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The battles seen in the US over software patents could spread to the UK and the rest of Europe if the unitary patent is allowed to come into force.
Europe's 'Unitary Patent' Could Mean Unlimited Software Patents
The battles seen in the US over software patents could spread to the UK and the rest of Europe if the unitary patent is allowed to come into force
Just as the US software industry is experiencing the long-anticipated all-out software patent wars, the European Union has a plan to follow the same course. When the Hargreaves report urged the UK to avoid software patents, the UK government had already approved a plan that is likely to impose them.
Software patents are dangerous to software developers because they impose monopolies on software ideas. It is not feasible or safe to develop non-trivial software if you must thread a maze of patents. (See Patent absurdity, Guardian, 20 June 2005.)
Every program combines many ideas; a large program implements thousands of them. Google recently estimated there might be 250,000 patented ideas in a smartphone. I find that figure plausible, because in 2004 I estimated that the GNU/Linux operating system implemented around 100,000 actually patented ideas. (Linux, the kernel, had been found by Dan Ravicher to contain 283 such ideas, and was estimated to be 25% of the whole system at the time.)
The consequences are becoming manifest now in the US, but multinational companies have long lobbied to spread software patents around the world. In 2005, the European parliament took up the second reading of a directive that had been proposed by the European Commission to authorise software patents. The parliament had previously amended the directive to reject them, but the Council of Europe had undone those amendments.
The commission's text was written in a sneaky way: when read by laymen, it appeared to forbid patents on pure software ideas, because it required a patent application to have a physical aspect. However, it did not require the "inventive step" – the advance that constitutes a patentable "invention" – to itself be physical.
This meant that a patent application could present the required physical aspect just by mentioning the usual physical elements of the computer on which the program would run (processor, memory, display, etc). It would not have to propose any advance in these physical elements, just cite them as part of the larger system also containing the software. Any computational idea could be patented this way. Such a patent would only cover software meant for running on a computer, but that was not much of a limitation, since it is not practical to run a large program by hand simulation.
A massive grassroots effort directed at convincing the European parliament to change its mind resulted in defeat of the directive. But that does not mean we convinced half of parliament to reject software patents. Rather, it seems the pro-patent forces decided at the last minute to junk their own proposal.
The volunteer activists drifted away, thinking the battle won, but the corporate lobbyists for software patents were paid to stay on the job. Now they have contrived another sneaky method: the "unitary patent" system proposed for the EU. Under this system, if the European Patent Office issues a patent, it will automatically be valid in every participating country, which in this case means all of the EU except for Spain and Italy.
How would that affect software patents? Evidently, either the unitary patent system would allow software patents or it wouldn't. If it allows them, no country will be able to escape them on its own. That would be bad, but what if the system rejects software patents? Then it would be good – right?
Right – except the plan was designed to prevent that. A small but crucial detail in the plan is that appeals against the EPO's decisions would be decided based on the EPO's own rules. The EPO could thus tie European business and computer users in knots to its heart's content.
Note that the EPO has a vested interest in extending patents into as many areas of life as it can get away with. With external limits (such as national courts) removed, the EPO could impose software patents, or any other controversial kind of patents. For instance, if it chooses to decide that natural genes are patentable, as a US appeals court just did, no one could reverse that decision except perhaps the European Court of Justice (ECJ), the highest court in Europe.
In fact, the EPO's decision about software patents has already been made, and can be seen in action. The EPO has issued tens of thousands of software patents, in contempt for the treaty that established it. (See http://webshop.ffii.org/, "Your web shop is patented".) At present, though, each state decides whether those patents are valid. If the unitary patent system is adopted and the EPO gets unchecked power to decide, Europe will get US-style patent wars.
The ECJ ruled in March that a unitary patent system would have to be subject to its jurisdiction, but it isn't clear whether its jurisdiction would include substantive policy decisions such as "can software ideas be patented?" That's because it's not clear how the European Patent Convention relates to the ECJ.
If the ECJ can decide this, the plan would no longer be certain disaster. Instead, the ball would be one bounce away from disaster.
Before adopting such a system, Europe should rewrite the plan to make certain software is safe from patents. If that can't be done, the next best thing is to reject the plan entirely. Minor simplifications are not worth a disaster; harmonisation is a misguided goal if it means doing things wrong everywhere.
The UK government seems to wish for the disaster, as it stated in December 2010 that it did not want the ECJ to have a say over the system. Will the government listen to Hargreaves and change its mind about this plan? Britons must insist on this.
More information about the drawbacks and legal flaws of this plan can be found in http://unitary-patent.eu
Copyright 2011 Richard Stallman. Released under the Creative Commons Attribution Noderivs 3.0 license. | <urn:uuid:b5c461c3-dcc3-4b59-83ed-61cf1703578f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.legalsecretaryjournal.com/?q=software_patents_eu | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963462 | 1,269 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Government and Law in Spanish Colonial America
© 2001 Donald J. Mabry
1) Role of criollos (Spaniards born in the New World) was very
2) All of the European settled areas were governed by these
institutions. There are examples of illegal institutions such as the King of the
Mosquitoes and Palmares in Brazil but these are unusual. Castas (non-European people,
either mixed or non-mixed) were excluded from government service except for a few town
councils or cabildos. Caciques (Indian leaders) did serve on occasion.
The great changes in European philosophy the 17th and the 18th
didn't affect the Spanish world worth speaking about. Eighteenth century
Enlightenment heard a little bit more lightly in America but not until after 1750.
Colonial ideas conservative except, where, they met unknown situations such as the how to
deal with Indians.
Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), 1503-1790
Purpose was the foster and regulate trade and navigation. Operated
in Sevilla until 1717 when it was moved to the coastal city of Cádiz.
Casa created the consulado (merchants' guild) in Sevilla which had
the exclusive right to trade with the New World. The consulado had extensive economic and
judicial duties concerning overseas trade. Consulados created in Mexico and Peru as the
other end of the system. Spanish believed in the efficacy of monopoly, a belief stemming
from their desire to control.
Casa's duties included:
- Licensing and regulating shipping and emigration
- providing training in geography, pilotage, and navigation
- creating and maintaining records and research
- collecting some taxes and tariffs
- handling royal revenues shipped from America
- making judgments on matters arising from trade and navigation issues
- assisting with overseas communication
- supervising the convoy system (flota) that was operated for 200 years
Gradually lost its powers in the 18th century. Some of its powers
were transferred to the new Ministry of Marine and the Indies. The restriction on which
ports could be used was ended beginning in 1763. The Casa was abolished in 1790.
Council of the Indies (Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias)
Founded in 1524, the Consejo had all kinds of functions. Subdivision
into chambers to deal with specialized problems. For 200 years, they were the chief
Spanish governmental institutions. Others had some power in the 18th century.
- proposed top officials
- power of confirming minor officials appointed by colonials
- corresponded with (1) officials (2) important people (quite a lot)
- Sent investigating officers
- Verified accounts of royal officials
- debated ways to increase crown revenue
- final board of appeal
- had original jurisdiction in cases of large encomiendas
- sent and reviewed residencias (reviews of colonial officials)
- passed legislation
Lasted approximately 200 years. Had a fluctuating membership of six
to ten councilors plus numerous lower officials. In 1714, it was reorganized and
then replaced by a minister in the latter part of the 18th century.
Both the Casa and the Consejo were in Spanish. Together with the
king, they made sure that the colonies existed to serve Spain.
In Spanish America, there were many government officials.
Some, such as the adelantado (a military official) was important only during the
Conquest. Others were more enduring. All followed the principle of "Obedezco pero no
cumplo," I obey but I do not carry out, for everyone understood how very far it was
between Spain and the New World and circumstances could have change since the Crown had
been given the information upon which it based an order. It was imperative that royal
authority always be acknowledged, especially since the Crown only sent powerful men to
represent it in the New World, men who might develop ambitions of their own.
The Viceroy was very important, for he stood for the king in the New
World. He was always a man of great consequence in Spain, holding a socio-economic
position fit for a king. When he arrived at his post, he was given an almost royal welcome
with great ceremony at his entrance to the capital. When he was invested in office, the
public ceremony was akin to a coronation. These ceremonies were very important as sources
of amusement for the populace as well as a means to impress them and curry favor. The
viceroy received a tremendous salary. The viceroyalty was one of the principal
institutions on which the Crown relied. Once in a while a very good viceroy would serve
elsewhere in America. The first was created for New Spain in 1529 followed by the one for
Peru in 1542. In 1717, the viceroyalty of New Granada (northern South America) was created
in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region.
In 1776, the viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, centered in Buenos Aires, was created to
bolster Spanish influence in southern South America. They served three to eight years.
Within a viceroyalty was the captaincies-general. The
captain-general operated much like a junior viceroy, usually governing a region distant
from the viceregal capital, such as Chile and Guatemala.
The oidores (judges) were the most important officials. They were
important and distinguished people in Spain with legal training and were people of great
consequence and with high salaries in the colonies. In their powers, there was some
overlapping with the viceroy's power, done by the Crown to create rivalry between the two
institutions, a rivalry it would have to adjudicate.
The audiencia sat as a court of justice, which was its chief
function. As time went by and population grew, it divided into special courts and
added a number of oidores. Could question the actions of other officials and discipline
them. It sent visitas (inspections). Had legislative authority through the actas acuerdas.
It could execute laws. When it was in a viceregal city, the viceroy was automatically its
president but there was always tension between the audiencia and the viceroy no matter
where the audiencia sat.
He was a lesser royal official within the jurisdictional area of an
audiencia. Some dealt only with Indians, making sure that the Crown got its share of the
They were high royal officials who were given military and economic
power over a large area in order to increase Crown revenue and defend against enemies.
They were a French invention. Intendant system was started about 1760, but was not
established every place. Constituted tinkering with system and did not represent
fundamental changes. The creation of the system did indicate recognition of the need for
Spain established a presidio (fort) in a frontier area either
because the native inhabitants or Europeans were threatening the region. Presidios didn't
always have a mission attached. When there were both, they reinforced each other. They
were moved or were extinguished when the job was done. They played an important role in
protecting the empire.
There were both ecclesiastical and civil cabildos. The
ecclesiastical cabildos were called a chapter. Town life has a long history in Spain and
Portugal.Middle class in medieval ages had gotten concessions, but had lost most power by
1492. They did have important functions. The Spanish were townsmen or wanted to be. When
they came to the New World, they laid out towns.
A citizen of a town was a vecino. The class system so well defined
that they knew who deserved to be a vecino, usually all Spaniards. The term didn't mean
Indians or Negroes. A person had to be a vecino for town council to pay any
attention to you. Alcalde was on the town council but he is different in having judicial
functions. Jurisdiction was quite broad and encompassed a large territory. In geographical
scope, it resembled a county in the United States. The cabildo controlled town lands,
common pastures, and the common woodlock. There was a tremendous amount of
charcoal making in the colonial period so control of the woodlocks was important. So much
wood was cut that the land was denuded, causing erosion.
Cabildos did quite a lot on a local scale. They didn't have many
revenue sources, but received quite a bit from animal slaughtering, taxation, income from
town lands, and luxury taxes.
In the very beginning, the conquistador appointed and then there
were elections and then selling of offices and hereditary. Members of the cabildos were
- erection of public buildings, including cemetaries
- control municipal processions and ceremonies,
- mail service, weights and measures
- police functions
- bullfights, woodcutting, rustling
- control of carrying of guns
- control dress of lower classes and use of
- in the late colonial period, cafes ( like
English coffee houses)
- vagrants -- got be be a terrible burden
- sometimes schools but mighty few
- towns fought each other, conducted law suits
against each other
- sent officials (procurador) to Spain to lobby
Result of their existence was their critical importance in
developing a sense of Americanism and feelings of discrimination. Cabildo abierto
was similar to a town meeting of vecinos and was called in a variety of ways. It was quite
important in the independence period because it was a means of political action. Not
important enough to be concerned about befiore that period.
It was the sending of inspectors to check on events and people. Some
were scheduled; some were an unannounced audit. Result of its work led to
When a high official left office, his actions were reviewed by a
residencia, often taking months. The system was designed to prevent corruption and abuse.
However, some of these officials simply stole more money so they could afford to bribe the
Generalizations Regarding the Governmental System
- lacked provincial assemblies
- didn't have federalism experience
- highly oligarchic system of government, one for the upper classes and
one for the others
- most people governed by encomederos or hacendados
- tremendous amount of unpredictability; one couldn't be sure how the
system was going to work in terms of how it was set up. There was a
tremendous amount of personalism, which
was an invitation to corruption. In fact, there was enough corruption that it had
its own rules.
- discrimination against criollos
- size and distance
- used Amerind institutions.
- Alliance between the civil and the ecclesiastical authorities
- when laws were created, old laws not repealed
- had goal ambiguity and conflicting standards. In Spanish world,
what you were really doing was giving power to the lower echelons in
government. They had to decide which rules applied.
The upper class outside of government did a lot more of the decision
making that one might realize. Most people obeyed their encomendero or hacendado and had
little contact with a government official.
The royal officials (oficiales reales) were treasury
officials. Didn't have multiple functions because the Crown wanted them to focus on
getting money. The treasurer lived in the regional capital and had a treasury box.
The treasury included the treasurer, comptroller, factor (business manager), and
other officials. In 16th century, sometimes there was an overseer. Treasurer and
comptroller had deputies in other places. Sometimes very important places had separate
Collection of Taxes
Some were directly collected by royal officials. They took out the
quinto at the mines. The Crown used tax farming to collect the alcabala. There were
customs duties on imports (almajarifazo) and the crusada (the tax which had been
instituted to pay for crusades). Tax farmers paid direct to royal treasury for the
Indian tribute was one of the major sources of revenue.
Indians paid in kind and factors the sold goods and sent the proceeds, minus their cut, to
the royal treasury. The corregidor de los indios was charged with extracting as much as
possible from the Indians.
Treasury officials were supervised by accounting officials. At
first, accounting was a department of the Consejo. Treasury officials dispersed funds for
salaries and expenses and then shipped surplus back to Spain. The treasury system was
understaffed, and the accounting system even more so. Auditing fell way behind. The more
it fell behind, the more corruption occurred. Audits in the 16th century led to the
creation of audiencias. One could appeal rulings to the Consejo.Tribunal of Accounts
created about 1603 in Mexico City, Lima, and Bogotá
The Crown steadily increased surveillance of the local governments.
It replaced encomenderos with corregidores in Indian areas to reduce their power and to
insure that income would go to the Crown. Towns saw the strengthening of appointment to
cabildos. The Crown was leery of cabildos because of the 1520 revolt of comuneros there.
Crown prohibited the gathering of officials without crown permission in ordrer to
discourage conspiracies. It wanted to keep people atomized.
Administrative system system which was set up in the late 16th
century really lasted until the end of the empire.
In 1606, Crown made an important effort to a make colonial office
more attractive by making offices renouncible. An officeholder could resign in favor of
someone else. The Crown got a fee out of the process. Revenue source! This made offices
more valuable, more expensive to get. Could mortgage offices you were trying to get.
Resulted in the creation of brokers. This made it easy for the ambitious to borrow money
from one of these brokers to buy an office. Work your way up as you made money from a
lower office to finance buying a higher one. The selling of offices was never really
extended system to major offices. Started to extend under Charles II. System reformed in
the 18th century.
The worse thing about all this was the multiplication of offices.
All those involved, including the Crown, wanted more offices created but doing so made the
bureaucracy even more cumbersome. It's doubtful if income from offices was worth it.
Advantages to the sale offices
- lasted a long time
- discouraged nepotism among high officials
- encouraged people to settle in America
- gave them income for economic development
- work showed remarkable uniformity; you could depend upon it
- turned up a lot of information
- with tremendous effort could get it executed.
The Spanish legal tradition was rich and complex . Used Roman law
with other elements. Hard to trace older influences; don't know how much Germanic or
Arabic influence. A lot of Roman law in the system which was brought into it in the
13th century. Coincides with the strengthening of Spanish kingdoms. Shows great influence
of canon law. In 300 years before 1492, changes in the law included:
- conversion of servile holdings into leases, reelecting the movement
- continuation of upper class privileges. Growth of grazing privileges
as more important than agricultural rights because the upper class owned
herds and flocks.
- corporations recognized. Confradías and gremios were particularly
important corporations. Confradías provided a burial function as well as
a fraternal function for their members.
Sometimes confradías were related to gremios.
Codifications of the law
Each merely an addition or earlier codes. Recopilación de las
leyes de las Indias is an example.
Which Spanish law was transferred America? Public land law
primarily. Generally, private law of America was the private law of the kingdom of
Castille. New World changes in the private law caused by changes in status, primarily.
Some changes touched on church jurisdiction because of the different circumstances in the
The divergence of law of Spain and America grew as time passed.
Differences in regions necessitated modification. As touched family, property, succession,
etc,, Spanish American law was like that of Castille. The differences were:
- marriage among Indians
- testaments involving Indians
- canonical marriage was the same as Spain's with some modifications
- mixed marriage rules
- officials, marrying locals
- juridical condition of women. The emigration of women was slight.
- protect Indians
- women holding public office
- women and encomienda
- female behavior
- restrictions on foreigners
- trade in certain provinces
- Seville trade monopoly
There was the absence of precedent law. Instead, they followed codes
and judicial principles. There were no juries. No evidence that proves that the jury
system is any better than Roman-based laws.
The Recopilación de las leyes de las Indias was a
compendium of laws. Tons of other records as well. Most common piece of legislation sent
out was called a cédula. Cedularios were a collection of cédulas.
Recopilación was supposed to take care of all laws on imperial basis. Didn't. Didn't
repeal earlier laws. Made very little difference as far as the empire was concerned. This
is of interest to us because it pointd up the difficulty of change in the Spanish
world. It has been described as as a fraction of the exceptions to Spanish common law.
Crown wanted its legislation to be enforced, especially with regard
to the Indians. The machinery to enforce the laws was elaborate.
Magistrates and judges were highly honored in Spain. The Crown of
Castille engaged in a great deal of legislative activity, especially decree legislation.
Degree legislation still a very prominent kind of Latin American legislation today.
tradition of legislation executive power is strong in Latin America today. King thought of
more as a judicial figure than legislative. He was the head of the courts. The
"principle task of government in America was judging between conflicting
interests instead of planning " and "the most serious obligation that your
majesty owes in the governing of Spanish America is justice" were statements of the
king's proper role.
The most trusted institution was the court, especially the
audiencia. The judge was the most trusted individual. Juridicals didn't have large vested
interests and great expectations. Judges were dependent upon the Crown. They were trained
in law schools and believed in absolute monarchs and centralized government. Usually, they
had no great military ambition or political ambition. They had respect for all forms of
law. They were good bureaucrats. Judges were respected by the semi-military upper classes.
Audiencia was usually thought to be the most important and
characteristic of colonial institutions. There were ten in the 16th century. These courts
has administrative duties and some political power. They had extensive influence. They
were over all other courts. They reviewed residencias. Could send special
commissions to investigate. They had original jurisdiction in the case of royal patronage
and large encomiendas. Audiencia decided when question of encroachment of jurisdiction
arose. It could assess legal fees; set ecclesiastical fees for sacraments; set and publish
Indian tributes and see to enforcement thereof. As a committee sat as an acuerdo out of
which came actas acuerdas. Acuerdo hacienda dealt with treasury matters. In
certain cases, it had jurisdiction over Indians affairs. It was tremendously important.
There were attempts to regulate daily life of the oidores. A
fiscal was a prosecuting attorney. Oidores and fiscales were supposed to live
together in one building. The Crown tried to keep them from building up local
interests. Their duties were prescribed. Oidores were given higher salaries
than anyone but viceroys. Didn't make them enormously rich but they were very well
off. Most were peninsulares.Some did in fact become interested in colonial affairs.
Other administrative officials
The administrative system involved a lot of officials other than the
ones mentioned above. There were clerks (escribianos or scribblers), and town clerks. The
clerical officials were the ones who knew what was going on. Often guided affairs
unobtrusively. Provided permanency and continuity. They stayed for life. They were
non-salaried employees who earned fees. There so many of these low-level administrative
officials that crown could pay all of them. There were fixed fees for services performed
and special fees (bribes?) to speed things up. These fees in the major places amounted to
quite a lot. There was great competition to get the major posts, evidence that they were
highly valued. The Crown had. trouble filling these positions in little towns, for there
was little money in them. Sometimes, the Crown couldn't. This partly explains why people
moved to cities. Couldn't get anything done in small towns.
There was a huge number of applicants for the good positions.
Bureaucratic office mania. To live outside the public budget is to live in error would
have been their motto. Even non-paying office brought a modicum of prestige and, possibly,
the chance to get a paying job. doing a job was not as important as having it.
Conquistadores and relatives, especially sons, demanded jobs; they were the most numerous
class applying for these jobs in the early days. They made poor scribblers. Charles I
(V) let most of these inferior postions go to private patronage. There were two kinds of
appointment: (1) honorific (2) make money. Jobs were leased.
Philip II saw some of the evils of this system. Kept
appointments much more his own hands. Didn't end the sale of minor offices; Crown sold
them as a "reform." Made sale more effective in terms of Crown control.
There came to be the public sale in the American provinces where
offices were auctioned to the highest bidder. It was a provisional sale, for the person
had to prove that there were no obstacles, such as race, to his holding the job. One
exceptions to highest bidder rule was being a viceroy's son. Applicants had to send
receipts and notarized proof that they were honest, of "pure blood," etc.
Proof of the system? It brought in revenue and prevented
colonials from building up local support. The system was accepted by the public, who
thought of jobs as property. The Crown wouldn't accept sale of judicial offices. The
empire used this system and lasted 300 years.
You can read about other topics in colonial Latin American history by buying and reading
Colonial Latin America by Don Mabry.
Click on the book cover or the title to go to Llumina Press. | <urn:uuid:2a678ff7-a9e9-471c-a86a-0086472dfe93> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=296 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971242 | 4,968 | 3.71875 | 4 |
It is decades since I've done math, so please forgive the lack of correct terminology and lack of latex etc. I'm endeavoring to write a simple CAS calculator that can handle structures that undergraduates could run into.
Thanks to wikipedia, I've found that the way of adding a multiplicative inverse to a ring to create a field is called 'localization' - where R is the ring, S = R - zero divisors of R,
the new field is basically an ordered pair (S, R), with the meaning S^-1 * R I guess there is an implied cancellation law added so that (x,x) => (1,1), along with standard rules for rational addition, multiplication, and inverse.
Have I got this right so far?
Anyway, I figure that creating an additive inverse for a semiring is R[n], where n^2 = 1, and x+xn=0, n is the symbol for negative. Is this the quotient group R[n]/(n^2 - 1, 1 + n)?
Is there any proper name for this process, and do I have it correct? | <urn:uuid:8b2edba5-2605-4f78-8ef5-9ec77ea0791d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathoverflow.net/questions/90525/standard-method-and-name-for-extending-a-semiring-to-a-ring | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934427 | 239 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Ineducability Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Ineducability
Literary usage of Ineducability
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. Abandoned to the State: Cruelty and Neglect in Russian Orphanages by Kathleen Hunt (1999)
"... deepened by an official diagnosis of mental retardation, subjects Russian children to prejudicial stereotypes of ineducability and inherited deviance. ..."
2. Inductive Versus Deductive Methods of Teaching: An Experimental Research by William Henry Winch (1913)
"Boys of this kind are the despair of the teacher, but the evidences yielded by his work do not point so much to stupidity as to ineducability. ..."
3. The Elements of Child-protection by Sigmund Engel (1912)
"... entirely upon the degree of mental debility. In cases belonging to group (c) education is impossible. The question of ineducability is of importance, ..."
4. Thyrotomy, for the removal of laryngeal growths, modified by Ephraim Cutter (1871)
"From the ineducability of the patient, arising from natural causes, as extreme youth, a small throat, pendent epiglottis, obstinate tongue, ..." | <urn:uuid:61dd2c4b-d198-4c88-849b-50c0f047e07f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/ineducability | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919232 | 295 | 2.84375 | 3 |
July 23, 2003
In my classroom, I had a Kindness Bank which sat on my desk with a basket of pennies beside it. At the beginning of each year, the children and I would discuss what acts of kindness are and how we might use them in our classroom. Acts such as holding the water fountain for another student, helping a friend tie a shoe, etc. were recorded during an interactive writing session. We posted this list, and I took pictures of the students doing acts of kindness. We placed the photos on the chart. When a student preformed an act of kindness, the child who was the recipient of this act could tell me. I would then tell the student who did the act of kindness to place a penny in the Kindness Bank. It took them a few days to understand that the person receiving the act of kindness must be the one to tell the teacher. They loved to put a penny in the bank and one act of kindness always led to at least several more. At the end of the year we had a special day when we counted the pennies and decided what to do with our money. This past year, we donated the money to our school fund that was raising money for a new playground fence. They learned that 180 pennies won't buy lots of things, but they were amazed that the class was able to do 180 acts of kindness. | <urn:uuid:7525d6dd-920c-49bc-8379-085d4ad3eaf9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nea.org/tools/tips/Kindness-Bank.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.992332 | 279 | 2.875 | 3 |
AUSTRALIAN OIL HISTORY TIMELINE
1854 : AUSTRALIAN KEROSINE AND OIL COMPANY began retorting shale at Hartley Vale , New South Wales producing kerosine and making candles.
1867 [19 May] : Harold Crofton Sleigh (pronounced Slee), merchant and ship-owner was born in England.
1895 [February] : VACUUM OIL opened its first Australian office in Queen Street , Melbourne.
1895 [November] : Harold C.Sleigh and John McIlwraith formed a partnership , opening an office in Flinders Street , Melbourne.
1900 : R.W. CAMERON AND CO. began operating as Australian agent for THE TEXAS COMPANY.
1901 : COLONIAL OIL COMPANY - an offshoot of STANDARD OIL - set up business as the first motor spirit (gasoline) importing firm in Australia.
1902 : JOHN FELL AND COMPANY was established in Sydney and began the production of lubricants made from N.S.W. shale oil.
1904 [March] : VACUUM OIL was officially incorporated under Victorian Law as a proprietary company
1905 : The SHELL TRANSPORT AND TRADING COMPANY and the ROYAL DUTCH PETROLEUM COMPANY established BRITISH IMPERIAL OIL COMPANY LIMITED in AUSTRALIA as a joint venture.
1908 : The VACUUM OIL COMPANY took over the Australian operations of the COLONIAL OIL COMPANY.
1909 : NEPTUNE OIL COMPANY was set up to handle the oil business developed by the KITCHEN family.
1913 : H.C. SLEIGH took over the first consignment of CALIFORNIAN motor spirit imported into Australia and marketed it as GOLDEN FLEECE.
1913 : C.C.WAKEFIELD & CO. LTD. branded CASTROL lubricants first marketed in Australia.
1914 : The KITCHEN interests , including the NEPTUNE OIL COMPANY , were sold to the LEVER GROUP.
1918 : THE TEXAS COMPANY AUSTRALASIA LIMITED was incorporated in New South Wales.
1920 : C.O.R. ( COMMONWEALTH OIL REFINERIES ) was formed by the Australian federal government and the ANGLO - PERSIAN OIL COMPANY as equal patrners.
1924 : ATLANTIC REFINING COMPANY OF PHILADELPHIA appointed HARRISONS RAMSAY PTY.LTD. as
Australian agent to market its ATLANTIC brand products.
1924 : C.O.R.'s refinery at Laverton , Victoria came on stream.
1924 : NEPTUNE OIL instaled the first company-owned pump at a multi-brand service station in Hunter Street , Sydney.
1925 : UNION OIL OF CALIFORNIA appointed F.W.WILLIAMS AND COMPANY PTY.LTD. as Australian agent to market UNION motor spirit using the VENUS brand.
1926 : The LEVER GROUP sold the NEPTUNE OIL COMPANY to the ROYAL DUTCH / SHELL GROUP.
1927 [by the end of] : To bring the Australian company name into line with its "SHELL" brand name , the BRITISH IMPERIAL OIL COMPANY LTD. became THE SHELL COMPANY OF AUSTRALIA LTD.(INC.IN GREAT BRITAIN).
1928 : The VACUUM OIL COMPANY was the first oil company in Australia to appoint an aviation manager.
1932 : PACIFIC OIL COMPANY LTD. was formed in Melbourne.
1933 [24 April] : HAROLD CROFTON SLEIGH died and was buried in Box Hill [Melbourne] cemetery. His son HAMILTON MORTON HOWARD SLEIGH took control of the H C SLEIGH partnership.
1933 : ALBA PETROLEUM COMPANY OF AUSTRALIA PTY.LTD. was established by P.J. Adams and A.G.Wales.
1933 : STANDARD OIL OF NEW JERSEY bought the ATLANTIC UNION company and continued to use the ATLANTIC brand name until the early 1960 's.
1935 : PACIFIC OIL COMPANY LTD. was merged into the ALBA PETROLEUM COMPANY.
1936 [23 March] : AUSTRALIAN MOTORISTS PETROL CO.LTD. was incorporated in New South Wales by William Gaston Walkley.
1936 : The TEXAS COMPANY (AUSTRALASIA) LIMITED became part of the CALTEX GROUP.
1939 : The VACUUM OIL COMPANY introduced the FLYING RED HORSE (PEGASUS) to Australia.
1940 [February] : The Australian federal government introduced petrol rationing as an emergency wartime measure.
1941 : The name CALTEX was first used in Australia.
1942 : POOL PETROLEUM PTY. LTD. was formed by importing companies to handle wartime distribution of petroleum products within Australia.
1945 : ALBA PETROLEUM COMPANY OF AUSTRALIA was incorporated into AUSTRALIAN MOTORISTS PETROL COMPANY.
1947 : H.C.SLEIGH became a public company - H.C. SLEIGH LIMITED.
1949 : Petrol rationing was declared invalid by the Australian High Court.
1949 : AUSTRALIAN MOTORISTS PETROL COMPANY name was changed to AMPOL PETROLEUM LIMITED.
1950 : Petrol rationing was lifted by the the newly elected Australian federal government.
1952 : The ANGLO - IRANIAN OIL COMPANY (formerly the ANGLO - PERSIAN OIL COMPANY) bought out the Australian government's half share of C.O.R. ( COMMONWEALTH OIL REFINERIES ).
1953 : PURR PULL COMPANY PTY.LTD. marketer of petroleum products in New South Wales and Queensland was acquired by H.C. Sleigh Limited
1954 : SANTOS incorporated in South Australia.
1957 : COMMONWEALTH OIL REFINERIES LIMITED name changed to BP AUSTRALIA LIMITED.
1959 :[5 June ] : KANGAROO PETROLEUM COMPANY PTY.LTD. was formed and began marketing petrol in Victoria.
1960's [Early] : STANDARD OIL OF INDIANA commenced marketing from AMOCO sevice stations in the eastern mainland states and South Australia.
1960's [Early] : STANDARD OIL OF NEW JERSEY replaced the ATLANTIC sign with the ESSO oval in their Australian service stations.
1960 [August] : CC WAKEFIELD & CO. changed its name to CASTROL LIMITED.
1961 [By April] : PHILLIPS PETROLEUM commenced operations in northern New South Wales and Queensland using the PHILLIPS 66 brand name.
1962 : KANGAROO PETROLEUM was aquired by H.C. SLEIGH LIMITED.
1965 : AMOCO opened a refinery at Bulwer Island , Brisbane, Queensland.
1966 : XL PETROLEUM PTY. LTD. began marketing in Geelong , Victoria.
1967 [By February] : PHILLIPS PETROLEUM withdrew from marketing in Australia. Petrol marketing was taken over by H.C.SLEIGH - the marketer of GOLDEN FLEECE petrol.
1969 [In mid] : INDEPENDENT OIL CO. PTY. LTD. (IOC) began operations in Victoria
1974 : SOLO OIL was started by David Goldberger and David Wieland who built it into the largest independent fuel retailer and distributor in Australia.
1974 : IOC was wound up.
1976 : GULL PETROLEUM founded in Western Australia.
1981 : CALTEX bought the GOLDEN FLEECE petrol marketing network from H.C.SLEIGH.
1982 : AMPOL PETROLEUM LIMITED bought the marketing and refining assets of TOTAL AUSTRALIA LIMITED.
1982 : MATILDA FUEL SUPPLIES established by Peter O'Keeffe in Queensland.
1984 : BP bought the downstream assets of AMOCO in Australia - including the Bulwer Island oil refinery.
1990 : AMPOL LIMITED acquired SOLO OIL LIMITED.
1990 : MOBIL aquired the downstream assets of ESSO in Australia.
1995 [May] : CALTEX AUSTRALIA LIMITED and AMPOL LIMITED merged their petroleum refining and marketing assets.
1995 [May] : LIBERTY OIL established , being fully owned by partners , David Goldberger and David Wieland.
1999 [In late] : SOUTH AUSTRALIAN FARMERS FUEL agreed to supply fuel to the members of the S A FARMERS FEDERATION . As at OCTOBER 2008 SAFF had over 50 stations in S.A., W.A., N.S.W., Vic. and N.T.
Copyright © Robert Stephens, 1999 - 2010 | <urn:uuid:c8640b46-463f-4bd8-807f-71a5ca0ce6d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://users.adam.com.au/gasmaps/austoilhist.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.88361 | 1,983 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Translation of "hostage" - English-Spanish dictionary
(Definition of hostage from the Cambridge English-Spanish Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)
hostage noun /ˈhostidʒ/
› a person who is held prisoner in order to ensure that the captor’s demands etc will be carried out
The terrorists took three people with them as hostages They took / were holding three people hostage. take/hold (someone) hostage › to take or keep (someone) as a hostage
tomar/coger a alguien como rehén
The police were unable to attack the terrorists because they were holding three people hostage. | <urn:uuid:ec11422f-80b5-4609-82d7-7ad50ecd9bb4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-spanish/hostage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962951 | 135 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The My Community, Our Earth: Geographic Learning for Sustainable Development (MyCOE) Partnership encourages young people around the world to ask and develop answers to pressing global issues in their own local communities, using geographic tools, concepts and perspectives.
Since 2001 when MyCOE was launched at the World Summit for Sustainable Development we have been encouraging and supporting youth and their teachers and mentors in on every continent to use geographic learning for sustainable development.
Have you or a young person or group you know created an innovative or interesting solution to a sustainable development challenge in your community using geography, mapping or GIS? Tell us about it so we can share it with others around the world.
To get started, you can use this geoportal and the five-step navigation in the header at the top of this page. As you click on each step, you will be guided through a five-step process to build your own project. When you are ready, submit your project according to our guidelines here.
All submissions will be reviewed and displayed, and posted online (as seen below) for public viewing. View, "like" and comment on your favorites to help us select the most popular projects. | <urn:uuid:f4183314-d053-48e6-bb77-b1a3f2e132c1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aag.org/mycoegeoportal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911522 | 239 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Monte Carlo simulation is a technique that relies on random sampling to compute meaningful predictions. It is especially useful when studying systems with significant uncertainty or risk. Although statistical models often exist for modeling processes in a general way, Monte Carlo simulation provides an opportunity to examine experimental values and to study the range and tendencies of outcomes. It is also readily adaptable to extremely specific scenarios, including those in which multiple variables or processes may depend on or be influenced by each other.
Although there is not a single preferred technique for creating a Monte Carlo simulation, approaches to this task usually involve a range of inputs, randomly selected from a population/distribution with known characteristics (mean, standard deviation, skewness, etc.) After sampling the distribution for values, the simulator performs a deterministic calculation to determine an outcome based on the set of inputs specific to that iteration. Monte Carlo simulations derive their main credibility from the analyst's ability to run the same simulation hundreds or thousands of times to generate a pool of outcomes from which statistically significant conclusions can be drawn.
Using the code
The included code consists of a
Simulation class and a form which demonstrates the use of that class to solve a specific problem. Clearly, the class could be adapted or used as is to investigate other simulation scenarios. In this case, however, I have modeled outcomes useful to someone trying to decide if they have enough money to retire. Simply, the user specifies an initial investment (their savings), an expected rate of return at which those savings are invested, the historic or expected standard deviation of the investment, and an annual withdrawal rate (say, $35,000).
The example would be more accurate if it took into account other factors, for example, a variable rate of inflation. Additionally, it would be straightforward to expand the example to model multiple investments, each with its own expected rate of return and risk. The results table could sum the expected outcomes of each investment's performance and produce a combined forecasted value. However, for the sake of simplicity, I have chosen to keep the demonstration form simple and easily understood.
When inputs are entered and a request to calculate is made, a table is constructed which contains the outcome of each simulation trial (default, 2000 trials). Similarly, a table is built and displayed which contains some informational statistics which summarize the outcomes. This displays the relative year number, the account balance, and the likelihood that the investor has reached the end of their savings in a particular year. The experimental data is ripe for additional analysis, and could be expanded to include confidence intervals, or to answer slightly different but related questions.
The simulation class itself is constructed with parameters which describe the distribution to be sampled. Here, we assume the normal distribution, and describe it with a mean, mu, and a standard deviation, sigma. Clearly, other distributions may be more appropriate for specific modeling problems, for instance, a lognormal distribution or a binomial distribution. The instanced class exposes a method,
GetSimulatedValue(), which returns a single random sample value from a pool matching the specified distribution's characteristics.
The class can be instanced and the sampling method called, like so:
Simulation simulator = new Simulation(mu, sigma);
for (Int32 instance = 0; instance < 2000; instance++)
Double simValue = simulator.GetNextSimValue();
This code has not been thoroughly tested and may contain bugs. It is intended to be instructive about simulation techniques, and should not be relied upon for actual data to be used in decision-making. It has not been optimized for performance or efficiency, and the code as it is written is not particularly elegant or flexible. My goal was to make it as easy to read and understand as possible, so that others can create their own functions which implement the concepts described. That said, I do welcome constructive feedback if you see a bug or some glaring omission, or perhaps you feel I could have explained something more clearly. | <urn:uuid:6df1a610-65ca-48b2-a841-762a5a31076a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/94346/Investment-Performance-with-Monte-Carlo-Simulation?PageFlow=FixedWidth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929167 | 804 | 3.296875 | 3 |
view a plan
This counting lesson idea utilizes tally marks
5, 4, 3, 2, 1
Title – Tally Marks
By – Lynne
Primary Subject – Math
Grade Level – 1-5
Note from LessonPlansPage.com: We are proud that we receive lesson plans from teachers all across the globe. The following lesson comes from Australia. For an American classroom, just substitute “baseball” for “cricket” and “color” for “colour” and its all the same!
Aim: To explain tally marks
Materials: A bundle of coloured matchsticks or toothpicks for each child.
I tell a story about a team playing cricket and talk about how many runs each child made. As I tell the story, I write tally marks on the board and the children make the tally marks with the matchsticks on their desk. At first, I only add 1,2 or 3 runs at a time. Otherwise it’s too hard to keep track and some children get totally lost.
You could demonstrate it first and use single colour matches for each child: “Green made 2 runs, red made 3, then yellow made 1.” It might be clearer.
Then, of course, we talk about shortcuts in counting and count in 5’s to get the answer.
E-Mail Lynne ! | <urn:uuid:852a3b43-c52d-4a08-97ec-074a3a1414de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://lessonplanspage.com/mathcrickettallymarksidea16-htm/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916642 | 290 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Oddly, considering the Middle Eastern habit of haggling, Hebrew has no word for 'negotiate'.
Rarely does a day go by without negotiations making the front pages of Israel's newspapers. Talks between Iran and the West, Israel and the Palestinians, the government and labor groups, and sports teams and players always seem to be starting up or breaking down.
This being the Middle East with its shuk or souk mentality, people are always haggling about something: bitterly trying to sweeten a deal, appeasing with carrots or flailing with all the stick and stones at their disposal.
"Negotiating" is hard work. The word's Latin root means "no leisure"– neg is"not" and otium means "ease" or "leisure." Indeed, the art and practice of negotiating comes from the business world.
But negotiations are not just about buying and selling. They are at the center of the political arena as well.
Hebrew doesn't have a word for "negotiation." Instead, it uses a phrase, masa' umatan, משא ומתן, literally "taking and giving."
Both masa/laset and matan/latet have very prolific roots. N-s-aleph נשא – with theנ being weak and disappearing in many forms – has a variety of meanings, including to "lift," "hold," "take," "carry," and even "forgive" and "marry." N-t-n נתן means to "give" or "allow."
Matan, מתן, which means "gift" as well as "giving," has become a boy's name, as have alternative words for "gift" - Doron and Shai. It also appears in phrases like matan Torah מתן תורה – the giving of the Torah, and matan beseter מתן בסתר, "giving in secret" (anonymous charity).
On the other hand, masa משא, "the taking," also connotes a burden, presumably because one can be weighed down by what he has received. A vehicle designed to carry heavy loads, a truck or lorry, is a masait משאית. And though you may transport burdens on your trip, don't confuse masa משא (burden) with masa' מסע, meaning "journey," from the root n-s-'ayin נסע, "travel."
Like the noun, the verb to "negotiate" is also comprised of two words in Hebrew, laset v'latet לשאת ולתת. Both verbs demand conjugation when parties parley.
Nisuim נישואים, "marriage," comes from the first root, not because it is a burden – heaven forfend! – or because of the many negotiations along the way, but because of the contractual "taking" of the bride by the groom.
The chatan חתן, "groom," may also give a lot along the way, but the word bears no relation to matan מתן. On the other hand, in a characteristically chauvinistic trope, when a woman "gives" to those other than her husband, she endangers her conjugal status. This is what happens in the new Israeli film Hanotenet הנותנת,"The Slut," – literally, "She who gives" – written, directed by and starring Hagar Ben Asher.
Other negotiations may take place between the rulers and the ruled. The one who is lifted up from the people is the nasi נשיא, the "president," a Biblical word meaning something closer to "prince," but retooled for modern democratic politics. Those given to the rule of law are netinimנתינים , or "subjects," those given to the rule of law.
This root does even more heavy lifting when it comes to body parts. Esa einai אשא עיניי, means "lifting up one's eyes" to the hills for divine aid (Ps 121:1). Yisa panav יישא ה' פניו means "God lifting up the divine countenance" in the priestly blessing" (Num. 6:26). And naso roshנשוא ראש , as in Naso, the name of last week's Torah portion, means to "count."
I didn't intend to get all theological, but Hebrew's different historical strata, or registers, are always intertwined – ancient with modern and sacred with secular.
Other 'godly' uses of this verb include the divine attribute of forgiveness, nose' avon נושא עוון – referring to God's forgiveness, bearing or taking away our sins. Lo tisa לא תשא is the beginning of the second commandment, telling us not to take God's name in vain.
Like the rest of the Big Ten, you can take or leave this rule, but there isn't much room for give-and-take.
The biggest negotiations around here are about war and peace as we try to somehow realize Isaiah's vision"lo' yisa' goi 'el goi cherev," "לא ישא גוי אל גוי חרב," "nation shall not lift up sword against nation" (Is. 2:4). While in our atomic age, we may wish that only swords were being brandished, we still aspire to the messianic vision of a world without the horrors of war.
Isaiah didn't specify what it would take to create world peace, but according to the rabbis, even if war is hell, heaven will be a place with no negotiations. According to the Talmud, the afterlife lacks all of life's most basic, and pleasurable, physical activities: "In the world-to-come there will be no eating, no drinking, no procreating, and no negotiating" (Berachot 17a).
Heavenly indeed. But it sure doesn't sound very Israeli!
Comments? Queries? Quibbles? Write: firstname.lastname@example.org. Particularly promising or piquant posts will be addressed in this space.
Want to enjoy 'Zen' reading - with no ads and just the article? Subscribe todaySubscribe now | <urn:uuid:4cb14dee-b285-4faf-ab97-01eb7f2bc7b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/on-root-let-s-make-a-deal-israeli-style-1.434305 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947126 | 1,412 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Salmon numbers rise in river Wye tributaries Lugg and Arrow
- 30 October 2013
- From the section Mid Wales
Large numbers of salmon have been spotted in two feeder rivers of the Wye for the first time in 30 years.
The rivers Lugg and Arrow in Powys had been closed to migrating fish by a series of man-made weirs, which led to a sharp drop in Atlantic salmon numbers in the 80s and 90s.
Since 2003, fish passes have been built allowing the salmon to travel upstream.
Surveys carried out the by Wye and Usk Foundation found "encouraging" numbers of young fish throughout the rivers.
They estimate that when operating at full capacity, the Lugg and Arrow catchment could add a further 3,000 to 4,000 fish to the Wye salmon run.
The surveys also found brown trout numbers had improved.
