target explains a fast rate of phenotypic evolution
In vestibular cerebellum , primary afferents carry signals from single vestibular end organs , whereas secondary afferents from vestibular nucleus carry integrated signals . Selective targeting of distinct mossy fibers determines how the cerebellum processes vestibular signals . We focused on vestibular projections to ...	While out jogging , you have no trouble keeping your eyes fixed on objects in the distance even though your head and eyes are moving with every step . Humans owe this stability of the visual world partly to a region of the brain called the vestibular cerebellum . From its position underneath the rest of the brain , the...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience" ]	2019	Selective targeting of unipolar brush cell subtypes by cerebellar mossy fibers
The congression of chromosomes to the spindle equator involves the directed motility of bi-orientated sister kinetochores . Sister kinetochores bind bundles of dynamic microtubules and are physically connected through centromeric chromatin . A crucial question is to understand how sister kinetochores are coordinated to...	In human cells , DNA is arranged into structures called chromosomes . Before a cell divides it copies its entire set of chromosomes to make paired chomosomes known as sister chromatids . Then , the sister chromatids are separated to ensure that each new daughter cell contains a full set of chromosomes . A structure cal...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "and", "discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "cell", "biology" ]	2015	Super-resolution kinetochore tracking reveals the mechanisms of human sister kinetochore directional switching
Metabolic homeostasis requires coordination between circadian clocks in different tissues . Also , systemic signals appear to be required for some transcriptional rhythms in the mammalian liver and the Drosophila fat body . Here we show that free-running oscillations of the fat body clock require clock function in the ...	Many processes in the body follow rhythms that repeat over 24 hours and are synchronized to the cycle of day and night . Our sleep pattern is a well-known example , but others include daily fluctuations in body temperature and the production of several hormones . Internal clocks located in the brain and other organs dr...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "neuroscience", "genetics", "and", "genomics" ]	2016	Neural clocks and Neuropeptide F/Y regulate circadian gene expression in a peripheral metabolic tissue
The cutaneous wound-healing program is a product of a complex interplay among diverse cell types within the skin . One fundamental process that is mediated by these reciprocal interactions is the mobilization of local stem cell pools to promote tissue regeneration and repair . Using the ablation of epidermal caspase-8 ...	The skin is a physical barrier that protects the body from the outside world . If the skin is injured , the body mounts a “wound healing” response to rapidly mend and restore this protective barrier . Wound healing is a complex process and relies on the different types of cells in the skin communicating with each other...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "developmental", "biology", "cell", "biology" ]	2017	Stimulation of hair follicle stem cell proliferation through an IL-1 dependent activation of γδT-cells
Many environmental stimuli present a quasi-rhythmic structure at different timescales that the brain needs to decompose and integrate . Cortical oscillations have been proposed as instruments of sensory de-multiplexing , i . e . , the parallel processing of different frequency streams in sensory signals . Yet their cau...	Some people speak twice as fast as others , while people with different accents pronounce the same words in different ways . However , despite these differences between speakers , humans can usually follow spoken language with remarkable ease . The different elements of speech have different frequencies: the typical fr...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Results", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "computational", "and", "systems", "biology", "neuroscience" ]	2015	Speech encoding by coupled cortical theta and gamma oscillations
SMC complexes , such as condensin or cohesin , organize chromatin throughout the cell cycle by a process known as loop extrusion . SMC complexes reel in DNA , extruding and progressively growing DNA loops . Modeling assuming two-sided loop extrusion reproduces key features of chromatin organization across different org...	The different molecules of DNA in a cell are called chromosomes , and they change shape dramatically when cells divide . Ordinarily , chromosomes are packaged by proteins called histones to make thick fibres called chromatin . Chromatin fibres are further folded into a sparse collection of loops . These loops are impor...	[ "Abstract", "Introduction", "Discussion", "Materials", "and", "methods" ]	[ "chromosomes", "and", "gene", "expression", "physics", "of", "living", "systems" ]	2020	Chromosome organization by one-sided and two-sided loop extrusion

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