Dr Stephen Marsh-Smith, executive director of the Wye and Usk Foundation, which worked on the project with the Environment Agency (now Natural Resources Wales), said: "It's taken a decade to build these fish passes. The paperwork has been as big a task as actually building them.
"However, once built, they will last for years, ensuring continuity of salmon and trout populations for decades to come.
"We would like to thank all the individuals and organisations that help fund the work, especially the Lugg and Arrow Fisheries Association." | <urn:uuid:4dd12db5-4b0b-4e12-ae53-2fd74d7c08e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-mid-wales-24738260 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967397 | 299 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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For those who hold patents to intellectual property, the term field of use may be familiar, since it serves the purpose of greatly restricting the manner in which such intellectual property may be utilized by others who may have been granted some form of limited permission to utilize the intellectual property in a clearly stated manner. This field of use is a really important concept that helps those who may have developed certain intellectual products the ability or means for retaining more control over their own work even if they allow certain people or entities to use the intellectual property for clearly delineated purposes. The field of use is usually stipulated within any contractual agreement between the owner of the intellectual property and the person or entity seeking to make use of such property and may be worded to different effects.
One of the reasons for the inclusion of a clause specifying a field of use within an agreement with the owner of an intellectual property is usually to allow the owner to specify the exact area of the intellectual property that a person or entity may use. The owner might only permit the person or business entity seeking to obtain the field of use to use only one aspect of the intellectual property, while the owner of the license retains the right to do as he or she pleases with the other uses of such intellectual property. This can often be seen in the area of technological intellectual property in which one type of technology that has been developed for a particular purpose may be also used in other types of ways.
When this is the case, the individual or company that owns the intellectual property might decide to allow other individuals or companies to make use of the technology for different purposes. In this case, the importance of the field of use would be to clearly state the particular purpose for which the company may use the intellectual property, since the owner would not want whoever has been granted the permission to use the intellectual property to use it limitlessly. Aside from the fact that the inclusion of the field of use will limit the ways in which a person can use the intellectual property, it will also allow the owner of the intellectual property to go ahead and grant other interested parties the right to utilize the same intellectual property for uses other than that previously granted.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:2d9f70d9-7ea8-4cc8-a2b5-a81fe89089b8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-field-of-use.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939698 | 494 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Offers a fascinating and understandable account of childhood development for anyone—education and psychology students, day care center workers and nursery school teachers, and parents.
Jean Piaget is arguably the most important figure of the twentieth century in the field of child psychology. Over more than six decades of studying and working with children, he brilliantly and insightfully charted the stages of a child's intellectual maturation from the first years to adulthood, and in doing so pioneered a new mode of understanding the changing ways in which a child comes to grasp the world.
The purpose of A Piaget Primer is to make Piaget's vital work readily accessible to teachers, therapists, students, and of course, parents. Two noted American psychologists distill Piaget's complex findings into wonderfully clear formulations without sacrificing either subtlety or significance. To accomplish this, they employ not only lucid language but such fascinating illuminations of a child's world and vision as Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Winnie-the-Pooh, as well as media manifestations like Barney and Sesame Street. This completely revised edition of this classic work is as enjoyable as it is invaluable—an essential guide to comprehending and communicating with children better than we ever have before.
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Rent A Piaget Primer 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Dorothy G. Singer. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Plume.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:cb2fbfa3-0734-4291-92b0-ba6be1c4bcf0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/a-piaget-primer-1st-edition-9780452275652-0452275652 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936799 | 328 | 3.5625 | 4 |
THE DESIGN OF A FULLERENE GENERATOR
Workshop and Laboratory notes on designing and building a device for the
production of Buckminsterfullerene and other Fullerenes
Jonathan Hare with fullerene generator (Sussex Fullerene labs ca. 1990)
Dr Jonathan Hare
THE SUSSEX FULLERENE CENTRE and THE CREATIVE SCIENCE CENTRE
I would like to thank the following people for all their help, advice and
Sir Prof. Harry Kroto, Dr's David Walton, Roger Taylor, Adam Darwish, John
Dennis, Jonathan Crane, Paul Berket, Bernd Eggen and Steve Firth, Jan
Meering and the fullerene Group at the Angmering School (Worthing, West
Sussex, UK), Roddy Vann of St Paul's School (London), Sarah Hogben, Gill
Watson, Caroline McGrath and the expertise and skill of our departments
mechanical engineering workshop.
clic here for a diagram of the fullerene generator
THIS ARTICLE CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS -
Introduction - cluster beam experiments, the carbon arc, solvent extraction, soxhlet
apparatus, chromatography, high purity crystals, brief review of generators
Fullerene generator design factors - helium / argon pressures, size of generator, temperatures, arrangements of
the rods, purity of rods, gases and power supplies
A high-output soot generator - 'mass production' - description of apparatus, using the generator, common problems and other notes, typical results
Soot removal and safety considerations
Improving fullerene yields and other experiments
Fullerene generator diagram
References, notes and other information - fullerene facts and figures, properties of carbon, scientific papers and
notes, information on equipment suppliers.
C60, Buckminsterfullerene the third allotropic form of carbon was
discovered in tiny quantities in 1985 by H. W. Kroto (Sussex Uni., UK) and
R. E. Smalley (Rice Uni., USA). In 1990 a method was developed to make C60
(and the family of carbon cage molecules - the fullerenes) in gram
quantities. Fullerene science has now become a rapidly growing field of
research . It is also having an impact in schools, colleges and science
education. By 1995 several schools had actually designed and built their own
fullerene generators . It is these exciting developments in the fullerene
story that have stimulated the following article.
This article briefly describes the fascinating experiments that first
uncovered the fullerenes and the subsequent techniques used to make bulk
quantities of them. Also included are detailed notes on designing a
fullerene generator (which will be of use in schools and colleges as well as
in universities). In particular a stainless steel reactor is described that
can be used to make gram quantities of C60 per day. The design can be
fabricated in a well stocked mechanical workshop in a few days.
Cluster beam experiments
C60 and the fullerenes were discovered on a versatile and ingenious piece of
equipment called a cluster beam apparatus [1,2]. The beam experiments were
essentially very simple; an element (in this case carbon - graphite) was
rapidly heated (under vacuum or inert gas) by a high power laser, reaching
temperatures in excess of 10,000 °C - hotter than the surface of the Sun.
The vaporised products were then analysed using a sensitive mass
spectrometer. An additional refinement of the experiment was that the laser
vaporised products were rapidly cooled before being fed into the mass
spectrometer, this 'froze' out the reactivity of the various species
produced. Without this many of the species produced would rapidly go on to
form larger systems with their neighbouring vaporised atoms and molecules.
The technique therefore takes a sort of 'snap-shot' of the initial products
of the vaporisation.
The heart of the cluster beam apparatus was the mass spectrometer. This
device separates out all the products in terms of their mass and displays
the result in the form of a graph. This spectrometer makes the machine
versatile and exquisitely sensitive. When carbon was analysed using this
apparatus a whole range of structures (clusters of atoms) were observed, in
fact the spectrum of carbon was just about the most interesting of all
elements. Atoms, small molecules, large molecules, small particles, large
particles and graphite fragments were all observed. At first sight it was
obvious that a random mixture of products were produced by the laser
vaporising the graphite. On closer inspection, certain sized clusters of
atoms appear to be more abundant, stable and resistant to reaction than
others. These 'magic' numbered species were shown to have the closed shell
structures - the fullerenes - with C60, Buckminsterfullerene (the football
molecule), usually being the most dominant [1,2].
There was really only one problem in these fascinating and important
experiments, and that was due to the amazing sensitivity of the
spectrometer. You see, on the one hand this allowed the fullerenes to be
first observed (under formation conditions that were probably far from
favourable) but on the other hand it also meant that only tiny quantities
were actually being produced at any one time. The machine was capable of
detecting nanograms of C60. A rough calculation shows that even if one runs
the cluster beam apparatus for ten years or so, - non stop - one would
barely produce enough C60 to line the bottom of a test tube (perhaps only a
few milligrams would be produced).
This amazing technology therefore puts us in a rather tantalising situation;
it allows us to make new discovers but then leaves us with the problem of
being able to make large enough amounts to be able to do anything with.
Therefore the promising new area of C60 science (for example the physical
and chemical properties) would have to wait until we could make large
quantities - at least on the milligram scale.
The carbon arc
The solution to this dilemma came about with the breakthrough made in 1990
by W. Krätschmer and D. R. Huffman (a German-American team ) and to a
certain extent the Sussex University team [2,5]) using apparatus that might
well have been available back in 1890 ! Unlike the expensive high-tech
cluster beam apparatus that discovered the fullerenes, the apparatus that
first produced gram quantities of C60 was incredibly simple. Bulk quantities
of C60 were first produced using a carbon arc. The technique works like this,
Two high purity carbon rods (roughly 5cm long and 0.5cm diameter) were
supported so that their ends just touched. This rod system was mounted
inside a glass bell-jar. The bell-jar was evacuated and filled with helium
(or argon) to 100 Torr (roughly a seventh of an atmosphere pressure, 700
Torr = 1 atm). A large electrical current (20 volt at about 100 amps) was
then passed through the rods, developing a bright arc-discharge between
them. This was maintained for about 10 - 20 seconds during which time the
arc sputters black soot like material throughout the jar. After letting the
apparatus to cool down the bell-jar was opened up and the soot scrapped out.
The type of deposit found inside the bell-jar depends critically on the
inert gas pressure. Under vacuum a hard, shiny brown graphitic layer was
deposited which was difficult to remove. Introduction of only a small amount
of inert gas dramatically changes the type of layers deposited. For
fractions of a Torr of helium, the deposit settles as a fine jet-black
powdery soot layer or film, which can be removed without difficulty. The
soots remain jet black until the gas pressures reach c.a. 10 Torr, where the
film develops a dark brown hue. On closer inspection these films appear to
have a crystalline component, adding a slight sparkle to the dull soot
layer. Similar results are obtained for argon, although the transition
pressure is a little higher.
Providing the rods were fairly pure (better than a few % purity, ie. no
sulphur content) and that no air leaked into the jar during arcing, 5 - 10 %
of the soot produced in this arc treatment is actually C60. Its as simple as
The fullerenes are soluble
The next step was to try and extract the fullerenes from the arc materials.
Adding toluene (or benzene, hexane, chloroform, carbon disulphide etc) to
the soot and leaving the resultant mixture to stand for a few hours, we find
that the fine suspension of soot particles will settle and the solvent will
have turned red (this was first done at Sussex 6 August 1990, [2,17]). Mass
spectrometry shows that the solution contains C60 and larger fullerenes.
Solvent extraction of the fullerenes is therefore possible. Analysis shows
that C60, C70 and traces of the larger fullerenes make up roughly 80, 20 and
less than 1 % of the isolated material respectively .
It is this solubility which allows the fullerenes to be separated
effectively by chromatography (see below) and enables chemical reactions to
be studied systematically and conveniently.
Improving extraction - soxhlet method
Improved fullerene yields were obtained using an ingenious device called a
Soxhlet extractor [5,6] see diagram over the page. The soot was loaded into
a thimble (typically ca. 2 - 3 g of soot; 100 x 30 mm thimble) and placed
into the extractor. Hot solvent condenses and drops on to the soot,
dissolving the fullerenes. Eventually a siphon arrangement draws the
saturated solution away so that a fresh batch of solvent can further extract
the soot. In this way the maximum amount of soluble material can be
extracted. Because of the toxicity of benzene one generally uses chloroform
or toluene. Although fullerene solubility might be slightly lower in these
solvents it does not hinder the extraction process significantly because the
soot is washed many times. Extraction of c.a. 3 grams of soot takes about 2
- 3 hours, and is judged to be complete after the colour stops leaching from
the thimble (although small traces of the larger fullerene > C70 may well
take 10's hours to remove completely). Using this method 5 - 10 % of the
soot was found to be soluble, where the majority of the extract are
fullerenes. The extract solution can then be evaporated to give a
brown-black solid. This extract is washed in acetone to remove hydrocarbon
impurities which may be present from the solvents.
Having found that the extracted material consists of a mixture of molecules
their separation was achieved at Sussex by column chromatography [2,5,6,7].
A chromatography column (glass tube ca. 30 cm long x 1 cm diameter, glass
sinter + tap) was filled with carbon granules (Elorite grade see ). The
bottom tap was opened and toluene added until the level reached the top of
the granules and no more was absorbed. The concentrated extract (ca. 30 mg
in 100 ml of toluene) was then passed down the column. When all the extract
was loaded onto the column, fresh toluene was applied. After roughly 10
minuets (from first applying the extract) the first coloured fractions
should emerge from the column. This band is a beautiful magenta colour and
consists of pure C60. Very soon after the first coloured fraction has
finished, a second band appears that is red. This fraction is a mixture of
C60 and C70 (the colour of the former is masked by the latter).
Using this technique, pure samples of C60 can easily be prepared. However
the red C70 fraction will still contain C60 and so further chromatographic
separation has to be carried out on these fractions to produce pure C70.
Chromatography of large amounts of extract (> 100 mg) also produced other
weakly coloured bands following the C70 fractions. These are due to higher
mass (larger) fullerenes present at very low concentrations (ie. see
reference for examples of larger fullerenes > C70)
After repeated chromatography, solutions of relatively pure C60 and C70 can
be prepared (better than 95 percent pure by spectroscopy). The solvent can be evaporated to
leave the solid fullerene. However, the dry solid still contains a
significant quantity of solvent trapped in the crystal lattice.
For example, IR (Infrared) spectroscopy of thin films of C60, show benzene
peaks when evaporated from this solvent. Whatever solvent one uses there is
always trapping in the crystal lattice (perhaps a few % of the mass). One
can substantially reduce this by baking the fullerenes at 550 K for several
hours under vacuum (< 1/1000 Torr). However, defect-free samples of the
fullerenes can only be made by subliming the samples (i.e. heating at ca.
800 K and collecting the sublimate) and then heating for days at a constant
temperature (c.a. 600 K) under vacuum. In this way samples can be annealed
to produce material of high quality.
A brief review of fullerene generators
Various groups around the world have designed and built their own fullerene
generators, and some of these are summarised in the table below. The 'soot
g' column records the total amount of collectable fullerene soot made in one
operation (i.e. each time the apparatus has to be opened up), and the yield
column records the amount of fullerenes extracted from these soot's. Gas
pressures are in Torr.
Note: the laser and induction generator results appear very poor, but one
must remember that these were only preliminary experiments conducted to
confirm that they could be used for making fullerenes, and were not designed
for mass production.
A comparison of fullerene generators
(Group, Arc type, typical He pressures, amount of soot made in one expt.
(g), ~ % yield, comments)
Krätschmer et al. , AC, 100, ~1, ~1, bell-jar
Hare et al. [5,6] , AC, 50, 10, 3-4, steel chamber
Hare et al. , DC, 100, 10, 5, vertical chamber
Haufler et al. , AC, 100, 1, 10, bell-jar
Parker et al. , DC, 200, 10, ~12, steel chamber
Koch et al. , DC, 100, 10, 3-4, bench top
Peters et al. , RF, 150, 1, 10, induction heating of graphite
Haufler et al. , Laser, 500, <1, 20, laser vap. of heated graphite (1200
Yoshie et al. , Plasma, 700, ~1, 7, thermal plasma at atmospheric
Scrivens et al. , DC, 450, ~1, 12, plasma discharge.
Fullerene generator design factors
The carbon arc apparatus used to make fullerenes is essentially very simple.
There are some practical difficulties, however, that make building a
fullerene generator a challenging project. Some of these design features are
1) Best fullerene yields are obtained using helium pressures of about 100
Torr (i.e. ~1/7 atmosphere), although this depends, for example on the size
and shape of the generator (note: argon gives slightly lower yields than
helium). The gas pressure is therefore less than atmospheric and so a
'vacuum tight' chamber is necessary. As a rough guide the system should be
able to pump down successfully to c.a. 1/100 Torr and hold this sort of
vacuum for several minuets (when isolated from the pump).
2) Large chambers may be better than smaller ones. Helium flow experiments
aimed at keeping the pressure inside the apparatus constant while the high
temp arc operates, have been conducted and the results produce slightly
higher C60 yields than static systems. In these experiments helium is
carefully flowed into the chamber at the same rate as it is pumped out. The
effect of the flow is that the system remains at a constant pressure even
though the internal changes in temperature (when the arc is running) are
large. However, fast flows can cause the fullerene production to cease all
together. The change in pressure produced by the heating effect of the arc
may be responsible for lower fullerene yields. Larger chamber may be better
at coping with the pressure changes and therefore give better yields.
3) The carbon arc reaches temperatures in excess of c.a. 4000 K (the arc
melts tungsten) and so the rod-supporting apparatus and the chamber must be
designed to cope with the high temperatures (and large changes of
temperature) while still remaining leak proof. A steel vacuum chamber with
integral water cooling is therefore ideal. A glass bell-jar must therefore
be used with care and can only be used for limited periods.
4) The apparatus must be made so that it can be easily dismantled allowing
the soot to be removed and / or the rods to be replaced after vaporisation.
5) The apparatus must be designed with due regard to the different
electrical potentials of the rods. Usually some kind of insulation is
required (especially on the steel chamber generators). Nylon bolts may be
required for the flanges (at least on one side of the chamber).
6) A two-rod system can be set up when using an AC supply provided that
equal pressures are applied to both the rods when they are pushed together
to be vaporised. If this is not done one rod will burn in preference to the
other. Eventually, if this is not corrected, the rod will continue to burn
back and possibly ruin the apparatus. Also the rods need to be coaxial
otherwise they will pass over each other and limit the vaporisation, or more
seriously damage the apparatus. One will then need to open the apparatus and
replace the rods.
7) A DC arc can also be utilised rather conveniently in a rod-block
arrangement. This is a good starting point for simple bell-jar designs as it
requires the least mechanical workshop facilities. In the rod-block
arrangement a single vertical rod initially makes contact with a large block
of graphite. In a DC arc only the positive electrode is vaporised, therefore
if the block is electrically connected to the negative terminal, while the
rod is connected to the positive, a successful vaporisation can be achieved.
This method has several advantages;
a) a weight attached to the top of the rod is a simple way of always
ensuring a good contact / arc and
b) the arc cannot wander, as experienced in the two-rod system, and also if
the block is made sufficiently large, there are non of the coaxial problems
associated with the two rod design.
However because only one rod is vaporised, the DC system produces about half
the soot of the two-rod system.
8) To increase the amount of soot that can be collected each time the
apparatus is opened up, the design could include a) a system where many rods
can be inserted into the generator one after the other (preferably from the
outside, so that the apparatus need not be dismantled each time), or b) a
system where many rods are fitted internally and used a pair at a time.
9) High grade carbon rods (often called 'spectroscopic grade') were used
for all the experiments which have well known and guaranteed impurity
levels. However, even the cheapest 'low' purity types of these rods (which
have less than 1 % impurities) were found to give the same C60 yields as the
highest purity. Expensive high grade rods are therefore not necessary. Some
details of companies who sell rods are given at the back of this booklet.
10) Some comments on the helium gas. On the whole helium is better than
argon. One school I know actually took the helium out of fair-ground type
balloons ! Although this was a good idea it is very hard to get the helium
into the generator without letting some air leak in. Finally, I am not sure
about the purity of the gas in the balloons - anyway you could try it !
Usually one has to rent a small cylinder of helium from a gas company; the
helium itself is not too expensive but the rental and deposit on the
cylinder can be costly.
If you are really stuck you can try argon from a welding torch set. Again, I
am not sure about the purity but a friendly builder, iron monger may let you
try it for free.
11) A low voltage high current supply is needed to successfully vaporise
the graphite rods. This will depend on the diameter of the rods; 20 - 30
volt at 100 amps works well for ~5 mm rods. A heavy duty car or lorry
battery (12 volt or higher) can be used for these experiments, but they will
need to be continually recharged (possible overnight or longer). This
obviously limits the versatility and amount of material that one can make in
a day and so a mains power supply is really the only practical solution. We
use a welding kit power supply that provides an AC output of ca. 40 - 50
volt at about 100 - 150 amp. DC supplies can be used but only one of the
rods will be vaporised (see (7) above).
Improved synthesis - 'mass production'
The bell jar experiments
Using the bell jar apparatus with a two rod arrangement (5 - 10 cm length, 5
mm diameter) for five experimental runs (about a days operation) produces
about 0.5 gram of soot (roughly containing 25 mg C60). In order to generate
greater quantities of soot (and therefore C60) an improved soot generator
A high-output soot generator
clic here for a diagram of the fullerene generator
On the basis of the points mentioned above a simple generator was designed
and built . In order to produce a simple working system a two-rod AC
system was constructed. The design can be machined in a workshop in a few days.
The carbon rod vaporiser is shown over the page. It consists of a
water-cooled stainless steel chamber (200 x 100 mm OD), fitted with four
ports. Two flanges, mounted on either end of the chamber, are electrically
insulated by plastic (teflon for example) spacers and nylon bolts. The
chamber is vacuum sealed using O-rings either side of the plastic spacers.
The end flanges consist of a water-cooled jacket which surrounds a hollow
tube down which a carbon rod can slide. The carbon rod is vacuum-sealed on
the outside of the flange by an additional O-ring seal. With this
arrangement the carbon rods can be quickly fitted into the apparatus from
the outside without having to dismantle the whole machine. The rods slide
down the water cooled jackets and pass into the chamber where they touch one
another near the centre of the chamber.
305 mm long rods were used (Le Carbone, Purity 8, 4.6 mm diameter ), and
so the amount of soot that can be made in one go, is thus greatly increased
over the bell jar. A high current low voltage welder power supply (max. 50
volt AC at ca. 150 amp ) was used and connections to the rods made via
the metallic end flanges. Although this means that both the end flanges are
live, the voltage of the welding power supply is low enough (c.a. 30 - 40
volts on load) that it does not represent an undue hazard.
Note: the apparatus should be rested on a non-conducting surface, otherwise
the flanges may short circuit.
The four ports on the main chamber are connected to; vacuum pump (via. tap),
vacuum gauge, mercury manometer and inert gas inlet valve respectively.
There are also connections for water cooling to the chamber and flanges.
A typical run using this apparatus is described below,
Using the generator
The apparatus was assembled and all ports and water cooling pipes fitted.
The carbon rods were then inserted into the flange holes provided. The
O-ring seals were gently tightened so as to obtain a good seal but also
allow some lateral movement of the rods. The rods were then pushed-in to
equal distances so that they meet midway inside the chamber. They were then
separated very slightly (ca. 1 mm).
The tap to the vacuum pump was opened and the chamber pumped down to c.a.
1/100 Torr (this operation takes about 10 minuets depending on how good the
pimp is). The pump valve was then closed and the chamber filled with helium
(via the inlet valve) to almost atmospheric pressure. The inlet valve was
then closed and the chamber pumped out once more. This procedure was
repeated a couple of times to purge air and moisture from the system.
The cooling water is then allowed to run for a minute or two to eliminate
Helium (c.a. 100 Torr) was then fed into the chamber by carefully opening
the inlet valve and monitoring the mercury manometer. The power supply was
turned on; no current should pass if the rods have been correctly aligned,
as described above. The commercial welding power supplies tend to be simple
devices (ideal for this application) and switching-on produces a low
frequency buzz from the transformer. When contact is made (and large
currents pass) the buzzing sound increases dramatically so providing a
crude, indication that contact between the rods has been made.
The operator should use plastic gloves as this gives some electrical
insulation and a good grip when adjusting the rods.
With the power supply turned on, one of the rods was advanced slowly so as
to make contact with the other. The power supply then makes a rasping sound
which indicates that the arc has been struck between the rods. It is a good
idea to start a clock at this point and allow the arc to continue for about
20 to 25 seconds. After this the supply is turned off and the apparatus is
allowed to cool for a couple of minutes. The main chamber becomes very hot
while the arc is running (even with good water-cooling) and a cooling down
period is necessary to prevent damage to the system (in particular to the
O-rings and insulating spacers).
After cooling, the process can be repeated, but this time by pushing in the
other rod to strike the arc. By alternating the movement of the rods, the
arc remains roughly central and then one rod will not tend to be vaporised
in preference to the other. While the arc is running, the chosen rod can be
pushed in by hand to speed up the whole process (10 - 15 mm for each 20 sec.
vaporisation's). A pair of rods lasts about 10 to 20 such operations. It is
worth noting here some of the problems which can be encountered when using
Common problems and other notes
If the rods are pushed in too fast (ie. > 15 - 20 mm per 20 second
vaporisation's) a deposit builds-up on their ends. This increases the
surface area of contact which reduces the current density, which in turn
reduces the amount of vaporisation and therefore lowers the efficiency of
the whole process (also point 6 should be noted here). The best way to
prevent this happening is not to try and rush the vaporisation process; that
is, not to push the rods in too quickly. One can tell if build-up is
occurring because the power supply tends to pass a more steady current and
the noise from the transformer changes from a rasping tone to a continuous
loud buzz. If this happens one can ether open-up the apparatus (as described
below) or try and break off the build-up by carefully pushing the rods
together and twisting them in opposite directions (this time with the supply
Assuming that all goes well and the available length of each rod has been
fed in to the apparatus, the system can be opened. The most convenient way
to do this is to disconnect the water cooling tubes and place rubber bungs
on / in the inlets and outlets (this prevents a horrible mess when it is
time to dismantle the whole apparatus .ps. tell me about it !). Next, open
the vacuum pump valve slowly so as not to dislodge too much of the soot
inside. Leave the pump to evacuate the system for ten minutes or so. It is
advantageous to do this for two reasons; firstly, any toxic gases which may
have been produced in the arc (by an air leak for example) can be removed
safely, and removing the gas tends to compact the soot into a crusty layer
which is far easier to remove later.
After pumping out, the vacuum tap should be closed and the helium inlet
valve carefully opened so that the apparatus slowly regains atmospheric
pressure. The connections to the ports can then be removed. The chamber and
flange assembly will still be bolted together but with little or no rods
protruding and no pipes attached.
Soot removal and precautions
The soot is removed simply by scraping it from the inside of the apparatus.
The best way to do this is to remove one flange and place a piece of paper
over the open end of the chamber, holding this in place the chamber can be
laid on its end and any loose soot is thus confined by the paper. The second
flange (now on top) can be removed and the soot deposited on the flange can
be scraped into the chamber (which now acts as a ready made holder). Finally
a long spatula can be used to scrape the soot off the walls of the chamber.
Lifting off the chamber leaves a pile of soot which can be bottled or loaded
straight into a Soxhlet thimble.
It is advisable to have the whole apparatus mounted inside a fume cupboard,
thus reducing the amount of soot dust. This precaution also protects the
operator from the possible toxic nature of the soot dust. A face mask and
disposable hand gloves also provide protection and should always be used.
The collected soot can now be extracted and the apparatus re-assembled
making sure to clean the O-rings and spacers so that a good vacuum seal can
The apparatus achieved similar yields to those obtained using the bell-jar
(ca. 3 - 4 % yields), however the transition pressure was found to be higher
for the chamber (about 30 Torr instead of 10 Torr) which may be due to the
larger volume of gas used in the bell-jar. The amount of soot produced by
this new generator was of course considerably more (roughly 100 times). The
new vaporisation chamber can be easily used 5 times in a day enabling about
50 grams of processed soot to be manufactured. Over a week, gram quantities
of fullerene extract can be readily prepared.
Improving fullerene yields and further experiments
Some experimental suggestions you might like to consider for improving the
Although the fullerenes must be formed from matter condensing from the
carbon arc plasma, it was suspected that UV and heat from the arc might
decompose the fullerenes once formed. A screen arrangement near or around
the arc may be useful in protecting the deposited soots.
Vaporisation arc current
Lower arc currents (<100 amp) were tried by reducing the voltage to the
power supply, via a high power mains Variac.
This was found to reduced the amount of material vaporised. On the whole,
yields were poorer at these lower currents.
Experiments using very high currents (100 - 300 amp) might be worth trying
to increase the fullerene yields (or the distribution of the larger fullerenes).
Vaporisation contact times
Playing around with the length of time for which the arc was maintained
during each vaporisation may effect the distribution of the fullerene
produced and also the yields. For example ten 30 second arcing may give
different fullerene results to say, one hundred 3 second arcs.
AC or DC arc
In our experiments a DC arc was found to produce roughly the same yields as
an AC arc (of similar voltage and current). However, in our experiments we
simply full wave rectified the AC voltage from the welding kit power supply.
No regulation or smoothing was applied and so the current was not strictly
DC; it effectively behaved as a 100 Hz pulsed DC system rather than as
smoothed DC. A car (or better a lorry) battery may work, although you will
have to recharge them regularly.
Finally - Good Luck ! and keep in contact
References, notes and diagrams
clic here for properties of Buckminsterfullerene
Scientific articles and notes (articles = name, Journal, year, vol., page)
H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, R. E. Smalley,
Nature, 1985, 318, 162.
H. W. Kroto, C60: Buckminsterfullerene, The Celestial Sphere that Fell
Angewandte Chemie, 1992, 31, 111 - 246.
J. P. Hare, Sussex University, C60 and Schools, Past Sixteen Science
Issues, Feb. 1996.
W. Krätschmer, L. D. Lamb, K. Fostiropoulos, D. R. Huffman, Nature,
1990, 347, 354.
R. Taylor, J. P. Hare, A. K. Abdul-Sada, H. W. Kroto, Journal of The
Chemical Communications, 1990, 1423.
J. P. Hare, R. Taylor, H. W. Kroto, Chemical Physics Letters, 1991, 177,
A. D. Darwish, H. W. Kroto, R. Taylor, D. R. M. Walton, Improved
separation of C60 and C70,
Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 1994, 15 - 16.
See articles in Physics and Chemistry of Fullerenes, Editor P. S.
Advanced Series in Fullerenes, Vol. 1, World Scientific Publications, 1993,
A vertical rod-block generator with a large volume (ca. 10 litre)
stainless steel chamber.
R. E. Haufler, Materials Research Society, Symposium Proceedings, 29th
D. H. Parker, P. Worz, K. Chatterjee, K. R. Lykke, J. E. Hunt, M. J.
J. C. Hemmiger, D. M. Gruen, L. M. Stock, Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 1991, 113, 7499.
A. S. Koch, K. C. Khemani, F. Wudl, Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1991,
G. Peters, M. Jansen, Angewandte Chemie, International (English)
Edition 1992, 31, 223.
R. E. Haufler et al. Material Research Society, Symposium Proceedings,
1991, 206, 627 - 637.
K. Yoshie, S. Kasuya, K. Eguchi, T. Yoshida, Applied Physics Letters,
1992, 61, 2782.
W. A. Scrivens, J. M. Tour, Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1992, 57, 6932.
J. P. Hare, PhD Thesis, University of Sussex, Chemistry and Molecular
clic here for a diagram of the fullerene generator
Carbon rod suppliers
Le Carbon, South Street, Portslade, Brighton, East Sussex, BN41 2LX.
Tel. 01273 415701, Fax. 01273 415673. Purity 6 rods,
4.6 mm diameter x 303 mm long, ca. £ 200 for 100).
Agar Aids Ltd, 66a Cambridge Road, Stansted, Essex, CM24 8DA
(for small high purity rods, Type E340, 5 mm diameter x 50 mm
ca. £10-00 for 10).
Toluene need not be high purity.
Fissons may sell an appropriate column
Carbon granules from;
Norite Ltd, ELORITE grade, carbon granules, sample number A-8160, Norit
N. V., Postbus 105, 3800 AC, Amersfoot, The Netherlands.
AC welding power supplies
RS components, Turboweld 8, SN 623-271, page 3-3125 Radio Spares Catalogue
or borrow one , have one donated, or steal one from a builder, ironmonger
or try a fully charged car battery.
11-07-96 JPH, fullgen1.doc, last changes 12-09-08
THE CREATIVE SCIENCE CENTRE
Dr Jonathan Hare,The University of Sussex
Brighton, East Sussex. BN1 9QJ
home | diary | whats on | CSC summary | latest news | <urn:uuid:f981ef52-9899-4bf0-a5e5-f310257aed4d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.creative-science.org.uk/design.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902327 | 8,169 | 2.859375 | 3 |
This year the drought has put a lot of stress on cattle feeders.
Because of low yields, many corn fields were harvested as silage for cattle feed. The current question is, how can silage be used best to keep costs down?
“First and foremost, drought-stressed corn silage can be notorious for high nitrate concentrations and over-feeding nitrates can cause nitrate poisoning, or brown-blood disease, in cattle,” said University of Illinois feedlot nutritionist Tara Felix.
“Cattle essentially suffocate because there is not enough oxygen being carried in the blood. Therefore, before feeding silages put up during a drought, always get a nitrate test.”
There are several testing centers where samples can be sent. For a list, visit http://web.extension.illinois.edu/oardc/cat126_3771.html.
After testing safe for nitrates, silage can be an excellent source of energy for cattle.
“Cattle can be fed by giving them free access to silage with supplemental protein and minerals,” Felix said.
Her recommendations are that calves that are 600 to 700 pounds should eat enough silage to gain about 3 pounds per day if they are fed by given free access. When cattle reach 800 pounds more of the energy in silage will be used for their increased maintenance needs so gains will likely drop to 2 or 2.5 pounds when fed by free choice.
Gains will drop
If cattle are limit-fed silage at 80 or 90 percent of free-choice, gains will drop off between 0.25 to 0.5 pounds. Felix obtained this information from a 1994 study by Murphy and Loerch.
“It is important to remember that cost of gain is still the driver of feeding decisions,” Felix said.
“Although diets high in co-product inclusion have become normal for cattle feeders, this year high inclusions of silage may be the best ration option. If you have cheap corn silage, it will be cheaper to have cattle at 2 to 2.5 Average Daily Gain (ADG) with corn silage than to buy expensive corn and byproducts,” she said.
Felix said that if you’re feeding corn silage by giving access all day, you will need additional protein as well as a mineral supplement.
Your management will dictate how you supplement protein and minerals. Farmers with low labor and equipment resources will likely need to utilize free-choice protein and mineral supplements. These come in the form of liquid feeds, lick tubs, and commercial supplements. Most generally they come at an added cost, but they are convenient and fit well into farms that have low labor and less equipment.
Farms with more labor and equipment have other options. Felix recommended some protein options if your operation can deliver a Total Mixed Ration (TMR).
Option 1: Co-products. We have used co-products of the ethanol industry for decades now. In the past, these have been economic alternative to soybean meal and urea. This year, this will likely not be the case. With co-products pushing $300 per dry ton, the cost of crude protein from co-products is a little over $0.50 per pound.
Option 2: Urea. While urea looks expensive on paper, we have to compare it to the current economics. With urea running around $680 per ton, crude protein costs about $0.12 per pound. Therefore, urea may be the more economical protein supplement for corn silage this year. Keep in mind that urea should not be included at more than 1.5 percent of the total ration dry matter and should not be used with corn silage high in nitrates. | <urn:uuid:e3a61812-6d80-484f-9b9f-60bb7bdfa366> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://southeastfarmpress.com/print/livestock/feeding-corn-silage-growing-finishing-cattle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952359 | 783 | 2.84375 | 3 |
At the U.S. Defense Department, the multiple national security threats created by sea level rise and severe weather command daily attention; climate change has been on its radar for years. The recently published Quadrennial Defense Report (QDR), an assessment of U.S. defense readiness, addresses the growing threat that climate change poses to military capabilities and global operations. Adding to that, the newly released Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report states that extreme weather events will begin occurring more frequently across the globe. As first responders in the wake of extreme weather events, the U.S. military will be called upon to provide emergency support and services for a large portion of them.
The timing of these reports highlights a growing defense challenge but also provides an opportunity for the Defense Department to lead from the front in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Read More | <urn:uuid:a592e1cc-2e39-45bc-beaf-468bc8d03ca5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/tag/qdr/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954431 | 170 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Revista chilena de historia natural
versión impresa ISSN 0716-078X
SALDANA, ALFREDO y LUSK, CHRISTOPHER H.. Influence of overstorey species identity on resource availability and variation in composition of advanced regeneration in a temperate rainforest in southern Chile. Rev. chil. hist. nat. [online]. 2003, vol.76, n.4, pp.639-650. ISSN 0716-078X. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0716-078X2003000400008.
Understory habitat heterogeneity is a factor promoting maintenance of species diversity in forest communities. The influence of over storey species identity on resource availability and variation in composition of advanced regeneration was studied in a temperate rain forest in southern Chile. The forest over storey was dominated by the broadleaved evergreens Laureliopsis philippiana, Aextoxicon punctatum, Eucryphia cordifolia and Nothofagus dombeyi. Availabilities of diffuse light, nitrogen, phosphorous and calcium were measured under these four over storey species, as was nutrient content of leaf litter. Advanced regeneration was sampled in plots beneath each over storey species, and results analyzed by ordination. There were significant differences in light transmission, nutritional content of leaf litter and availability of N-NO3 and P beneath the four species. Nevertheless, all nutrients showed low availability due to low mineralization and high immobilization. Ordination results indicate that the composition of advanced regeneration under N. dombeyi and L. philippiana differed from the composition of regeneration under A. punctatum or E. cordifolia. The ordination suggested that light level explained a large proportion of compositional variation. We propose that species regenerating in the understory differed more in shade tolerance than in nutritional requirements, being the light the most limiting resource in the under story
Palabras clave : evergreen forest; advanced growth composition; mineralization; light gradient. | <urn:uuid:48a66f3b-67f5-4720-a8da-a9665ae20d45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0716-078X2003000400008&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.842921 | 428 | 2.828125 | 3 |
- Circulatory definition, to move in a circle or circuit; move or pass through a circuit back to the starting point: See more. — “Circulatory | Define Circulatory at ”,
- Circulatory system - Reference The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain. — “Circulatory system - Reference”,
- The heart is one of most vital organs in body, as it pumps blood to various body parts. It is simply a part of human circulatory system, and this article will give you some information about this essential mechanism and various circulatory system. — “Circulatory System Organs”,
- A selection of articles related to circulatory circulatory system - the system that contains the heart and the blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins). — “circulatory”,
- The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids, electrolytes and lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. — “Circulatory system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”,
- Multicellular organisms have developed transport and circulatory systems to deliver oxygen and food to cells and remove carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Sponges are the simplest animals, Structures that serve some of the functions of the circulatory system in animals that lack the system. — “CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS”, ridge.icu.ac.jp
- A circulatory system, often referred to as a cardiovascular system, The Mammalian circulatory system reveals a complex and harmonious coordination of giving and receiving between different systems, including the respiratory system, immune system, lymphatic system, urinary system, and endocrine. — “Circulatory system - New World Encyclopedia”,
- The Circulatory System. The Circulatory System is the main transportation and cooling system for the body. The Red Blood Cells act like billions of little UPS trucks carrying all sorts of packages that are needed by all the cells in the body. Instead of UPS, I'll call them RBC's. — “The Circulatory System”,
- Figure 1. Structures that serve some of the functions of the circulatory system in animals that lack the system. Open circulatory systems (evolved in insects, mollusks and other invertebrates) pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells. Blood is. — “The Circulatory System - On-Line Biology Book”, emc.maricopa.edu
- The main function of the circulatory system in humans is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body and to remove wastes. It also plays an important role in the immune system defending against infections, and transports hormones. — “Circulatory system - Wikinfo”,
- circulatory system n. The bodily system consisting of the heart, blood vessels, and blood that circulates blood throughout the body, delivers. — “circulatory system: Definition from ”,
- Encyclopedia article about circulatory. Information about circulatory in the Columbia Encyclopedia, Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, computing dictionary. circulatory system, the circulatory system, circulatory systems. — “circulatory definition of circulatory in the Free Online”, encyclopedia2
- Circulatory system. You don't need to be Editor-In-Chief to add or edit content to WikiDoc. You can begin to add to or edit text on this WikiDoc page by clicking on the edit button at the top of this page. Next enter or edit the information that you would like to appear here. — “Circulatory system - wikidoc”,
- Organ Circulatory system including diseases and disorders affecting the Circulatory system organ or body system. — “Circulatory system - ”,
- Definition of circulatory in the Medical Dictionary. circulatory explanation. Information about circulatory in Free online English dictionary. What is circulatory? Meaning of circulatory medical term. What does circulatory mean?. — “circulatory - definition of circulatory in the Medical”, medical-
- Transport other nutrients to cells - For example, glucose, a simple sugar used to produce ATP, is transported throughout the body by the circulatory system. Immediately after digestion, glucose is transported to the liver. The liver maintains a constant level of glucose in the blood. — “Circulatory System”, faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu
- There are open circulatory systems in primitive organisms where you will find a heart that pumps fluids through the creature, but no complete system of vessels. More advanced organisms, including you, have closed circulatory systems where the heart is connected to a complete system of vessels. — “Biology4: Animal Systems: Circulatory System”, biology4
- Overview of circulatory problem, and how to treat it in a natural way. — “Circulatory Problems”, herbs2000.com
- Circulatory System. How the Blood Gets Around the Body. The circulatory system is made up of the vessels and the muscles that help and control the flow of the blood around the body. This process is called circulation. The main parts of the system are the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins. — “Circulatory System”,
- More complex animals have either an open or closed circulatory system. Differences between open and closed circulatory systems and the advantages and disadvantages of each. — “Circulatory System”, .lb
- The circulatory system provides for the widespread transportation of immune cells and antibodies that fight germs and toxins, as well as the transport of hormones and other signal molecules that have functions throughout the body. The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids. — “Circulatory system - encyclopedia article - Citizendium”,
- The heart and circulatory system (also called the cardiovascular system) make up the network that delivers blood to the body's tissues. — “Heart and Circulatory System”,
related videos for circulatory
- Circulatory System (2nd ed., Rev.) (clip) In this program, animation and anatomical drawings trace the two great circuits of the bloodstream, looping through the lungs and passing to and from every part of the body's living tissues. Additional animation identifies the various cargoes carried by the bloodstream. Interspersed with these visuals are features in which a medical technologist explains blood typing and a cardiologist describes a variety of heart defects and their corresponding modern surgical cures. 15 minutes, color. direct link to purchase complete program:
- Circulatory System and the Heart Introduction to the circulatory system and the heart
- Histology of Digestive, Respiratory & Circulatory Systems; Anatomy; Professor Fink Histology of the Tooth; Histology of the Small Intestine; Liver hepatocytes; Pancreatic Islets; Trachea; Pseuodstratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium with Goblet Cells; Alveoli; Renal Tubules; Cardiac Muscle Tissue; Cross-section through an Artery & a Vein; Hematology; Neutrophil; Lymphocyte; Monocyte
- Diosmin Alleviates Circulatory Problems Frank Murray on how the bioflavonoid diosmin and the list of ailments it can be used to treat. The benefits of sweet orange are found in all supplements containing diosmin. *Rate - Comment - Subscribe*
- Circulatory System - Woodpecker Greeting Worker Ant "Woodpecker Greeting Worker Ant" by Circulatory System from their album Signal Morning
- thatcmj - Circulatory System [Music Video] This video was part of our Media Education project at the School of the Arts, Singapore (SOTA). For this project, we had to choose 2 softwares out of 3 other softwares on the iMac which consist of GarageBand, iMovie and iWeb. We also had to choose a topic in Math or Science. In this case, we chose to do a music video about The Circulatory System in Science. We used GarageBand where we edited our music and iMovie where we edited our video. There are some bad cuts here and there, so please forgive us :P MUSIC VIDEO PRODUCED, DIRECTED, EDITED BY thatcmj (Clare Chong, Marissa Tan and Joyce Ngoh)
- Circulatory system A simple but effect animation how the heart works Discaimer: A single copy of these materials may be reprinted for noncommercial personal use only. "Mayo," "Mayo Clinic," "noncommercial use only, provided you include all applicable notices and disclaimers.
- The Circulatory System Rap This is the two of us doing a rap about the circulatory system. Our song is based on Madness by Deltron3030. It isn't edited a whole lot, but it's an OK video with a song by us. We wrote the song and that is Maggie as the bacteria. Song lyrics: Everything originates in the right atrium, Through the tricuspid valve, right ventricle, to the pulmonary artery AND LUNGS Once inside the lungs, it trashes the Co2 Gets it oxygen supply Now back to the heart In the pulmonary vein, through the atrium and left ventricle The blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve Then its spread through the rest of the body The cells get their oxygen from the arteries, arterioles and capillaries Tissues and the cells trade off waste and Co2 carried through the venues and the veins Through the larger vena cava to the atrium and lungs NOW WERE BACK TO THE BEGINNING, THANK YOU FOR LISTENING
- I left my heart in San Francisco - Tony Bennett
- The Circulatory System Video podcast covering the circulatory system. The advantages and constraints of 2-, 3-, and 4-chambered heart. The open and closed circulatory systems are also highlighted. Images from 'Biology: Concepts and Connections' (6th Ed.) by Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, Dickey; Pearson Education
- GCSE PE 1c Circulatory and Respiratory Systems GCSE PE for OCR revision film for Circulatory and Respiratory systems
- Circulatory System Vid Movie for science class. Pretty Boring
- Human Body - Cardiovascular System - Kids Animation Learn Series Learn all about the functions of the Human Body from the 'Human Body' Kids Animation Learn Series. These simple videos elaborated with pictures and descriptions can make the toughest subjects easier and fun for your kids. Click to watch more videos animation videos.
- EDGE : Circulatory system (class 8,9,10) EDGE uses the multimedia advantage to show us an animation explaining in detail the circulatory system and working of heart. Developed by Digital Pace education pvt ltd.
- Circulatory System & The Entire E6 Family - Forever Circulatory System's song "Forever" performed with the help of Olivia Tremor Control, Apples in Stereo, Elf Power, Neutral Milk Hotel, Nana Grizol, and others at the Chicago stop of the E6 Holiday Surpise Tour on 10/21/08. Nesey Gallons plays the guitar. We will live forever and you know it's true, know it's true.
- Biology 1A - Lecture 35: Circulatory and Respiratory systems General Biology Lecture
- Derek Almstead speaks of Circulatory System & Will Hart Derek speaks of Circulatory System & Will Hart. This is series of clips for the upcoming movie on the music of Athens, GA. In this series we will post shorts on recent interviews we have been captured with local musicians within the scene of Athens. Circulatory System is a band with many parts and musicians who contribute to many local bands in the area. Derek discusses his relationship with the head of the band, Will Hart [of Olivia tremor Control] and recording their recent album Outside Films 201O.
- Fetal Pig Dissection - Circulatory System, Olympic College Bio 202 Fetal pig dissection study aid. Thanks to all who gave us the "tour." Enjoy! Structures: Right & left atria Right & left ventricles Pulmonary artery Subclavian arteries & veins Common carotid artery Descending aorta Coronary artery Renal artery & vein (forgot vein) Anterior & posterior vena cava Hepatic portal vein External illiac artery & vein (forgot vein) Umbilical artery & vein Brachiocephalic artery (forgot) Ductus arteriosus & venosus Foramn Ovale Aortic Arch (forgot) Jugular
- AP Biology Lab 10: Physiology of the Circulatory System Mr. Andersen describes the use of a sphygmomonometer to measure blood pressure. He also details the use of an ectotherm in the circulatory system lab.
- Elephant 6 Collective - Forever (Circulatory System) Elephant 6 singing Forever by Circulatory System with Jeff Mangum in Pontiac 10/20/08. Jeff and Julian Koster walked offstage and played Engine in the middle of everyone, but i didn't feel like taping it.
- Rat dissection-- Thoracic Cavity & circulatory system This high school lab explores the thoracic cavity (heart & lungs) and circulatory system of the white rat. Resources related to this labcast available at /labcast. This video is also available for download via iTunes U, K-12, search for "John Sowash" through the iTunes music store.
- Circulatory System - Lovely Universe 8.13.05 @ 40 watt, athens
- Human Circulatory system The human circulatory system is very important. That animation help to learn human circulatory system its good for Biology learners. It help in to identify arteries, vain, capillaries, and their functions
- The Secrets of The Circulatory System - Human Anatomy Step By Step | | Circulatory system. Discover the easiest way to learn human anatomy
- ***roach dissection - Circulatory system This video shows a ***roach's dissected circulatory system. The dorsal, or back side, of the exoskeleton, is removed from this ***roach. The first thing we see is the large white fat body. Insects store fat, protein, and excretory products in their fat bodies. Insects have an open circulatory system. The dorsal vessel is a thin, segmented tube that is part of the circulatory system. It is closed at the hind end of the insect. At the front end of the ***roach, the dorsal vessel opens into the body cavity that surrounds all the organs. Insects have hemolymph, instead of blood. Each segment, or chamber, of the dorsal vessel has openings that gather hemolymph from the body cavity. The dorsal vessel works like a heart and is the main vessel of the circulatory system of an insect. It pumps hemolymph towards the head and into the body cavity. The dorsal vessel is flanked by two trachea. The trachea, which supply oxygen to the ***roach's tissues, are part of the respiratory system. In comparison to insects, humans have a closed circulatory system. The blood flows through blood vessels to reach all parts of the body. This video is one of 89 videos that are part of an interactive multimedia software for grades K-5 entitled Backyard Bugs.
- The Circulatory Song! Hey! This song is really funny and we heard/watched it for the first time in science which was part of our human biology unit! If you actually learn to memorize it it can be really helpful! LOL! So hope you enjoy! Comment and rate please!
- Circulatory System Mr. Andersen discusses the important parts of the circulatory system. Images from 'Biology: Concepts and Connections' (6th Ed.) by Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, Dickey; Pearson Education
- Circulatory Care of NJ, Part 1/3 Part 1 of 3: Talk show covering new technologies of circulatory medical care involving artery and vein treatments, featuring David E. Cohen MD of Circulatory Care of New Jersey. website:
- Circulatory System - Joy Nice little track from Circulatory System [band is made up of former members of The Olivia Tremor Control]. From the album Circulatory System (2001). New album, 'Signal Morning', is due in September. Woohoo.
- Circulatory system A very good educational video on the circulatory system.
- Mechanical Circulatory Support with the HeartMate II LVAD Mechanical Circulatory Support with the HeartMate II LVAD Copyright 2009 Thoratec Corporation. All rights reserved.
- How the Body Works: Circulatory Changes at Birth Circulatory Changes at Birth During pregnancy oxygen reaches the fetus from the placenta via the umbilical vein. The fetal lungs are collapsed and inactive. Most of the oxygenated blood passes through the liver, but some flows through the ductus venosus into the general circulation. In the heart, most of the blood short-circuits the right ventricle via a hole, the foramen ovale, between the right atrium and the lift atrium. Of the blood which does reach the right ventricle, about two-thirds passes from the pulmonary artery through a special vessel called the ductus arteriosus into the aorta, and the remainder passes through the lungs. At birth the placental circulation is cut off and the carbon dioxide concentration in the baby's blood stimulates respiratory nerve cells in the brain stem to induce breathing and lung expansion. The foramen ovale, the ductus venosus and the ductus arteriosus close immediately after birth and the circulatory system becomes an independent functioning unit.
- cat model circulatory sys student doing demo on model cat circulatory sys
- Circulatory System The cardiovascular system. Rap music by Rhythm, Rhyme, Results.
- CIRCULATION The circulatory system consisting of the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins, is the pumping mechanism that transports blood throughout the body. In the heart, the left ventricle contracts, pushing red blood cells into the aorta, the body's largest artery. From here, blood moves through a series of increasingly smaller arteries, until it reaches a capillary, the junction between arteries and veins. Here oxygen molecules detach from the red blood cells and slip across the capillary wall into body tissue. Now de-oxygenated, blood begins its return to the heart. It passes through increasingly larger veins to eventually reach the right atrium. It enters the right ventricle, which pumps it through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs, to pick up more oxygen. Oxygenated, blood reenters the left atrium, moves into the left ventricle, and the blood's journey begins again.
- Circulatory System S and F This video is a brief overview of the parts of the circulatory system and the main functions of the system.
- Circulatory System I The heart and arteries
- Pump Your Blood Song and Lyrics [With MP3 Download] Pump your blood song and lyrics! Working MP3 Download: www.4 My Forum: z3
- The Circulatory System In Man Check us out at The Circulatory System is the main transportation and cooling system for the body. The Red Blood Cells act like billions of little UPS trucks carrying all sorts of packages that are needed by all the cells in the body. Instead of UPS, I'll call them RBC's. RBC's carry oxygen and nutrients to the cells. Every cell in the body requires oxygen to remain alive. Besides RBC's, there are also White Blood Cells moving in the circulatory system traffic. White Blood Cells are the paramedics, police and street cleaners of the circulatory system. Anytime we have a cold, a cut, or an infection the WBC's go to work. The highway system of the Circulatory System consists off a lot of one way streets. The superhighways of the circulatory system are the veins and arteries. Veins are used to carry blood *to* the heart. Arteries carry blood *away* from the heart. Most of the time, blood in the veins is blood where most of the oxygen and nutrients have already been delivered to the cells. This blood is called deoxygenated and is very *dark* red. Most of the time blood in the arteries is loaded with oxygen and nutrients and the color is very *bright* red. There is one artery that carries deoxygenated blood and there are some veins that carry oxygenated blood. To get to the bottom of this little mystery we need to talk about the Heart and Lungs.
- CC7551 -- Circulatory, Digestive & Reproductive Systems Watch the 3 other videos in this series: CC7549 -- Cells, Skeletal & Muscular Systems, CC7550 -- Senses, Nervous & Respiratory Systems, and CC7552 -- Human Body Big Box. Find out how blood travels through the body and how a baby is made withour engaging and highly interactive 80 page digital lesson plan. Finish up your journey through the human body by traveling through the veins and arteries as red blood cells. Stop off at the heart before moving on to the stomach to learn how the food we eat turns into fuel for the body. Then, learn how the kidneys and intestines work to remove harmful waste from the body. Finally, discover how a baby is made by following the stages of development. Using any brand of Interactive Whiteboard, you will be able to create an opportunity for students to get more involved in the lesson. Each readymade screen is complete with reading passages, before and after you read interactive activities, memory match game, crossword, word search, and even supporting video & audio. Test your student's comprehension on the heart and blood, stomach and intestines with our SMART Response™ Comprehension Quiz, available for SMART Notebook™ users. Visit for an updated listing of all our IWB titles.
- 1. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM To Purchase the FULL DVD, please go to: www.heatinc.ca THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: Outstanding graphics and animations make this program an excellent tool for learning about the four components of the circulatory system: the heart, blood vessels, blood, and lymphatic system. Discusses the three types of blood vessels and their role in circulation. Finally it examines the blood components and the lymphatic system. For more information Contact : Kelghe D'cruz 416 538 9898 [email protected]
- Human Anatomy - Heart circulatory system
Blogs & Forum
blogs and forums about circulatory
“Holistic health education and natural alternative healing Information. Learn about natural remedies and alternative medicines”
— circulatory system,
“About. The Walrus is a Philadelphia-based music blog written by Michael. You may send me His current project, Circulatory System, delivers the same heavy dose of dense and pop”
— The Walrus " Blog Archive " New MP3: Circulatory System,
“Blog. MP3: Circulatory System - "Overjoyed" Yes, I am "overjoyed" that former Olivia William Cullen Hart is back with his band Circulatory System and some”
— Art in the Age " Blog Archive " MP3: Circulatory System,
“January 5, 2008 at 6:29 pm · Filed under Cinnamon, Circulatory system, Digestive system, Herbal Blog Party Cinnamon strengthens the circulatory system and gets blood moving out to the surface of”
— The Herbwife's Kitchen " Circulatory system,
“Contact. Blog. Contact. Careers. Blog. Search The Site. Blog Home. AEDs Tag Archive | "Circulatory system" Heart Attack vs Sudden Cardiac Arrest. Friday, June 26,”
— Circulatory System | AED, ECG/EKG, Stress Test Machine,
“Blog Home. Store. Our Products. About Us. Contact Us. Conditions of the Circulatory System Subscribe to our Blog. Click to Subscribe via RSS. Subscribe via Email”
— Progressive Health Blog: Conditions of the Circulatory System,
“Connection between Circulatory System and Mental Health. Our circulatory system is a understanding the circulatory system will help you know more about how to improve poor”
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“Alcoholism can cause all sorts of chaos and trouble in a person's life. With all that drama, it can be tougher to notice the subtle changes in that person's”
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“Testing for a Circulatory Problem, an article from The Forum, the newsletter of The National CFIDS Foundation”
— Testing for a Circulatory Problem, article from The Forum, ncf- | <urn:uuid:dd52d82d-55b1-4e91-a356-e0ac2b49d4ae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wordsdomination.com/circulatory.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879489 | 5,276 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Maybe you’ve found yourself mystified by the symbols and rules of recycling. Counterintuitively, the single-stream system—which allows residents to toss any and all recyclables into one bin—hasn’t cleared up the confusion. Many people simply throw in anything made out of plastic, glass, or metal and hope for the best. But this assorted jumble can cause big issues once it arrives at the processing plant.
The problem with the anything-goes approach is that non-recyclable materials can get mixed in with and contaminate recyclables, reducing the value of the batch as a whole. This effect increases with the volume of recycling. The Washington Post reported that contamination rose significantly in Washington, D.C., after the city installed larger residential recycling bins in 2014, leading to a 50 percent drop in the share of the city’s profit from selling recyclables. Across the country, municipalities are paying more to process and haul away these undesirable outputs. “By pushing to increase recycling rates with bigger and bigger bins—while demanding almost no sorting by consumers—the recycling stream has become increasingly polluted and less valuable, imperiling the economics of the whole system,” wrote the Post.
So what’s an eco-conscious consumer to do? CityLab spoke with Darby Hoover, senior resource specialist at the Natural Resources Defense Council, to find out. It turns out there are some things that aren’t worth “recycling,” because they end up doing more harm than good at the plant. By keeping the following materials (in one form or another) out of the blue bin, you can help support your local recycling program—and not muck up the process overall.
Small scraps of paper
Hoover says it’s “virtually impossible” to separate these shreds from the other materials rolling down the conveyor belt. ”They end up becoming part of the residue that’s left over at the end because they’re so tiny,” says Hoover. “I can’t even pull them out by hand.”
However, that doesn’t mean paper scraps can’t be recycled—just don’t dump them directly into the blue bin. Instead, Hoover says, you can place them in a paper bag, staple it shut, and write “SHREDDED PAPER” on the outside. A person at the processing plant will recognize the bag, remove it from the rest of the recycling stream, and sort it into the paper products.
Whether they hold soy sauce, ketchup, mustard, or some other liquid, all these packets are made out of plastic or an aluminum-plastic combination. “There’s nobody recycling those right now,” Hoover says, so you’re better off throwing them in the garbage.
Polystyrene foam containers
These are almost never recyclable because they’re extremely lightweight and typically soiled with food residue. (Remember, food contamination is the same reason you can’t recycle a pizza box.)
Most paper cups are actually coated with plastic, so they can’t be recycled with other paper products. Some municipalities can separate the plastic out to recover the paper fiber, while others allow you to toss the cups into compost. Check with your local waste management authority to make sure you’re disposing of these properly.
They’re a huge hassle for recyclers because they often fly off or clog sorting machinery. “At the material recovery facility in San Francisco, they have to shut down all the machines every night for at least an hour to go in and manually pick out all the pieces of plastic bag that have gone in there and jammed up the various machines,” Hoover says.
But there’s an easy way to keep these out of the landfill: Bring them to a local grocery store. Most offer plastic bag recycling by the entrance. Once the bags are sorted together, they can be bundled up and repurposed as plastic lumber.
These mailers are made out of plastic, not paper, so most municipal authorities won’t accept them for recycling. You’d have to go through the manufacturer.
Keep these guidelines in mind before dumping your goods into the bin. And, as always, check with your local waste management authority to make sure that you’re not inadvertently clogging up the system. | <urn:uuid:72cbcd97-38b3-4732-93a0-3bc52505f826> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.citylab.com/navigator/2015/06/youre-probably-recycling-wrong/396683/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922281 | 927 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Sausages are an ancient prepared food. In the olden days efficient butchers saved the various scraps of organ meats, blood and fat, salted them, stuffed them into tubular casings, and preserved them by curing, drying, or smoking.
Traditional sausage casings are cleaned pig intestines, however today they are often collagen or cellulose.
Modern sausage meat is ground pork, beef, or veal. In the USA fat content is legally limited to 30%, 35% or 50% depending on the type of sausage. The USDA defines the content for various sausages and generally prohibits the fillers or extenders used in English cuisine where they add up to 25% of bread and starch.
Breakfast or Country Sausage is made from ground pork mixed with pepper, sage, and other spices. It is commonly sliced into patties and pan-fried, or cooked and crumbled into scrambled eggs or gravy.
Sausage Roll is a sheet of puff pastry formed into tubes around sausage meat and glazed with egg or milk before being baked and served either hot or cold.
Merguez is a red, spicy sausage from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It is made of lamb, beef, or a mixture of both flavored with a wide range of spices, such as sumac, paprika, Cayenne pepper, or a hot chili paste. It is stuffed into a lamb casing and traditionally eaten grilled with couscous.
Boerewors, or farmer's sausage, of South Africa is made of game and beef, mixed with pork or lamb and with a high percentage of fat. Coriander and vinegar are the seasoning ingredients. The long continuous spiral sausage is traditionally cooked on a barbecue.
Loukaniko of Greece is a pork sausage flavored with orange peel and fennel seed.
Salsiccia of Italy is made of pure pork spiced with fennel seeds and chilli in the south, or black pepper and garlic in the north.
Sucuk of Turkey and the Balkans is made from beef that is fermented then spiced with garlic and pepper and lightly smoked. The taste is extremely hot, spicy and greasy.
Blood sausages are made in America, Europa and Asia by cooking pig, cattle, sheep, duck, or goat blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal. In Europe and America typical fillers are meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, sweet potato, onion, chestnuts, barley, and oatmeal. In Spain, Portugal and Asia, potato is replaced with rice.
Frankfurters and Hot Dogs are the most common pre-cooked sausages in the USA. Frankfurters are more mild, Hot Dogs are more heavily seasoned.
Other popular ready-to-eat sausages, often eaten in sandwiches, include salami, American-style bologna, Lebanon bologna, prasky, liverwurst, and head cheese.
Pepperoni and Italian are popular pizza toppings.
Quick Sausage and Potato Salad Skillet
Preparation Time: 10 minutes
Cook Time: 10 minutes
Makes 4 servings
2 teaspoons olive or vegetable oil
1 medium red or yellow onion, cut into 1/2-inch thick wedges
1 cup chopped red bell pepper
3/4 pound pre-cooked smoked sausage links: use chicken, turkey, Polish or kielbasa sausage
1 can (15 ounces) Potato Salad
1/4 teaspoon cracked black pepper
Chopped parsley, optional
Heat oil in large skillet over medium heat until hot. Add onion and bell pepper. Cook and stir 1 minute. Add sausages; continue cooking 5 minutes until browned and heated through, turning occasionally. Remove sausages from skillet.
Add potato salad and black pepper to skillet. Stir to combine with onion mixture. Return sausages to skillet. Cook 2 to 3 minutes to heat through. Sprinkle with parsley if desired | <urn:uuid:035e8d76-0692-422e-a69b-b62d9ca9a7a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theskanner.com/news/health/18954-sausages-are-one-of-the-earliest-prepared-foods-2013-06-25 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930257 | 826 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Based on its name alone, the slime mold is a contender for the world's grossest organism. But don't let its grubby name fool you—slime molds have accomplished a feat that only a handful of other organisms on earth can claim—they have developed agriculture.
Slime molds—or "social amoebae," as researchers prefer to dignify them—are relatively simple creatures that spend most of their lives as single-celled individuals living in the soil, feasting on bacteria as they travel. Fascinatingly, these solitary cells have the ability to coalesce into what amounts to a superorganism that acts as a single unit despite consisting of separate individuals.
But new research, announced today in the journal Nature by my Rice University colleagues Joan Strassmann and David Queller, suggests that some social amoebae have taken this partnership to the next level. (I was not involved in the study.) Instead of slurping up every last bacterial cell they encounter as they ooze their way through the soil, certain genetic strains of Dictyostelium discoideum—aka "Dicty"—have evolved the ability to store bacteria and carry it with them in what amounts to a microscopic grain silo. Should they happen to find themselves in an area lacking in suitable bacteria, they just plant a new crop using their stored reserves.
It's not the first known case of nonhuman agriculture, but it is the first by an organism outside the animal kingdom. Several types of insects, including certain species of ants and termites as well as some beetles, cultivate fungi that they use for food. In these cases—especially the fungus-growing ants that I study—some of the cultivated fungi have become truly domesticated, having evolved to become better food for their hosts while losing the ability to survive on their own.
As is so often the case in science, the discovery that some strains of Dicty are farmers happened by accident. As a beginning graduate student in Strassmann and Queller's lab, Debra Brock, the lead author on the new study, was interested in studying competition between Dicty strains. As she examined spores with a high-magnification microscope, she noticed that several Dicty clones had something unusual in their sori, a globular mass elevated off the ground by a long, thin stalk that together looks like a tiny mushroom. All Dicty use this structure, called a fruiting body, to elevate cells producing spores for reproduction. But Brock also thought she saw something else in the sorus. To figure out what it was, she tried to cultivate it.
It turned out to be bacteria—the same type Dicty normally eat. Brock even tried "curing" the Dicty of their bacteria by treating them with antibiotics, thinking that they might have some sort of disease. It worked—the clones that housed bacteria lost the contents of their picnic baskets after the treatment. But as soon as she exposed the antibiotic-treated Dicty to a fresh plate of bacteria, the Dicty clones that contained bacteria prior to antibiotic treatment—which Brock dubbed "farmers"—readily took up the bacteria and stored them away. Genetically similar clones that had not previously housed bacteria did not. In other words, certain Dicty clones can farm and others simply cannot. Further stacking the odds in favor of the agriculturists, Brock's farmers produced more spores than nonfarmers when grown in an environment lacking bacteria, suggesting that when food is scare, those able to farm can produce more offspring.
Humans underwent nearly the same transition nearly 10,000 years ago, shifting from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one in which a reliable food source is stored for later consumption. Planting crops caused people to settle in one place, and a steady food supply allowed populations to grow and people to specialize in tasks other than finding food. The result was civilization as we know it.
Are slime molds in the process of forming advanced civilizations? Probably not. Dicty lack the sophisticated brains of humans and even ants—or anything resembling a nervous system. Although previous research has shown that simple microbes are capable of performing many seemingly complex tasks, including communication, recognizing relatives, even navigating mazes.
Despite our obvious differences, there is something we farmers have in common: We're social. We live in groups that typically consist of close relatives, which may be important for developing agriculture. This isn't necessarily obvious. If growing your own food is such an advantage, why don't solitary organisms cultivate fungi or bacteria the way we grow corn and raise cattle? Is it simply too much work for any one animal—or amoeba—to handle?
Not necessarily. It may be that farming has benefits that extend beyond the lives of the individual by providing a reliable food source for future generations. If planting crops will benefit your children and grandchildren as well—think of an apple orchard—then farming becomes a good strategy for propagating your genes. That only works when groups are made up of family units—as is the case for slime molds, fungus-growing ants, termites, and us.
There are downsides to being a farmer. Being loaded down with bacteria makes Dicty farmers travel more slowly. Although farmers thrive when bacteria are absent, nonfarmers produce more spores than farmers when food is readily available. In fact, social amoebae may seem an unlikely candidate for agriculturists precisely because they eat bacteria, which, as far as food sources go, are a pretty reliable one. Even a population of slime molds that numbered in the trillions could theoretically be hard-pressed ever to go hungry. So why bother storing any for later?
It may be a matter of taste. Brock collected soil from a Houston park, which was teeming with bacteria but apparently inferior to what the Dicty farmers had already stashed away. Farmers were more successful than nonfarmers when grown on the park soil, presumably because they had access to better grub.
Admittedly, agriculture as performed by Dicty is still pretty basic, at least as far is currently known. It's still premature to say whether Dicty meet the complete definition of farmers. It remains to be seen, for example, whether the bacteria Dicty carry are dependent on their farmers for propagation as our crops depend on us. But perhaps we are glimpsing the first step in a major evolutionary transition. After all, the first human to plant a seed instead of munching on it could not have foreseen the implications of his or her actions.
And if not—if what we are observing today is the most sophisticated behavior that Dicty ever develop—it's still not bad for a blob. | <urn:uuid:aceba4a7-78bf-467b-9f0b-918e27166dd7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2011/01/were_not_so_different_slime_molds_and_us.single.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966736 | 1,388 | 3.25 | 3 |
The fabrication processes (wafer processing and TFT array process) essential for manufacturing semiconductors and TFT-LCDs are similar.
Wafers are placed in a high-temperature furnace. By exposing wafers to a flow of Ox gas, silicon dioxide film is formed on the wafer surfaces. Then silicon nitride film is formed on them by CVD method using silane and ammonia gas.
While the wafers are rotated at a high speed in a coater, they are covered with a uniform coat of photoresist, whose characteristics change when the resist is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light.
Glass mask with IC patterns on the surface is loaded into the stepper and UV light is applied through the glass mask to the photoresist. The pattern of glass mask is transferred to the photoresist.
In a developer, the wafers are uniformly covered with a developing solution to develop the mask patterns. With positive photoresist, the portion that has been exposed to light becomes soluble, thus leaving the mask patterns on the wafer surfaces.
A plasma dry etch system is used to strip the dielectric films in accordance with the patterns developed on the photoresist. The portion protected by the photoresist remains intact, thus preserving the original pattern structure under the resist.
After etch process, photoresist is removed by Ox plasma. Then wafers are dipped in chemical solvents to remove particles and impurities on the wafer.
Oxide film is deposited in the trenches to form dielectric films. CVD system or SOD coater that applies liquid materials through spinning is used.
Gate film (Ox) is formed by oxidation and plasma nitridation process is applied to the surface of the gate film. Then, gate electrode film (polysilicon) is formed on it by CVD method.
Using the ion implantation machine, the specific elements are implanted into the wafers. And subsequent annealing diffuses these impurities to form source and drain.
Intermetal dielectric film is formed by oxide using CVD method and the film surface is planarized by polishing system subsequently. Contact holes are opened by applying patterning processes to the dielectric film surface.
The holes are filled with metal film by CVD, then excess metal is removed by CMP method.
Low-dielectric-constant film is deposited followed by trench formation in the film by patterning process.Metal films are filled into the trench and excess metals are polished.
Processes from dielectric film formation to metal polishing are repeated to make a multi level inter-connect.
Prober connects the signal node formed tin the LSI chip and the electrical testing machine. Then the failed LSI chips are rejected. | <urn:uuid:c1bf2cc8-75ed-4f69-9b9f-e185ccef9cf6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tel.com/product/spe/making/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934657 | 578 | 3.53125 | 4 |
A+ Math Adventure takes learning simple math to a new height. Learning simple math is no longer a boring thing for your kids. The goal of this game is to come up with correct answer to simple math equations before the aliens reach your rockets. The faster you come up with answers, the more aliens you blow up. This is definitely a fun way to learn Math. This game targets Math beginners. Give it a try and see where the rockets of A+ Math Adventure take your kids. | <urn:uuid:a02d1433-7fb2-470c-92ff-d322c728e8b8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.appspy.com/app/157520/a-math-adventure | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912574 | 98 | 2.53125 | 3 |
LLM Degree: What It Is and Why You Need OneAn LLM degree can help law students achieve their career goals.
After completing four years of college and then three years of law school, the idea of spending another few years in school might make some people cringe. Yet for some lawyers, earning a master’s degree in a specialized area of law — often referred to as the Master of Laws or LLM degree — is what they need to achieve their career goals.
While the most common LLM degree specialization in the United States is taxes, any area of law is open to advanced study, including environmental, bankruptcy, financial services, human rights and maritime law. Although the degree is not required to practice law in the United States, other countries around the world, particularly in Europe, require lawyers to hold both a first law degree and a master’s degree.
LLM Degrees: The Basics
Students who graduate from law school in the U.S. are granted a J.D., or Juris Doctor, a professional law degree. This is considered the first law degree. In most cases, those who hold the degree are qualified to sit for the bar exam to gain admittance to the state bar and practice law.
In order to enroll in an LLM program, candidates must have earned their first law degree, but do not necessarily have to pass the bar exam. However, experience working within the legal field can improve your chances of being admitted to law master’s programs. In fact, you may not have a clear idea of where you would like to specialize until you have some experience working in the field. You do not need to take the LSAT to apply to an LLM program, but since U.S. LLM programs are popular with international students, many schools require foreign applicants to pass the TOEFL or equivalent exam to demonstrate English-language proficiency.
To earn an LLM, students generally need to complete between 22 and 28 credit hours of coursework and complete an original thesis. Courses are geared toward the area of specialization; LLM tax programs, for example, include courses in federal and state income taxes, estate taxes, business taxes, international taxes and issues in the practice of tax law. In most cases, LLM programs are full-time academic programs, but some programs allow for part-time study.
Why You Need an LLM
There are a number of reasons that students seek LLM degrees — not the least of which is the potential earnings increase. Becoming an expert in a complex field like taxation can increase your marketability and employability — and law firms will be willing to pay for your expertise.
Beyond earning more money, though, there are several other reasons for seeking an advanced law degree. For example, if you have spent some time away from the practice of law, such as to raise a family, enrolling in an online tax LLM program will help you refresh your skills and knowledge before you head back into the working world. Earning an advanced degree can also help you move into a new area of focus in your career.
Another common reason that students seek an LLM degree is to strengthen their credentials, which may include a degree from a middle- or lower-tier law school. It’s a fact that degrees from some schools are looked upon more favorably than degrees from other schools, but earning a Master of Laws degree can bolster your eligibility for a position at a prestigious law firm, government agency or other organization.
Finally, for those who have a passion for the law but perhaps do not wish to practice, earning the LLM degree allows them to teach law, either at the undergraduate or first-degree level. Even those who want to remain in practice can use their LLM degree to land a part-time teaching position, allowing them to help train the next generation of law professionals.
Choosing to earn an LLM degree is a major commitment. However, with so many benefits, including increased earnings and opportunities, the LLM is a challenging and worthwhile endeavor.
About the Author: Doug Ericson holds both a J.D. and LLM in taxes and works for a San Diego–based law firm. He volunteers with his student alumni association, helping new law school grads navigate their career options.
Have you gotten an LLM degree or know someone working towards one? Share it with me in the comments!
Please consider sharing this post who might be trying to decide if an LLM degree is right for them. Thank you!
Read the last post here: A Guide to Lighting your Home in 2013
Feature image courtesy of Free Digital Photos. Click image for photographer portfolio. | <urn:uuid:fa8291cd-8928-4d6b-97f0-1beb01f2b87c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.amberrisme.com/2013/01/29/llm-degree-what-it-is-and-why-you-need-one/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966024 | 957 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Models take spotlight at council science talks
By Ernie Hood
Advances in animal models were the focus of two scientific presentations at the Sept. 11 National Advisory Environmental Health Sciences Council meeting. Zebrafish and mice have been model organisms in environmental health sciences for a long time, but today researchers are crafting bold innovations to advance their usefulness as vehicles for scientific inquiry into toxicity and disease.
Council members were treated to exciting, informative talks by NIEHS Superfund Research Program grantee Robert Tanguay, Ph.D., a distinguished professor of molecular toxicology and head of the Sinnhuber Aquatic Research Laboratory at Oregon State University; and lead researcher Jef French, Ph.D., head of the NTP Host Susceptibility Group within the Biomolecular Screening Branch.
Harnessing the power of zebrafish
In Tanguay’s lab, the goal is to link phenotype with genotype, using zebrafish, which closely resemble humans in terms of responses to environmental insults and disease traits. Several years ago, Tanguay realized there were major bottlenecks in the process. He and his team used funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, to focus intensive efforts on streamlining and accelerating the lab’s ability to produce the fish and run them efficiently through toxic exposure assays.
“We needed to crank it up,” he told the Council audience. “We identified that if we were going to take full advantage of this model, we needed to massively increase the robustness of phenotype discovery, to link exposure to phenotype, to identify a mechanism.”
Crank it up they did, achieving a quantum leap in experimental productivity by engineering several ingenious new processes to break the bottlenecks, including highly automated methods to allow unlimited production of zebrafish embryos, nondestructive handling of the embryos, and chorion removal, where the embryo’s outer membrane is excised to permit direct exposure of the developing embryo to challenge toxicants. Those innovations allowed the use of high-throughput technology to run experiments designed to gauge the impact of exposures, including mixtures, on the very early development of the zebrafish, with measurable endpoints in just five days.
Today, thanks to his group’s technological advances, the zebrafish is poised to take on supermodel status. “We can translate the data in many different ways, such as identifying inherently hazardous compounds,” said Tanguay. The approach also supports a process he calls binning. “Once you have the ability to massively do exposures with lots of different compounds, with known structures or known mixture composition, you then have the ability to associate the chemical structure and the composition with the biological responses you get, and start binning the compounds based on the commonalities of responses and structure. And, then, you can drill down from representative members of these families to define the actual cause of toxicity.”
Mouse models have it both ways
French shared the results of recent experiments with two types of mouse models — a fixed-genotype, inbred, 18-strain panel known as the NTP panel, and a highly genetically diverse mouse population called the Diversity Outbred (J:DO) mouse, where random outbreeding was used to scramble the genomes of eight laboratory and wild-derived mouse inbred strains into a new wild-type mouse population, where every mouse is genetically different from every other mouse.
He described assays exposing both models to benzene, a ubiquitous toxicant in the environment with a large amount of existing data on the effect on metabolism, toxicity, and carcinogenicity, which are remarkably similar between humans and rodents.
A haplotype association mapping approach was used with the inbred strains to allow characterization of their benzene absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion phenotypes.
Experiments with the J:DO mice were designed to assess benzene-induced hematotoxicity and genotoxicity, following 28 days of controlled inhalation exposures at low levels.
According to French, both approaches — measuring inter-individual variability and population-level variability — are valuable in the effort to link genome-by-environment interactions with human outcomes. They will also help to quantify the uncertainty factors in correlations between mouse and human.
“Based on the studies performed using the J:DO mouse population, we conclude that population-based models are warranted in in vivo toxicology, in order to determine the role of inter-individual variability, and identify resistance and susceptibility alleles associated with population-based outcomes,” French said. “I emphasize that we have identified a number of candidate genes that may be major determinants of these phenotypes, but after this discovery phase, using the forward genetics approach, we must return to reverse genetics and molecular biology, to validate their function and the mechanistic basis for the observed toxicity.”
(Ernie Hood is a contract writer with the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison.) | <urn:uuid:89302d49-849c-4900-8b2d-b83d8a59e1e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsletter/2012/10/science-models/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946351 | 1,033 | 2.546875 | 3 |
IDEAS & TRENDS
IDEAS & TRENDS;Blame Global Warming for the Blizzard
By WILLIAM K. STEVENS
Published: January 14, 1996
IT seems a paradox at first glance: How could a record snowstorm have covered much of the northeastern United States last week when the climate of the earth is warming?
Just four days after scientists announced on Jan. 3 that the average surface temperature of the globe had crept to a recorded high of nearly 60 degrees in 1995, the Blizzard of 1996 dropped more than 20 inches of snow on Central Park, the third deepest snowfall ever measured there. More than two feet fell on other parts of the Northeast corridor.
But not only are blizzards and global warming compatible, some experts cite evidence suggesting that climatic changes associated with global warming are actually creating more severe snowstorms.
The apparent planetary warming is unlikely to nullify the seasons, including winter, although some climatologists say severe cold spells should eventually become less frequent if the warming continues as predicted.
Frigid masses of Arctic air still rule the polar winter, and a southward bulge of this polar chill was a crucial element in producing the blizzard. Another such bulge has been responsible for the bitter weather frustrating American troops in Bosnia. Seasonal movements of air like these easily overwhelm the relatively small amount of global warming observed so far.
Moreover, other parts of the globe have been unusually warm despite the cold start to winter here and in Central Europe.
While the blizzard paralyzed New York, Southern California enjoyed record warmth. The summertime temperature in Argentina at a latitude roughly comparable to that of Washington, D.C., soared to 110 degrees a few days ago.
And even where it has been cold, global warming may be contributing to heavier snowfalls and greater extremes of precipitation generally.
A warming atmosphere causes more evaporation of water from the ocean, which means more rain, snow or sleet. The conversion of more water from vapor to precipitation also releases more energy into the atmosphere, making storms more powerful. In cases where atmospheric circulation conspires to keep rain away from a given area, as happens from time to time, a warming climate is expected to produce hotter heat waves and more severe droughts.
Extremes of this kind are becoming more frequent, say researchers at the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, N.C.
Last year, the researchers analyzed temperature and precipitation records for the 20th century and found that from 1980 through 1994, the incidence of extreme one-day precipitation, over-all precipitation, above-normal temperatures and drought had risen in many areas of the country.
By comparing this pattern with the pattern of climate change that computer simulations indicate should result from an increase in heat-trapping "greenhouse" gases like carbon dioxide, the analysts concluded that there is a 90 to 95 percent chance that the increase in extremes was caused by the increase in greenhouse gases.
An authoritative group of scientists advising the United Nations recently concluded for the first time that the greenhouse gases -- produced by the burning of coal, petroleum and wood -- are probably responsible for at least part of the observed warming.
The average surface temperature of the earth has risen by about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the last century. The scientists forecast a rise of another 3.6 degrees over the next century if emissions of the gases are not reduced, the most rapid global temperature change in the last 10,000 years, with further warming after 2100.
That may not sound like a lot of warming, but the average global temperature is only 5 to 9 degrees higher now, depending on varying calculations, than it was in the depths of the last ice age.
If the scientists are right, extreme weather will be a hallmark of the changing climate, and in fact may be the most common way in which people experience global warming.
One particularly revealing index of extremity is the amount of precipitation in a 24-hour period. Extreme rainstorms, snowstorms, ice and sleet storms, have become more frequent in the United States, and several locations reported record 24-hour snowfalls last week.
The Blizzard of 1996 does indeed qualify as one type of extreme weather to be expected in a warmer climate.
"It's another statistic that adds to the record" of extreme precipitation, said Thomas R. Karl, the leader of the Asheville research team that is studying the phenomenon. "It's rather interesting. We seem to be getting these storms of the century every couple of years." Mr. Karl has not been known as a doom-sayer on the question of global warming.
As Northeasterners showed last week, people can adapt to extreme weather, but at costs both monetary and human.
The blizzard may have cost the New York region a billion dollars and it caused many deaths. Floods resulting from extreme rains, like the historic ones in the Mississippi basin in 1993, take a toll both in dollars and disaster. Extreme heat waves like last summer's in Chicago, which Mr. Karl says may have been worsened by global warming, impose extreme and often lethal hardships on the old and weak. Developing countries, many of which have fewer resources to cope with a changing climate, are generally regarded as most vulnerable.
For all the tantalizing signs and signals, it remains uncertain as to whether human activity is changing the climate a little or a lot, and if a lot, how drastic the change will ultimately be.
Long-range climate forecasting is no more precise than short-range weather forecasting, both based on an imperfect understanding of the turbulent atmosphere and on equally imperfect analytical tools like computer simulations of the atmosphere's workings.
Sometimes, the task of predicting the weather a season ahead is made easier.
For instance, forecasters know that the quasi-periodic appearance of El Nino, the vast pool of warm water in the equatorial Pacific, increases the probability of certain atmospheric events. They can predict that when El Nino appears, the northern jet stream, the high-altitude river of air that girdles the northern hemisphere, will shift to a course that blocks any invasions of polar air in the northeastern United States.
That was the case a year ago. Forecasters at the Climate Analysis Center of the National Weather Service at Camp Springs, Md., predicted a mild winter for the Northeast last year. They were right; on Jan. 13, 1995, for instance, the temperature reached 61 degrees in Central Park.
This year, El Nino has disappeared. The Weather Service nonetheless predicted a warm winter again based on previous weather patterns, but that forecast has turned out to be wrong so far. The winter is young enough that the forecast could still be right in the end. If not, it will be testimony to the hazards of trying to gauge the behavior of the atmosphere far in advance.
"It comes with the territory, and we accept that," said Ed O'Lenic, who heads the Climate Analysis Center's forecast operation. | <urn:uuid:47025fef-dbdd-4f78-9ce2-29c300cfa36d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/14/weekinreview/ideas-trends-blame-global-warming-for-the-blizzard.html?pagewanted=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940256 | 1,426 | 3.65625 | 4 |
The range for 115,000-baud IrDA is limited to about 6 in (15 cm), but for 2400-baud IrDA, it improves to more than 12 in (30 cm). Immunity to ambient light is very good, although bright flashes usually cause false triggers. To handle such triggers, the system simply looks for IR activity after waking and then returns to sleep mode if none is present. The sensor shown, D1, a relatively large-area photo-diode packaged in an IR-filter material, produces about 60µA when exposed to heavy illumination, and 400mV when open-circuited. Most photo-diodes may be used. Operation is in the photovoltaic mode without applied bias.
This mode is slow and not generally used in photo-diode circuits, but speed is not essential here. The photovoltaic mode simplifies the circuit and saves a significant amount of power. In a more conventional configuration, for instance, photo-conductive, photo currents caused by ambient light and sourced by the bias network would increase the quiescent current about ten times. | <urn:uuid:a298d692-41ed-49b7-b471-ef010aca0500> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://e-circuitshome.blogspot.com/2011_10_01_archive.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911459 | 230 | 2.53125 | 3 |
BE THANKFUL FOR YOUR SISTER DAY
By Anne Robertson
G: Well, Abner, do you know what special day comes this week?
A: My birthday?
G: No. But it is a holiday.
A: Oh, boy! Christmas?
A: Hog Thumping Day?
G: What on earth is Hog Thumping Day, Abner?
A: Oh, it's just another name for Throw Mud on Your Sister Day.
G: Abner, that's awful! Actually, this week is Be Thankful For Your Sister Day.
A: Oh. That sounds boring. Why haven't I ever heard of it before?
G: Well, Abner, most people just call it Thanksgiving.
A: Thanksgiving! You mean the Thanksgiving when we get to eat turkey and stuffing and pumpkin pie til we burst?
G: That's the one, Abner.
A: Gee, Gladys. You really had me going there for a minute with all that stuff about Be Thankful For Your Sister Day.
G: But that's what it is, Abner. Why do you think they call it Thanksgiving? Don't you know
A: Of course I do, Gladys. It all started back in the days of the Roman Empire when Julius Caesar set sail to discover America.
A: Yes, Gladys?
G: That's all wrong!
A: It is?
G: Of course it is. Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. That's a long time after the Romans.
A: Well, then the first Thanksgiving was celebrated by Christopher Columbus in 1492 because
he was thankful that his ship didn't sink.
G: No, Abner.
A: His ship DID sink?
G: Abner, Columbus didn't have anything to do with Thanksgiving!
A: Then why did you bring him up?
G: Never mind, Abner. Don't you remember the Pilgrims? They came all the way from
England on a boat called the Mayflower. They were the ones to celebrate the first Thanksgiving, Abner. Do you remember why?
A: Because they were thankful that Julius Caesar didn't discover America?
G: No, Abner. The Pilgrims had a hard life. They lived in Massachusetts where it gets very
cold in the winter and it snows. Back in those days they didn't have warm houses like we do, and a lot of Pilgrims died from the cold.
A: Doesn't sound like anything to be thankful about.
G: Abner, so many people died from the cold, that the ones that made it through the winter were thankful to be alive. They were also thankful for some friends they had made. Do you
remember who they made friends with?
A: Big Bird and Mickey Mouse?
G: No, Abner. The Pilgrims made friends with the Native Americans, and the they taught the
Pilgrims how to grow corn and showed them how to survive in America. They were thankful for the help, so they invited their new friends to a big dinner they called Thanksgiving. Now do you know why it's called Thanksgiving?
A: Because they were giving thanks to the Native Americans?
G: Partly, Abner, but also because they were giving thanks to God for their lives. The Pilgrims were very religious people. They knew that God had helped them, and they knew they should say thank you.
A: So did they give God some turkey?
G: No, Abner. God didn't want turkey.
G: No. God didn't want food at all. God just wanted his people to say thank you for what He had given them. It's the same way today.
A: You mean we have to invite Native Americans to dinner?
G: Abner, I mean we celebrate Thanksgiving today as a time when we say thank you to God for the things he has given us.
A: Like roller skates?
G: That's right. And like a house to live in and mothers and fathers and SISTERS.
A: Hold on, there. Are you saying that God gave me Margaret?
G: That's right, Abner.
A: On purpose?
G: Uh, huh. Your sister is very special to God, Abner. I hope you're treating her well.
A: Uh oh. You're not joking?
G: No, Abner. (Abner starts to leave) Where are you going?
A: I have to go to Margaret's room.
G: Why is that, Abner?
A: I can't tell you. But it has something to do with a bucket of green slime and a lot of spiders.
G: You'd better clean it up fast, Abner. You only have a few days to show God that you're thankful for the sister He gave you. I know I'm thankful for her.
A: Why is that, Gladys?
G: Because, if it weren't for her, you'd play all those mean tricks on me. Now, goodbye, Abner. And don't forget to say grace before you eat on Thanksgiving and say thank you
for everything God has given you.
A: Even Margaret?
G: Especially Margaret. Goodbye, Abner. | <urn:uuid:8d9b5199-5298-459c-913d-1609e6c8782f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.annerobertson.com/THANKSIS.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97967 | 1,127 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Additive manufacturing (AM) — referred to as “three-dimensional” or “3D” printing—is a potential game changer with important implications to the DoD and federal government. The technology allows the “art to part” fabrication of complex objects from a computer model without part-specific tooling or human intervention. Because of its ability to produce a wide variety of objects, AM also can have significant national security and health care implications.
The US government is taking AM seriously and the numbers show this. There are enormous potential benefits to the defense, health and government areas. Specifically, 3D printing provides the chance to build spare parts on demand, maintenance and repair, metal implants and prosthetics. Production times and costs are reduced, lightweight structures can be built and physical inventories can be replaced with digital inventories. With President Obama's recent creation of the National Network of Manufacturing Innovation - which includes $1 billion in funding for FY 2014 - the time is now to discuss the challenges and opportunities for Additive Manufacturing in a government and defense context.
- Presentation from TED fellow Skylar Tibbits on the advances of 4 Dimensional Printing
- Sponsored demos from the latest additive manufacturing technology providers
- Sessions from the Departments of Defense, Energy, National Science Foundation, NIST, NASA and more!
What are the Top Three Benefits of Attending?
- Best chance to understand where the government and Armed Forces are right now in terms of AM requirements
- Small crowd great for networking and gaining insight
- Timing: happening just as new government manufacturing innovation centers are being built
What Topics will be Covered?
- The current state of advanced manufacturing
- Development of new Materials for AM
- The latest developments in 3D and 4D Printing
- Design software
- DoD implications and uses for AM
Venue & Accommodation
Waterview Conference Center
1919 North Lynn Street
Arlington, VA 22209
The Waterview Conference Center, metropolitan Washington’s premier event space, offers a new avenue for hosting corporate and social meetings, conferences, receptions, and retreats in the nation’s capital, all high above the waters of the Potomac River. With unrivaled views of and access to downtown, the Center is designed to showcase the best of the city while providing cutting-edge event space. It is where the best of the nation’s capital converges and where an unforgettable experience continually awaits.
SLEEPING ROOM ACCOMMODATIONS:
Please note that IQPC has not established a room block although there are several nearby hotels (many within walking distance). Please visit the below link for a listing.
http://www.executiveboard.com/exbdresources/content/waterview/location.html (under accommodations tab)
Le Meridien is offering a 15% discount off their “Best Available Rate” with code IDGA
2013 Speaker Lineup
- Ed Morris, Director, National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Institute
- Skylar Tibbits, Founder, Self-Assembly Lab and TED Fellow, MIT
- Dr. Robert Ivester, Acting Director, EERE Advanced Manufacturing Office, Department of Energy
- Dr. John Slotwinski, Physicist, Science Based Manufacting Group, NIST
- Elana Broitman, Principal Deputy to the DAS/D, Manufacturing & Industrial Base Policy, Department of Defense
- Steve Luckowski, Division Chief, Materials and Manufacturing Prototype Technology Division, Army Armaments, Research, Development Engineering Center
- Michael Maher, Program Manager, Open Manufacturing, DARPA
- Dr. Alberto Piqué, Head, Electronic and Optical Materials & Sensors Section, Materials Science & Technology Division, Naval Research Laboratory
- Dr. Jack Beuth, Professor, Mechaniacl Engineering, Carnegie Mellon
- Dr. Tom Campbell, Associate Director for Outreach, Research Associate Professor, Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS), Virginia Tech
- Zhijian Pei, Program Director, Manufacturing Machines and Equipment, National Science Foundation | <urn:uuid:42cad59c-ef18-4c58-89e4-56f60fff8e9b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.asdevents.com/event.asp?id=2889 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.88667 | 847 | 2.625 | 3 |
- Solar Cells
- Solar Charger
- Solar Energy
- Solar Home
- Solar Lights
- Solar Panels
- Solar Powered
- Solar Systems
Most Popular Articles
Solar Power For Houses
Ryan Said:Will Solar Power reduce the temperature outside?
We Answered:That's actually a really interesting question. The answer is no, and I'll explain why. Energy travels from the Earth to the Sun. When it reaches the Earth, a variety of things happen to it. Some is reflected back, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some is absorbed by the Earth itself and things on the ground. That's a bit of an oversimplification, but let's just focus on the energy that is absorbed by stuff on the surface of the Earth.
A certain amount of the Sun's energy is absorbed by people's houses every day. If those houses don't have solar panels on them, then nothing really happens to that energy. It just heats up their shingles and things. A small amount might reflect off of roofs, but that has a negligible effect on the Earth's temperature. So, now let's suppose that those same houses had solar panels on them. The same amount of energy is still hitting the houses and being absorbed by them, but instead of just being wasted, it's now being used for things. The overall effect on the climate, though doesn't change.
Once again, very interesting question.
Zachary Said:How many of you use solar power for your houses?
We Answered:My dad bought this for our home... If you would like to do this be aware that you need to wait at least 7 months because the silicone that is used in the panels is hard to manufacture. The benefits and tax deductions can save you thousands of dollars. You can sell the unused power back to PG&E so your bill can be zero. Get a company that is based in your area. We went through Home Depot. It also adds great equity to your home.
Cecil Said:Solar Powered Houses?
We Answered:I'm not sure how many solar panels you'll need (it depends on the climate, architecture, appliances, etc) but too many "green" designs overlook the power of sunlight as natural light. Instead of solar panels covering the entire roof, you'll want to have open 'windows' on your roof to let in natural light. Many green designs even have entire walls of the house made of glass, to fully utilize the sun's light.
The south side of the house, atleast in my area, receives the most sun, so having that face of the house opened up with large windows would definitely give you natural sufficient natural lighting during the day, and even some heat during the winter (blinds during the summer will keep the sun away).
Green roofs (roof gardens) help absorb a LOT of heat during the summer. You can also expand the idea of that and make a "living wall."
You also might want to look into geothermal energy and if it's possible in your area. What is goes is tap into heat energy deep into the earth. I know of houses totally 100% independent of city electric utilities even here in America just by using solar panels and geothermal energy.
Willie Said:How do you build a model solar powered house?
We Answered:You need batteries to hold the power with light bulbs to match - flashlight bulbs probably and photocells to generate electricity. Lowes and Home Depot are not places for these. You could buy glass or plastic and thin wood there and make passive solar where the heat is absorbed by walls to even out the temperature and could, with care, use small tubing to make active solar water heating.
Duane Said:where to find grants for solar power to private houses?
We Answered:Try the following; maybe, it will help
Ivan Said:Wind & Solar Power?
We Answered:B & Q have a new windmill that plugs straight into your mains | <urn:uuid:fa3f1d49-a5e0-4a03-94b9-4d0e49e76835> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pvgap.org/solar-home/solar-power-for-houses.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965629 | 825 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: Colossus of Rhodes
Program InformationSeries: A Moment in Time
Year Produced: 2009
Of all the structures counted among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, perhaps the most mysterious is the statue of Helios the Sun God, the Colossus of Rhodes.
A Moment in Time is a brief, exciting and compelling journey into the past. Created to excite and enlighten the public about the past, its relevance to the present and its impact on the future, A Moment In Time is a captivating historical narrative that is currently broadcast worldwide.For more information visit: http://amomentintime.com
Lead: Of all the structures counted among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, perhaps the most mysterious is the statue of Helios the Sun God, the Colossus of Rhodes.
Intro.: A Moment in Time with Dan Roberts.
Content: Rhodes is a pleasant island at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, just off the southwestern coast of modern Turkey. In the ancient era it was blessed with fertile soil and an excellent climate, and though traditionally an ally of Egypt, it maintained generally peaceful relationships and significant commercial contacts with its neighbors. In the fourth century BCE, Antigonus, King of Macedonia, set his eyes on Egypt and encouraged the Rhodians to abandon their alliance with Egypt and join forces with him. When they refused in 305 BCE he sent a large force under his son Demetrius, but Rhodes put up such a tenacious resistance that Demetrius abandoned the effort along with his very expensive siege engines. The Rhodians, seeing a bargain at hand, sold the engines for about $2 million in today's money and, in gratitude for their deliverance, erected a statue in honor of their patron deity, Helios the Sun God.
They chose the famous artist Chares (CHAIR ees) of Lindos, to sculpt the statue and selected a figure that was approximately 110 feet tall. The most trusted sources indicate the statue stood upright, was naked, and was shaped like a column. According to Philo of Byzantium, it had an iron framework with a stone foundation. The Colossus of Rhodes took 12 years to sculpt and cost about $6 million. Within 60 years, an earthquake brought it crashing down where it lay for almost a millennium before being broken up and carted away by Islamic invaders.
Various artists have attempted to depict the Colossus. There has been speculation that it straddled the harbor at Mandraki, but the width of the entrance to the harbor and the relatively weak construction material made this impossible. Whatever it looked like, contemporary historians testified that it probably exceeded in size any other similar structure in the ancient world.
Research assistance by Ashleigh Greene, at the University of Richmond, this is Dan Roberts. | <urn:uuid:cbcb55b8-3dd2-4e96-b3f0-491166bc9c1b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://classroomclips.org/video/3025 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953985 | 569 | 2.796875 | 3 |
The Mexican rebozo originated in colonial times, and is a piece
of clothing extensively used by Mexican women today.
The rebozo is square linen that is used to cover the upper body and
head. It is used to carry babies in traditional Mexico, and more
recently around the world. It is also a luxury garment used for
In history, Fray Diego Duran mentions them for the first time in the XVI century saying that rebozos were knitted in Oaxaca with cotton and silk. To this elegant garment, knitters would add metallic threads and other ornaments to make a luxury complement for affluent women of the time.
The rebozo is a part of Mexican history. In 1757 there was a law that legislated over the size, knitting, thread class and design. Following Roman Catholic traditions, the Virgin of Angustias was named the saint to advocate for the knitters of rebozos : las rebozeras.
The most traditional Mexican rebozos used to be from Sultepec in today's State of Mexico knitted with a waist loom as early as 1573 when Diego Cortes Chimalpopoca was Cacique of the region.
In Puebla, you can find the famous golden rebozos of tafetan, which is a silk, weave with a specific pattern of threads.
In Saltillo, you can find the traditional "saw teeth" design which is the same style used in Mexican Serapes.
Classical rebozos are made out of cotton and silk. They are decorated using a technique called marbling (jaspeado in Spanish). This old fashion way of dyeing, consists of making knots in sections of the threads so that the color does not impregnate consistently. The technique gives a beautiful irregular marbling or stripe appearance exposing the tint and the natural color of the fiber. After the knitting, the threads from the side are tied making a nice design or maybe a phrase.
Today's elegant Mexican rebozos are knitted by:
In 1951, in Santa Maria del Rio, it was founded the school of rebozo knitting to maintain the tradition that was disappearing. They master the marbling or jaspeado technique, and create authentic pieces of art. For example the one color silk rebozo with amazing beauty and elegance.
Here are some of the fashionable uses for a rebozo : | <urn:uuid:0bfe034c-e069-4734-b6f1-4d0f37370ae1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mexican-clothing-co.com/mexican-rebozo.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944006 | 499 | 3 | 3 |
Drawing Room from Lansdowne House
Designed by Robert Adam, Scottish, 1728 - 1792. Painted decoration by Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Italian (active Florence and England), 1727 - 1785, and Antonio Zucchi, Italian, 1726 - 1795. Gilded by Joseph Perfetti, Italian, active London from 1760 - 1778.
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This drawing room is an archetypal example of the work of Robert Adam, a Scottish architect and designer whose name has become synonymous with this style of neoclassical decoration. The room was originally situated on the ground floor of the grand London house that Adam designed for the third Earl of Bute in the early 1760s. Adam's original plans refer to it as the "Organ Drawing Room," the large recess being intended for Lord Bute's vastly expensive mechanical organ.
In 1765, Lord Bute sold the unfinished house to William Petty Fitzmaurice, second Earl of Shelburne and later first Marquess of Lansdowne, with the provision that Adam be retained to continue work on the home. Adam was already well known to Lord Shelburne, whose father had employed the architect to remodel Bowood, his family's country estate in Wiltshire. (Shelburne, who served as Secretary of State and in 1783 concluded the Treaty of Paris granting independence to the United States, entertained Benjamin Franklin at Bowood on several occasions.) Lord Shelburne and his wife moved into the house in 1768, when it was in what Lady Shelburne described as "so unfurnishd a State." Yet by the time of Lady Shelburne's death and the end of Adam's employment by Lord Shelburne in 1771, the decoration of the drawing room remained incomplete and was evidently abandoned.
Although the room's original furnishings do not survive today, it is known that Adam provided designs for a pier-glass and a semicircular pier-table, executed by John Gilbert; circular picture frames, executed by Sefferin Nelson; and a carpet, the design for which is in the collection of Sir John Soane's Museum in London.
In 1929, Lord Shelburne's heirs sold the house to a group of investors. The room was acquired by the Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1931, when the front of the house, including the drawing room and the dining room (now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art), was slated for demolition to make way for a new street.
Explore the Collections
* Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit. | <urn:uuid:d3d0b86f-eced-4a96-b4d8-e8845049e2c6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/44332.html?mulR=17874%7C7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963096 | 619 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The explosion in music consumption over the last century has made 'what you listen to' an important personality construct - as well as the root of many social and cultural tribes - and, for many people, their self-perception is closely associated with musical preference. We would perhaps be reluctant to admit that our taste in music alters - softens even - as we get older.
Now, a new study suggests that - while our engagement with it may decline - music stays important to us as we get older, but the music we like adapts to the particular 'life challenges' we face at different stages of our lives.
It would seem that, unless you die before you get old, your taste in music will probably change to meet social and psychological needs.
One theory put forward by researchers, based on the study, is that we come to music to experiment with identity and define ourselves, and then use it as a social vehicle to establish our group and find a mate, and later as a more solitary expression of our intellect, status and greater emotional understanding.
Researchers say the study is the first to "comprehensively document" the ways people engage with music "from adolescence to middle age". The study is published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Using data gathered from more than a quarter of a million people over a ten year period, researchers divided musical genres into five broad, "empirically derived" categories they call the MUSIC model - mellow, unpretentious, sophisticated, intense, contemporary - and plotted the patterns of preference across age-groups.
These five categories incorporate multiple genres that share common musical and psychological traits - such as loudness and complexity.
"The project started with a common conception that musical taste does not evolve after young adulthood. Most academic research to date supported this claim, but - based on other areas of psychological research and our own experiences - we were not convinced this was the case," said Arielle Bonneville-Roussy from Cambridge's Department of Psychology, who led the study.
The study found that, unsurprisingly, the first great musical age is adolescence - defined by a short, sharp burst of 'intense' and the start of a steady climb of 'contemporary'. 'Intense' music - such as punk and metal - peaks in adolescence and declines in early adulthood, while 'contemporary' music - such as pop and rap - begins a rise that plateaus until early middle age.
"Teenage years are often dominated by the need to establish identity, and music is a cheap, effective way to do this," said Dr Jason Rentfrow, senior researcher on the study.
"Adolescents' quest for independence often takes the shape of a juxtaposed stance to the perceived 'status quo', that of parents and the establishment. 'Intense' music, seen as aggressive, tense and characterised by loud, distorted sounds has the rebellious connotations that allow adolescents to stake a claim for the autonomy that is one of this period's key 'life challenges'."
As 'intense' gives way to the rising tide of 'contemporary' and introduction of 'mellow' - such as electronic and R & B - in early adulthood, the next musical age emerges. These two "preference dimensions" are considered "romantic, emotionally positive and danceable," write the researchers.
"Once people overcome the need for autonomy, the next 'life challenge' concerns finding love and being loved - people who appreciate this 'you' that has emerged," said Rentfrow.
"What we took away from the results is that these forms of music reinforce the desire for intimacy and complement settings where people come together with the goal of establishing close relationships - parties, bars, clubs and so on.
"Whereas the first musical age is about asserting independence, the next appears to be more about gaining acceptance from others."
As we settle down and middle age begins to creep in, the last musical age, as identified by the researchers, is dominated by 'sophisticated' - such as jazz and classical - and 'unpretentious' - such as country, folk and blues.
Researchers write that both these dimensions are seen as "positive and relaxing" - with 'sophisticated' indicating the complex aesthetic of high culture that could be linked to social status and perceived intellect, while 'unpretentious' echoes sentiments of family, love and loss - emotionally direct music that speaks to the experiences most will have had by this life stage.
"As we settle into ourselves and acquire more resources to express ourselves - career, home, family, car - music remains an extension of this, and at this stage there are aspects of wanting to promote social status, intellect and wealth that play into the increased gravitation towards 'sophisticated' music," said Rentfrow, "as social standing is seen as a key 'life challenge' to be achieved by this point".
"At the same time, for many this life stage is frequently exhausted by work and family, and there is a requirement for relaxing, emotive music for those rare down times that reflects the other major 'life challenge' of this stage - that of nurturing a family and maintaining long-term relationships, perhaps the hardest of all."
Adds Bonneville-Roussy: "Due to our very large sample size, gathered from online forms and social media channels, we were able to find very robust age trends in musical taste. I find it fascinating to see how seemingly trivial behaviour such as music listening relates to so many psychological aspects, such as personality and age." | <urn:uuid:b921fe57-92dc-4ae0-acf0-cbe632dcfd8f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-10/uoc-tma101513.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961786 | 1,143 | 2.59375 | 3 |
|Matlab hint||Exercise 2|
|The Midpoint Method||Exercise 3|
|Reporting Errors||Exercise 4|
|The Trapezoid Method||Exercise 6|
|Singular Integrals||Exercise 7|
|Newton-Cotes Rules||Exercise 8|
|Gauss Quadrature||Exercise 9|
|Adaptive quadrature||Exercise 10|
|Integration by Monte Carlo methods (Extra)||Exercise 11|
The term ``numerical quadrature'' refers to the estimation of an area, or, more generally, any integral. (You might hear the term ``cubature'' referring to estimating a volume in three dimensions, but most people use the term ``quadrature.'') We might want to integrate some function or a set of tabulated data. The domain might be a finite or infinite interval, it might be a rectangle or irregular shape, it might be a multi-dimensional volume.
We first discuss the ``degree of exactness'' (sometimes called the ``degree of precision'') of a quadrature rule, and its relation to the ``order of accuracy.'' We consider some simple tests to measure the degree of exactness and the order of accuracy of a rule, and then describe (simple versions of) the midpoint and trapezoidal rules. Then we consider the Newton-Cotes and Gauss-Legendre families of rules, and discuss how to get more accurate approximations by either increasing the order of the rule or subdividing the interval. Finally, we will consider a way of adapting the details of the integration method to meet a desired error estimate. In the majority of the exercises below, we will be more interested in the error (difference between calculated and known value) than in the calculated value itself.
A word of caution. We discuss three similar-sounding concepts:
This lab will take four sessions. If you print this lab, you may prefer to use the pdf version.
As you recall, Matlab provides the capability of defining ``anonymous'' functions, using
of writing m-files to do it. This feature is very convenient when the
function to be defined is very simple-a line of code, say-or when
you have a function that requires several arguments but you only
are interested in varying one of them.
You can find out about anonymous functions on on-line reference for
Suppose, for example, you want to define a function
You could do this by writing the following:
sq=@(x) x.^2; % define a function using @You could then use sq(x) later, just as if you had defined it in an m-file. sq is a ``function handle'' and can be used wherever a function handle is used, such as in a call from another function. Remember, though, that another
@should not appear before the name. In the next section you will be writing an integration function named midpoint that requires a function handle as its first argument. If you wanted to apply it to the integral , you might write
q=midpointquad(sq,0,1,11)or you could write it without giving the function a name as
There is a nice way to use this form to streamline a sequence of calculations computing the integrals of ever higher degree polynomials in order to find the degree of exactness of a quadrature rule. The following statement
q=midpointquad(@(x) 5*x.^4,0,1,11);1-qfirst computes using the midpoint rule, and then prints the error (=1-q because the exact answer is 1). You would only have to change
4*x.^3to check the error in , and you can make the change with judicious use of the arrow keys.
Errors should be reported in scientific notation (like 1.234e-3, not .0012). You can force Matlab to display numbers in this format using the command format short e (or format long e for 15 decimal places). This is particularly important if you want to visually estimate ratios of errors.
Computing ratios of errors should always be done using full precision, not the value printed on the screen. For example, you might use code like
err20=midpointquad(@runge,-5,5,20)-2*atan(5); err40=midpointquad(@runge,-5,5,40)-2*atan(5); ratio=err20/err40to get a ratio of errors without loss of accuracy due to reading numbers off the computer screen.
When I compute ratios of this nature, I find it easier to compute them as ``larger divided by smaller,'' yielding ratios larger than 1. It is easier to recognize that 15 is nearly (=16) than to recognize that .0667 is nearly (=0.0625).
In general, numerical quadrature involves breaking an interval into subintervals, estimating or modelling the function on each subinterval and integrating it there, then adding up the partial integrals.
Perhaps the simplest method of numerical integration is the midpoint method (presented by Quarteroni, Sacco, and Saleri on p. 381). This method is based on interpolation of the integrand by the constant and multiplying by the width of the interval. The result is a form of Riemann sum that you probably saw in elementary calculus when you first studied integration.
Break the interval into subintervals with endpoints (there is one more endpoint than intervals, of course). Then the midpoint rule can be written as
function quad = midpointquad( func, a, b, N) % quad = midpointquad( func, a, b, N) % comments % your name and the datewhere f indicates the name of a function, a and b are the lower and upper limits of integration, and N is the number of points, not the number of intervals. The code for your m-file might look like the following:
xpts = linspace( ??? ) ; h = ??? ; % length of subintervals xmidpts = 0.5 * ( xpts(1:N-1) + xpts(2:N) ); fmidpts = ??? quad = h * sum ( fmidpts );
N h Midpoint Result Error 11 1.0 _________________ __________________ 101 0.1 _________________ __________________ 1001 0.01 _________________ __________________ 10001 0.001 _________________ __________________
If a quadrature rule can compute exactly the integral of any polynomial up to some specific degree, we will call this its degree of exactness. Thus a rule that can correctly integrate any cubic, but not quartics, has exactness 3. Quarteroni, Sacco, and Saleri mention it on p. 429.
To determine the degree of exactness of a rule, we might look at
the approximations of the integrals
func Midpoint Result Error 1 ___________________ ___________________ 2 * x ___________________ ___________________ 3 * x^2 ___________________ ___________________ 4 * x^3 ___________________ ___________________
The trapezoid rule breaks [a,b] into subintervals, approximates the integral on each subinterval as the product of its width times the average function value, and then adds up all the subinterval results, much like the midpoint rule. The difference is in how the function is approximated. The trapezoid rule can be written as
To apply the trapezoid rule, we need to generate points and evaluate the function at each of them. Then, apply either (2) or (3) as appropriate.
function quad = trapezoidquad( func, a, b, N ) % quad = trapezoidquad( func, a, b, N ) % more comments % your name and the dateYou may use either form of the trapezoid rule.
func Trapezoid Result Error 1 ___________________ ___________________ 2 * x ___________________ ___________________ 3 * x^2 ___________________ ___________________ 4 * x^3 ___________________ ___________________
N h Trapezoid Result Error 11 1.0 _________________ __________________ 101 0.1 _________________ __________________ 1001 0.01 _________________ __________________ 10001 0.001 _________________ __________________
The midpoint and trapezoid rules seem to have the same exactness and about the same accuracy. There is a difference between them, though. Some integrals have perfectly well-defined values even though the integrand has some sort of mild singularity. There are some sophisticated ways to perform these integrals, but there is a simple way that can be adequate for the case that the singularity appears at the endpoint of an interval. Something is lost, however.
Consider the integral
n h Midpoint Result Error 11 0.1 _________________ __________________ 101 0.01 _________________ __________________ 1001 0.001 _________________ __________________ 10001 0.0001 _________________ __________________Estimate the rate of convergence (power of ) as . You should see that the singularity causes a loss in the rate of convergence.
Look at the trapezoid rule for a minute. One way of interpreting that rule is to say that if the function is roughly linear over the subinterval , then the integral of is the integral of the linear function that agrees with (i.e., interpolates ) at the endpoints of the interval. What about trying higher order methods? It turns out that Simpson's rule can be derived by picking triples of points, interpolating the integrand by a quadratic polynomial, and integrating the quadratic. The trapezoid rule and Simpson's rule are Newton-Cotes rules of index one and index two, respectively. In general, a Newton-Cotes formula uses the idea that if you approximate a function by a polynomial interpolant on uniformly-spaced points in each subinterval, then you can approximate the integral of that function with the integral of the polynomial interpolant. This idea does not always work for derivatives. The polynomial interpolant in this case being taken on a uniformly distributed set of points, including the end points. The number of points used in a Newton-Cotes rule is a fundamental parameter, and can be used to characterize the rule. The ``index'' of a Newton-Cotes rule is commonly defined as one fewer than the number of points it uses, although this common usage is not universal.
We applied the trapezoid rule to an interval by breaking it into subintervals and repeatedly applying a simple formula for the integral on a single subinterval. Similarly, we will be constructing higher-order rules by repeatedly applying Newton-Cotes rules over subintervals. But Newton-Cotes formulæ are not so simple as the trapezoid rule, so we will first write a helper function to apply the rule on a single subinterval.
Over a single interval, all (closed) Newton-Cotes formulæ can be written as
Remark: There are also open Newton-Cotes formulæ that do not require values at endpoints, but there is not time to consider them in this lab.
function quad = nc_single ( func, a, b, N ) % quad = nc_single ( func, a, b, N ) % more comments % your name and the dateThere are no subintervals in this case. The coding might look like something like this:
xvec = linspace ( a, b, N ); wvec = nc_weight ( N ); fvec = ??? quad = (b-a) * sum(wvec .* fvec);
func Error Error Error N=4 N=5 N=6 4 * x^3 __________ __________ ___________ 5 * x^4 __________ __________ ___________ 6 * x^5 __________ __________ ___________ 7 * x^6 __________ __________ ___________ Degree ___ ___ ___
The objective of numerical quadrature rules is to accurately approximate integrals. We have already seen that polynomial interpolation on uniformly spaced points does not always converge, so it should be no surprise that increasing the order of Newton-Cotes integration might not produce accurate quadratures.
n nc_single Result Error 3 _________________ __________________ 7 _________________ __________________ 11 _________________ __________________ 15 _________________ __________________
The results of Exercise 6 should have convinced you that you raising in a Newton-Cotes rule is not the way to get increasing accuracy. One alternative to raising is breaking the interval into subintervals and using a Newton-Cotes rule on each subinterval. This is the idea of a ``composite'' rule. In the following exercise you will use nc_single as a helper function for a composite Newton-Cotes routine. You will also be using the ``partly quadratic'' function from Lab 9:
function y=partly_quadratic(x) % y=partly_quadratic(x) % input x (possibly a vector or matrix) % output y, where % for x<=0, y=0 % for x>0, y=x(1-x) y=(heaviside(x)-heaviside(x-1)).*x.*(1-x);Clearly,
function quad = nc_quad( func, a, b, N, numSubintervals) % quad = nc_quad( func, a, b, N, numSubintervals) % comments % your name and the dateThis function will perform these steps: (1) break the interval into numSubintervals subintervals; (2) use nc_single to integrate over each subinterval; and, (3) add them up.
nc_quad(@runge, -5, 5, 4, 10) = 2.74533025
Subin- nc_quad tervals N Error Err ratio 10 2 _____________ __________ 20 2 _____________ __________ 40 2 _____________ __________ 80 2 _____________ __________ 160 2 _____________ __________ 320 2 _____________ 10 3 _____________ __________ 20 3 _____________ __________ 40 3 _____________ __________ 80 3 _____________ __________ 160 3 _____________ __________ 320 3 _____________ 10 4 _____________ __________ 20 4 _____________ __________ 40 4 _____________ __________ 80 4 _____________ __________ 160 4 _____________ __________ 320 4 _____________
In the previous exercise, the table served to illustrate the behavior of the integration routine. Suppose, on the other hand, that you had an integration routine and you wanted to be sure it had no errors. It is not good enough to just see that you can get ``good'' answers. In addition, it must converge at the correct rate. Tables such as the previous one are one of the most powerful debugging and verification tools a researcher has.
Like Newton-Cotes quadrature, Gauss-Legendre quadrature interpolates the integrand by a polynomial and integrates the polynomial. Instead of uniformly spaced points, Gauss-Legendre uses optimally-spaced points. Furthermore, Gauss-Legendre converges as degree gets large, unlike Newton-Cotes, as we saw above. Of course, in real applications, one does not use higher and higher degrees of quadrature-one uses more and more subintervals, each with some given degree of quadrature.
The disadvantage of Gauss-Legendre quadrature is that there is no easy way to compute the node points and weights. See Quarteroni, Sacco, and Saleri, Section 10.2 and their program zplege.m for further information. Instead, the values are usually tabulated. We will be using a Matlab function to serve as a table of node points and weights.
One way to compute the node points and weights is described in Algorithm 125 in the collected algorithms from the ACM, appearing in The Communications of the ACM, 5, no. 10 (October 1962), pp. 510-511, and is available as a Fortran program TOMS125.
Normally, Gauss-Legendre quadrature is characterized by the number of integration points. We speak of three-point Gauss, etc.
The following two exercises involve writing m-files analogous to nc_single.m and nc_quad.m.
function quad = gl_single ( func, a, b, N ) % quad = gl_single ( func, a, b, N ) % comments % your name and the dateAs with nc_single there are no subintervals in this case. Your coding might look like something like this:
[xvec, wvec] = gl_weight ( a, b, N ); fvec = ??? quad = sum( wvec .* fvec );
f Error Error N=2 N=3 3 * x^2 __________ ___________ 4 * x^3 __________ ___________ 5 * x^4 __________ ___________ 6 * x^5 __________ ___________ 7 * x^6 __________ ___________ Degree ___ ___
N gl_single Result Error 3 _________________ __________________ 7 _________________ __________________ 11 _________________ __________________ 15 _________________ __________________
You might be surprised at how much better Gauss-Legendre integration is than Newton-Cotes, using a single interval. There is a similar advantage for composite integration, but it is hard to see for small N. When Gauss-Legendre integration is used in a computer program, it is generally in the form of a composite formulation because it is difficult to compute the weights and integration points accurately for high order Gauss-Legendre integration. The efficiency of Gauss-Legendre integration is compounded in multiple dimensions, and essentially all computer programs that use the finite element method use composite Gauss-Legendre integration rules to compute the coefficient matrices.
function quad = gl_quad( f, a, b, N, numSubintervals) % quad = gl_quad( f, a, b, N, numSubintervals) % comments % your name and the dateThis function will perform two steps: (1) break the interval into numSubintervals subintervals; (2) use gl_single to integrate over each subinterval; and, (3) add them up.
gl_quad(@runge, -5, 5, 4, 10) = 2.7468113
Subin- gl_quad tervals N Error Err ratio 10 1 ____________ __________ 20 1 ____________ __________ 40 1 ____________ __________ 80 1 ____________ __________ 160 1 ____________ __________ 320 1 ____________ 10 2 ____________ __________ 20 2 ____________ __________ 40 2 ____________ __________ 80 2 ____________ __________ 160 2 ____________ __________ 320 2 ____________ 45 3 ____________ __________ 90 3 ____________ 46 3 ____________ __________ 92 3 ____________ 47 3 ____________ __________ 94 3 ____________ 48 3 ____________ __________ 96 3 ____________ 49 3 ____________ __________ 98 3 ____________
The proofs you have seen about convergence of Gauss quadrature rely on bounds on higher derivatives of the function. When bounds are not available, higher-order convergence might not be observed.
log(x) Subin- gl_quad tervals N Error Err ratio 10 1 ____________ __________ 20 1 ____________ __________ 40 1 ____________ __________ 80 1 ____________What is the order of accuracy of the method using N=1?
log(x) Subin- gl_quad tervals N Error Err ratio 10 2 ____________ __________ 20 2 ____________ __________ 40 2 ____________ __________ 80 2 ____________What is the order of accuracy of the method using N=2?
log(x) Subin- gl_quad tervals N Error Err ratio 10 3 ____________ __________ 20 3 ____________ __________ 40 3 ____________ __________ 80 3 ____________What is the order of accuracy of the method using N=3?
It is instructive to see how to compute integrals over infinite intervals. Basically, the best way to do that is to make a change of variables to make the interval finite. There are other ways, such as multiplying the integrand by a weighting function and then using an integration method based on weighted integrals, but you will see how a change of variables works in thee following exercise.
Use any of the integration functions to evaluate this integral to an accuracy of Explain why you chose the method you used and how you determined the number of intervals necessary to achieve the specified accuracy.
Remark: There is no easy way to tell in advance which method to use to achieve a particular accuracy. You can pick a method by trial-and-error, switching methods when you cannot achieve the desired error in the time you are willing to wait. Of course, once you have some trial values, you can use theoretical rates of convergence to help you decide the number of subintervals necessary to reach your desired accuracy.
In the following section, you will see how accuracy might be improved during the integration process itself, so that a target accuracy can be achieved.
Our final task will consider ``adaptive quadrature.'' Adaptive quadrature employs non-uniform division of the interval of integration into subintervals of non-equal length. It uses smaller subintervals where the integrand is changing rapidly and larger subintervals where it is flatter. The advantage of this approach is that it minimizes the work necessary to compute a given integral. Adaptive quadrature is discussed by Quarteroni, Sacco, and Saleri on page 402. In this section, you will investigate a recursive algorithm for adaptively computing quadratures.
Numerical integration is used often with integrands that are very complicated and take a long time to compute. Although this section will use simple integrands for illustrative purposes, you should think of each evaluation of the integrand (``function call'') to take a long time. Thus, the objective is to reach a given accuracy with a minimum number of function calls. A good strategy for achieving a specified accuracy efficiently is to attempt to uniformly distribute the error over each subinterval. If no interval is particularly bad, there is no obvious place to improve the estimate and if no interval is particularly good, no work has been wasted.
Recall that, if an integration method has degree of exactness , then the local error on an integration interval of length satisfies an expression involving a constant and a point located somewhere in th interval. Assuming the derivative of the function is roughly constant in an interval, then can be estimated by dividing the interval into two subintervals of length each, estimating the error in the interval as the sum of the errors on the two subintervals, and then equating the two expressions. Denote by the integral over the interval of length , then
The basic structure of one simple adaptive algorithm depends on using the error estimate (6) over each integration subinterval. If the error is acceptably small over each interval, the process stops, and, if not, continues recursively. In the following exercise, you will write a recursive function to implement this procedure.
function [Q,errEst,x,recursions]= ... adaptquad(func,x0,x1,tol,recursions) % [Q,errEst,x,recursions]= % adaptquad(func,x0,x1,tol,recursions) % adaptive quadrature % input parameters % func = function to integrate % x0 = left end point % x1 = right end point % tol = desired accuracy % recursions = number of allowable recursions left % % output parameters % Q = estimate of the value of the integral % errEst = estimate of error in Q % x = all intermediate integration points % recursions = minimum number of recursions remaining % after convergence % Add a mid-point and re-estimate integral xmid=(x0+x1)/2; % Qleft and Qright are integrals over two halves N=3; Qboth=gl_single(func,x0,x1,N); Qleft=gl_single(func,x0,xmid,N); Qright=gl_single( ??? ); % p=degree of exactness of Gauss-Legendre p=2*N-1; errEst= ??? ; if errEst<tol | recursions<=0 %vertical bar means "or" % either ran out of recursions or converged Q= ??? ; x=[x0 xmid x1]; else % not converged -- do it again [Qleft,estLeft,xleft,recursLeft]=adaptquad(func, ... x0,xmid,tol/2,recursions-1); [Qright,estRight,xright,recursRight]=adaptquad(func, ... ??? ); % recursive work is all done, return answers % don't want xmid to appear twice in x x=[xleft xright(2:length(xright))]; Q= ??? ; errEst= ??? ; recursions=min(recursLeft,recursRight); endNote: The input and output parameter recursions is not theoretically necessary, but is used to guard against infinite recursion. The output vector x is not necessary, either, but will be used to show the effect of the adaptation.
adaptquad for Runge tol est. error exact error 1.e-3 __________ __________ 1.e-6 __________ __________ 1.e-9 __________ __________You should find that the estimated and exact errors are close in size, and smaller than tol. For the two more accurate cases, the estimated error is slightly larger than the exact error. As you can see, the estimated error is not so good for the case that tol=1.e-3.
The next few exercises will help you look a little more closely at the results of this recursive adaptive algorithm. Some of the points that will be made are listed below.
In the following exercises, you will examine two functions that are more difficult to integrate. The first is a scaled version of the Runge function, , where The value of the integral on [-1,1] of the scaled Runge function is
The second function is , and the value of its integral over the interval [-1,1] is
A third function that is difficult to integrate is . This function has an integrable singularity at that is close to being nonintegrable.
[Q,estErr,x,recursions]=adaptquad(@srunge,-1,1,1.e-10,50);What are the estimated and true errors? Is recursions larger than zero?
xave=(x(2:end)+x(1:end-1))/2; dx= x(2:end)-x(1:end-1); semilogy(xave,dx,'*')A semilog plot is appropriate here because of the wide range of interval sizes. Please include this plot with your summary.
xave=(x(2:end)+x(1:end-1))/2; dx= x(2:end)-x(1:end-1); semilogy(xave,dx,'*')where x is replaced by the variable name you used. A semilog plot is appropriate here because of the wide range of interval sizes. Please include this plot with your summary.
In the following exercise you will apply adaptquad to a function that is almost not integrable. You will see the benefit of the recursions variable, whose reduction to 0 indicates that convergence was not achieved.
There is another approach to approximating integrals, one that can be used even when the integrand is not smooth or piecewise smooth, when the integral is taken over a region that is not easily characterized or when its dimension, is high. This versatility comes at a cost: the method is probabalistic and also slowly convergent. It is called the ``Monte Carlo'' method.
The basic idea behind the Monte Carlo method is that the formula for computing the average value of a function over a region
The Monte Carlo method is discussed
in many places on
the web. You can find a very clear description, with considerable
Eric Weisstein has an article in MathWorld,
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MonteCarloIntegration.html that essentially states, for and
As an example, consider the problem of computing the area of the unit ball in . In this case, is simply the characteristic function of the ball
The following code, using x and y to denote and will estimate the area of the ball.
Remark: Computing the area of a figure is a simpler problem than computing the integral of a function, but the essential steps are all here.
CHUNK=10000; % chosen for efficiency NUM_CHUNKS=100; VOLUME=4; % outer square is 2 X 2 totalPoints=0; insidePoints=0; for k=1:NUM_CHUNKS x=(2*rand(CHUNK,1)-1); y=(2*rand(CHUNK,1)-1); phi=( (x.^2+y.^2) <= 1 ); % 1 for "true" and 0 for "false" % just like characteristic function insidePoints=insidePoints+sum(phi); totalPoints=totalPoints+CHUNK; end average=insidePoints/totalPoints; a=VOLUME*average; disp(strcat('approx area=',num2str(a), ... ' with true error=',num2str(pi-a), ... ' and estimated error=', ... num2str(VOLUME*sqrt((average-average^2)/totalPoints))));
Remark: This code uses a programming trick. In Matlab, the value 0 represents ``false'' and the value 1 represents ``true''. As a consequence, the characteristic function of the unit ball can easily be calculated by using a logical expression describing the interior of the ball.
Remark: Note that the points are divided into chunks of 10,000 points each. Then the function evaluation is done using vectors whose lengths are the chunk size. Working with these long vectors, Matlab will do the calculations efficiently. You don't, however, want to do all 1,000,000 points at once, because such large vectors can take a while just for the memory to be allocated. That is why the problem is first divided into chunks and then repeated a number of times.
Back to MATH2070 page. | <urn:uuid:ede1e0de-61b5-4a5c-a541-e1e663a42db3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.math.pitt.edu/~sussmanm/2070/lab_10/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.810399 | 6,644 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Becoming Familiar with the GED Format
As you work throughthis book, you will—naturally—become familiar with the format of specific sections of the exam and the types of questions that will be asked of you. Being familiar with anything gives you a tremendous advantage over approaching something "cold" (that is, not knowing anything about it until the first time you see it).
So, as you work through the various chapters in this book, you should also take time to become familiar with not just what the questions are asking, but other important elements of the questions and the specific sections of the exam:
Understand the GED format. One great thing about the GED is that it is presented in the same fashion for everyone who takes it. This is called standardized format and is designed to ensure that all test-takers have an equal opportunity to perform as well as they can. Still, this format can take some getting used to because it can be seen as somewhat rigid (and intimidating?) when you first approach it. For example, you have only a certain amount of time to take each section of the exam; for many people, knowing that "the clock is ticking" can be a bit unsettling. But, this is a prime reason for preparing for the exam, so that you aren’t thrown by the standardized format. You can time yourself as you take the practice tests in this book (indeed, you should definitely do this, in order to simulate the actual testing environment as closely as possible).
Understand the format of each specific section. Imagine that you didn’t take any time to prepare for the GED, and had no idea what to expect on the day of the test. Granted, this is somewhat of an extreme example, but just for fun, imagine this were the case. Now, keeping this setup in mind, also imagine that, on a list of things you absolutely hate to do, you would rank writing an essay just below having a prolonged root canal. How (unpleasantly) surprised you would probably be, then, to find out that writing an essay is a critical part of the GED. Understanding the ins and outs of each section—and the format in which those questions are asked—is very important, not only to increasing your score but to making you feel more comfortable heading into that specific section, as well as the entire exam.
Understand the test directions! Sometimes understanding what is asked of you is just as difficult as sitting down to complete the given task. The GED is no different. By working through this book, you will become intimately familiar with the rules of each section of the exam. This will become especially important on, for example, the mathematics test when you are asked to use a calculator for Part I. What if you weren’t familiar with the use of a scientific calculator, or—worse still—what if you had never used a calculator? You don’t want to waste valuable time and/or be thrown for a loop by having to struggle with understanding directions or the method you need to follow to complete the exam. | <urn:uuid:ebe1fa32-5164-49bf-982a-a60af6f64cb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pearsonitcertification.com/articles/article.aspx?p=417708&seqNum=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968135 | 637 | 2.859375 | 3 |
David Todd, IBM Human Ability & Accessibility Center
Early Web applications were relatively simple to make accessible because, for the most part, accessibility was built into the standard HTML elements that were used to build applications. As the Web evolved, increasingly complex user interfaces began appearing. Many complex interfaces were built with rich Internet widgets which looked like desktop application widgets (e.g., trees, menus, tab list, etc.). However, often screen reader users could not use the new Web widgets because they could not determine the type of widgets they were navigating or how to operate them.
Because of its longstanding commitment to accessibility, IBM recognized that disabled users were being left behind by rich Internet applications and incorporated the Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) specification into its corporate accessibility guidelines in order to bridge the information gap between rich Internet applications and assistive technologies. This page presents how WAI-ARIA techniques and examples are being incorporated into:
Incorporating WAI-ARIA into IBM's accessibility guidelines
IBM maintains an internal Web accessibility checklist that incorporates requirements from Section 508 of the US Rehabilitation Act, the W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 and requirements drawn from the WAI-ARIA specification. The checklist contains checkpoints along with supporting examples and test techniques on how to implement code to meet the checkpoint requirements. IBM product teams must complete a Web accessibility checklist and store it in the IBM Accessibility Compliance Database prior to releasing a product. Completed checklists are used to generate Voluntary Product Accessibility Templates (VPATs) which are an industry standard for indicating how accessible a product is to people with disabilities.
WAI-ARIA requirements for IBM Web applications
The following sections describe the WAI-ARIA requirements for IBM rich Internet applications. The requirements are documented in the IBM Web checklist, a version of which is available on the IBM Accessibility Web site.
Notify users when input is required
One of the traditional techniques for indicating input data is required before a form can be submitted is to add an asterisk next to fields that require data. However, a screen reader user may fail to find an asterisk next to a required field, especially if form fields are formatted using a layout table, and the asterisk is placed in one table cell and the field label is placed in another cell. Therefore, in addition to an asterisk, IBM requires an
aria-required attribute on the field. The
aria-required attribute causes a screen reader to notify blind users that a field requires input when the field receives focus.
Notify users when input is incorrect
Prior to WAI-ARIA, there was no consistent way for a screen reader user to identify a field containing invalid data. For example, it is common practice for developers to use a combination of an asterisk and error message to identify a field containing invalid data. However, when a form contains many fields, a screen reader user must explore all of the fields in order to find the offending data. During the exploration process, they may forget what the error message said. Therefore, they must reread the error message and start the exploration process again.
To make it easier for screen reader users to identify fields containing invalid data, IBM requires an
aria-invalid attribute on form fields when user input falls outside the expected range of values. The
aria-invalid attribute causes a screen reader to notify blind users that they have entered invalid data into an input field and makes the field easier to find in order to correct the problem.
Make Web applications easier to navigate
The IBM Web checklist requires developers to add WAI-ARIA landmark attributes to Web applications in order to make applications easier to navigate for screen reader users. WAI-ARIA landmarks mark important information on a page and enable a screen reader user to jump directly to the information. For example, landmarks provide easy navigation to a page’s main content, search area and navigation area.
Communicate name, role and value information
tree role on the tree container element. Tree nodes must have a
treeitem role. The
treeitem roles cause a screen reader to notify blind users that they are interacting with a tree widget and navigating tree nodes. Additional WAI-ARIA attributes are required to indicate which tree node is selected and whether nodes are open or closed.
Navigating rich Internet widgets
Rather than tabbing through a tree, tab list or menu, arrow key navigation is the preferred method of navigation. The IBM Web checklist requires developers to implement arrow key navigation through a combination of the
Incorporating WAI-ARIA into IBM's product accessibility reviews
The IBM Accessibility Architecture Review Board (AARB) helps developers incorporate the WAI-ARIA specification into products by conducting user interface (UI) reviews to determine where WAI-ARIA would make a UI more accessible. Product teams schedule walkthroughs with the AARB to demonstrate their UIs, and AARB members give feedback about where WAI-ARIA can be incorporated to make the UIs more accessible. For example, AARB members often see
menu widgets without the necessary semantic information to convey
value information to assistive technologies. Therefore, AARB members will recommend applying the proper WAI-ARIA attributes and recommend implementing the WAI-ARIA keyboard navigation model (i.e., arrow key navigation).
Automated accessibility testing with IBM Rational Policy Tester
IBM Rational Policy Tester (RPT) helps to ensure that a Web site is accessible by running close to two hundred accessibility checks and reporting on the results of the tests. Developers and testers can iteratively run RPT on a Web site while correcting problems. For example, developers or testers can run RPT, correct reported problems, and then run RPT again to ensure all errors have been corrected.
- WAI-ARIA Overview Copyright © 1994-2008 W3C® (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved.
- Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) 1.0 Copyright © 1994-2008 W3C® (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved.
- WAI-ARIA 1.0 Authoring Practices Copyright © 1994-2008 W3C® (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:83cfdca1-6481-4b53-9033-77a49ab7c7e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www-03.ibm.com/able/news/WAI_ARIAatIBM.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.870288 | 1,302 | 2.625 | 3 |
By Rabbi Julian Sinclair, September 2, 2009
Supermarkets in Israel now stock salt with added yod. No, they haven’t figured out a way to infuse a favourite condiment with the tenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet — yod refers to iodine.
How yod came to signify both a letter and a chemical is quite straightforward. Iodine derives from the Greek iota, the smallest letter in the Greek alphabet. Iota, in turn, comes from the Hebrew letter yod.
Whereas iota and its English cognate “jot” suggest a very little part or amount, Hebrew uses the saying “kutzo shel yod”, the little peak on the upper left corner of the letter. | <urn:uuid:8c494daf-be89-47e8-ab74-a9c433eb47c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thejc.com/judaism/jewish-words?page=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900168 | 154 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Use the product rule on h(x)
The twice-differentiable function f is defined for all real numbers and satisies the following conditions:
f(0) = 2
f'(0) = -4
f''(0) = 3
The function h is given by h(x) = cos(kx)f(x) for all real numbers. where k is a constant. Find h'(x). | <urn:uuid:ddfc6200-8a9a-450b-927a-e198b7c511e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/calculus/21315-differentiable-functions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.809774 | 93 | 2.59375 | 3 |
08 Sep 2008: Report
Alaska’s Pebble Mine:
Fish Versus Gold
With the support of Gov. Sarah Palin, mining interests have defeated an Alaska ballot measure that could have blocked a huge proposed mining project. Now, plans are moving forward to exploit the massive gold and copper deposit at Bristol Bay, home of one of the world’s greatest salmon runs.
For thousands of years, Alaska’s Bristol Bay region has been home to one of the Earth’s most remarkable wildlife spectacles: Each summer, tens of millions of bright, silvery salmon return from ocean waters and pour into the bay, before separating into runs bound for several major river systems.
While salmon throughout much of North America have been wiped out or become endangered, Bristol Bay’s fecund waters continue to produce the planet’s richest wild salmon fishery. Nurtured by clean, nutrient-rich lands and waters, legions of fish are harvested – 32 million salmon in the bay last year alone – by commercial, subsistence, and sport fishers alike, producing annual revenues of more than $110 million.
© Bill Sherwonit
Beneath this Alaska basin lies an immense mineral deposit; beyond it, the world’s richest salmon fishery.
In recent years, however, another potential source of immense wealth has emerged around Bristol Bay. At the headwaters of two drainages that flow into the bay, beneath lands owned by the state of Alaska, a company named Northern Dynasty Minerals has discovered a gargantuan mineral deposit. The granitic rocks hidden beneath an otherwise ordinary upland basin and rounded foothills contain riches beyond anything ever discovered in North America – and possibly the world.
The find is known as Pebble Mine, and, with its full extent yet to be determined, officials estimate that it contains 67 billion pounds of extractable copper, 82 million ounces of gold, and 4 billion pounds of molybdenum. At current prices, the mine’s metals are worth $345 billion to $500 billion. That makes the Pebble Mine the second-largest deposit of its kind ever found, only slightly behind Indonesia's Grasberg Mine. Some suspect Pebble will become No. 1 once its full extent has been learned.
Now, with the defeat last month of an Alaska ballot measure that would have prohibited new mines from discharging pollutants that would harm humans or salmon, Northern Dynasty and its partners are continuing with efforts to assess the size of these deposits. They have been greatly helped by Gov. Sarah Palin — the Republican candidate for vice president — who, despite a constitutional ban on state officials becoming involved in ballot initiatives, publicly expressed her “personal” opposition to the measure. Many say the popular governor’s stance was decisive. Before her comments, polls suggested that citizens supported the referendum. Afterward — and following the use of her picture in advertisements opposing the tough mining initiative — the measure was voted down on Aug. 26, with 57 percent against and 43 percent in favor.
© Bill Sherwonit
A drilling crew takes core samples in the West Pebble area of the proposed open-pit mine.
Despite the setback of the ballot measure, which mining interests fought with an advertising and lobbying campaign costing nearly $8 million, large numbers of Alaskans are still raising questions: Can a vast industrial project – which might include a two-mile-wide open pit mine and a dam, hundreds of feet high and up to four miles long, to hold tailings and acid wastes – be constructed in a wild, seismically active zone without leading to an environmental catastrophe? And, ultimately, will the mining of this vast mineral wealth irreparably harm the natural wealth that defines Bristol Bay – its salmon?
Never has a large-scale industrial proposal ignited such widespread opposition in Alaska, which traditionally has enthusiastically welcomed development and mining ventures. But with such huge potential profits at stake, Northern Dynasty and its partners clearly are not going to back down, especially now that the ballot proposition, known as Measure 4, has been laid to rest.
In a pro-development state where the economy is largely sustained by resource extraction, you might have expected residents to embrace such a golden prospect. Initially they did, particularly in Bristol Bay, where the economic mainstay of commercial fishing crashed in the late 1990s and early 2000s because of below-average returns of wild salmon and the global boom in raising farmed Atlantic salmon. Locals figured a new world-class mine could be an economic windfall.
But as Bristol Bay residents began to learn more about Pebble and open-pit mining, attitudes shifted. Many became staunch opponents, fearing both the loss of traditional lifestyles and the potential for poisoned waters and fish.
© Bill Sherwonit
Cook Inlet might get a new deepwater port, to ship ore from the Pebble mine.
The mine lies in an area of sweeping lowlands, gently rounded hills, and wetlands crossed by zigzagging creeks and dotted with innumerable, unnamed ponds and lakes. In summer, the mixed tundra-forest countryside is a deep, vibrant green, the waters darkly blue. This landscape, and the proposed Pebble project, are located at the core of Bristol Bay’s salmon and trout fisheries – the headwaters of the Koktuli River and Upper Talarik Creek, small clearwater streams that feed two major river drainages, the Nushagak and Kvichak Rivers.
“That’s the heart of our subsistence,” says Molly Chythlook, a Yup’ik Eskimo raised in the small village of Aleknagik and now a resident of the Dillingham, the region’s commercial hub. “I don’t know what could be worse than to have a mine in that place.”
Though five species of salmon are born and die in the Bristol Bay drainage, sockeye, in particular, pour into local rivers and creeks in fantastic numbers, turning streams crimson as they push their bodies – transformed from saltwater silver to bright red – toward ancestral spawning grounds. In 2008, the sockeye run alone is estimated at 40 million fish. Such abundance is helping the wild salmon fishery to rebound as consumers grow wary of farmed salmon.
“Salmon are the No. 1 source of life here,” explains Bobby Andrew, a Yup’ik elder and lifelong Bristol Bay resident. “They’re the most important source of food. But they also have great cultural and spiritual value to my people.”
In addition to salmon, Bristol Bay’s river-and-lake systems teem with trophy-class rainbow trout. These attract anglers from around the world and support a flourishing industry of sport-fishing guides, backcountry lodges, outfitters, and air charter operators.
After preliminary discoveries in the area by another company, Northern Dynasty acquired the mineral rights in 2001. Between 2002 and 2005, exploratory drilling revealed the presence of a huge porphyry sulfide deposit, now known as West Pebble. The three principal metals – copper, gold, and molybdenum – are disseminated as tiny grains through the more than 4.5 billion tons of rock, and the cheapest, most efficient way to extract them is by open-pit mining.
The initial Pebble Mine find touched off Alaska’s greatest gold-rush frenzy since statehood, and by 2005 companies had staked thousands of claims across hundreds of square miles. Then, in 2007, the company announced the discovery of a second, much richer, section of the ore body, known as East Pebble, which could be mined underground.
Pebble’s riches have lured two of the world’s hard-rock mining giants, both based in London: Rio Tinto and Anglo American. Together with Northern Dynasty, they have formed the joint venture now called the Pebble Partnership.
Critics are troubled by many things, not least of which is the size and nature of Pebble’s footprint. Besides the possibility of open-pit and underground operations, the mine would include a mill, an immense tailings pond, and a huge dam, built to hold several billion tons of waste. In all, Pebble would consume some 15 square miles of tundra, marshes, creeks, and lakes. Beyond the mine, a 100-mile road and pipeline would likely be constructed to get the ore to a port on Cook Inlet.
Northern Dynasty promises to develop the prospect without threatening Bristol Bay’s fisheries, but opponents remain skeptical. Because Pebble is in a seismically active area, many fear the dam could collapse in an earthquake, allowing toxins to spill downstream. But even if no catastrophes occur, they argue, a mine could contaminate groundwater that feeds Bristol Bay’s streams.
Above all, opponents argue that Alaskans shouldn’t gamble the health of Bristol Bay’s world-class fisheries for the sake of a mining operation that will benefit few locals or the state. Because of the tax system for hard-rock mining, state and local governments would receive limited revenues, with nearly all profits going to companies outside of Alaska.
Sean Magee, the Pebble Partnership’s director of public affairs, agrees that “there are plenty of examples of bad mining practices, especially in the American West.” But most occurred decades ago, when environmental standards weren’t as high, he says. “There are plenty of great examples of hard-rock mining that have safely co-existed with fisheries,” he says, “including three in Alaska.” He cites Northwest Alaska’s Red Dog Mine, the Interior region’s Fort Knox gold mine, and Southeast Alaska’s Greens Creek Mine – all excavated in the 1980s and 1990s – as operations that “actually improved water quality and fish populations downstream.”
Lauren Oakes, conservation programs officer with Trout Unlimited Alaska, replies that all three of those mines have “have had their problems.” Red Dog alone, she says, has had more than 100 EPA violations and been sued for contaminating local food resources. “I just don’t see the models of success that Mr. Magee is referencing,” says Oakes. “I see demonstrated pollution problems in Alaska and the Lower 48.”
While the toxic legacy of hard-rock mining troubles opponents, so does government’s failure to adequately police and prevent pollution.
Federal and state permitting processes have too often failed to protect the environment, argues Brian Kraft, a Bristol Bay lodge owner and Southwest Alaska project director with Trout Unlimited. He points to a 2006 study showing that regulators have consistently proved unable to predict – and therefore prevent – the pollution of surface water and groundwater by hard-rock mines.
“The problem,” says Kraft, “is that the state’s permitting system is vague and not very stringent. The existing statutes give the DNR [Alaska Department of Natural Resources] commissioner very wide latitude in deciding what’s permissible.”
The list of the mine’s opponents is long. It includes nearly a dozen Bristol Bay village or tribal councils, Alaska-based fishing groups, a seafood-processing association, the Alaska Wilderness Recreation & Tourism Association, the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corp., and a locally based land trust. Even U.S. Sen. Ted Stevens, long a supporter of development interests in the state, has said he is “very disturbed” by the project.
Pebble’s advocates include several of the state’s politically influential resource-development groups, as well as the Lake and Peninsula Borough (which encompasses much of the Bristol Bay region) and some Native corporations. Unlike many village and tribal groups, Alaska’s Native corporations are largely pro-development and are supporting Pebble Mine because they view it as an economic windfall.
Pebble Mine opponents hoped to cripple the project with Measure 4, which would have strictly limited the pollutants that metal mines could discharge into streams and drinking water. But the mining interests’ massive advertising campaign successfully painted Measure 4 as an extreme initiative that threatened the state’s mining industry and its 5,500 jobs. In addition to speaking out against the measure and allowing her image to be used in mining industry advertisements, Gov. Palin also allowed her Department of Natural Resources to promote a “no” vote on its Web site. The Alaska Public Offices Commission later ordered the department to take down its statement of support. Palin’s critics said her involvement in the ballot measure was a misuse of her power and violated the spirit of the constitutional ban prohibiting state officials from getting involved in citizen initiatives.
Northern Dynasty is expected to unveil its mining plan next year. Measure 4 proponents have vowed to continue their effort to block the Pebble project, which still needs various state regulatory approvals.
The battle may soon be waged in the courts. Ultimately, for Alaskans, the issue will boil down to this: Do the benefits of tapping into one of the planet’s richest mineral lodes outweigh the risks to one of the world’s last, great fisheries?
POSTED ON 08 Sep 2008 IN
Biodiversity Oceans Policy & Politics Water North America | <urn:uuid:cbd33a4d-b73f-45b2-9079-d04fd7761d21> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://e360.yale.edu/feature/alaskas_pebble_mine_fish_versus_gold/2062/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946378 | 2,745 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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|Copyright © 2010 American Chemical Society|
With the use of the new super material graphene, Swedish and American researchers have succeeded in producing a new type of lighting component. It is inexpensive to produce and can be fully recycled.
The invention, which paves the way for glowing wallpaper made entirely of plastic, for example, is published in the scientific journal ACS Nano by scientists at Linköping University and Umeå University, in Sweden, and Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
Ultra-thin and electricity-saving organic light diodes, so-called OLEDs, have recently been introduced commercially in mobile phones, cameras, and super-thin TVs. An OLED consists of a light-generating layer of plastic placed between two electrodes, one of which must be transparent.
Today's OLEDs have two drawbacks - they are relatively expensive to produce, and the transparent electrode consists of the metal alloy indium tin oxide. The latter presents a problem because indium is both rare and expensive and moreover is complicated to recycle. Now researchers at Linköping and Umeå universities, working with American colleagues, are presenting an alternative to OLEDs, an organic light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC). It is inexpensive to produce, and the transparent electrode is made of the carbon material graphene.
"This is a major step forward in the development of organic lighting components, from both a technological and an environmental perspective. Organic electronics components promise to become extremely common in exciting new applications in the future, but this can create major recycling problems. By using graphene instead of conventional metal electrodes, components of the future will be much easier to recycle and thereby environmentally attractive," says one of the scientists, Nathaniel Robinson from Linköping University.
Since all the LEC's parts can be produced from liquid solutions, it will also be possible to make LECs in a roll-to-roll process on, for example, a printing press in a highly cost-effective way.
"This paves the way for inexpensive production of entirely plastic-based lighting and display components in the form of large flexible sheets. This kind of illumination or display can be rolled up or can be applied as wallpaper or on ceilings," says another of the scientists, Ludvig Edman from Umeå University.
Graphene consists of a single layer of carbon atoms and has many attractive properties as an electronic material. It has high conductivity, is virtually transparent, and can moreover be produced as a solution in the form of graphene oxide.
Researchers all over the world have been trying to replace indium tin oxide for more than 15 years. Indium is in short supply, and the alloy has a complicated life cycle. The raw material for the fully organic and metal-free LEC, on the other hand, is inexhaustible and can be fully recycled - as fuel, for example.
The study is published in the journal ACS Nano and is titled "Graphene and mobile ions: the key to all-plastic, solution-processed light-emitting devices." The authors are Piotr Matyba, Hisato Yamaguchi, Goki Eda, Manish Chhowalla, Ludvig Edman, and Nathaniel D. Robinson.
About Umeå University
Umeå University was founded in 1965 and is Sweden's fifth oldest university. Today, we have a strong international and multicultural presence with students, teachers and researchers from all over the world. Our main campus - with its 29,000 students and 4,000 employees - is alive with enthusiasm, creativity and fresh ideas.
We constantly strive towards making it one of Scandinavia's best environments for study and research that meets the challenges of an ever-increasing global society.
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News and information
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Yale researchers’ technology turns wasted heat into power June 27th, 2016
The next generation of carbon monoxide nanosensors May 26th, 2016
FEI and University of Liverpool Announce QEMSCAN Research Initiative: University of Liverpool will utilize FEI’s QEMSCAN technology to gain a better insight into oil and gas reserves & potentially change the approach to evaluating them June 22nd, 2016
French Research Team Helps Extend MRI Detection of Diseases & Lower Health-Care Costs: CEA, INSERM and G2ELab Brings Grenoble Region’s Expertise In Advanced Medicine & Magnetism Applications to H2020 IDentIFY Project June 21st, 2016 | <urn:uuid:6b659de3-85b1-42d8-ac20-a14b7683bbff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanotech-now.com/news.cgi?story_id=36629 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912263 | 1,106 | 3.1875 | 3 |
This is a Walking With Dinosaurs program, and like most of that group the animation is excellent, even though the narration tends to present guesswork as fact. Case in point: the red color above the eyes, mentioned as a sign of sexual maturity. To the best of my knowledge (and it was certainly true in 2000, the copyright date) both color and possible significance are pure speculation.
The story follows the life of an Allosaurus, “Big Al,” as reconstructed by forensic analysis of the bones of one of the most complete Allosaurus fossil skeletons ever discovered. I found the second half of the video, which deals with the actual forensic analysis, even more interesting than the fictionalized video of Al himself.
Al was certainly a “live fast and die young” dinosaur. His bones are remarkable not only for being found relatively complete, but for the number of healed injuries they show. How did he get those injuries? The main program gives possible reasons, though of course things may not have happened exactly as shown. But we know he survived broken bones that had time to heal completely and a toe infection that must have lasted for months before his death.
I would like to make two points about dinosaur DVDs in general. First, our knowledge of dinosaurs is changing so fast that is essential to know the dates at which the videos were made! Dates on the cover of DVDs made up from programs originally broadcast on television can vary widely from dates of the original broadcasts. This one’s from 2000; I’ll go back as I find the actual copyright dates on the individual programs and add them to earlier reviews.
Second, for some reason animators feel compelled to have their dinosaurs roaring (or making other sounds) at every opportunity. Now animals do make sounds, and we certainly expect dinosaurs did. But predators, in particular, make sounds at particular times for particular reasons. They may communicate with sounds. They may warn off rivals, or try to intimidate them. They may call to attract mates. They may make sounds to deliberately panic prey. They try very hard not to make a sound when they are trying to stalk prey! Certainly they do not hiss, growl, or roar while setting up an ambush!
All in all, this DVD is worth watching if you want to watch dinosaurs in action, or see what the state of dinosaur science was in the 20th century. Just keep in mind when it was made. | <urn:uuid:bc872afe-f422-4766-ac57-0e97a56c13ed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://homecomingbook.wordpress.com/2012/04/10/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972369 | 497 | 2.578125 | 3 |
We know healthy eating can be challenging. But by making little adjustments here and there, it doesn't have to be as big of a deal. For instance, put nonfat milk in your coffee instead of cream, opt for no mayo or light mayo on your sandwich and cook your veggies in olive oil instead of canola oil. These small things really add up. In addition to making little changes, we recommend putting these 10 foods on your list of items to never eat again. Yes, they're that bad!
Margarine is loaded with trans fats. According to WebMD, trans fats raise our bad cholesterol, lower our good cholesterol and increase our risk of heart disease. Though some margarine sticks contain "zero trans fats," it's always best to use olive oils or butter instead.
We all know regular soda is loaded with sugar, but what about diet? Prevention states that it's bad for your kidneys, it increases belly fat, it puts you at risk for heart disease and it can cause damage to your cells. Try drinking green tea if you need caffeine or straight-up water with a slice or two of lemon.
Lunch meats—including bacon, hot dogs and ham—contain nitrates which help give the meat that pinkish color. Nitrates are linked to diabetes, heart disease and even cancer. Purchase organic meats to avoid this harmful substance.
You either love it or you hate it—but for those that love it, it's time to switch to popping your own kernels instead of relying on a bag of microwave popcorn. The danger is in the bag, not the popcorn. The bags contain a coating that can cause cancer and respiratory disease, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
Spaghetti makes for a quick and easy dinner—and while you don't have to give it up for good—switch to a sauce with little to no sugar. Next time you're at the store, compare labels. You'll be surprised to find that "sugar" is listed as the first ingredient on many popular brands. Look for brands that list sugar toward the end or not at all, or of course you can opt to make your own sauce.
We know chips and salsa is a favorite amongst Mexican-restaurant diners, but you'll most likely consume almost a days' worth of calories in the unlimited basket alone. It's very hard to control the amount your eating when your chit-chatting and sipping on a margarita, so skip this unhealthy, sodium-filled snack altogether.
They're loaded with sodium—which causes bloating, high blood pressure and even heart disease. Both soy sauces and salad dressings have a "low-sodium" option, so choose that instead of the regular stuff.
Bagels have a high carb count and a high glycemic index. Though this may give you energy right away, you'll most likely crash later on. Donuts are basically sugary bagels, so avoid those as well. Instead, opt for a slice of whole wheat toast with a side of fresh fruit.
Adults seem to love spray cheese just as much as kids, but it has virtually no nutritional value and is extremely high in calories. Eat regular cheese instead and spare yourself the stomach ache later.
Always choose baked or grilled chicken instead of fried. Fried foods are greasy, fattening, high in calories and will clog your arteries. Why ruin a food as healthy as chicken by deep-frying it?
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SheKnows is making some changes! | <urn:uuid:b5989b51-d218-4337-9bbf-d9bbe687bdab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sheknows.com/food-and-recipes/articles/994511/10-foods-you-should-give-up-now | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94296 | 738 | 2.703125 | 3 |
“The sun is a mass of incandescent gas
A gigantic nuclear furnace
Where hydrogen is built into helium
At a temperature of millions of degrees” –They Might Be Giants
It’s so ingrained in us that the Sun is a nuclear furnace powered by hydrogen atoms fusing into heavier elements that it’s difficult to remember that, just 100 years ago, we didn’t even know what the Sun was made out of!
The conventional wisdom at the time, believe it or not, was that the Sun was made out of pretty much the same elements that the Earth is! Although that might seem a bit absurd to you, consider the following piece of evidence.
Every element in the periodic table — which was well-understood back then — has a characteristic spectrum to it. When those atoms are heated up, the transitions back down to lower-energy states cause emission lines, and when a background, multi-spectral light is shone on them, they absorb energy at those very same wavelengths. So if we observed the Sun at all these individual wavelengths, we could figure out what elements were present in its outermost layers by its absorption features.
That technique is known as spectroscopy, where the light from an object is broken up into its individual wavelengths for further study. When we do this to the Sun, here’s what we find.
Basically, there are the same elements that we find on Earth. But what is it, exactly, that causes those lines to appear with the relative strengths that they appear. For example, you may notice that some of these absorption lines are very narrow, while some of them are very, very deep and strong. Take a closer look at the strongest absorption line in the visible spectrum, which occurs at a wavelength of 6563 Ångströms.
What determines the strength of these lines, as well as the relative weakness of the lines surrounding it? It turns out that there are two factors, one of which is obvious: the more of an element you have, the stronger the absorption line is going to be. That particular wavelength — 6563 Å — corresponds to a well-known Hydrogen line.
But there is a second factor that must be understood in order to get the strength of these lines right: the level of ionization of the atoms present.
Different atoms lose an electron (or multiple electrons) at different energies. So not only do different elements each have a characteristic spectrum associated with them, they can exist in a number of different ionized states (missing one electron, or two, or three, etc.) that each have their own, unique spectrum!
Because energy is the only thing that determines the ionization state(s) of atoms, this means that different temperatures will result in different relative levels of ionization, and therefore, different relative levels of absorption!
So when we’re looking at stars — like the Sun — we know that they come in a huge variety of different types, as a look through any telescope or binoculars will immediately show you, if it isn’t clear to your naked eye.
These stars, very notably, come in strikingly different colors, which tells us that — at least at their surfaces — they exist at vastly different temperatures from one another! Because hot objects all emit the same type of (blackbody) radiation, when we see stars of different colors, we’re really detecting a temperature difference between them: blue stars are hotter and red stars are cooler.
After all, this is why we classify stars the way we do in modern times, with the hottest, bluest stars (O-type stars) at one end and the coolest, reddest stars (M-type stars) at the other.
But this was not how we always classified stars. There’s a hint in the naming scheme, because if you had always classified stars by temperature, you might expect the order to go something like “ABCDEFG” instead of “OBAFGKM,” right?
Well, there’s a story here. Back before this modern classification scheme, we instead looked at the relative strengths of absorption lines in a star, and classified them by what spectral lines did or did not show up. And the pattern is far from obvious.
Different lines appear and disappear at certain temperatures, as completely ionized atoms have no absorption lines! So when you measure an absorption line in a star, you need to understand what its temperature is (and hence its ionization properties are) in order to rightfully conclude what the relative abundances of the elements are within it.
And if we go back to the Sun’s spectrum, with the knowledge of what the different atoms are, their atomic spectra, and their ionization energies/properties, what do we learn from that?
That, in fact, the elements that are found on the Sun are pretty much the same as the elements found on Earth, with two major exceptions: Helium and Hydrogen were both vastly more abundant than they are on Earth. Helium was many thousands of times richer on the Sun than it is here on Earth, and Hydrogen was about one million times more abundant on the Sun, making it the most common element there by far.
Know who the scientist was who put this all together? I’ll give you a hint: it was a 25-year-old woman who was never fully given the credit she deserved.
Meet Cecilia Payne (later Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin), who did this work for her Ph.D. thesis way back in 1925! (Astronomer Otto Struve called it “undoubtedly the most brilliant Ph.D. thesis ever written in astronomy.”) Just the second woman to earn her Ph.D. in astronomy through Harvard College Observatory (where she had to move to earn one; her original alma mater, Cambridge, didn’t award Ph.D.s to women until 1948), she wound up having a remarkable astronomy career, becoming the first female chair of a department at Harvard and an inspiration to generations of astronomers, both male and female.
Historically, Henry Norris Russell (of Hertzsprung-Russell fame) was often given the credit for the discovery that the Sun is primarily composed of hydrogen, as he dissuaded Payne from publishing her conclusion and stated it himself four years later. Let that be the case no longer! This was Cecilia Payne’s brilliant discovery and she deserves full credit for making it. The strength of the absorption lines combined with the temperature of the stars and the known ionization properties of atoms leave you with the inescapable conclusion: the Sun is a mass of primarily Hydrogen! Thanks to Cecilia Payne, now you know how we know that. | <urn:uuid:a490d961-c1a8-4682-99b8-bf8ac9a306f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2012/10/24/what-is-the-sun-made-out-of/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957844 | 1,401 | 3.375 | 3 |
1. Midline ridge: male goldfish have a ridge running through the back of pelvic fins to their vent opening on the underside. The ridge is either completely missing or smaller in females. 2. Firmness of abdomen: The area between pelvic and anal fins is pliable for females but very firm for males. 3. Shape of the vent: Though difficult to figure out, the female vent is rounder and convex, whereas the male vent is thinner and concave. 4. Shape of the pectoral fins: Male pectoral fins are pointed with stiffer leading ray and female pectorals are rounded, shorter with finer front fin ray. 5. Features: females are brighter colored and are more active. This could be a difficult way of pointing out a female but you could try! 6. Check out: One theory says that you can introduce a known female into the tank and watch for the reaction of fish. Males will check out the new fish but the females will show no interest!
The only way you can learn to spot male and female goldfish is by closely observing known males and females and noticing their various traits. A pet shop could be a nice place to learn this. | <urn:uuid:e88ee10a-15a0-4dd8-94e7-689f19b6a365> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://answers.wikia.com/wiki/How_can_you_tell_if_your_goldfish_is_a_boy_or_girl | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964652 | 243 | 2.578125 | 3 |
4. Characteristics of the Shelf Sedimentary CoverOverview
The west Florida continental shelf consists of a thin veneer of unconsolidated sediments overlying a phosphatic, dolomitic limestone supporting a karstic surface. On the inner shelf off west-central Florida, these unconsolidated surface sediments are generally < 3 m thick, exhibit a patchy distribution, and consist of a mixture of siliciclastics and carbonates. The underlying limestone surface regularly crops out to form ledges and hard bottoms.
The inner continental shelf can be zoned into three main areas, or provinces: (1) a "shallow bedrock" sand-ridge system north of Tampa Bay, (2) a middle zone dominated by the Tampa Bay ebb-tidal delta , and (3) a southern "deep bedrock" sand-ridge system south of Tampa Bay.
The Tampa Bay ebb-tidal delta is the primary modern source of sediment to the inner continental shelf. Continuous sediment cover attributed to this supply extends approximately 10 km offshore and, combined with some smaller inlets linked to Tampa Bay, has resulted in late-Holocene sediment accumulation of 5 m or greater in a nearshore zone 20-25 km alongshore centered on the mouth of Tampa Bay. Other small ebb-tidal deltas a few km's in dimensions are maintained at the mouths of inlets throughout this coastal system, but are not significant modern contributors of sediment to the continental shelf. Should an inlet close, the ebb tidal-delta deposits are soon dispersed and accreted to the barrier island shoreface by waves and alongshore currents.
Sand-ridge morphologies predominate on the continental shelf north and south of the Tampa Bay ebb-tidal delta and beginning just seaward of the barrier islands shoreface. The northern and southern sand-ridge systems (provinces 1 and 3 mentioned above) display distinctive differences in orientations and sedimentary facies associations. These differences are also correlated with different bedrock elevation as well as a change in orientation of the coastline.
The northern sand ridge system (province 1) exhibits a consistent NW-SE ridge system trending at oblique angles to the shoreline that vary from 30-65 degrees. The ridge trends are most variable as they sweep around the Indian Rocks Beach headland. Seaward of 10 m water depth the ridge trends are more consistently oriented at approximately 50 degree from the shoreline, the oblique angle opening to the north. Sand ridge widths are on the order of 1 km, with a 2 to 2.5 km ridge spacing.
The southern sand ridge systems (province 3) are also orientated at oblique angles with the coastline but display mixed NW-SE and NE-SW trends. NE-SW trends at 45-55 degrees relative to the coastline are found south of Tampa Bay in the nearshore (out to ~10 m water depth). This switches to NW-SE trends at lower angles of 24 degrees south of the Venice headland. From 10 Ð15 m water depth NW-SE and NE-SW trends with 30-50 degrees are mixed. In greater than 15 m depth NE-SW trends of 50-60 degrees appear most common.
Two important contrasts between the northern and southern sand ridge systems are: (1) sediment textural trends in relation to ridge topography, and (2) smaller-scale sand wave morphologic variability. In the northern area, low side-scan backscatter associates with the full bathymetric expression of the sand ridges and sand waves, indicating more uniform textural patterns for these sand bodies at the level of 100 kHz acoustic imaging. The ridges in the north also are commonly mantled with smaller sand waves or form as a sand ridge through the coalescence of several large sand waves (Harrison et al., 2000). In contrast, the southern sand ridges may exhibit significant textural changes across a ridge (Twichell et al., 2000). Smaller scale sand waves are not a significant feature within these sand bodies.
The combination of approximately 300 vibracores, 500 surface sediment samples, and numerous hardbottom and ledge samples were used to define nine lithofacies. Lithofacies include Miocene carbonate platform, Pleistocene restricted marine, and Holocene back barrier/estuarine to shallow open-marine sediments deposited during the most recent sea-level rise. Facies associations and 14C dates indicate that in the northern portion of the study area, barrier islands may have developed at least 8 ka and up to 20 km from the present shoreline. In the southern portion of the study area, barrier island facies associations are not found offshore. This differential development was likely due to differences in the availability of sand, coupled with a slowing in the rate of sea-level rise overprinted on different shelf elevations from north to south. The southern shelf elevations are up to 5 m deeper at equivalent distances offshore and would have flooded earlier. The present coastal barrier-island system formed over a wide range of time scales from decades to millennia. The oldest of the barriers have been dated at 3,000 years (Stapor et al., 1988) and others have formed during the past two decades.
Surface sediments on the inner shelf consist of fine quartz sand, and coarse sand and gravel size marine biogenic carbonates. Black, phosphatic-rich sediments are locally abundant, but are always subordinate to the quartz- and carbonate-rich sediment types. The distribution is patchy and the transition between sediment types is generally abrupt. Sediment is probably reworked by waves and tides, characteristic of siliciclastic shelf systems, but the patchy distribution and generally abrupt transition between sediment types, indicates that these processes do not completely redistribute the sediment. Instead, the sediment distribution is more a reflection of the source of input, which is more characteristic of carbonate shelf systems.
There are multiple sources of sediment input, but all come from within, or immediately adjacent to, the basin. Quartz sand is most likely a product of reworking of coastal deposits from earlier sea-level highstands as previously mentioned. The carbonate component is produced and deposited in situ by marine carbonate production. The black, phosphatic-rich sand is likely from the bioerosion and reworking of the numerous limestone outcrops as well as from non-lithified units of the Hawthorn Group.
The source for sand to initiate early Holocene barrier development in the north, may have been ancient coastal deposits that were stranded on the platform surface during a previous sea-level highstand. Quartz sand terraces, representing ancient coastlines, commonly veneer peninsular Florida. The intersection of one of these quartz sand deposits by the coastline approximately 8 ka, may have provided the sediment required for barrier-island development. The lack of evidence for early Holocene barrier-island development in the south may simply reflect the absence of available sand.
Based upon benthic foraminifera associations and test types, it is suggested that the climatic conditions during this early Holocene barrier island development were much more arid than they are today, similar to modern Laguna Madre of the Texas Gulf coast (Brooks et al., in review a, b). This coincides with a world-wide period of much drier and windier conditions. Evidence suggests that these climatic conditions may have been accompanied by a slowing in the rate of sea-level rise, which, coupled with the intersection of the coast at that time with the above mentioned sediment source, may have initiated barrier-island development.
Overall, the shelf off Tampa Bay (province 2) seems to have the thickest sediment cover associated with the enormous ebb-tidal delta. The shelf in the southern part (province 3) of the study area has the broadest areas of exposed bedrock. The inner shelf seaward of the Indian Rocks headland (province 1) seems to be the most active in terms of sediment transport.Detailed Studies: Sand Ridges off Indian Rocks Beach Headland (Province 1)
Morphology and Processes
The west-central Florida sand ridges off the Indian Rocks Beach headland are far more complex morphologically than they appear on standard coastal bathymetric charts (Harrison, 1996). The mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sedimentary cover produces a high acoustic contrast such that the ridges, superimposed bedforms, and significant morphologic details are readily visible in side-scan data, perhaps more so than in areas where such acoustic contrast does not exist (see Harrison et al., 2000). These ridges are covered with a bedform hierarchy consisting of large sand waves whose crests trend parallel to the sand ridges, small sand waves, sediment-starved sand waves, and small ripples all having multiple orientations. These large sand waves become aligned to form single sand ridges, which may extend for many km's. The sand-ridge field extends from within 2 km of the beach to over 25 km offshore, where they become larger, more widely spaced. They seem to lack the bedform hierarchy and are not as complex morphologically. These smaller, complex sand ridges are laterally restricted to an area off a major coastal headland.
The west-central Florida ridges contrast with the US Atlantic margin ridges in that they:
The smaller size of west-central Florida ridges is a function of the sediment-starved, low-energy nature of this inner shelf and controls sand-ridge and sand-wave morphology.
The seafloor is active and not relict as indicated by:
Radiocarbon dating has indicated that these sand ridges can form relatively quickly (within past ~1,300 yrs) on relatively low-energy inner shelves once open marine conditions are available and that high energy, storm-dominated conditions are not necessarily required.
Two lines of evidence suggest that the offshore sand ridges and the shoreface do not exchange sediment to any significant degree. First, the ridge topography does not extend to the shoreface from the inner shelf leaving a 2-3 km gap of flat and relatively featureless topography between the two areas. Secondly, the carbonate content of the offshore sand ridges is higher than that found on the adjacent beaches indicating that two different facies (mixed siliciclastic/carbonate sand facies forming the ridges and the fine quartz sand facies forming the shoreface and beaches) are spatially partitioned and temporally sequestered.
Facies and Stratigraphy
The ridges are composed mostly of a mixed siliciclastic/carbonate sand facies with interlayered, coarser shelly sand facies suggesting migrating bedforms. The shelly sand facies also separates these higher energy facies from the stratigraphically lower, reduced-energy, muddy sand and organic-rich mud facies. Two models of shelf evolution are presented: model #1 indicates that the muddy sand facies is a low energy, open-shelf lagoon backed by open-marine marshes (organic-rich mud facies; Edwards, 1998). The shelly sand facies marks a period of water deepening with sea-level rise and concomitant sand-ridge formation as energy increased with greater water depth. The barrier-island chain formed landward during the deepening phase. Model #2 indicates that a landward transgressing barrier island passed through the area of the modern inner shelf leaving the base of the shelly sand facies as the ravinement surface cut into the muddy sand facies, which formed in the back-barrier lagoon. The organic-rich mud facies in this scenario were a fringing marsh formed along the mainland. Sedimentologic data within the cores do not allow a conclusive choice between these two models. However, it is most likely that both models are valid with the coastal system changing from one to another in time and space.
Detailed Studies: Late Holocene Estuarine-Inner Shelf Interactions; Evidence of Estuarine Retreat Path? Tampa Bay, Florida (Province 2)
An important component in the development of continental shelves during the sea-level rise since the last glacial maximum, particularly along passive margins, has been the landward retreat of fluvial-deltaic-estuarine systems. Although laterally restricted in places the surficial features generated by the landward tracking of such large paleo-drainage systems such as the Hudson, Delaware, Savannah, Altamaha, and Albemarle Rivers and the suite of rivers associated with the Chesapeake Bay estuary are impressive in bathymetric complexity and cross-shelf continuity. Indeed, features such as estuarine retreat shoals/blankets, shelf valleys and levees inherited from earlier estuary mouth environments then mantled by a hierarchy of sand ridges and bedforms may dominate certain shelf sectors such as the Georgia Embayment (South Atlantic Bight of Swift, 1976).
In the Tampa Bay area there was not a large paleo-fluvial system, nor a high-relief valley system that extended across the exposed west Florida shelf during that last sea-level lowstand (Donahue, 1999). Instead, a broad mid-platform depression existed in the proto Tampa Bay area with its western boundary located probably within 40 km west of the present day estuary.
As sea level started to rise since the Last Glacial Maximum the shoreline, starting at the Ð120 m isobath, transgressed rapidly across the shelf but did not track up a shelf-valley system until it reached the western, most-seaward limit of the mid-platform depression. Hence, there is no estuarine retreat path on the west Florida shelf well seaward of Tampa Bay similar to those described on the shelf off the US East Coast.
Instead, the inner shelf seaward of Tampa Bay is dominated by two sand bodies, the present-day modern ebb-tidal delta and a more distal and deeper sand plain, which we interpret to be an older, but a short-lived ebb-tidal delta (Donahue et al., 2000). This sand body may have formed during a sea-level stillstand or slowdown and then was abandoned during an ensuing accelerated sea-level rise. The modern ebb-tidal delta has prograded out onto the inner shelf during the past few thousand years as the rate of sea-level rise decelerated, the modern barrier-island system formed and narrowed the mouth of Tampa Bay. This, in turn, focussed the ebb-jet, which exported sands seaward to form the ebb-tidal delta. The most seaward part of the study area consists of sediment-starved sand waves surrounded by coarse, molluscan shelly material and/or exposed hardbottom. These sandwaves respond to modern shelf hydraulics and do not appear to be influenced by the modern estuarine system.Detailed Studies: The Inner Shelf off Sarasota, Florida: A Complex Facies Boundary in a Low-Energy Environment (Province 3)
The west-central Florida inner continental shelf is the transition between a beach system composed of nearly pure siliciclastic sand and a shelf of nearly pure carbonate sediment. The geometry of the transition between the beach and shelf facies on this low-energy, sediment- starved inner shelf was poorly understood, and for this reason the innermost shelf off Sarasota, Florida was mapped in detail using sidescan-sonar imagery, seismic-reflection profiles, surface sediment samples, and short cores (Twichell et al., 1999, 2000). Seaward of a smooth lower beach face that is covered with siliciclastic sand, the inner shelf is shaped by a series of low-relief, nearly shore-perpendicular ridges that are 3-11 km in length, 1-3 km in width, 1-4 m in height, and are asymmetrical with the steeper side facing northwest. These ridges rest on a flat erosional surface and contain the majority of the Holocene sediment in the area. The ridges are separated by flat-floored troughs where there are exposures of older strata and hardgrounds, which are partially covered by a veneer of shelly gravel. Despite the low relief of these Holocene deposits, the distribution of different surface sediment types is closely tied to this subtle morphology. The steeper northwestern sides of the ridges are covered with a coarse shell hash while the gentler southeastern sides are covered by fine siliciclastic sand. The transition between these facies is abrupt and occurs at the crest of the ridge. This facies distribution suggests that fine siliciclastic sediment is winnowed from the northwestern, updrift, sides of the ridges, presumably by south-flowing, storm-generated currents. A coarse shell lag is left armoring the updrift sides of the ridges. The fine sediment, in turn, is deposited on the gentler, downdrift, sides of the ridges. This pronounced partitioning of the surficial sediment has not been observed on other sand ridges. The difference in sediment distribution appears to be the result of the siliciclastic sand being easily transported by these currents while the carbonate shell hash falls below the threshold of sediment movement. The orientation of the ridges is nearly perpendicular rather than oblique to the strongest currents and may further enhance the sorting of these two facies. The resulting facies boundaries on this low-energy, sediment-starved inner continental shelf are complex and suggest that the remarkably subtle ridge morphology has had a strong control on sediment redistribution by modern processes. | <urn:uuid:67599c34-b159-41a2-8596-7e1c9856a399> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-303/cover.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929865 | 3,663 | 3.390625 | 3 |
"B.J. Learns About Federal and Tribal Court," was designed to provide information to native American child witnesses and guidance material for the adults who supervise its use with children. The specific objectives are:
Before the Program
You can do several things both before and after showing "B.J. Learns About Federal and Tribal Court" that will promote active learning. These include:
Before viewing the video you can:
Ask the child: What is court? Do you know anyone who has ever been to court? Have you ever seen the Tribal court building? Do you know what it means to tell the truth?
Explain to the child that s/he will be watching a video about B.J. who was asked to go to court in order to help by telling what he knew or what he saw happen. B.J. is worried about going to court because he does not know what court is all about or what to do when he gets there. Explain that B.J. and his friends, Joe and Audrey, learn about two different kinds of court, Tribal and Federal court, and the people who work there. Specify what kind of court the child will be going to.
Obtain a copy of such aids as the coloring book Me in Court (see Suggested Readings). Point out the children in the book and ask the child to color a picture of them.
View the video with the child.
Three young native American children, B.J., Joe, and Audrey are playing basketball on their reservation. B.J. is distracted and worried because he has to go to court in a week in order to testify. The children go to Audrey's grandmother for help. Grandmother starts to explain but decides that it would be better to show the children what Tribal and Federal court are like. First, B.J. and his friends find themselves in Tribal court, where the participants define their roles. The judge then takes them to her chambers where they meet Donna, a victim-witness advocate, and Walter, a Federal court judge. Walter takes the children to Federal court where they meet additional court members who answer their questions about what it means to testify and be a witness. B.J. is overwhelmed with all of this new information, but Donna assures him that she will be there to help. The video ends with each child answering a series of questions that are of concern to native American children who go to court.
After the program
After viewing the video you can:
Ask the child: Why did B.J. have to go to court? Did he do anything wrong? What does it mean to testify in court? What does it mean to be a witness?
Ask the child what questions s/he has about court. If the child seems withdrawn and unwilling to answer questions, you can have him/her find the picture of the witness in the coloring book and work with the child to talk about what s/he does. If you cannot obtain a coloring book, make some simple pictures with the child.
Explain again the role of the two courts, Tribal and Federal, and again specify the court to which the child will go. Discuss where you fit in the process.
Have the child take out a coloring book and color various members of the court. If a coloring book is not available, the child can draw these figures on unlined paper. Go over again what the judge, court clerk, jury, prosecutor, and defense attorney do (the judge is like a referee in a basketball game, the court clerk asks you to tell the truth, the prosecutor asks questions first to show the judge what happened, the defense attorney helps the person being blamed to tell his/her story).
Tell the child that children go to court to testify about many things. Ask the child if s/he can give you an example. Do not go into the details of the child's own experience.
Ask the child where s/he can go to for help if s/he has any questions.
Thank the child for helping out by telling what s/he knows or saw happen. | <urn:uuid:363a1cfb-db7c-4bbe-9951-6f9a17f4e913> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.ncjrs.gov/ovc_archives/reports/bjcourtprep/obj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967475 | 838 | 3.875 | 4 |
Cherokee Park Roadless Area in Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest, Colorado. Photo by Eric Swanson.
After years of suffering through a presidential administration that starved federal conservation programs of adequate funding, such programs are finally getting the needed boost they deserve.
In October, Congress gave a significant funding increase to the Interior Department, which is responsible for most U.S. land conservation and management. The $4.6 billion funding increase will go towards a series of important projects and initiatives long pushed for by The Wilderness Society and the rest of the conservation community.
This move was consistent with the views of voters across the country who have approved state and local conservation funding measures. On Election Day this past November, voters in states throughout the nation approved 24 of 39 conservation measures on the ballot. Perhaps the most dramatic was in New Jersey, where voters simultaneously elected a new conservative governor and approved a $400 million bond initiative for parks, open space and historic preservation.
The Wilderness Society is thrilled that after eight years of President Bush’s shoestring Interior budgets, the federal government is stepping up to ensure that our wild places, water supply, and natural scenery are protected for future generations of Americans.
But while things are looking up for conservation programs around the country, this is not the time to rest. The next big priority for The Wilderness Society and the rest of the conservation community is to strengthen something called the Land and Water Conservation Fund. LWCF takes money collected from oil and gas leases — not taxpayers — and uses it to buy and protect land. That fund, though, is only getting one-third the amount of funding it’s supposed to receive each year. To address this, Senators Jeff Bingaman, D-N.M., and Max Baucus, D-Mont., have introduced a bill to fund LWCF at $900 million — the level allowed by the original 1965 legislation.
The Congressional budget increase for conservation programs did include $306 million for the Land and Water Conservation Fund, but this is still only one-third of what should be allotted.
Now is the time for people who want to protect more of our lands to contact their members of the House and Senate and tell them that full funding for the LWCF should be a priority in the current legislative session.
The rest of the $4.6 billion Congressional funding increase for 2010 includes money for wildfire suppression, climate change research, the National Wildlife Refuge System, national parks, and protection of streams and water systems.
Perhaps the most immediately helpful provision in the bill is the FLAME Act, which will help the federal government deal with the challenges caused by skyrocketing wildfire management costs. The act creates a new source of funding for agencies to use for suppression so that they don’t have to take money away from other vital programs and services to put the fires out.
The bill also provides:
- $90 million for the Legacy Road and Trail Remediation Program, a program that protects watersheds and improves recreational opportunities by decommissioning obsolete roads and maintaining trails.
- $75 million for the National Landscape Conservation System, which protects some of the most spectacular scenery managed by the Bureau of Land Management.
- $306 million for the Land and Water Conservation Fund, a program that takes revenues from offshore oil and gas drilling to support the conservation of America's lands and waters.
- $77 million for the Forest Legacy Program, which will preserve working forests by conserving open space, wildlife habitat and clean water while allowing for sustainable timber harvesting.
- $385 million for climate change research and what can be done to help the country respond to climate change.
photo: Cherokee Park Roadless Area in Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest, Colorado. Photo by Eric Swanson. | <urn:uuid:85bc08c5-7b20-4bc6-b587-901912ee9d03> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wilderness.org/blog/not-time-rest-let%E2%80%99s-maximize-new-era-conservation-funding | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92932 | 771 | 2.515625 | 3 |
|A humpback whale. Image: T. Collins/Wildlife Conservation Society|
Balaena mysticetus [Bowhead Whale]
× Eubalaena japonica [North Pacific Right Whale] NHR. A whale photographed in the Bering Strait in 2009 was thought to be this hybrid. Kelly et al. 2010
Balaenoptera acutorostrata [Common Minke Whale]
× Balaenoptera bonaerensis (♀) [Antarctic Minke Whale] NHR. These whales normally have disjunct ranges, but genetic analyses have confirmed that a female Antarctic minke whale that made an unusual migration to Arctic waters did in fact produce a hybrid with a common minke whale. This was the first documented case of such migration between the two hemispheres and of hybridization between these two whales. Glover 2010.
Balaenoptera bonaerensis [Antarctic Minke Whale] See: Balaenoptera acutorostrata.
Balaenoptera musculus [Blue Whale]
× Balaenoptera physalus (↔) [Fin Whale] ONHR. These whales occur in mixed schools. CON: All oceans (hybrids have been reported from both the northern Atlantic and northern Pacific). HPF(♀♀). In the latter half of the twentieth century only five hybrids, three female and two male, have been reported. Three were caught off Iceland during the 1980s and their hybridity was confirmed by molecular analysis. One was pregnant (after backcrossing with a blue whale). Spilliaert et al. (p. 188) thought the presence of a corpus albicans in this individual indicated a prior pregnancy. Another hybrid was killed off the coast of Spain in 1984. Doroshenko reported a hybrid captured in 1965 off Kodiak Island (Gulf of Alaska). However, such hybrids have long been known and were far more common formerly, when blue and fin whales were themselves more abundant. In Norwegian waters alone, Cocks (1887) lists (pp. 217-218) ten such hybrids captured in the single year of 1886, and says (p. 216) that they were well-known to the whalers: "Nearly universally recognised among the Finwhalers is the so called "Bastard," from its having been supposed to be the offspring of mixed parentage—of a Blue and Common Rorqual. This variety appears to attain to larger dimensions than the typical form, and is described as grey, rather than the usual white, on the under side; on one side the baleen plates are for a short distance at the anterior end entirely white, while the remaining portions are darker than the normal colour." He further says that the hybrids are larger on average than either the fin or blue whale (which would make these hybrids the largest animals on earth). One reached "the remarkable length of 80 1/2 Eng. ft. This Whale was shot by the ‘Murmanetz’ on April 9th, the harpoon going well in just behind a flipper, that is, somewhere very close to the heart, and the shell exploded. The wound, instead of proving almost immediately fatal, seemed to madden the victim, and it rushed away at great speed and towed the steamer, with the propeller working full speed astern, for four hours when the 'Welda' being sighted, she was signalled to assist, and this vessel, steaming up at an angle, succeeded in lodging a harpoon just behind the flipper on the opposite side to the first; this shell also exploded properly. The Whale in this mortally wounded condition actually towed the two steamers steaming full speed astern, with a boat from each constantly lancing it, for two hours before it succumbed" (Cocks 1887, p. 217). Two of the female hybrids listed by Cocks (see pp. 217 and 218) were pregnant. Árnason 1995; Árnason and Gullberg 1993; Árnason et al. 1991; Spilliaert et al. 1991; Bérubé and Aguilar 1998†; Doroshenko 1970.
× Megaptera novaeangliae (♂) [Humpback Whale] NHR. CON: Oceans worldwide. Folkens et al. (2002, pp. 236-237) say that "unlikely as it would seem given the considerable differences in size and morphology between the two species, there is one well-documented report of a Humpback-Blue Whale hybrid from the South Pacific." Blue whales (~30 m) are nearly twice as long as humpbacks (~17 m), and far heavier (maximum weight 180,000 kg vs. ~40,000 kg). Internet reports say the mother was a blue whale.
Balaenoptera physalus [Fin Whale] See: Balaenoptera musculus.
Eschrichtius robustus [Grey Whale]
× Megaptera novaeangliae [Humpback Whale] NHR. Waddell et al. (2000, p. 317) mention a hybrid, but give no details. CON: Pacific.
Eubalaena japonica [North Pacific Right Whale] See: Balaena mysticetus.
Megaptera novaeangliae [Humpback Whale] See: Balaenoptera musculus; Eschrichtius robustus.
|An alleged dog-cow hybrid birthed in Indonesia in 2011. Read more …| | <urn:uuid:7a5281d9-de30-408d-996b-38b76bb7be1a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.macroevolution.net/rorqual-hybrids.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937679 | 1,154 | 3.328125 | 3 |
What Kind Am I?
About the What Kind Am I? Lesson
This is a short review lesson about the four types of sentences, including examples.
• to provide short definitions and examples of sentence types;
• to provide a review exercise to test understanding of sentence types.
Do you remember? There are four kinds of sentence:
1. TELLING SENTENCES tell a fact or make a statement. They end with a period.
? Benjamin Franklin started the first library.
2. ASKING SENTENCES ask a question. They often begin with asking words such as
who, what, and where. Asking sentences end with a question mark.
? Did Benjamin Franklin really fly a kite in a storm?
3. COMMAND SENTENCES command someone to do something. Like telling
sentences, they end with a period.
? Come out of the rain, Benjamin.
4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES show great emotion or excitement. They end with an | <urn:uuid:d034664f-67e8-4388-9aa7-4de7676c57c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lessonsnips.com/lesson/whatkindami | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.879724 | 214 | 3.78125 | 4 |
What is RSS ?
RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is an easy way of receiving new content from websites. Once you subscribed to an RSS feed, you do not need to check the website for updates, they just come to you. The websites of the International Polar Foundation uses RSS 2.0 standard format for all available feeds.
What do you need to read RSS ?
Even if you are unfamiliar with RSS feeds, they are quite easy to use. You will need a news aggregator also called an RSS reader, which will check all of your favorite websites and will inform you if new content has been published.
- Download a newsreader application like FeedDemon (Windows) or NetNewsWire (Mac)
- Copy the URL of any RSS feed into the application's "subscribe" field.
Some browsers (such as Firefox, Opera, Safari) can also natively read RSS feeds. | <urn:uuid:1c29af08-314c-4fad-9457-9a31d41d495b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.explorapoles.org/rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900458 | 185 | 2.875 | 3 |
The Sunspot Visitor Center and Museum first opened its doors in July 1997. It is the result of a collaboration between NSO/Sacramento Peak (our observatory), Apache Point Observatory (our next-door neighbors), and the US Forest Service.
The Visitor's Center contains:
- The Armillary Sphere and Sundial at the Sunspot Astronomy and Visitor Center
- Exhibits about how astronomers learn things about the Universe.
- Exhibits about the telescopes and facilities at our observatory.
- Exhibits about the telescopes and facilities at Apache Point Observatory.
- Exhibits about the forest and the work of the US Forest Service.
- A gift shop where you can buy books, posters, postcards, t-shirts, and sundry articles related to astronomy or the observatory.
The Visitor Center is wheelchair-accessible (although wheelchairs are not provided by the Center), and is the start and end point of guided and self-guided tours of our observatory. Winter hours are from 9 a.m. until 5 p.m Friday, Saturday and Sunday (October 1 - March 1, 2016).. Educational groups of 10 or more can call (575) 434-7003 to schedule a private guided tour. It is recommended that a guided tour request is made at least two weeks in advance. Travelers are cautioned to be prepared for winter driving conditions November through April. Please note during this transitional period for the NSO, some facilities may not be open to the public.
Daily guided tours for the summer season will resume Memorial Day through Labor Day. Private guided tours can still be arranged as noted above. The telephone for the Visitor Center is (575) 434-7190.
The self-guided walking tour and restrooms are available for visitors at all times throughout the year (weather permitting).
The Armillary Sphere and Sundial
The Armillary Sphere and Sundial at the Sunspot Astronomy and Visitor Center is a 5-foot diameter bronze structure that shows the relationship between Earth and sky for an observer located in Sunspot. The device reads time and date from a shadow cast onto a handsomely engraved, curved projection screen. Among other things, the armillary sphere points out the horizon, zenith, and the directions of north, south, east, and west; it also verifies the observer's latitude and shows the direction of the North Star.
The armillary sphere was designed and built by observatory staff members Dr. Don Neidig, Scott Gregory, and Mitchell Davis. It was installed on its present pier in 1998. The sundial reads time to an accuracy of about one minute.
Exhibits about how astronomers learn things about the Universe.
The Gift Shop is located in the Visitor Center and has the same opening hours.
The Gift Shop sells souvenir-style products with a Sunspot/Sac Peak logo on it, such as sweaters, caps, and mugs, and also astronomical products, such as posters, books, postcards, planispheres, games, and jewelry. | <urn:uuid:ff319a4e-23bc-492b-ac5a-e7ebd8878ea9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nsosp.nso.edu/visitors_center | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93816 | 637 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Example Genomic Activities
A major goal of our Big Science at Small Schools initiative is to advance genomics pedagogy through the development of inquiry-based integrated instructional units (I3Us).
Results 1 - 10 of 14 matches
Comparison of a Highly Polymorphic Olfactory Receptor Gene Subfamily in Genetically Diverse Dog Breeds part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Lois Banta, Williams College
Students design primers specific for a particular subfamily of polymorphic canine olfactory genes, use PCR to amplify the genes, and compare the sequences of the products obtained for a diverse population of dogs.
Molecular evolution of gene families part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Cara Constance, Hiram College (formerly at Holy Cross College)
Bioinformatics lab on concepts of orthologs and paralogs, sequence conservation at genomic DNA, mRNA and amino acid levels, and molecular phylogenetics. Wet-lab using RT-PCR to determine gene expression patterns in distinct tissues.
Modeling Molecular Evolution part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Jodi Schwarz, Vassar College
Biology and Computer Science majors collaborate to model the process of mutation at the DNA level, and examine the consequences at the protein level.
Expression of gerontogenes in neurons: A comparative genomic approach to studying the role of the nervous system in lifespan/aging part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Kathleen Susman, Vassar College
This multi-week laboratory module is appropriate for an intermediate-level neuroscience and behavior course. Students design behavioral experiments in wildtype and mutant C. elegans with defects in neurally-expressed genes implicated in aging. Students then use bioinformatic and comparative genomic tools to explore orthologous genes in at least ten different animal taxa.
Using Metagenomics to Investigate Microbial Diversity part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
David Esteban, Vassar College; Elizabeth Collins, Vassar College
Using Winogradsky columns, a soil enrichment culture, students explore microbial diversity through metagenomics. The Winogradsky column is a complex community of interacting microorganisms. In a community such as ...
Phylogenetic analysis of the bony fishes: Morphological and mtDNA sequence comparisons part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Erica Crespi, Washington State University- Pullman
This three-four week inquiry-based module is designed to teach students basic concepts, quandaries, and methodology of phylogenetics in a format that integrates wet-lab, bioinformatics, and lecture/discussion.
Behavior, Neuroanatomy, Genomics: what can we learn from mouse mutants? part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Carol Ann Paul, Wellesley College; Ginny Quinan, Wellesley College
In this sequence of labs students will be provided a mutant mouse with an unspecified motor mutation and its wild-type control. The goal of this sequence is to identify and characterize the mutant using behavior, neuroanatomy and genomics.
Integrative activities to study the evolution of nervous system function part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Ginger Withers, Whitman College; Christopher Wallace, Whitman College
The overall goal of this multi-week inquiry-based project is to have students combine levels of analysis, including behavioral, anatomical, cell biological, molecular and genomics tools to study how specialized functions of the nervous system evolved.
Constructing and using a PAM style scoring matrix part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Eliot Bush, Harvey Mudd College
Local Population Structure and Behavior of the Wood Frog, Rana sylvatica part of Genomics Instructional Units Minicollection
Derek Dean, Williams College
Assess population structure, genetic health, and behavior of your local wood frog population by determining microsatellite allele frequencies. | <urn:uuid:a4ed4160-f6f0-4615-8184-ab2c79719f90> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://serc.carleton.edu/genomics/activities.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.823852 | 829 | 2.796875 | 3 |
This is the definitive Permaculture design manual in print since 1988.
Written for teachers, students and designers, it follows on and greatly enlarges on the initial introductory texts, permaculture One (1978) and Permaculture Two (1979) both of which are still in demand.
Very little of the material found in this book is reproduced from the former texts. It covers design methodologies and strategies for both urban and rural applications, describing property design and natural farming techniques.
- Humid Cool to Cold Climates
- Concepts and Themes in Design
- Earthworking and Earth Resources | <urn:uuid:f673c365-432b-4e2d-8a62-c264f7aac8ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://seed.org.za/product/permaculture-a-designers-manual-by-bill-mollison-2/?add-to-cart=1320 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886641 | 122 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have their share of challenges. And new research suggests a tendency toward obesity may be one of them.
In a 1,000-person study, Mayo Clinic researchers found that girls with ADHD may be twice as likely to be obese in childhood or early adulthood as girls without the disorder.
This association was not linked to treatment with stimulants such as Ritalin and Adderall, the researchers said.
"There are a couple of biological mechanisms that underlie both obesity and ADHD," said Dr. Seema Kumar, a pediatrician and researcher at Mayo Clinic Children's Research Center in Rochester, Minn.
The abnormalities in the brain that can cause ADHD can also cause eating disorders, Kumar said. "Girls with ADHD may not be able to control their eating and may end up overeating," she explained. "Because kids with ADHD don't have impulse control, it may also play a role in this."
Sleep issues, which often go hand in hand with ADHD, may also contribute to weight gain, the researchers suggested.
But weight gain is not a given, said Dr. Brandon Korman, chief of neuropsychology at Nicklaus Children's Hospital in Miami. While the Mayo research shows an association between ADHD and obesity, it doesn't mean it's bound to happen, he said.
"Parents and physicians and other caregivers need to be proactive in monitoring eating habits and exercise, and be aware of changes in body composition," said Korman, who wasn't involved in the study. A healthy diet and active lifestyle are important, he added.
This association between ADHD and obesity was not found among men, Kumar said. And, she added, boys with the condition don't often have eating disorders.
Boys with ADHD tend to be hyperactive and burn more calories, according to Kumar. "It is possible that there are differences in eating patterns with boys with ADHD or differences in the types of ADHD girls have," she said.
Korman agreed that ADHD looks different in girls than boys.
"Boys tend to act out, while girls may engage in eating behaviors," Korman said. Girls have more "internalizing behaviors" and less "externalizing behaviors," he said.
Between 8 percent and 16 percent of school-age children have ADHD, according to background notes with the study. These kids often have trouble staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and may be overactive. Academics and social relationships can suffer as a result.
Prior research has shown that kids with ADHD are heavier than average, and that significant ADHD symptoms are twice as likely in overweight children, the researchers said.
Because obesity rates have skyrocketed in the United States over the past three decades, leading to serious health problems, the study authors suggested that it's important to understand the various causes.
The report was published Feb. 4 in the journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings.
For the study, Kumar and colleagues compared medical records of 336 people diagnosed with ADHD in childhood with more than 600 people who had not had the diagnosis. All of the adults had been born between 1976 and 1982.
The investigators examined medical records through August 2010 and found that, among women, nearly 42 percent of ADHD patients were obese after age 20 compared to less than 20 percent of those without ADHD. Obesity rates were similar in those with and without stimulant treatment.
Korman said parents and doctors need to be aware of the association between obesity and ADHD but should realize it is only a possibility.
"One of the last things we want to do is create a panic," he said. "ADHD is not a sentence for being obese, but these findings warrant a greater awareness. It's unhealthy expecting that this will happen, but it's a good thing to be aware of it." | <urn:uuid:78d6d96f-4018-40c6-a559-5abbbfa1a24d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cbsnews.com/news/adhd-linked-to-obesity-in-girls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977054 | 780 | 2.765625 | 3 |
EDU8331 Career Development in Educational Settings
|Semester 2, 2013 Online Toowoomba|
|Faculty or Section :||Faculty of Education|
|School or Department :||Education|
|Version produced :||21 July 2014|
Examiner: Peter McIlveen
Moderator: Stephen Hughes
Our understanding of the nature and importance of careers is undergoing considerable change as the world of work continues its evolution from an enterprise industrial-based model to an information, enterprise and service-based model. Career development and education are becoming more important than ever as counsellors, mentors/supervisors, teachers, parents and others help prepare students to plan and prepare for, transition to, and participate effectively in these new work environments.
This course will introduce students to the major theories of career development and associated practices that are relevant for persons training as school guidance officers, educators and career practitioners and others who are interested in the broad area of career planning and development. Emphasis will be given to integration of theory and practice within educational/learning environments. Emerging theories and technologies will also be considered. It is expected that students will have access to an educational or training setting in which they are able to apply the concepts and principles studied in this course.
The course objectives define the student learning outcomes for a course. The assessment item(s) that may be used to assess student achievement of an objective are shown in parenthesis. On successful completion of this course students will be able to:
- demonstrate an understanding of the concept of career, the changing nature of the world of work, as well as of definitions and the complementary components of career guidance, careers education and career development (Assignments 1 Career Development Theory & Assignment 2 Program Development and Evaluation)
- compare and contrast major theories of career development and analyse implications for approaches to career development, guidance and education (Assignment 1 Career Development Theory)
- develop and justify an approach to career guidance and education which is relevant to a particular educational setting (Assignment 2 Program Development and Evaluation)
- develop a program appropriate to the needs of diverse learners in educational settings, incorporating evaluation criteria, processes and strategies (Assignment 2 Program Development and Evaluation))
- evaluate a range of career guidance/education resources (Assignment 2 Program Development and Evaluation))
- comment critically on a range of other practical issues affecting career guidance and discuss implications for professional and ethical practice. (Assignment 2 Program Development and Evaluation)
- demonstrate competence in and appropriate use of language and literacy, including spelling, grammar, punctuation and bibliographic referencing (All assessment items).
|1.||Includes: Importance of career guidance in education Definitions and components of career guidance in education Theories of career choice and development The changing world of work Application of theories Program delivery/practical issues for career guidance in education||100.00|
Text and materials required to be purchased or accessed
ALL textbooks and materials available to be purchased can be sourced from USQ's Online Bookshop (unless otherwise stated). (https://bookshop.usq.edu.au/bookweb/subject.cgi?year=2013&sem=02&subject1=EDU8331)
Please contact us for alternative purchase options from USQ Bookshop. (https://bookshop.usq.edu.au/contact/)
Anderson, P. & Vandehey, M (2012), Career counselling and development in a global economy, 2nd edn, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.
Whether you are on, or off campus, the USQ Library is an excellent source of information http://www.usq.edu.au/library..
Student workload requirements
|Description||Marks out of||Wtg (%)||Due Date||Notes|
|CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY||100||40||04 Sep 2013|
|PROG DEVELOP'T AND EVALUATION||100||60||23 Oct 2013|
Important assessment information
There are no attendance requirements for this course. However, it is the students' responsibility to study all material provided to them or required to be accessed by them to maximise their chance of meeting the objectives of the course and to be informed of course-related activities and administration. It is expected that students will have access to a school or other educational setting in which they are able to apply the concepts and principles studied in this course. Students will also be expected to participate in online formative assessment activities using Study Desk discussions.
Requirements for students to complete each assessment item satisfactorily:
To complete each of the assessment items satisfactorily, students must obtain at least 50% of the marks available for each assessment item. USQ Regulation 5.6 Assessment 5.6.10 Resubmission of Assessment Items states that, "... an examiner may permit students to resubmit an assignment that has received a failing grade or a mark of less than 50%. If a student is permitted to resubmit a failed assignment, normally the only passing mark allowable for the resubmitted assignment will be 50%." Students will be allowed to resubmit both marked assessment items for re-assessment.
Penalties for late submission of required work:
If students submit assignments after the due date without (prior) approval of the examiner then a penalty of 5% of the total marks gained by the student for the assignment may apply for each working day late up to ten working days at which time a mark of zero may be recorded. No assignments will be accepted after model answers have been posted.
Requirements for student to be awarded a passing grade in the course:
To be assured of receiving a passing grade a student must achieve at least 50% of the total weighted marks available for the course.
Method used to combine assessment results to attain final grade:
The final grades for students will be assigned on the basis of the weighted aggregate of the marks obtained for each of the summative assessment items in the course.
There is no examination in this course.
Examination period when Deferred/Supplementary examinations will be held:
There will be no Deferred or Supplementary examinations in this course.
University Student Policies:
Students should read the USQ policies: Definitions, Assessment and Student Academic Misconduct to avoid actions which might contravene University policies and practices. These policies can be found at http://policy.usq.edu.au.
APA style is the referencing system required in this course. Students should use APA style in their assignments to format details of the information sources they have cited in their work. The USQ library provides advice on how to format information sources using this system. http://www.usq.edu.au/library/referencing
Students will require access to e-mail and Internet access to UConnect for this course.
Students are to use a recognised referencing system as specified by the course examiner. | <urn:uuid:8d784bc7-146e-4e0a-80cb-0fb37668689b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.usq.edu.au/course/specification/2013/EDU8331-S2-2013-WEB-TWMBA.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918113 | 1,425 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Scripted stimuli combines with spontaneous interaction in an easy-to-use guessing game. Students master the tricky rules of question-asking in a fun format!
- Ask wh- questions and questions with interrogative reversals
- Increase participation in conversations
Busy clinicians rely on the SPARC series for:
- convenience and portability
- lots of pictures
- plenty of practice opportunities
- use for a variety of therapy goals
- no student reading requirements
Ten units teach students to use singular and plural pronouns and verb forms in their questions. Each of the units focuses on these skill areas:
- wh- interrogatives: what, who, where, when, how, why, which
- interrogative reversals: is/are, was/were, has/have/had, does/do/did, could/should/would, will
- subject-verb agreement in questions
- pronoun usage in questions
The lessons are interactive. A student chooses a picture on a page without revealing his picture choice. The student then asks the Lead Question(s). Scripted stimuli prompt other students in the group to formulate Guess Questions until the picture choice is apparent. The Lead Questions and the Guess Questions give them practice in each of the four question skill areas listed above.
Alternative Activities in each lesson supply an abundance of stimuli for goals in receptive and expressive language, vocabulary, reasoning, making predictions, and auditory recall.
Copyright © 1998
- Questioning is the core of critical reflection. It prompts students to engage in a research process that fosters higher-order thinking skills (Daniel et al., 2005).
- Oral language development has a direct bearing on reading achievement and success in school (Catts, Fey, & Tomblin, 2002).
- Students should understand specific grammar structures before they are asked to use them in speech (Taylor-Goh, 2005).
- Both comprehension and production should be considered in all areas of grammar. Particular attention should be paid to syntactic movement, especially wh- questions (Taylor-Goh, 2005).
- Graphic and semantic organizers, question generation, and summarization are three strategies that have a firm scientific basis for improving comprehension (NRP, 2000).
SPARC for Questions incorporates these principles and is also based on expert professional practice.
Catts, H.W., Fey, M.E., & Tomblin, J.B. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 1142-1157.
Daniel, M.F., Lafortune, L., Pallascio, R., Splitter, L., Slade, C., & de la Garza, T. (2005). Modeling the development process of dialogical critical thinking in pupils ages 10 to 12 years. Communication Education, 54(4), 334-354.
National Reading Panel (NRP). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Retrieved on November 20, 2009, from www.readingrockets.org/research/federal
Taylor-Goh, S. (2005). Royal college of speech and language therapists: Clinical guidelines. United Kingdom: Speechmark. | <urn:uuid:7f410c31-94cf-4cb9-8b4f-4e1e5ce2fd86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.linguisystems.com/products/product/display?itemid=10000 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881297 | 677 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Minsky's Common Sense
title Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind
description A pioneer of artificial intelligence research suggests that we are facing an emergency in the field as we will need machines more than ever in coming years. He criticizes some limitations of current research then describes a model of common sense architecture. "Today, while we have machines that can automatically assemble clothes, we don’t have any that know how to sew together a tear in a shirt or a suit. Minsky proposes a new kind of AI that might eventually result in a 'really resourceful, clever thinking machine...with knowledge about how to do things,' and which 'can do the broad range of things children can do.'"
featuring Marvin Minsky
format Real Video
Tags: lecture brain AI intelligence cog_sci cognitive commonsense futurism | <urn:uuid:2a3a30f0-633c-48d7-be43-c2da37e4288d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://channeln.blogspot.com/2007/11/minskys-common-sense.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882541 | 178 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Attention sneezing, sniffling, coughing cold- and flu-sufferers: As miserable as you are, at least you're not alone.
So far, 2011 has been a bad year for colds and flu, worse than the past two years, at least according to a new survey from the Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index.
In January, 10.2 percent of Americans reported that they had a cold the day before the survey, up from 10 percent in December, according to Gallup. That's higher than the 8.4 percent of people who reported colds last year, and the 9.2 percent who had colds in January 2009.
At the same time, people reporting flu is on the rise, climbing to 3.1 percent in January, down from 2.4 percent last year and 2.9 percent in 2009, according to the poll, which asks 1,000 Americans each day whether they had a cold or flu the day before.
The season has been particularly nasty in the Eastern U.S., where reported colds have jumped 3.1 percent and flu climbed 1.8 percent since November, the study said.
That jibes with more formal accounts kept by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which reported that flu activity for the week ending Jan. 29 was elevated in seven of the country's 10 surveillance regions and that widespread influenza was logged in 30 states.
Nearly 33 percent of specimens taken from patients with respiratory illness and reported to the CDC labs tested positive for influenza. In Region 5, which includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio and Wisconsin, nearly 58 percent of specimens tested positive for flu. About 25 percent of flu cases were caused by H1N1, the virus that spawned a pandemic last year.
So far, 19 people from 13 states have died from flu-associated illness this flu season, including six children.
As of November, about one-third of the U.S. population had been vaccinated against the flu from a supply of 160 million doses. CDC officials say they'll check again at the end of the season. | <urn:uuid:3b52d2e9-6df9-4467-9abb-be1b1dd68cb8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/health/Achoo__Cold_and_flu_season_is_worse_this_year-115603774.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97676 | 433 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Contact The Information About Ireland Site
|HOME||GENEALOGY & IRISH NAMES||TOURIST||RESEARCH||IRELAND NEWS||DOWNLOADS||FUN||COMMUNICATE||SHOP||MORE||CONTACT||SITE MAP|
You Can Have A Traditional Irish Wedding!
Or at the very least you can add some lovely traditions and Irish Wedding Customs from the Gaelic history of Ireland to your big day.
Modern Irish Weddings can be lavish affairs. It is not unheard of for hundreds of guests to attend a fancy hotel for a swanky reception, for children in formal attire to be employed as page boys, ring bearers and even seating attendants! Some modern couples spurn the traditional Church setting preferring to be wed on a Caribbean beach or perhaps in a foreign Church (with blessings in Rome always proving popular).
It wasn't always like this!
Irish history is veneered with centuries of oppression that was particularly harsh in respect of the Catholic religion. The 16th Century Penal Laws prevented Priests from saying Mass never mind conducting the Sacrament of Marriage. Sanctions, if a Priest was caught, were severe. The last of the Penal Laws was not repealed in Ireland until 1920.
Given this background and the unique identity of the native Irish people who were forced to practice their religion 'underground', it is not surprising that an Irish Wedding has a particular identity all of its own and has a number of specific traditions associated with it.
WHAT IS THE BEST DAY FOR AN IRISH WEDDING?
In Ireland of centuries ago the most popular day to be married was a Sunday. This made sense as it was the day when the working week was done and people were free to attend the simple marriage ceremonies that were available at the time.
As the decades and years rolled by and as the Catholic religion developed and reasserted itself in Ireland, the choice of Sunday became frowned upon as it was often seen as a mark of disrespect. Similarly, it became unusual for a couple to be wed in May as this was the traditional start of Summer and was marked by a Pagan feast: Bealtane.
These beliefs are the origin of the old marriage song:
Marry when the year is new, always loving, kind, and true.
When February birds do mate, you may wed, nor dread your fate.
If you wed when March winds blow, joy and sorrow both you'll know.
Marry in April when you can, joy for maiden and for man.
Marry in the month of May, you will surely rue the day.
Marry when June roses blow, over land and sea you'll go.
They who in July do wed, must labor always for their bread.
Whoever wed in August be, many a change are sure to see.
Marry in September's shine, your living will be rich and fine.
If in October you do marry, love will come but riches tarry.
If you wed in bleak November, only joy will come, remember.
When December's rain fall fast, marry and true love will last.
In Ireland today most weddings, but by no means all, take place on a Saturday. They are often planned years in advance. This is usually to facilitate visitors to the reception who would otherwise be at their place of work. While it is not at all unusual to have a wedding during a weekday, it can often be inconvenient for guests. Weddings on a Sunday are rare.
HANDFASTING - TYING THE KNOT
Handfasting is an ancient Celtic tradition that involved tying the hands of the betrothed together well in advance of their actual wedding day. It is similar to an engagement, a time when both parties decide if they really wish to commit. In Modern times the tradition occurs on the actual wedding day although in centuries past the ceremony acted as a kind of temporary marriage.
Handfasting was actually a legitimate way for people to be married during the Middle Ages and only declined when laws were enforced making the act of marriage much more formal. Ireland was ruled by 'Brehon law' and handfasting was duly recognised as a proper form of marriage.
This tradition is well recorded in Ireland and especially at Teltown in County Meath. The Irish historian John O'Donovan (1806-1861) wrote of the 'Teltown Marriages':
A number of young men went into the hollow to the north side of the wall, and an equal number of marriageable young women to the south side of the wall which was so high as to prevent them from seeing the men; one of the women put her hand thro' the hole in the gate and a man took hold of it from the other side, being guided in his choice only by the appearance of the hand. The two were thus joined hands by blind chance were obliged to live together for a year and a day, at the expiration of which time they appeared at the Rath of Telton and if they were not satisfied with each other they obtained a deed of separation, and were entitled to go to Laganeeny again to try their good fortune for the ensuing year.
In the Pagan and Wiccan traditions the handfasting ceremony may involve an arrangement of rocks, candles, crystals, a robe or ribbon, a broomstick, marriage documents, a silver box and other symbolic items.
USING AN IRISH HERITAGE SITE FOR A WEDDING CEREMONY
In a marvellous development the Irish Government is now allowing couples to hire out some National Monuments and buildings for their wedding ceremony!
Incredible as it may seem you can now get married at:
The Casino at Marino, Dublin
Castletown House, Kildare
Barryscourt Castle, Cork
Desmond Hall, Limerick
Kilkenny Castle, Kilkenny
The Blasket Island Visitor Centre, Kerry
The Ceide Fields Stoneage Visitor Centre, Mayo
It seems certain that other sites will be added. Who knows, maybe it will be possible to be married at the Rock of Cashel or the Hill of Tara - that really would be incredible.
THE WEDDING DAY
Typically a wedding day would begin early with the Bride being attended by her Brides-Maids. Perhaps a hairdresser or make-up artist would be employed to help. Collection of the bride from her home in a fancy decorated limo is often greeted with car-horns and cheers from passers-by. With the Groom eagerly awaiting his fashionably late Bride at the Church her arrival is heralded with a suitable song or music. Presented to her husband-to-be by her father at the altar the nuptials may include the blessing of the wedding rings with the further symbolism of a few pieces of gold or silver also being blessed.
It is not at all unusual for the congregation to clap and even cheer once the magic words are uttered by the Priest: 'I now Pronounce you Man and Wife!'
The departure from the Church is preceded with some meeting and greeting outside and perhaps a few photos, before the happy couple are brought to their a Hotel for formal photography. Sometimes the wedded couple will depart for a public or private garden for some staged outdoor photos. The Botanic Gardens in Dublin are particularly popular for this although a lot of Hotels that specialize in weddings have their own formal garden for use by the newly married couple.
The wedding guests will have arrived at the Hotel by this time where they can partake of a beverage of their choice. It should be noted that not all wedding receptions are held in Hotels. Sometimes a Restaurant can be booked for the purpose and some other couples choose to have their wedding reception in their own home which, apart from the financial consideration, can greatly add to the intimacy and enjoyment of the event.
Speeches by the Best Man, and often by the Bride and Groom too, take place after the main dining. Telegrams (or Emails, or Twitter posts!) can be read out. Funny anecdotes told. A toast to the happy couple often marks the end of the wedding meal. Music or entertainment is then provided and this can be anything from an unstoppable Auntie determined to sing her song, to a Professional singer or Cabaret act, or perhaps some Irish dancers.
Usually a D.J. or live band round off the evening with plenty of dancing and drinking in evidence.
The following morning and having changed from her wedding dress into another carefully selected ensemble the Bride makes her departure with her new husband, often destined for some far flung corner of the globe.
So that is how it done in modern times, but what about the older traditions of an Irish wedding? Read on!
IRISH WEDDING DRINKS
No Irish wedding would be complete without a traditional toast to the happy couple. Of course in modern times this is often completed with Champagne but in the seventeenth century in Ireland this was in very short supply! For many Poteen was the drink of choice!
Poteen is a very strong Whiskey made from potatoes. It was not uncommon for the flavour and recipe to vary from village to village and County to County depending on the type of potato that was refined and the skill of the person doing the refining.
It is now quite customary for a bottle of Champagne or similar to be saved from the wedding reception to be opened when a child is brought into the marriage. The tradition of 'wetting the baby's head' at a Christening means more than the application of water by the Priest! It is a euphemism for celebrating the occasion with a drink.
Mead is another alternative. Mead is an Anglo-Saxon drink originally made by Monks and consists of white wine mixed with honey and herbs. It became very popular in Ireland and is often served in modern times as a 'traditional' Irish wedding drink. The Mead was said to possess magical powers of fertility and thus it became customary for the Bride and Groom to drink the Mead for one full moon after their wedding, giving rise to the word 'honeymoon'.
THE LUCKY HORSESHOE
The tradition of a horseshoe is well known throughout the world and so it is in Ireland. By placing the horseshoe upright over a door or in a room the 'luck of the house' was kept intact. The Greeks associated the horseshoe with the crescent moon and its symbolism of fertility. The tradition was popular throughout Ireland and England too with the readily available horseshoe being carried by the Bride as she walked down the aisle. It was then affixed securely by the Groom in the matrimonial home. Today, glass and ceramic horseshoes are symbolically used at Irish wedding ceremonies.
THE MAGIC HANKY
It is now usual for the 'magic hanky' to be made from Linen although it is likely the original versions were made from cheaper materials. It was usual for the Bride to carry the hanky on her wedding day and for it to be retained and later converted to a Christening hat/bonnet for her first child. The hanky would be passed on from generation to generation to be re-used in a similar manner.
AITIN' THE GANDER
The expression 'his goose is cooked' is still in use in Ireland and especially in Dublin. The phrase originated from the tradition of cooking a goose for the groom in the Bride's house the night before the wedding. Once the goose was cooked there was simply no going back!
The use of Church bells in Christian religions is symbolic of driving away the evil spirits from the marriage to be. In Penal times in Ireland this was not possible so the gift of a small bell acted as a substitute. Modern Irish weddings often have stationery, invitations, bunting and decorations adorned with bells, hearts, shamrocks and horseshoes. A small glass or ceramic bell can be used in the Church service and kept as a memento.
The sensation that became 'Riverdance' saw a new interest in Irish traditional music sweep the world. The tradition of having Irish dancers attend at a wedding is a relatively recent one though. It has to be remembered that until Catholic emancipation in the nineteenth century and the revival of the Gaelic consciousness at the turn of the twentieth century, expressions of the Catholic religion were severely restricted. Musically, there are a myriad of Irish songs that are associated with Irish weddings including the poignant 'She Moved Through the Fair'.
The tradition of dowry-giving was very well established in rural Ireland and was a source of pride for the family of the Bride. Modernity has relegated this tradition to the history books but in rural areas it is still noted if a Bride brings 'any land' with her.
It was customary to decorate the house that the wedding celebration was held in with locally grown flowers and plants. These would vary according to the time of the year that the wedding was held. Some plants have become associated with Ireland, not least the now readily available 'Bells of Ireland', used in modern times for its symbolism. A Celtic tradition in Wales involves the plant Myrtle which is presented by the Bride to the Brides-maids who then plant it in their gardens. If the plant grew then the Brides-maid would be married before the year is out!
THE CLADDAGH RING
It is very common for a traditional Claddagh Ring to be used at an Irish wedding, most often by the Groom. The ring is faced outwards prior to the wedding and reversed to face inwards on the hand after the wedding, indicating that the bearer is taken forever! The Claddagh Ring is one of the most widespread symbols of Ireland and is very much associated with marriage and romance.
THE WEDDING TOAST
There are many old sayings, Blessings and Toasts that are used at a traditional Irish wedding. Here are three of our favourites:
Friends and relatives, so fond and dear,
'tis our greatest pleasure to have you here.
When many years this day has passed,
fondest memories will always last.
So we drink a cup of Irish mead and ask
God's blessing in your hour of need.'
'On this special day,
our wish to you,
the goodness of the old,
the best of the new.
God bless you both who drink this mead,
may it always fill your every need.'
May your mornings bring joy and your evenings bring peace.
May your troubles grow few as your blessings increase.
May the saddest day of your future
Be no worse than the happiest day of your past.
May your hands be forever clasped in friendship
And your hearts joined forever in love.
Your lives are very special,
God has touched you in many ways.
May his blessings rest upon you
And fill all your coming days.
May the road rise to meet you
May the wind be always at your back
May the sun shine warm upon your face
and the rain fall soft upon your fields
And until we meet again my friend
May God hold you in the palm of his hand
THE WEDDING DANCE
Of course it is a tradition the world over that the Bride and Groom should take center-stage for the first dance of the evening. Unfortunately this tradition has resulted in some pretty horrendous atrocities being committed in full view of digital recording equipment and horrified guests alike.
Dont let it happen to you!
If you really want to impress then take a few Irish Dancing classes - the basic steps are easy enough to accomplish - you dont have do a full Riverdance although some of your guests may later make the attempt! You may even consider having some traditional Irish music played by a live band, or hire some Irish Pipers - the sky is the limit!
ANCIENT IRISH CUSTOMS
So there you have it! You can pick and choose from any of these Irish Wedding Traditions and add a little Irishness to your big day. Or you can go the whole hog and make the entire event a medieval reenactment - it is up to you!
Click Here to Request a Free Irish Wedding Gift Catalog
TRADITIONAL IRISH WEDDING GIFTS
Great Wedding Gift Ideas from: IrishNation.com
Click Here to Request a Free Catalog
Galway Crystal Wedding Bell
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Celtic Engraved Rings Made in Ireland
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Family Crest Cuff-Links
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Wedding Family Crest Plaques
Wedding Flags & Banners
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May 20, 2015
Burke Museum paleontologists discover the first dinosaur fossil in Washington state
Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture paleontologists have documented the first dinosaur fossil from Washington state. The fossil was collected by a Burke Museum research team along the shores of Sucia Island State Park in the San Juan Islands.
Burke Museum researchers discovered the fossil while collecting ammonite fossils (a creature with a spiral shell) from a marine rock area known as the Cedar District Formation. The researchers first noticed a small section of exposed bone on the surface of the rocks, then returned with a team of paleontologists to help excavate the fossil so it could be studied at the Burke Museum.
Christian Sidor, the museum’s curator of vertebrate paleontology and a biology professor and University of Washington graduate student Brandon Peecook describe the find in a study published May 20 in the journal PLOS ONE. The fossil is a partial left femur of a theropod dinosaur, the group of two-legged, carnivorous dinosaurs that includes Velociraptor, Tyrannosaurus rex and modern birds.
The fossil is 16.7 inches long and 8.7 inches wide. Because the fossil is incomplete, paleontologists aren’t able to identify the exact family or species it belonged to. However, Sidor and Peecook compared the fossil to other museums’ specimens and were able to calculate that the complete femur would have been more than 3 feet long — slightly smaller than a T. rex femur. The fossil is from the Late Cretaceous period and is approximately 80 million years old.
Sidor and Peecook determined that although incomplete, the femur is from a theropod dinosaur for two reasons: First, the hollow middle cavity of the bone (where marrow was present) is unique to theropods during this period; and second, a feature on the surface of the bone (the fourth trochanter) is prominent and positioned relatively close to the hip, which is a combination of traits known only in theropod dinosaurs.
“This fossil won’t win a beauty contest,” Sidor said. “But fortunately it preserves enough anatomy that we were able to compare it to other dinosaurs and be confident of its identification.”
“The fossil record of the West Coast is very spotty when compared to the rich record of the interior of North America,” Peecook said. “This specimen, though fragmentary, gives us insight into what the West Coast was like 80 million years ago, plus it gets Washington into the dinosaur club.”
Washington is now the 37th state where dinosaurs have been found.
Fossilized prehistoric clams were also found inside the hollow part of the bone, which indicates the dinosaur fossilized in marine rock. These additional fossils are a rare occurrence and provide scientists with a snapshot of other lifeforms that were present where the dinosaur fossilized.
The accompanying fossilized clams are so well preserved that Burke paleontologists were able to identify the species, Crassatellites conradiana. These clams lived in shallow water, so it’s likely the dinosaur died near the sea, was tossed by the waves, and eventually came to rest among the clams.
“This is a very exciting discovery,” said Lisa Lantz, stewardship manager for the Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission. “It underscores the importance of protecting natural places for the long-term benefit of the public — not only for recreation, but for important scientific research.”
More information about the fossil:
Why have no dinosaurs been found in Washington state until now?
Dinosaurs are found in rocks from the time periods in which they lived (240–66 million years ago). Washington state was mostly underwater during this period, so Washington has very little exposed rock of the right age. Because dinosaurs were land animals, it is very unusual to find dinosaur fossils in marine rocks—making this fossil a rare and lucky discovery.
How did the dinosaur get to Sucia Island State Park?
Eighty million years ago, the rocks that today form Sucia Island were likely deposited farther south. How much farther south is a topic of scientific debate, with locations ranging between present-day Baja California, Mexico, and Northern California. Earthquakes and other geologic forces that constantly reshape our planet moved the rocks north to their present-day location.
Why is the fossil at the Burke Museum?
The Burke Museum is the state’s museum for natural history and culture. Burke Museum paleontologists were issued scientific collecting permits by Washington State Parks prior to excavating the fossil. Fossil exploration and collection on state land is legal only with proper permits issued for legitimate scientific research. Any items discovered in permitted scientific exploration are considered publicly owned and remain the property of Washington State Parks collections. The fossil is held in trust by the Burke Museum on behalf of State Parks.
State Parks provides interpretation of natural and cultural resources and regularly partners with the Burke Museum to study, curate and share Washington’s natural and cultural heritage.
When can the public see the fossil?
Washington’s first dinosaur fossil will be on display in the Burke Museum’s lobby beginning Thursday, May 21.
For high resolution images and interviews, contact email@example.com or 206-543-9762. | <urn:uuid:e36814ea-1dc0-40c0-b529-dbb48ce44ffa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.washington.edu/news/2015/05/20/burke-museum-paleontologists-discover-the-first-dinosaur-fossil-in-washington-state/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948161 | 1,121 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Illinois Prevention Efforts Have Reduced Childhood Lead Poisoning Rates by 93 Percent Since 1997
Governor Quinn proclaims Oct. 21-27 Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Week in Illinois
CHICAGO – Through sustained state prevention efforts and public awareness campaigns, the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) is reporting a 93 percent decrease in the rates of children with lead poisoning since 1997. The announcement comes during National Lead Poisoning Prevention Week and Governor Pat Quinn proclaiming October 21-27, 2012 as Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Week in Illinois.
"Although childhood lead poisoning rates in Illinois remain high, we are extremely pleased that the coordinated, strategic efforts of our Illinois Lead Program have worked toward such a dramatic decline in the number of lead poisoned children statewide," said IDPH Director Dr. LaMar Hasbrouck.
The numbers of Illinois children younger than six-years-old with elevated levels of lead in their blood was 45,809 in 1997. In 2011, that number dropped to 3,164.
Lead poisoning is one of the most preventable environmental health problems in the United States, affecting approximately 250,000 children between the ages of 1 and 5. There is no safe level of lead in the body, and the only way to determine whether a child is lead poisoned is to perform a blood test. Lead poisoning can affect nearly every system in the body, causing learning disabilities, shortened attention spans and, in extreme cases, seizures, coma and death.
The major source of lead exposure among Illinois children continues to be lead-contaminated dust, and lead-based paint, which was banned in 1978. Illinois passed the Lead Poisoning Prevention Act in 1973, setting mandatory screening and reporting requirements. The act was amended in 2006, expanding lead poisoning prevention efforts in Illinois.
The Illinois Lead Program is responsible for screening and identifying children with elevated blood lead levels, and facilitating appropriate medical follow-up to minimize the adverse effects of lead poisoning. The program also proactively conducts community-based lead poison awareness and education programs statewide and inspects dwellings for elevated lead levels.
Exposure to lead poisoning can be prevented or reduced by taking the following precautions:
For more information about the Illinois Lead Program, please visit: http://www.idph.state.il.us/illinoislead/index.htm
|Illinois Department of
535 West Jefferson Street
Springfield, Illinois 62761
Questions or Comments | <urn:uuid:87679fc5-a670-435b-a5df-04a0103fe429> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.idph.state.il.us/public/press12/10.26.12_Reduced_Childhood_Lead_Poisoning.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940109 | 494 | 2.875 | 3 |
AUTOPLOT is designed for interactively use. However, there may be occasions when the same sequences of commands have to be used repeatedly. These may be entered into a command file, generally referred to as a USE file. A command file is read by means of the command:
where <filename> is the name of the USE file required.
Any editor may be used to create a USE file, which must be saved as a sequential text file. The commands to be entered in it are the same as those entered interactively; all abbreviations are valid, as are several commands on one line separated by semi-colons.
Two extra features have been introduced to control USE files, namely:
(1) The command:
which causes the program to hold the picture on the screen until <Return> is pressed. PAUSE must be placed on a line by itself.
(2) A line beginning with an asterisk (*) signifies that the line is a comment.
The following is an example of command file:
*Test command file... first read some data
DATA 1 1
DATA 1 2
DATA 1 3
*Now plot each curve separately
In this file, the first three commands read data elements from a PLOT file. The program then draws each curve in a different line style with a pause between each curve so that the picture can be viewed.
When <Return> is pressed, the program plots the next curve and then PAUSEs again.
The END in a command file causes an exit from AUTOPLOT; if END is omitted, control is returned to the interactive mode and the prompt Command? appears.
Only one USE file may be in use at a time; therefore a USE command cannot be issued from within a USE file.
A 'macro-making' facility is now available by means of a new command that records the interactive command-session in a file. The file can subsequently be read as a USE file to reproduce automatically the command sequence.
For further information: see the entry LOG in the PHOTON help dictionary
The following commands are recognised by the PHOENICS Input Language
|REGEXT,||RESTRT,||RSET,||RUN,||SATRUN,||SEE,||SEE C,||SEE I,|
For help on any item (except END), enter the command name followed by a question mark, thus ARRAY?
-------------------------------------- Photon Help ----
[Comnd] switches the system from menu mode to command mode. The sub-menu activated with COMND contains two items:
[Dialog in full size screen] | <urn:uuid:66dec07e-2121-4842-bfcc-12d53faedefe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cham.co.uk/phoenics/d_polis/d_enc/command.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.742204 | 543 | 2.765625 | 3 |
"Teaching is the only major occupation of man for which we have not yet developed tools that make an average person capable of competence and performance. In teaching we rely on the "naturals," the ones who somehow know how to teach.”
-- Peter F. Drucker
I've had many teachers in my life, primary, middle and high school teachers, instructors, lecturers and college professors, but perhaps the two teachers who have had the greatest impact on my life never taught me in a classroom. They were my grandparents, Harlan and Ila Geyer.
Harlan was born on July 22, 1920 in Lime Creek Township, Washington, Iowa, and was raised just north of Wellman. He was the oldest of twelve children born to Francis Grant and Grace (McGimpsey) Geyer. In 1920, his father was a tenant farmer, working rented land to support his quickly growing family. Life was stressful; they had problems making ends meet for a family that grew with the birth of a child every two years. As Harlan would later put it, "We didn't have much."
But Harlan was a good student and in 1936, he decided to enter the Normal Training Program at Wellman High School. The Normal Training Program was passed into law by the Iowa State Legislature in 1911 and existed as part of the Wellman, Iowa education system between 1927 and 1945. The law included the following section:
"In order to develop an interest in rural life, at least one semester in Agriculture, Domestic Science and Manual Training is given a special place in the course. Two semesters in Pedagogy and one semester in Methods, together with emphasis on Observation and Practice Teaching is the specific professional feature of the Normal Training High School Course."
Deliberately or not, Harlan was following in the footsteps of his uncle Harold Geyer, a Class of 1927 graduate, who was one of Wellman's first Normal Training graduates.
It was strenuous, demanding work, with students sometimes coming to school before classes to study and staying late, often until suppertime, to complete the extra assignments the program required. The curriculum included specialized courses in Education Psychology, School Management, and Methods. Methods, a practical course designed to teach effective lesson development and instill good teaching principles, was especially detested, as can be seen in this parody, written and performed during a Normal Training Club meeting by Wellman Class of 1930 Normal Training graduates J. Paul Yoder and Walter Marner, with assistance from Stanley Eash and Clifford Monroe:
(Tune - "I've Been Working on the Railroad")
Oh, I was born in Wellman town,
A-workin' on my Methods.
All day long I write the outline down
A-workin' on my Methods.
I've been workin' on my Methods
All the live long day.
I've been workin' on my Methods
To pass the time away.
Don't you hear the school bell ringin'?
Hurry to Room Five!
Get your books and start to workin'
We sure have to strive.
I hope to teach a country school
If I survive my Methods.
But I will never be so cruel
As to make them work on Methods
And when I die and go away
Still workin' on my Methods,
I wonder will St. Peter say,
"Do you have your Methods?"
In May 1938, Harlan graduated Wellman High School and along with his diploma, received a Normal Training Certificate. He got a position teaching in a one-room schoolhouse Lookout No. 6, in English River, Washington, Iowa, where he taught for a year. He kept in touch with two of his students, exchanging Christmas cards every year. Here, Harlan describes a visit he made back to Iowa with his second wife, Mary:
We looked up where my old school was. Ila’s old school was more modern and it became a home for somebody because it had running water and electricity, but mine was just way out in the middle of nowhere, so it no longer existed. Well, we went back and seen these kids, the only two of my students that I ever really got contact with were my eighth grader and my kindergartner. The eighth grader, his mother was a widow when he was going to school and when I got in contact with him, the kindergartner, him and his wife were rentin’ my eighth grader’s farm. The eighth grader had built another house on his farm, so actually my kindergartner and my eighth grader still are back in where the school was at, on my eighth grader’s farm. And I hear from them regularly every year and we went to visit them, Mary and I did. So, it’s out in the middle between West Chester, Kalona and Wellman.
Between September 5, 1938 and May 5, 1939, Harlan taught eleven students, five boys and six girls. As seen on page 1 of his Teachers Annual Report, he earned $50 a month, putting the approximate average cost of tuition per student per month at $5, a fact that was recorded on the report. The girls' attendance was 97% for the year, while the boys' was 89%. Illa Belle Kauffman, age seven, was able to attend less than 24 weeks of school because of heart trouble, poor health and distance to the school.
The school was not in very good condition. As Harlan stated before, they had no electricity or running water. On page 2 of the report, he rates the condition of the girls' outhouse and the fuel house as poor and states that the most urgent needs of the school are better out-buildings, a new blackboard and a more sanitary drinking fountain.
Harlan gave instruction in American citizenship, physiology and hygiene with special reference to stimulants and narcotics, elements of vocal music, fifty minutes of physical education a week, the Constitution of the U.S. and of Iowa, and the history of Iowa. Volunteers managed to raise $7.41 for the school at the Christmas Program, with the money left in the charge of the School Treasurer. The report asks if the American flag was displayed regularly, it was until "lately", when the rope broke.
Page 3 of the report gives the students' names and marks. Enrolled in his class were: Glada L. Hollcraft, Harold Horak, Merle Venzke, Robert Scott, Darlene Venzke, Rosetta Vodicka, Harald Mass, Viola Kauffman, Edna Hoover, Leota Hoover, and Allan Stransky. All advanced to the next grade level.
Soon after he started teaching, he became friends with his future wife, Ila Bear. Harlan describes their first encounter:
Probably the first time I met her was at the teacher’s meeting. She was teaching in Washington County. There was Orville Hradek and Arvid Wagamon and I, and we were sitting behind these girls and we just wanted to tease them and I guess I stuck a pin in Ila, I don’t remember that much about it. It’s just one of the things to do when you’re a kid. I was only 18.
Ila Iola Bear was born on June 11, 1913 in Johns, Appanoose, Iowa, the daughter of Samuel Lewis and Bessie Belle (Ginkens) Bear. Her father, Samuel, was a farmer and an outstanding carpenter, who died in 1939 after his horses bolted, causing him to fall from the hay wagon, which resulted in two crushed neck vertebrae. Her mother Bessie was a school teacher before marriage.
As long as her younger brother John could remember, Ila wanted to be a school teacher as well. She graduated from Seymour High School in Wayne County, Iowa on May 12, 1932. Perhaps she wasn't the most studious girl there, in her junior year high school yearbook, her initials I.I.B. are jokingly said to stand for "Interested In Boys."
On September 9, 1935, Ila entered the Iowa State Teachers College in Cedar Falls, Iowa, now the University of Northern Iowa. A brief history from their website:
The College of Education is the oldest department on campus; in fact, UNI began as a teacher preparation school in 1876. The university was renamed the Iowa State Teachers College in 1909, and the State College of Iowa in 1961. Not until that year did the college allow its students to graduate without completing the teacher preparation sequence.
Her brother, John Bear, remembers when he and their brother Claude Bear dropped Ila off for school:
Ila went to Cedar Falls Teacher, in order to be a teacher, you know. I remember Claude and I took her up there to get enrolled and she told us to drive by the women’s dorm and honk our horn and all the women come out and looked out the windows. Another thing I’ll tell you, from southern Iowa up to Cedar Falls have a different accent and they made fun of her cause she had kind of a southern accent. And she got even with them. You heard of hedge balls?
They call them Osage-oranges. They grow pretty big and they’re green and they’re rough outside and then what they have inside is kind of like a milky stuff that’s sticky. But you get them and put them in your basement and you won’t have any spiders. Spiders don’t like 'em. But that’s how she got even with some of them girls up there for teasin' her cause she had that accent. They thought you could eat 'em and everything. They’d kill you if you ate 'em. They’re poison. She took some of 'em up there to them. Some of 'em thought that they could bite 'em. She had to stop them.
Peace must have been declared at this point, as Ila's signature book from her time at ISTC is full of poems and sentiments of friendship from her fellow students. Incidentally, Osage-oranges, also known as hedge-apples, are apparently not strongly poisonous, causing only mild vomiting when eaten (link), and have not been clinically proven to deter pests (link).
At ISTC, Ila took classes in composition & rhetoric, English literature, American literature, grammar, medieval and modern history, US history, civics, economics, algebra, plane geometry, agriculture, general science, physics, physiology, physiography, arithmetic, home economics, pedagogy, and psychology.
After two semesters of instruction, Ila was ready for a teaching position, completing her ISTC coursework during summer sessions. During the 1936-1937 school year, she was the teacher at Brushy No. 3 in Walnut Township, Wayne, Iowa. She spent two years, from Sept 1938 to May 1940, at Union Rural School in Lime Creek Township, Washington, Iowa, which, in 1940, was considered one of the best, most well-equipped rural schools in Washington County.
From September 1940 to May 1941, she was an elementary grades teacher at Huron School, Burlington, Des Moines, Iowa. She taught elementary school at Fort Byron, Illinois from 1941 to 1942, and from September 1942 until June 1946, she taught elementary grades in East Moline, Illinois. On October 20, 1943, she graduated from ISTC with a Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education.
She corresponded regularly with her old friend Harlan and after he returned from service in the Pacific, he proposed. They married on June 11, 1945 in Camp LeJeune, North Carolina. Afterwards, she returned to East Moline, where she lived with her brother John, while the US Marine Corp sent Harlan to school in Missouri. According to both John and Harlan, she was the first school teacher in East Moline that was allowed to continue teaching after marriage. Up till that time, women were expected to retire to their homes to raise their families upon marriage.
In 1947, they moved to California, where Harlan was stationed at Camp Pendleton. That year, Ila gave birth to my father, Harlan Geyer, Jr., known by family and friends as Jr., and she changed careers to become a stay-at-home mom. My aunt Cherie remembers:
Jr. had trouble learning when he was young. I can remember sitting on the little brown wooden chair while she tutored Jr. and Joey Tudor in reading (with the Dick and Jane books). Maybe he was 7 or 8, and I was 3 or 4. She's why I excelled in school. She's also the reason I developed my love for reading. They both loved to teach and all the time I was in school I was going to grow up and be a teacher like my parents. My mom taught me that a girl always had to have an education and a profession that she could fall back on if something ever happened to her husband. Teaching offered that.
I remember being taught to read by my grandmother even before going off to school. I'd sit on her lap, reading out of ancient, dog-eared Dick and Jane readers, I expect that they're the same ones she taught my father out of. She and my grandfather volunteered at my elementary school, Floris Elementary, throughout my years there, touching the lives of children of still another generation.
My grandmother died on March 13, 1992, after several long years of fighting cancer. She provided me with one last lesson; she was the first difficult loss of my life. Although it was a hard lesson that I didn't want to learn at the time, my grandfather taught me about acceptance and moving on, remarrying a wonderful, very loving and kind woman, Mary. After the passing of both Mary and his son, Harlan Jr., in 2001, my grandfather stepped up to fill the role of father for my siblings and I, even making the long 12 hour flight from Washington DC to Berlin, Germany in 2003, at the ripe old age of 83, to escort me down the aisle at my wedding. He passed away last year, on March 24, 2006.
"Normal Training Program" in Wellman, Iowa Centennial 1879-1979, Wellman Centennial Committee (Wellman, Iowa, 1979), 178-181.
Interview with Harlan Geyer, Sr. (Reston, VA), by author, 26 November 2005. Mr. Geyer is now deceased.
Washington County Rural Schools, IaGenWeb, Washington County, online <http://www.rootsweb.com/~iawashin/schools.htm>. Previously published in hard copy: "Rural Schools of Washington County - 1983, Lime Creek Township," Washington County Genealogical Society Newsletter 19 (June 2002): 9-10, 6; originally published 1940-1941.
Interview with John Bear (Aurora, MO), by author, 5 January 2006, in Reston, VA.
E-mail messages from Cherie Geyer to author, 1-2 May 2007.
"Papers of Harlan and Ila (Bear) Geyer," (1932-2006); owned by their daughter, Cherie Geyer; electronic copy in possession of author. | <urn:uuid:53f9487e-4687-4382-bbfb-e4f5b50ece9c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://geyer-genealogy.blogspot.com/2007/05/shaping-future.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981945 | 3,204 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Telling major from minor was easy. Major was happy. Minor was sad.
Years later I sat in on an ear-training session Mr. Stahl gave for some of his younger students. "Major is happy," he explained. "Minor is sad." He played successions of chords and the kids called out responses ("Major!" "Minor!"). Most of the time they were correct.
As I watched and listened, a question occurred to my teenage self that I'd never thought about at age six:
Why is major happy and minor sad? It's intuitively obvious that they are, but why?
I remembered this experience while reading "Why Music Moves Us," an article in July's Scientific American. The article talks about how emotional responses to music are universal:
Several pieces of research indicate that music reliably conveys the intended emotion in all people who hear it. In the late 1990s neuroscientist Isabelle Peretz and her colleagues at the University of Montreal found that Western listeners universally agree on whether a song using Western tonal elements is happy, sad, scary or peaceful.
Music’s emotional content may even be culturally transparent. This past April neuroscientist Tom Fritz of the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany, and his colleagues exposed members of the Mafa ethnic group in Cameroon who had never heard Western music to excerpts of classical piano music. The researchers found that the adults who listened to the excerpts consistently identified them as happy, sad or scary just as Western listeners would. Thus, the ability of a song to elicit a particular emotion does not necessarily depend on cultural background.
The article posits all kinds of reasons why humans respond to music in the same way. Music excites regions of the brain associated with language. It stimulates other parts of the brain that govern emotions. Many scientists believe emotional response to music is epiphenomenal. That music affects us only because it pushes buttons that evolved for other purposes.
Interesting stuff. But it still doesn't explain why major is happy and minor unhappy instead of the other way around. Why dissonant chords are discomfiting. Why we go crazy if someone plays the melody to "Shave and a haircut, two ..." and leaves out the last note.
(You twitched a little bit just thinking about that last one, didn't you.)
Maybe it's useless being so left-brained about this. If anyone figured out how specific musical stimuli produced specific emotional responses, I would probably find the resulting journal article both incomprehensible and boring.
Even so, it's fun to think about the question. | <urn:uuid:6ac638da-96f3-45fe-a104-b7ea051685d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cinderbridge.blogspot.com/2009/07/universal-language.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963105 | 538 | 3 | 3 |
Adoremus, Society for the Renewal of the Sacred Liturgy
Online Edition - Vol. I, No. 1: November 1995
Active Participation in the Church's Liturgy
A Commentary on the Rightful Place of Gregorian Chant
by Father Joseph Fessio, S.J.
One of the fundamental principles of the liturgical reform called for by the Second Vatican Council was "active participation" of the faithful in the Church's public worship. The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy expresses this in s. 14: "Mother Church earnestly desires that all the faithful should be led to that full, conscious, and active participation [participatio actuosa] in liturgical celebration which is demanded by the very nature of the liturgy."
Since the application of this principle has led to such results as the virtually complete disappearance of any use of Latin and of any singing of Gregorian Chant, one may at least be allowed to ask whether these results are consistent with what the Council Fathers intended in making this expression a central part of the principles of liturgical reform.
It may be useful in answering this question and understanding the meaning of "active participation" to examine with some care its origin, which I propose to do in the following paragraphs.
The expression "active participation" first appears in Saint Pius X's Motu Proprio Tra le sollicitudini. Saint Pius X was unexpectedly elevated to the papacy on August 9, 1903. (The leading candidate, Leo XIII's Secretary of State, Cardinal Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro, was vetoed in the first conclave by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austriaa veto communicated, incidentally, by the Cardinal Archbishop of Cracow!) This Motu Proprio, issued only three months later on November 22 of the same year, was one of the first of Saint Pius X's papal decrees and was devoted to the restoration of sacred music. This was followed only week later by a letter to Cardinal Respighi of December 8, 1903, Il desiderio, on the necessity of musical reform.
That Saint Pius X intended to make liturgical reform one of the highest priorities of his papacy is demonstrated not only by his well-known encouragement of frequent Communion (in the decree Sacra Tridentina of December 20, 1905) and his lowering of the minimum age for First Communion (in the decree Quam Singulari of August 8, 1910) but also in a call for a more general liturgical reform in the October 23, 1913, Motu Proprio Abhinc duos annos.
It's in the fifth paragraph of Tra le sollicitudini that we first encounter the expression "active participation":
Being moved with the most ardent desire to see the true Christian spirit flourish again in every way among all the faithful, the first thing to which We must turn our attention is the holiness and dignity of the temple. There Our people assemble for the purpose of acquiring the Christian spirit from its first and indispensable source, namely the active participation [attiva partecipazione] in the most sacred mysteries and in the public and solemn prayer of the Church. It is vain to hope for such copious blessings from Heaven if our worship of the Most High, rather than ascending with an odor of sweetness, again puts into our Lord's hands the scourges with which the unworthy profaners were once driven out of the temple by the Divine Redeemer.
It is instructive to note that the immediate context for encouraging "active participation" is concern for "the holiness and dignity of the temple", and that what is being participated in is "the most sacred mysteries" and "the public and solemn prayer of the Church". Whatever form of participation Saint Pius X has in mind clearly must be consistent with "holiness," "dignity," "sacred mysteries," and "solemn prayer."
That this is Saint Pius X's intention is further made clear by the opening paragraph of his Motu Proprio, which shows that among the concerns he has (Tra le sollicitudini = among the concerns), the paramount one is "promoting the beauty of the house of God":
There is one pastoral care paramount not only for this Holy See ... but also for individual churches: maintaining and promoting the beauty of the house of God. Here the august mysteries of religion are celebrated, here the faithful gather to receive the grace of the sacraments, to assist at the Holy Sacrifice of the altar, to adore the most Blessed Sacrament and to be united at the Church's common prayer in her public and solemn liturgy.
Saint Pius X goes on to draw the practical consequences which follow upon this concern. But as we shall see, this Motu Proprio is not about liturgical worship in general, but about the restoration of sacred music. This is the more specific context for the encouragement of "active participation". The following paragraphs need little commentary, but are worth prayerful consideration even today and lead to a surprising conclusion:
Therefore, there must be nothing in this sacred building that might be a reasonable cause for disgust or scandal; above all, nothing directly offensive to the decorum and holiness of the sacred rites and thus unworthy of the house of prayer and the majesty of God. (s. 2)
We do not here propose to treat individually each of the abuses that may occur. Rather, we devote our attention today to one of the most common abuses, one most difficult to uproot. This must be condemned, even where everything else deserves the highest praise, where there is beauty and grandeur of building, splendor and exactness of ceremonies, full attendance of the clergy, gravity and piety of the officiating ministers. We speak of the abuse in singing and in sacred music. This may have resulted from the changeable and varied nature of the art itself, or from the successive alterations of taste and custom through the ages. It may also be due to the disastrous influence of secular and theatric music on that of the Church, or to the pleasure excited by the music itselfa pleasure not easily contained within its proper limits. Lastly, it may be the result of the many prejudices on this subject which so easily begin and so obstinately remain, even among persons of piety and authority. Still the fact remains: there certainly is a continual tendency to deviate from the right norm for sacred music, a norm established in admitting this art to the service of public worship, expressed very clearly in the ecclesiastical canons, in the decrees of general and provincial councils, and in the repeated prescription of the Sacred Roman Congregations and of the Supreme Pontiffs, Our predecessors. (s. 3)
Paragraph 4, quoted in full above, follows. Obviously, the "active participation" which will appear for the first time in a pontifical document is meant to refer specifically to sacred music. How Saint Pius X intends for this active participation to take place will become apparent in what will now be said about music in the liturgy.
Saint Pius X treats the subject with such extreme importance that he writes that he intends, through his statements, to give "force of law" to a "juridical code of sacred music".
Sacred music, because it is an integral part of the liturgy [la musica sacra, come parte integrante della solenne Liturgia], participates in the same general purpose of this solemn liturgy, that is: the glory of God and the sanctification and edification of the faithful. It enhances the beauty and splendor of the ceremonies of the Church. Since its chief function is to clothe with suitable melody the liturgical text presented for the understanding of the faithful, its own proper end is to make the text more meaningful for them. Through this means they can more easily be moved to devotion and better disposed to receive the fruits of grace coming from the celebration of the holy mysteries. (s. 6)
A number of things are to be noted here:
1) It is the liturgical texts themselves which are to be "clothe[d] with suitable melody"; consequently the "chief function" of sacred music could be said to be "singing the Mass" rather than "singing at Mass". 2) Since the purpose of the music is to make the text "more meaningful" so the faithful can be "moved to devotion" and "better disposed" we not only begin to see what Saint Pius X means by "active participation", but already have the germ of what the Second Vatican Council will refer to as "full, conscious, and active participation."
Sacred music must, therefore, possess in the highest degree the qualities which characterize the liturgy. In particular it must possess holiness and beauty of form: from these two qualities a third will spontaneously ariseuniversality.
Sacred music must be holy, and therefore exclude everything that is secular, both in itself and its rendition.
It must be true art. In no other way can it affect the minds of the hearers in the manner which the Church intends in admitting into her liturgy the art of sound.
It must also be universal in this sense, that, although individual countries may admit into their ecclesiastical compositions proper forms native to each, still these forms must remain so subordinate to the general character of sacred music that no hearer of another nation might be disturbed thereby. (s. 7)
Here we have not only a criterion for judging all liturgical music, but alsowell in advance of recent concernsa very practical one for judging its proper "inculturation." Will Saint Pius X draw any other practical conclusions from these traditional principles?
These qualities are found most perfectly in Gregorian Chant, which is the proper chant of the Roman Church the only chant inherited from the ancient Fathers. Jealously guarding it these many centuries in her liturgical books, the Church directly proposes it to the faithful as her own music and prescribes it exclusively for some parts of her liturgy. Happily, recent studies have restored this chant to its original purity and integrity.
For these reasons Gregorian Chant has always been considered the supreme model of sacred music. Hence with every reason we lay down the following rule: "the more closely a Church composition approaches Gregorian Chant in movement, inspiration, and feeling, the more holy and liturgical it becomes; and the more it deviates from this supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple."
This traditional Gregorian Chant must be fully restored to functions of divine worship. It must be accepted with certainty that the sacred liturgy loses nothing of its solemnity when the chant alone is used.
This paragraph then concludes with a striking sentence which reveals exactly what Saint Pius X intended when he introduced the expression "active participation" into a document whose unique purpose is the restoration of sacred music:
Gregorian Chant must be restored to the people so that they may again take a more active part in the sacred liturgy, as was the case in ancient times. (s. 8)
The conclusion is inevitable: According to the mind of Saint Pius X, not only does "active participation" not exclude Gregorian Chant; it is precisely in the singing of the parts of the Mass in Gregorian Chant, by the people, that this active participation consists!
Nor did Saint Pius X perceive Latin to be a hindrance to this active participation that he was seeking to promote: Latin is the language of the Roman Church. Therefore, any vernacular singing during solemn liturgical functions is forbidden. This holds even more especially for the proper and common parts of the Mass and the Office. (s. 14)
Father Fessio is Editor of Ignatius Press.
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Home | Join/Donate | Adoremus Bulletin | Archive | Index | Church Documents | Architecture | Posture | Music | Translation | What's NEW? | FAQ | Search Site | Site Map | <urn:uuid:107afa45-9a19-4a0d-be47-0ff47a10d587> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.adoremus.org/1195-FessioPartic.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941399 | 2,732 | 2.578125 | 3 |
In the 52nd annual Robert D. Klein Lecture, psychology professor Iris Berent argued that human language is a product of a specialized biological system, that we are innately equipped with a language instinct.
Provost James C. Bean announced this week that Iris Berent is this year’s Robert D. Klein Lecturer.
Research on spoken languages has shown that they rely on the human brain’s ability to unconsciously encode patterns in speech in the form of abstract rules. But do those same rules operate in American Sign Language?
New research from Northeastern professor of psychology Iris Berent and her colleagues indicates that language and motor systems are intricately linked—though not in the way that has been widely believed.
A groundbreaking study published in PLOS ONE by Prof. Iris Berent of Northeastern University and researchers at Harvard Medical School shows the brains of individual speakers are sensitive to language universals.
Humans are unique in their ability to acquire language. But how? A new study published in the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences shows that we are in fact born with the basic fundamental knowledge of language, thus shedding light on the age-old linguistic “nature vs. nurture” debate.
Dyslexia affects about 10 percent of the population, and its cause is up for discussion.
Humans favor speech as the primary means of linguistic communication. Spoken languages are so common many think language and speech are one and the same. But the prevalence of sign languages suggests otherwise. Not only can Deaf communities generate language using manual gestures, but their languages share some of their design and neural mechanisms with spoken languages. New research by Northeastern University’s Prof. Iris Berent further underscores the flexibility of human language and its robustness across both spoken and signed channels of communication.
Many species on the planet employ a unique form of communication.
All languages—spoken or signed—are comprised of patterns of meaningless elements. | <urn:uuid:f8cd502c-0158-4cf5-bf52-e6a7741e6982> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.northeastern.edu/cos/tag/iris-berent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940409 | 398 | 3.453125 | 3 |
If anything can be considered a driving force in ecology, it is the weather. The following questions are representative of several I’ve received in the last month.
Q: Much of the southeastern United States has had more rainfall this summer than normal, and weather reports for the Southwest, Midwest and Northeast blab on about how hot it is or how much flooding there is. Considering that a year ago we were talking about the extended drought everywhere, what exactly is “normal”?
Has the record-breaking spring and summer rainfall in many parts of the South had any negative impacts on wildlife – either plants, animals or both? Are the reports of greater numbers of snakes, alligators and mosquitoes real?
A: “Everybody talks about the weather but nobody does anything about it.” That’s as true now as it was at the turn of the 20th century when Charles Dudley Warner (or possibly Mark Twain) first said it. Weather in most parts of the world is notorious for being unpredictable, and people (including weather forecasters) are going to talk about what they consider unusual.
Twain (or maybe Warner) also said, “Climate is what we expect; weather is what we get.”
Thus, “normal” weather for a region or a season changes slightly each year. Actually, having weather that was the same as last year is unusual. The average temperatures, rainfall, wind speeds, etc. all vary from year to year. This natural phenomenon of fluctuating annual weather patterns is one reason climate change models are so difficult for some people to comprehend.
Native wildlife can adjust and adapt to whatever natural weather conditions occur. Extended periods of rain, drought, cold or heat, which vary independent of each other from year to year, are quite natural. No matter what the prevailing weather is over several weeks or months, even from one year to the next, some species will be winners and some will be losers. That has been the natural pattern of species survival for millions of years. The species that are here today had ancestors that successfully weathered the variability and extremes in temperature and rainfall of the region they lived in. That’s one of the wonders of evolution.
Much of the Southeast began experiencing an overabundance of rain starting in early summer, but such weather is in no way unprecedented. Therefore, although a few individual organisms may perish, virtually all species of plants and animals – native, invasive or exotic – will persist. A species may be extirpated locally or even over a wide region due to extreme weather. But except in the very rarest of situations, the species itself will continue to exist somewhere. The problems created by various man-made environmental impacts are much greater and have a far more lasting effect than those caused by any natural regional weather conditions.
Some species become more apparent when unseasonably cloudy, rainy and cooler weather occurs during a southern summer. For example, summer breeding frogs might well be more active during such conditions, which can lead to greater activity by animals that eat frogs and tadpoles. Snakes in particular are more likely to be seen on quests for food. Meanwhile, mosquitoes become more abundant during rainy periods in summer. The upside is that insect-eating bats and dragonflies, as well as fish that eat the aquatic larvae, will prosper because of an increased food supply.
The growth of certain grasses and shrubs can also be stimulated by wetter conditions, which in turn might lead to an increase in herbivores such as deer or rabbits. Or various rodents such as rats and mice may become more obvious in areas where they might not usually be seen. Again, more food for certain snakes. And alligators, in areas where they occur naturally, are more likely to be encountered because they tend to move overland during humid weather.
Natural fluctuations in weather are, well, natural. And barring human-caused environmental complications, native species will adjust to such variations, just as their ancestors did before them.
Send environmental questions to firstname.lastname@example.org.
Whit Gibbons is an ecologist and environmental educator with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. | <urn:uuid:79886fc6-a964-4dc9-96e4-d8b5c29903df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aikenstandard.com/article/20130804/AIK0403/130809795/0/survey-positive-increase-in-local-kids-8217-well-being/unusual-summer-x2019-s-effects-on-wildlife | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969445 | 857 | 3.09375 | 3 |
ATLANTA -- The monovalent 2009 H1N1 vaccine is both effective and safe, according to several studies presented here.
In a case-control study conducted in four U.S. communities, the immunization had a vaccine efficacy of 62%, David Shay, MD, MPH, of the CDC's influenza division, told members of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) during one of its regular meetings.
According to William Schaffner, MD, chairman of the department of preventive medicine at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, that figure is consistent with seasonal influenza vaccines that are well-matched to the circulating virus.
"It sounds low, but it's actually right on target," said Schaffner, who is also an ACIP liaison representative for the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.
"We have to acknowledge that influenza vaccine at its best is a good vaccine, but it's still not one of our great vaccines," he said. "The research still has to go on to make a better vaccine, but these are performance characteristics that we expected and we're satisfied with."
ACIP members also heard the results of several studies using various surveillance methods that Schaffner said showed the monovalent H1N1 vaccine to be "spectacularly safe."
For the effectiveness study, Shay and his colleagues assessed the ability of various vaccine products to prevent laboratory-confirmed H1N1 flu in four sites -- Marshfield, Wis., southeast Michigan, Rochester, N.Y., and Nashville -- from October 2009 to January 2010.
The study prospectively enrolled 4,156 patients who sought medical attention for acute respiratory symptoms and received testing by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Those who were positive for 2009 H1N1 influenza served as cases (897 patients) and those who were negative served as controls (3,259 patients).
Vaccination status was self-reported. Only 33% of the participants reported receiving the seasonal vaccine, and 9.8% said they received the pandemic vaccine.
Shay and his colleagues found that, as expected, the seasonal vaccine did not provide any protection against illness caused by the new H1N1 virus.
The pandemic vaccine, on the other hand, was 62% effective (95% CI 18% to 82%). The results were similar whether the vaccine was received more than a week or more than two weeks before symptom onset.
Several studies were presented to the ACIP members examining the safety of the monovalent vaccine -- in particular, the risk of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS).
Data came from the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System, the Real Time Immunization Monitoring System, the Emerging Infections Program, the Vaccine Safety Datalink project, and the Post-Licensure Rapid Immunization Safety Monitoring Network.
There were also analyses conducted in a Medicare population, at the Department of Veterans Affairs, and at the Indian Health Service.
The only dataset that demonstrated a statistically significant increased risk of GBS was the Emerging Infections Program, as reported earlier this month in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.
The rate of GBS cases in vaccinated individuals was 1.92 per 100,000 person-years, compared with 1.21 in unvaccinated individuals (rate ratio 1.77, 95% CI 1.12 to 2.56).
If confirmed, the finding would equate to about 0.8 additional cases of GBS per million vaccinations, which is similar to that found with seasonal influenza vaccines.
Schaffner downplayed the risk of GBS.
"If there was any increased risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome, it was so small it was barely measurable, and people are still not convinced that the vaccine really did predispose to Guillain-Barré syndrome," he said.
ACIP chair Carol Baker, MD, a pediatric infectious disease specialist at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, said that, taken together, all of the studies provided strong and extensive evidence that the vaccine is safe.
"I hope everyone that's listening ... is very assured by this data," she said. "I do not know of data that are this strong for any vaccine that we've ever used in our country."
Schaffner praised the unprecedented effort to monitor safety in the vaccine.
"The assessment activities were extraordinary in their intensity and comprehensiveness looking for any notable adverse event," he said.
Shay reported that he had no conflicts of interest.
Various ACIP members reported financial relationships, either through their institutions or personally, with MedImmune, Sanofi Pasteur, Novartis, and Pfizer.
- Reviewed by Robert Jasmer, MD Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and Dorothy Caputo, MA, RN, BC-ADM, CDE, Nurse Planner
Advisory Committee on Immunization PracticesSource Reference: Shay D, et al "Effectiveness of U.S. influenza A(H1N1) 2009 monovalent vaccines in preventing healthcare visits associated with RT-PCR-confirmed 2009 H1N1 infections" ACIP 2010. | <urn:uuid:e727d2a6-7fe0-44fb-81a3-1b0cef2f005c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medpagetoday.com/MeetingCoverage/ACIP/20910 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967592 | 1,067 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Hunting wildlife for the pot and for commercial sale is far more widespread than most people realize, and is leading to an ‘empty forest’ syndrome in many parts of the country. M.D. Madhusudan and K. Ullas Karanth conducted a fascinating study on local hunting around two wildlife reserves in Karnataka. These are the results of their study, excerpted from their original scientific paper published in Ambio in 2002.
- Mammals that weigh over one kilo are the most prone to hunting by humans.
- Their meat and by-products – hide, horn, and bone – make large mammals attractive targets. On the other hand, these mammals are vulnerable to extinction—they naturally require large home ranges and bulky diets, have slow rates of growth and maturation, small litter sizes, long life-spans, and are found in low densities.
- Excessive hunting could well push vulnerable populations over the brink.
There are two distinct types of hunting in India:
- The first, market hunting, refers to the well-organized hunting of selected species for ivory, rhino-horn, tiger-bone, bear-bile, shahtoosh, etc.
- The second, local hunting, is a loosely organized activity, prevalent everywhere. It is driven by local tradition, sport, or demand for wild meat. Local hunting is a big threat to Indian wildlife, since it targets a wider variety of species, and is carried out by far greater numbers of people.
The surveys were conducted during 1996–97 in and around two National Parks in Karnataka: Kudremukh and Nagarahole
Kudremukh study areas: Kudremukh National Park is surrounded by at least 88 villages (population > 2,80,000 in the 1990s), with another 98 small hamlets (population unknown) located within the Park. In addition, the Malleshwara mining township (population c. 4,000) is also located within the Park. In Kudremukh, the study focused on getting information on the intensity of hunting, and describing patterns of hunting like prey-choice and hunting techniques used. Since all hunting in India is forbidden under law, the study was probing an illicit activity, and one that people were not comfortable discussing. Hence, the authors carried out a pilot survey in the region before launching the actual study. Based on this survey, they chose three widely separated villages bordering the forests, which they believed would be easier to gather and verify information on hunting. The population of these villages, taken together was c. 9000.
Nagarahole study areas: The Park stretches across the districts of Kodagu and Mysore, and is dominated by moist and dry deciduous forests, and supports a rich assemblage of large herbivores and their predators. Based on decades of experience in the Park area, the authors identified two moist forest patches for the study – Arkeri and Nalkeri – each about 70 sq km in area, but differing with respect to pressures of hunting. Hunting pressure was consistently higher in Arkeri owing to the fact that, until 1995, it lacked wildlife protection staff with the exclusive responsibility of controlling hunting. Arkeri also offered better access to local meat markets, maintaining the higher levels of hunting there.
Methodology In Kudremukh, the interviewees were given two sets of questions:
- The first set of questions pertained to the large mammal fauna of the area. Besides gathering information on the presence–absence of various large mammals, the respondents were also asked about their impressions of changes in the populations of these species over the last decade.
- The second set of questions essentially surveyed hunting practices of each individual hunter. These included details on the species they had hunted the most, common hunting techniques and practices, and motivations for hunting. In addition, information was also gathered on the ethnicity, education, and economic profile of the interviewees (including land-ownership, annual income, monetary losses in conflict with wildlife).
In Nagarahole, the authors carried out systematic line transect surveys simultaneously in Nalkeri and Arkeri to estimate the abundance of nine species of diurnal mammals: Indian giant squirrel, bonnet macaque, common langur, barking deer, wild pig, chital, sambar, gaur, and Asian elephant. They also interviewed local hunters and neutral informants and forest department staff to assess hunting patterns and enforcement capabilities, respectively.
- At least 26 species of mammals were hunted in Kudremukh. On average, a hunter had hunted 18 species of mammals during his lifetime. The chevrotain (mouse deer) was the most-hunted mammal (78%), followed by the common langur (60%) and the Indian giant squirrel (50%).
- Hunting was common both by day (74% of hunters) and night (89%), and a variety of hunting techniques were documented. Locally crafted, muzzle-loading guns were the most popular means of hunting (94% of hunters), while 45% of hunters reported using snares to hunt ungulates, primarily pigs, near crop land. Although all hunters did not own guns, 97% of them had either borrowed or lent guns.
- The hunters interviewed represented diverse ethnic communities. Yet, most hunters (68%) hunted for the pot, while 48% also cited the thrill of sport as a reason for hunting. Eighty-eight percent of the hunters regarded wildmeat as a non-essential item in their diet. Nearly all of them had access to alternative sources of animal protein: 98% of hunters raised cattle for milk, while 93% raised poultry.
- While most hunting is for the pot and most wildmeat is consumed locally, hunters are increasingly catering to fast-growing markets for wildmeat in nearby urban centers. For instance, meat from an adult wild pig sells at around Rs. 2500 (in the early 90s when the survey was conducted) which is approximately 50% of the average annual per capita income of the hunters.
- About 80% of hunters reported crop losses from wildlife depredation. The reported annual loss incurred due to wildlife depredation averaged at Rs. 950 (in the early 90s when the survey was conducted), which, assuming a family size of 5, worked out to 24% of annual per capita income.
- Although literacy levels in Dakshina Kannada are high, about 18% of hunters interviewed were unaware of the legal restrictions on hunting. Virtually all sites recorded violation of religious taboos. Hunting was seen among Brahmins and Jains, both groups that shun violence against animals and are considered strictly vegetarian, Muslims who hunted the tabooed wild pig, and Hindus who hunted the venerated bonnet macaque even within sacred forests.
- The ‘empty forest’ syndrome suggests direct persecution of large mammals through hunting. The statements of the hunters in the region also support such an inference: 75% of all hunters identified hunting as the single most important factor responsible for the depressed abundance of large mammals in this area.
- There is an absence of large mammals even where vast stretches of relatively intact habitat exist, and other anthropogenic pressures like extraction of non-timber forest produce and cattle-grazing are minimal.
- None of the 62 hunters interviewed reported encounters with enforcement staff when on hunts, and none was ever apprehended or prosecuted.
- Estimates by the local hunters and informants indicated that hunting in Arkeri was about three times as intense as in Nalkeri. Sixteen of the 29 mammal species (weight > 1 kg) present in Nagaraholé were regularly hunted.
- Although shotguns were the most popular method of hunting, tribal hunters also used at least 8 other traditional techniques to hunt large mammals.
- Among the 9 large mammal species whose densities were estimated, 6 species – giant squirrel, bonnet macaque, langur, chital, wild pig and gaur – occurred at significantly lower densities in Arkeri, the heavily hunted site. The abundance of muntjac and sambar did not differ between Arkeri and Nalkeri, despite the fact that they were eagerly sought out and killed by hunters. The elephant was the only species occurring at a significantly higher density in the heavily hunted site, Arkeri
- Factors responsible for the higher levels of hunting at Arkeri included: fewer patrolling roads and vehicles, poorer communication facilities, and an ill-equipped armoury; slack patrolling schedules, absence of permanent anti-poaching camps; and its highly-dissected boundaries, which made border patrolling in Arkeri difficult.
- Although, as in Kudremukh, most hunters catered to local wild meat consumption, a certain segment of hunters in Arkeri operated exclusively to supply wild meat to eateries in nearby towns, and neighboring Kerala.
- However, unlike Kudremukh, where shotgun hunting almost completely eclipsed other techniques, Nagarahole presented a far greater variety of traditional hunting techniques.
- The giant squirrel, bonnet macaque and langur – all small-bodied arboreal mammals of diurnal habits – were vulnerable to similar hunting techniques. Traditional techniques, which are silent, in contrast to gun hunting, take a heavy toll on these arboreal species.
- Overall, hunters at Arkeri target small and medium-sized prey, which are easy to kill using varied hunting techniques.
The study concentrated on the diurnal complement of the larger mammals hunted in the region. It did not estimate abundances of other large mammals, which were mostly nocturnal, and hence, was unable to assess hunting impacts on them. However, the impact of hunting on these species, most of which are vulnerable tree-cavity and burrow dwellers, may indeed be quite serious.
Managing Hunting in India: Sustainable Use or Preservation?
The management of natural resources worldwide has largely been driven by two divergent and influential approaches: sustainable use and preservationism. The sustainable-use approach is founded on the basic premise that extraction of a resource can be so regulated that it does not compromise either the integrity of the resource, or its ability to renew itself. In contrast, the preservationist approach argues that, under prevailing contexts of rising economic aspirations of users, and spiralling demands from commercial markets for resources, restrained extraction is an unattainable practical goal. Therefore, it advocates a complete cessation on extractive use as the only practical, clearcut, enforceable option to ensure the continued survival of a resource. In the past (1955–74), wildlife managers in India attempted to regulate hunting, and failed. If regulated hunting has not been achieved under authoritarian initiatives, neither are there examples of successful self-imposed, community-based regulation of large mammal harvest which demonstrate their sustainability with reliable data. In the absence of data, the authors believe that mere reinforcement of native conservation traditions is a naive management strategy, fraught with grave risks to large mammals. The rare Indian examples of traditional wildlife preservationism (e.g. the Bishnois of Rajasthan who protect antelopes), are completely overwhelmed by numerous examples of rampant native wildlife consumerism (tradition-driven hunting for meat, hides, horns, and other wildlife products). In conclusion, although a variety of approaches promise the continued survival of India’s large mammals, the data in this study, stripped of its ideological content, highlights one simple irrefutable fact; large mammals thrive under scrupulous protection, but continue to wilt under intense pressures of local hunting. Thus, while we look for socially acceptable, economically equitable, and morally agreeable ways of minimizing hunting pressures on large mammals, there is no escape from investing substantially in their explicit protection. First published as ‘Local hunting and the conservation of large mammals in India’ by M.D. Madhusudan and K. Ullas Karanth in Ambio, Vol. 31 No. 1, February 2002. For a more detailed understanding of the study we suggest you read the original paper. Download the PDF here. | <urn:uuid:369876f8-a94d-484a-ba12-f341686cefb0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservationindia.org/articles/local-hunting-and-conservation-of-large-mammals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954181 | 2,485 | 3 | 3 |
Phishing (from fishing) is a form of internet deception, usually using email or copies of popular websites. Phishers use emails or websites which appear to be a trustworthy entity. Here they try to fraudulently acquire sensitive information, such as user names, passwords, Social Security Numbers, and credit card details from their unsuspecting victims.
One commonly suggested method of avoiding phishing scams is to check the URL to ensure that one is on the proper website before entering any personal information or credit card numbers online. The best option is to contact the company whom the email claims to be associated with. Phishing scams often claim to be a user's bank, or a service they may use (such as eBay), needing personal details confirmed as a security measure. In fact these practises are not something that legitimate companies engage in. Consumers are urged to report phishing emails and websites they encounter to their email providers and to the Federal Trade Commission. | <urn:uuid:a78cf4e7-034a-4a28-9e5f-340dd5e7590c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/Phishing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944913 | 188 | 3 | 3 |
KALLIHIRUA (modern spelling Qalasirssuaq, also known as Caloosà and Erasmus York, baptized Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua), Inuit guide; b. probably between 1832 and 1835 in the Thule region of northwest Greenland, son of Qissunguaq (Kirshung-oak) and Saattoq (Sa-too); d. unmarried 14 June 1856 in St John’s.
Kallihirua was encamped with a small group of Inuit at Cape York, Greenland, when Captain Erasmus Ommanney, commanding the Assistance and participating in Horatio Thomas Austin*’s expedition in search of Sir John Franklin*, called therein August 1850. He went on board the ship and consented to accompany the expedition as guide. The ship’s company gave him the name Erasmus York after their captain and the cape where he was taken aboard. One of his first tasks was to help check the veracity of a story reported by Adam Beck, an Inuk from southern Greenland who had been employed by Sir John Ross to act as interpreter aboard the Felix, another vessel engaged in the Franklin search that year. According to Beck, natives of the Cape York region had told him of the massacre of two ships’ crews, presumed to be Franklin’s, near Cape Dudley Digges in 1846. Kallihirua took the Assistance north, past the cape to Wolstenholme Fjord and showed Ommanney where another search vessel, the North Star, and its crew had passed the previous winter in the company of his own band. Some members of both groups had died of sickness but there was no sign of a massacre and no sign of Franklin. Kallihirua stayed with the Assistance for the remainder of the expedition, wintering on board near Griffith Island in Barrow Strait (N.W.T.). During the return voyage there was no opportunity to land him back at Cape York, so he went with the expedition to England, arriving in the autumn of 1851.
In November, at the suggestion of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and by direction of the Admiralty, he was placed in St Augustine’s College, a college for the education of missionary clergy of the Church of England, at Canterbury. There he was taught to read and write and was given religious instruction; for a year and a half he also spent five hours a day in the shop of a Canterbury tailor learning the trade. During 1852 and 1853 he helped Captain John Washington to revise his Eskimaux and English vocabulary, for the use of the Arctic expeditions (London, 1850). He was baptized Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua in St Martin’s Church near Canterbury on 27 Nov. 1853, in the presence of, among others, Eleanor Isabella Gell (Sir John Franklin’s daughter) and Captain Ommanney, who still maintained a fatherly interest in his welfare.
He left England in autumn 1855 for further religious training at Queen’s College (formerly the Theological Institute) in St John’s. Plans were made by the bishop of Newfoundland, Edward Feild*, for Kallihirua to accompany him on a trip to the coast of Labrador in the summer of 1856 where he was to begin missionary work among the Inuit. However, Kallihirua’s health, which had been poor since he had left the Arctic, suddenly became worse and he died at the college before he could leave St John’s.
Kallihirua was one of a small number of Inuit who, in the 19th century, won a degree of international fame through their association with polar expeditions. Even fewer had the experience of visiting the outside world; he was almost certainly the first of the Inuit of northern Greenland to do so. He appears to have adapted readily and cheerfully to his new life and to have won the affection and admiration of both Ommanney and his missionary colleagues, who had high hopes for his career before his premature death.
Cathedral of St John the Baptist (Anglican) (St John’s), Reg. of burials, 17 June 1856 (mfm. at PANL). G.B., Parl., Command paper, 1852, 50, [no.1436]: 269–670, Additional papers relative to the Arctic expedition . . . , 603–4; House of Commons paper, 1851, 33, no.97: 195–307, Arctic expeditions, return to an address of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 7 February 1851; – for, copy or extracts from any correspondence or proceedings of the Board of Admiralty in relation to the Arctic expeditions . . . , 297–301. W. P. Snow, Voyage of the “Prince Albert” in search of Sir John Franklin: a narrative of every-day life in the Arctic seas (London, 1851). Times and General Commercial Gazette (St John’s), 18 June 1856. T. B. Murray, Kalli, the Esquimaux Christian; a memoir (new ed., London, ). Aage Bugge, “Kallihirua, polareskimoen i Canterbury” and “Polareskimoen i Canterbury: supplerende oplysninger vedr. Kallihirua” in Gr
pnland (Charlottenlund, Denmark), 1965: 161–75 and 1966: 17–22. | <urn:uuid:b22e1535-bf1b-4d97-8085-97ff427f6c69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/kallihirua_8E.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969981 | 1,166 | 2.953125 | 3 |
You know that there are 7 continents(6 if you were taught geography in Europe) right now, but do you really know the definition of what is a continent? There are many different, and confusing definitions of what a continent is. The most widely accepted one says that a continent is defined as a large, continuous, discrete mass of land, ideally separated by an expanse of water. This definition somewhat confuses things. Many of the current continents are not discrete landmasses separated by water. The word large leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086 km2 is considered the world’s largest island, but Australia with a land mass of 7,617,930 km2 is a continent. The qualification that each be a continuous landmass is disregarded because of the inclusion of the continental shelf and oceanic islands and is contradicted by classifying North and South America and Asia and Africa as continents, without a natural separation by water. This idea continues if the land mass of Europe and Asia is considered as two continents. Also, the Earth’s major landmasses are surrounded by one, continuous World ocean that has been divided into a number of principal ‘oceans’ by the land masses themselves and various other geographic criteria.
The number of continents has changed throughout the evolution of the Earth. Plate tectonics and continental drift have forced changes on continental composition. The planet began with one single land mass(the Mesezoic Era). This continent was not suddenly there. It was the result of partially solidified magma being smashed together by plate tectonics and continental drift. Those forces remain at work today.
To further confuse things, different parts of the world teach different versions of the continents. The seven-continent model is usually taught in China and most English speaking countries. A six continent model combining Europe and Asia is preferred by the geographic community, the former parts of the USSR, and Japan. Another six continent model combining North and South America is taught in Latin America and most of Europe.
The answer to ‘what is a continent’ is more by convention than strict definition. Hopefully, this will help to clear some of the confusion that you had before you started reading this article.
We have written many articles about the continents for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the biggest continent, and here’s an article about the continental drift theory.
We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth. | <urn:uuid:65e688c8-16a3-4021-b2a5-954568f1987d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.universetoday.com/72611/what-is-a-continent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956558 | 524 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Home | Tetranychinae Home | Glossary
Common names: Two-spotted mite, Fourspotted mite, Carmine spider mite, Red bean spider mite, Desert spider mite, McDaniel spider mite, Pacific spider mite, Schoene spider mite, Strawberry spider mite, Tumid spider mite
Probability of Encounter: Very high
Quarantine importance: Very high. Tetranychus is probably the most economically important genus of mites, with member of the two-spotted mite complex, such as T. urticae (Koch) and T. cinnabarinus (Boisduval), attacking an extraordinary diversity of economically important plants throughout the world. About 140 species of Tetranychus have been described and distributed across a variety of subgenera. Species identifications invariably require a good lateral mount of the male aedeagus, and even then only a specialist with extensive experience is likely to feel confident of the identification. Exotic species that are a potential threat to US agriculture include:
Tetranychus lombardinii Baker & Pritchard attacks banana, beans, cassava, cotton, cucumber, melons, papaya, passion fruit, potato, soybean, castor bean, sweet potato, tomato, tobacco, alfalfa, sorghum and a variety of other plants in Asia, Africa, Indonesia, and Australia.
Tetranychus macfarlanei Baker & Pritchard attacks bananas, beans, cotton, cucumber, eggplant, melons, okra, papaya, peanut, watermelon, and ornamentals in India, Madagascar, Mauritius, and the Canary Islands.
Tetranychus lambi Pritchard & Baker attacks banana, cassava, beans, clover, cotton, cucumber, eggplant, fruit trees, okra, peanut, soybean, squash, tobacco, grasses and ornamentals in Iran, Asia, and most Pacific islands including Australia and New Zealand.
Tetranychus fijiensis Hirst (the only species known with only 2 pairs of proximoventral hairs) attacks citrus and other fruit trees and ornamentals in India, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands, including Australia.
Tetranychus piercei McGergor is a pest of banana, beans, cassava, eggplant, mulberry, papaya, passion fruit, peach, sweet potato, and a diversity of ornamentals primarily in Asia and has recently been found in the US.
Tetranychus truncatus Ehara attacks banana, cassava, beans, maize, cucumber, eggplant, fruit trees, okra, onions, orchids, rice, soybean, sweet potato, and a variety of ornamentals in Asia and on Pacific islands.
Tetranychus amicus Meyer & Rodrigues attacks banana, cassava, beans, cotton, eggplant, peanut, soybean, sweet potato and ornamentals in South Africa and on Indian Ocean islands.
With 1 pair of paranal setae (h3); setae h2 terminal, not in paranal position; seta h1 absent.
Empodium split into 2-3 pairs of proximoventral hairs.
Mediodorsal empodial spur generally present, sometimes well developed.
Duplex setae of tarsus I well separated.
Peritremes recurved distally., simple.
Similar taxa. The empodia have tenent hairs in the Bryobiinae. Eutetranychini (e.g. species of Eutetranychus) have a claw-like or highly regressed empodium. Other Tetranychini have either 2 pairs of paranal setae (e.g. Allonychus, Panonychus) or have hooked empodia with proximoventral hairs and the duplex setae of tarsus I distal and adjacent (e.g. Oligonychus) or lack an empodial spur and have peritremes anastomosed distally (Amphitetranychus).
Baker EW & AE Pritchard. 1960. The tetranychoid mites of Africa. Hilgardia 29(11): 455-574.
Baker EW & DM Tuttle. 1994. A guide to the spider mites (Tetranychidae) of the United States. Indira Pub. House, West Bloomfield, MI: 347 pp.
Beard JJ, Walter DE, & Allsopp P. 2003. Spider Mites of Sugarcane in Australia: A Review of Grass-feeding Oligonychus Berlese (Acari: Prostigmata: Tetranychidae) with the description of four new species. Australian Journal of Entomology 42: 51-78.
Bolland HR, J Gutierre & CHW Flechtmann. 1998. World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae). Brill: Leiden.
Flechtmann CHW & DK Knihinicki 2002. New species and new record of Tetranychus Dufour from Australia, with a key to the major groups in this genus based on adult females (Acari: Postigmata: Tetranychidae). Aust. J. Entomol. 41: 118-127.
Helle W & MW Sabelis (eds.) 1985. Spider Mites, Their Biology, Natural Enemies, and Control, vol. 1A. Elsevier: New York.
Jeppson LR, HH Keifer & EW Baker. 1975. Mites Injurious to Economic Plants, University of California Press: Berkeley
Meyer, M.K.P. 1974. A revision of the Tetranychidae of Africa (Acari) with a key to the genera of the world. Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv. Mem. 36: 291 pp.
Meyer, M.K.P. Smith 1987. African Tetranychidae (Acari: Prostigmata) - with reference to the world genera. S. Afr. Dept. Agr. Water Supply, Entomol. Mem. No. 69: 175 pp.
Mignon A & CHW Flechtmann 2004. First additions and corrections to the World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae). Intern. J. Acarol. 30: 143-152.
Navajas M, J Gutierrez & T Gotoh 1997. Convergence of molecular and morphological data reveals phylogenetic information in Tetranychus species and allows the restoration of the genus Amphitetranychus (Acari: Tetranychidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 87: 283-288.
Ochoa R, H Aguilar & C Vargas 1994. Phytophagous Mites of Central America: An Illustrated Guide CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Tseng Y-H 1990. A monograph of the mite family Tetranychidae (Acarina: Trombidiformes) from Taiwan. Taiwan Museum Special Publication series 9. 224 pp.
Zhang Z-Q. 2003. Mites of greenhouses: identification, biology and control. CABI Publishing, Wallingford: 244 pp. | <urn:uuid:5e2649ba-6ca7-4711-8d20-1c9d62b1813c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://itp.lucidcentral.org/id/mites/invasive_mite/Invasive_Mite_Identification/key/Tetranychinae/Media/Html/Tetranychus.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.67278 | 1,574 | 3.15625 | 3 |
What and when we plant
Your tree will be a 2 year old, 40-60cm little sapling. This is the size foresters recommend for woodland schemes, as they transplant effectively and establish themselves quickly.
We host two events during the planting season between November and March. This is when trees are in a dormant phase allowing them to be moved to their new home in The National Forest.
On the day, after choosing your tree, you will be guided to the planting area. Friends and family are welcome to join you, and many people bring a camera to record this special event.
Examples of Tree Species:
In Britain, oaks can live for over 1000 years. Acorns in their cups are a well known feature of the tree. The Anglo-Saxon name for oak was 'aik', so the seed was known as an 'aik-corn'.
Silver Birch has white bark. Its twigs are hairless and the leaf edges are double-toothed. The branches droop at the tip which is why its scientific name is pendula or hanging. | <urn:uuid:6e6ab2cd-f20b-40c2-ae08-dcb0324ceb82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalforest.org/sponsor/plantatree/whatandwhen.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972364 | 222 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Emissions Intensity Falling Globally
Emissions intensity, the amount of carbon generated from fossil fuel use per unit of gross domestic product (GDP), fell globally in all but two years between 1994 and 2006, according to a World Bank study, reports the New York Times’ Green Inc. blog.
A key finding of the study indicates that reducing the amount of energy required to produce a unit of GDP, particularly in the service sector, has been the greatest contributor to curbing emissions growth.
The study, Changes in CO2 Emissions from Energy Use (PDF), also finds that the growth of GDP per capita and growth in population contributed the most to the net increase in emissions, while reducing energy intensity contributed the most to the net decrease in emissions.
Masami Kojima, the lead energy specialist with the World Bank, and one of the authors of the study, told the Green Inc. blog that emissions reductions in individual countries show a mixed picture, which highlights to challenge of de-coupling emissions from economic growth.
As an example, between 2001 and 2006, emissions in countries like Italy and China grew rapidly relative to GDP, while emissions from fossil fuel use in the United States continued to rise with economic growth, but at a slowing rate between 2001 and 2006, largely due to emissions reductions by the American industrial sector, reports the Green Inc. blog.
A handful of countries, including Denmark and Germany, significantly reduced emissions and in relation to economic growth, but the study did not analyze the specific policies within each country that led to changes in emissions, according to the article.
“It would be helpful to policy makers in Copenhagen to pay attention to these results, particularly to lessons learned in countries that have been successful in reducing energy intensity,” said Warren Evans, the director of the World Bank, in a statement.
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- Oberlin, Ohio, Ratepayers to Receive $2.2M in Rebates for Sale of RECs | <urn:uuid:c5c0e6d2-a8c8-489b-9173-26f5b32f990d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.environmentalleader.com/2009/11/06/emissions-intensity-falling-globally/?graph=full | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922664 | 508 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Scopas or Skopas was an Ancient Greek sculptor and architect, born on the island of Paros. Scopas worked with Praxiteles, and he sculpted parts of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, especially the reliefs. He led the building of the new temple of Athena Alea at Tegea. Similar to Lysippus, Scopas is in his art a successor of the Classical Greek sculptor Polykleitos. The faces of the heads almost in quadrat with deeply sunken eyes and a slightly opened mouth are specific characters in the figures of Scopas.
Works after Scopas are preserved in the British Museum in London; fragments from the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens; the celebrated Ludovisi Ares in the Palazzo Altemps, Rome; a statue of Pothos restored as Apollo Citharoedus in the Capitoline Museum, Rome; and a statue of Meleager, unmentioned in ancient literature but surviving in numerous replicas, perhaps best represented by a torso in the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts. | <urn:uuid:9e3bd409-68e4-4e2f-b6ef-b4afa6ad0f76> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.worldofquotes.com/author/Scopas/1/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940536 | 243 | 2.796875 | 3 |
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What is Sexual Assault?
Sexual assault is forced, manipulated or coerced sexual contact. It includes rape, child sexual abuse, same-sex assault, acquaintance rape, harassment and marital rape. The perpetrator uses sex to inflict physical and emotional violence and humiliation on the victim, or to exert power and control over the victim. Men almost always perpetrate sexual assaults—even when the victims are other men or boys.
People of every age, race, religion and physical appearance are raped. National statistics indicate that 1 in 6 women and 1 in 33 men have been sexually assaulted at least once in their lifetime. (1) The majority of sexual assault victims experience their first assault before their eighteenth birthday. Some people experience on-going sexual abuse during their childhood, a dating relationship or marriage. Other people experience multiple assaults at the hands of various assailants throughout their lives.
Many victims fear they will be killed or permanently disfigured during a sexual assault, even if such acts are not threatened. Perpetrators will use whatever level of violence necessary to achieve their goal. Rape victims may feel a wide variety of emotions after the physical assault has ended. These include fear, guilt, disbelief, numbness, anger, grief, depression, and a loss of control over their lives. These feeling can last for years after the assault and can result in stress related illnesses, addictions to drugs or alcohol, eating disorders, drastic lifestyle changes, and even suicide. Recovery from a sexual assault can be a slow and painful process for both the victim, and those who are close to him/her.
Sexual assault is the least reported of all violent crimes. According to a 2008 study, most sexual assaults are never reported to the police. (2) The same study also found that stranger rapes are more likely to be reported than rapes by non-strangers. Many people tell no one about their assaults and try to cope with it alone. Victims are often hesitant to report their assaults for a number of reasons. Many fear that they won’t be believed or that they will be blamed for the assault, particularly if the perpetrator is someone the victim knows. Other victims feel that the experience is too personal to share with strangers, or fear that their anonymity will not be protected. This is of particular concern in rural communities.
Help is Available
If you or someone you know has been sexually assaulted, or if you would like more information, contact the domestic violence/sexual assault crisis center nearest you.
1 National Institute of Justice and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. “Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Rape Victimization: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey. ” National Institute of Justice, Jan. 2006.
2 Michael Rand, “Criminal Victimization, 2008,” (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009), 1, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cv08.pdf | <urn:uuid:508bff21-6b50-4d53-bc3d-904d3010e5e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stepupspeakout.org/coaches-teachers/sexual-assault | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938589 | 625 | 3.375 | 3 |
Resistance and Appropriation of Modernism in 1920s Faith Healing
My research this summer focused on how the faith healing ministry of Aimee Semple McPherson related to the social and cultural context of the 1920?s. Framing this highly specific topic is the greater question, how does religion, which itself is based in tradition, interact with changes in society? What happens when the competing forces of tradition and modernization converge in religion? Through archival research at the Foursquare Heritage Center, I examined testimonies of divine healing written by readers of McPherson?s Bridal Call magazine to determine the place of faith healing within the context of early 20th century American culture. I found that her faith healing ministry embraced aspects of both traditional Christianity and of the ?modern? culture surrounding it. This unique example of McPherson?s faith healing ministry shows that religion in the 1920?s represented a much more complicated relationship than the simple debate between the traditional and modern. Instead, religion consisted of a complex negotiation between a traditional faith and the contemporary culture surrounding it.
Bunnell, Caroline, " Resistance and Appropriation of Modernism in 1920s Faith Healing" (2007). URC Student Scholarship.
The Peter Bjorklund Family Fellowship
This document is currently not available here. | <urn:uuid:88270309-d18d-46f1-abd9-82c82775df7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scholar.oxy.edu/urc_student/732/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89636 | 266 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The cause of the swelling is lack of lymphatic carriage capability of proteins to the muscles, because of systemic conditions affecting the circulation of proteins through your lymphatic system.
There will be edema extracellularly because of insufficient carriage of proteins through lymphatic system.
My schematic drawing about the fluid movement between these spaces
I started to think why some people do not observe so much swelling.
I discussed with a few and come to conclusion that the main difference between those people who did not have noticeable swelling was that that they did lymphatic system massage by maximising abdominal breathing after taking whey proteins (before training and after training).
I think it sounds sensible to some extent.
Those people also included lymphatic system massage in their recovery after training.
One video here Lymphatic Drainage for Abdomen and Trunk.
So another reason what may cause the swelling is insufficient drainage of lymphatic system.
The swelling does not happen to the same extent in all people.
Some people swell much after one intake of protein drink.
Some people also do not have to do lymphatic massage.
My conjecture: The reason to this is most probably one glue-gene-group.
Those people who have this genome have other systemic diseases that causes the lymphatic drainage have high proportion of proteins already:
- for instance, uncontrolled asthma patients, who are circulating lysed DNAs of lymphocytes from small bronchial tree through the lymphatic circulation
Lymphatic circulation is the system which circulates the proteins to the muscles.
After absorption from the digestive tract, lymphatic circulation carries proteins systemically.
However, since there is already a high proportion of proteins, lymphatic circulation cannot take much more proteins to carry.
Our body has to remove toxic wastes before it can build new materials.
Catabolism then conquers anabolism in some situations. | <urn:uuid:f2f6dfc1-b7c2-4507-83a2-6261d1401f08> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/16158/what-can-cause-the-bloating-in-high-protein-diet-of-whey-proteins | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956902 | 387 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Radiological health expert Daniel Hayes, Ph.D., of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene suggests that a form of vitamin D could be one of our body's main protections against damage from low levels of radiation. Writing in the International Journal of Low Radiation, Hayes explains that calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, may protect us from background radiation and could be used as a safe protective agent before or after a low-level nuclear incident.
Biologists and pharmacologists who specialize in radiation and health are keen to find an effective agent that could be given by mouth, have few side effects and would protect us against a suspected or impending nuclear event, whether an accident, terrorist attack, or other incident.
In terms of protecting people from the long-term effects of radiation, cancer formation would be the main focus. The ideal agent would act by blocking DNA damage or by halting the progression of damaged cells that might eventually grow into cancers.
While a drug is yet to be found with such ideal radio-protective properties, other researchers have demonstrated that certain dietary supplements have at least some of the desired properties. Hayes argues that vitamin D, and in particular its biologically active form, could be the key ingredient in radiological protection.
"Our general understanding and appreciation of the multifaceted protective actions of vitamin D have recently entered a new era," says Hayes, "It is now becoming recognized that its most active molecular form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, may offer protection against a variety of radiation- and otherwise-induced damages."
Hayes has reviewed the various biochemical mechanisms by which vitamin D protects users_ from the low levels of natural radiation released by the rocks on which we stand and the skies above us. He points out that calcitriol is involved in cell cycle regulation and control of proliferation, cellular differentiation and communication between cells, as well as programmed cell death (apoptosis and autophagy) and antiangiogenesis.
Calcitriol is the form of vitamin D that activates the body's Vitamin D Receptor (VDR), which allows gene transcription to take place and the activation of the innate immune response.
It is possible that several of the transcribed by the VDR will help transcribe proteins that protect the body against radiation.
"Vitamin D by its preventive/ameliorating actions should be given serious consideration as a protective agent against sublethal radiation injury, and in particular that induced by low-level radiation," concludes Hayes. | <urn:uuid:86fa41b7-0678-445b-a6f7-8fdc899e442d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-11/ip-cvd110708.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954339 | 514 | 3.328125 | 3 |
A Parent's Guide to NWEA Assessments
© Northwest Evaluation Association
NWEA - Frequently Asked Questions
What is NWEA?
Northwest Evaluation Association (NWEA) is a not-for-profit organization committed to helping school districts throughout the nation improve learning for all students. NWEA partners with more than 2,200 school districts representing more than three million students. As a result of NWEA tests, educators can make informed decisions to promote your child's academic growth.
Where can I learn more about NWEA?
Visit the website www.nwea.org
At the Elementary School, which grades are being tested?
We are presently testing all students in grades 3, 4, 5
What is the MAP NWEA Assessment?
MAP- NWEA's computerized adaptive tests are called Measure of Academic Progress, or MAP. When taking a MAP test, the difficulty of each question is based on how well a student answers all the previous questions. As the student answers correctly, questions become more difficult. If the student answers incorrectly, the questions become easier. In an optimal test, a student answers approximately half the items correctly and half incorrectly. The final score is an estimate of the student's achievement level.
What is RIT?
Tests developed by NWEA use a scale called RIT to measure student achievement and growth. RIT stands for Rasch UnIT, which is a measurement scale developed to simplify the interpretation of test scores. The RIT score relates directly to the curriculum scale in each subject area. It is an equal-interval scale, like feet and inches, so scores can be added together to calculate accurate class or school averages.
What is the average score?
RIT scores range from about 140 to 300. Students typically range from 140 to 190 level in the elementary school and progress to the 240s to 260s level by the end of the 8th grade. RIT scores make it possible to follow a student's educational growth from year to year.
What subjects does MAP assess?
We are using the MAP tests in the area of mathematics, English language and reading assessments.
How long does it take to complete a test?
Although the tests are not timed, it usually takes students about one hour to complete each test.
When will my student be tested and how often?
Our school will tests students at the beginning of the school year in fall and at again in spring (second semester).
Do all students in the same grade take the same test?
No. MAP assessments are designed to target a student's academic performance in mathematics, reading, language usage, and science. These tests are tailored to an individual's current achievement level. This gives each student a fair opportunity to show what he or she knows and can do. The computer adjusts the difficulty of the questions so that each student takes a unique test.
What can I do as a parent?
Three kinds of parental involvement at home are consistently associated with higher student achievement:
Actively organizing and monitoring a child's time.
Helping with homework.
Discussing school matters.
What are MAP assessments used for?
MAP assessments are used to measure your student's progress or growth in school. You may have a chart in your home on which you mark your child's height at certain times, such as on his or her birthday. This is a growth chart. It shows how much he or she has grown from one year to the next. MAP assessments do the same sort of thing, except they measure your student's growth in mathematics, reading, and language usage. The scale used to measure your child's progress is called the RIT scale (Rasch unIT). The RIT scale is an equal-interval scale much like feet and inches on a yardstick. It is used to chart your student's academic growth from year to year.
How do teachers use the test scores?
MAP tests are important to teachers because they keep track of progress and growth in basic skills. They let teachers know where a student's strengths are and if help is needed in any specific areas. Teachers use this information to help them guide instruction in the classroom.
What are some ways that I can help my child prepare for this test?
What are some ways I can help my child with language?
What are some ways I can help my child with reading?
Language Arts/Reading Web Sites
www.funbrain.com Language Arts games and more
www.m-w.com/game/ Merriam Webster Word Game of the Day
www.vocabulary.com Vocabulary activities
www.superkids.com/aweb/tools/words Vocabulary builders
http://helponenglish.homestead.com English help
www.writesite.org Interactive Language Arts and Journalism
www.lexile.com Lexile Framework
www.kidsreads.com Book reviews, games, authors, and more
What are some ways I can help my child with math?
Math Web sites for Kids and Parents
www.aaamath.com Math practice and activities
www.coolmath.com Interactive math games
www.funbrain.com Great site for kids
www.aplusmath.com A+ Math
http://mathforum.org/dr.math/ Ask Dr. Math
www.gomath.com On line math help
www.tangram.i-p.com/ Interactive tangrams
www.mathleague.com/help/help.htm Math League help topics
www.edhelper.com Help for all subjects
Did you know?
Parents cannot assume that schoolwork makes up for too much TV. Children of all ages watch as much TV in one day as they read for fun in an entire week. Overall, children under age 13 spend 90 minutes a day in front of the TV-one-quarter of their free time. - U.S. Department of Education
A Lexile is a unit for measuring text difficulty that is linked to the reading RIT score. Lexile is reported on an equal interval scale, like the RIT scale. 10L is at the low end of the scale and 1700L is at the high end. Books for beginning readers are listed as BR on the scale. The Lexile range is included on individual student progress reports. It allows educators and parents to find books, periodicals, and other reading material that is appropriately challenging for each student. Students are considered to be at an appropriate level when they can comprehend approximately 75% of the material they read. This ensures that students are neither frustrated nor bored, and are stimulating their learning processes while rewarding their current reading abilities. A Lexile measures syntactic complexity-the number of words per sentence. We know that longer sentences are more complex and require more short-term memory to process. A Lexile also measures semantic difficulty-a measure of vocabulary. This measure looks at the frequency of words in a text compared to a body of over 400 million words. This is the largest repository of text in the world and is quickly approaching 500 million words.
The Lexile database currently includes over 30,000 books. You can access the Lexile web site at www.lexile.com . You can search titles (both Spanish and English) at the web site free of charge. The regular search feature allows you to search by title, author, ISBN, subject, or Lexile range. By using the detailed search on the same page, you can also search by theme, interest, or content area. Other features of the web site include frequently asked questions, the Lexile Times Newsletter, a parent link, and a reading calendar. Check it out! It is very important for parents to keep in mind that Lexile does not evaluate genre, theme, content, or interest. Even though a student might be able to read books at a certain Lexile, the content or theme of the text may not be appropriate for that particular student because of his or her age or developmental level. Also, a student may be able to read more difficult content if it is an area of interest for that child since he or she may already be familiar with some of the vocabulary necessary to comprehend the text.
Commonly Used Terms | <urn:uuid:1c7df280-3485-440c-a891-0a150fc9cff7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://elementary.ans.edu.ni/map-test | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936691 | 1,701 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Management of the gas is critical for petroleum refiners
Steam reforming of natural gas at petroleum refining facilities is the predominant means of producing hydrogen in the chemical process industries (CPI). Areas where hydrogen is heavily consumed include ammonia production, the cryogenics industry and methanol production (Table 1). Because hydrogen needs within various sectors of the CPI are at their highest levels in history, and are continuing to grow, an understanding of this method of hydrogen production and purification can be useful.
major percentage of hydrogen used in the CPI goes toward production of ammonia, which continues find greater demand in the chemical fertilizer industry. On the other hand, methanol usage is declining in connection with its use as a feedstock for making methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE; by reaction of methanol with tertiary butylene). In the
In addition to being producers of hydrogen, largely through steam reforming, petroleum refineries are also large consumers of the gas. Consumption of hydrogen by petroleum refineries has increased recently due to clean-fuels programs, which require refiners to produce low-sulfur gasoline and ultralow-sulfur diesel fuel. Management of hydrogen is a critical concern for refiners because various processes require different hydrogen pressure levels and purity.
Hydrogen-using processes that require high pressures and high purity, including hydrocracking, use hydrogen above the 100 kg/cm2 (1,500 psig) level. When a recycle gas system is used, the higher pressures are needed to maintain hydrogen partial pressure at the desired level as methane concentration in the hydrogen feed to a hydrocracker increases. Sufficient hydrogen partial pressure promotes the intended reactions without producing undesirable coke.
If the hydrogen partial pressure cannot be maintained, the recycle gas should be bled. With pressure swing adsorption (PSA) processes producing hydrogen of purity in the range of four-nines (99.99%), this is not a problem.
Other hydrogen users, like those engaging in milder hydrotreating, can use lower-purity hydrogen at lower pressures (600 psig or lower). One approach that makes sense is recovering hydrogen from the users requiring higher pressure and reusing it at the lower pressure levels.
Minimizing the hydrogen bled into the fuel gas can keep the hydrogen production levels manageable. However, the hydrogen plant feed usually includes some hydrogen that goes through for a “free ride,” except for the cost of heating it up to reformer temperature and ultimately cooling it back down to recovery level.
A recently employed practice in the industry is for the hydrogen to be produced for adjacent producers and sold to the user as “over-the-fence” hydrogen. This keeps the production costs off the books from the adjacent user and has found popularity not only in the
Figure 1. Steam-methane reforming is still responsible for the bulk of hydrogen production in petroleum refineries
Refinery hydrogen comes primarily from two sources — catalytic reforming of byproduct gas from the dehydrogenation of naphthenes into aromatics and high-octane gasoline blend stocks, as well as from direct hydrogen manufacture. The bulk of direct hydrogen manufacturing in a petroleum refinery is still accomplished via either steam-methane reforming (Figure 1) or steam-naphtha reforming. Partial oxidation of heavier hydrocarbons is also used to a limited extent.
In the overall steam methane reforming (SMR) reaction, methane reacts with steam at high temperatures and moderate pressures in catalyst-filled tubes to generate synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and some carbon dioxide.
The reactions for the two simultaneous SMR mechanisms are shown as Equations (1) and (2). Both are endothermic, as shown by the positive heat of reaction. The reaction requires heat transfer to maintain temperatures favorable to the equilibrium reactions.
As the molecular weight of the feedstock increases, such as when heavier hydrocarbons (such as ethane, propane or butane) are included in the feed, the reactions are shown by Equations (3) and (4), with the corresponding heat requirements .
Product gas from the steam reforming of the methane and naphtha contains equilibrium amounts of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and excess steam. The calculated effluent composition of a reformer always needs to be checked against the equilibrium constant equations to ensure that simulations agree with known values.
Excess steam above the theoretical requirements is maintained to prevent the reforming catalyst from coking. The temperature exiting the reformer furnace tubes is usually about 760oC (1,400oF), a level that provides maximum hydrogen production within the temperature limitation of the reformer tube metallurgy (discussed later).
Water-shift gas reactions
Additional hydrogen can be generated from the carbon monoxide byproduct following the reforming reaction. First, the reformer effluent gas is cooled in two steps to favor the equilibrium toward the right side of the reaction. The first cooling step is followed by the high-temperature shift reactor, and the second cooling step is followed by a low-temperature shift reactor. Shift reactions are promoted as effluent gas flows down through the fixed catalyst reactor containing a ferric oxide catalyst in accordance with the reaction in Equation (5). Note the water-shift reaction is exothermic, which results in a temperature increase across the reactors as water reacts with CO to form CO2 and more H2.
Water shift gas equilibrium is not affected by pressure, since there is no volume change. Reduced temperatures favor the conversion of CO to H2, as might be expected by its exothermic nature. A variety of catalysts are available for the service.
Hydrogen Plant Process
Figure 1 shows a schematic of a conventional steam-reforming hydrogen plant . The plant is based on a feed gas with high sulfur content, requiring plant operators to hydrotreat the feed before the zinc oxide removes the sulfur compounds. The H2 purification at the end of the process is based on the removal of CO2 with a pressure swing adsorber (PSA) system shown as the H2 purification block. The reformer is shown as a vertical furnace type with side firing. The reformer furnace design alternatives will be discussed below.
Feed gas — usually a mixture of hydrogen, methane and other light hydrocarbons — is first compressed to about 300 psig. The initial compression has been found to provide product hydrogen at a pressure that can easily reach the desired hydro-processing pressure with a four- or five-stage reciprocating compressor. This equipment is not part of the hydrogen plant.
The feed gas is preheated with reformer effluent gas and hydrotreated to convert the various sulfur compounds (such as mercaptans, carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide) to hydrogen sulfide. The gas is then passed through desulfurization reactors, usually containing a zinc oxide catalyst, which adsorbs the hydrogen sulfide. Low-sulfur feeds may not require the hydrotreating step.
The sulfur-free gas is mixed with a fixed amount of superheated steam to maintain the desired steam-to-hydrocarbon ratio. The steam-to-hydrocarbon ratio is kept within a range that is high enough to prevent laydown of coke on the reforming catalyst, but low enough to avoid overloading the reformer duty. Typically for a methane feed, the ratio would be three, whereas the theoretical requirement is somewhat less.
The combination of hydrogen and steam is heated to about 760oC (1,400oF). Since all of the reforming reactions are endothermic, additional heat is required to maintain the reaction temperature as the mixture flows down through catalyst-filled reformer tubes.
A critical factor in the reformer heater design is keeping the tube-wall temperature uniform and hot enough to promote the reforming reaction. Two types of heater designs have been employed for this purpose. Figures 2 and 3 show schematic diagrams of the side-firing reforming furnace, and the roof-fired heater design approach is shown in Figures 2 and 4.
Figure 2. Maintaining a tube-wall temperature
that is hot enough for the reforming reaction
is a critical factor in reformer heater design
Figure 3. A typical reformer furnace could
have over 300 burners
Figure 4. Hydrogen plants with single heaters
and capacities up to 100,000 ft3/d have used
a down-firing approach
Side-fired reforming heaters. The coil arrangement in a typical side-fired reformer furnace (Figure 3) consists of two parallel rectangular fire boxes connected at the top with horizontal duct work into the vertical convection stack. Two rows of vertical tubes arranged on a staggered pitch are present in each of the radiant boxes. Several (typically four) rows of burners are used to fire each side of the two radiant sections. This arrangement allows direct radiant fire to reach most of the tube wall. Platforms are provided to access the burners at each of the four burner levels. A typical reformer furnace could have over 300 burners. Reformer tubes typically have diameters of 5 in. (127 mm), walls 0.5-in. (13 mm) thick and about 34 ft (11.5 m) of wall exposed to the burners. The tube metallurgy is usually 25% chrome, 20% nickel or a high-nickel steel such as HL-40.
The inlet manifold at the top of the heater has “pigtails,” which uniformly transfer the feed gas to the top of the tubes. Another manifold at the bottom of the heater connects another set of pigtails to the outlet transfer line. The pigtails provide for thermal expansion as the heater goes from startup temperature to reaction temperature. The objective is to have an equal pressure drop across each tube, which produces uniform flow to each of the tubes. The convection section includes several different coils. The hottest coil is a steam generation coil that protects the other coils from radiant heat. Usually, there is also a steam superheat coil, a feed preheat coil and another steam generation coil. Above these coils, there may be a boiler feed water (BFW) pre-heater and deaerator preheat coil.
Typically an induced draft fan is used to keep the fire box pressure slightly negative. Some reformers also have an air pre-heater and a forced draft fan.
Top-fired reformer. This type of reformer heater is usually a rectangular box. The tubes are still vertical, and inlet and outlet pigtails are used to connect the inlet header and the outlet transfer line, respectively. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of a down-fired reformer furnace .
The tubes are spaced on a pitch, which allows the burners to fire down between the tubes. The burners have a special “pencil-shaped flame” design. All burners are located in the penthouse above the inlet manifold. The flame and the flow through the tubes travel in the same direction.
Hydrogen plants with single reformer heaters and capacities up to 100 million ft3/d have used the vertical, down-firing approach. Each burner’s radiant flame covers one-quarter of four adjacent vertical tubes (except for the outside burners, which cover half of the two adjacent tubes).
The radiant gases exit the box horizontally through a horizontal convection section. The horizontal convection section is located about 3 m above grade to allow enough height for passage. The horizontal convection provides for a simpler support structure than that of the side-fired unit.
Transfer-line steam generator
The outlet transfer line from the reformer is used to generate high-pressure (usually 650 psig) steam. The reformer effluent gas exits through the transfer line at about 1,400oF and enters the tube side of a single-pass steam generator. BFW is fed through the shell side and becomes 650 psig steam. Depending on the size of the reformer, there may be two transfer lines exiting opposite ends of the reformer and feeding two steam generators. Figure 3 shows the two transfer line steam generators.
Feed preheat exchanger.Gas is cooled to about 650oF and is moved out of the steam generator. It then enters the tube side of the feed preheat exchanger. Feed gas is preheated to about 600F using heat from the effluent gas. This temperature can be controlled by partial bypass of the effluent side to maintain the desired hot-shift gas reactor temperature.
Hot shift-gas reactor.Effluent gas containing carbon monoxide and steam is passed over the hot gas-shift catalyst, where the water-shift gas reaction shown in Equation (5) occurs. This reaction is slightly exothermic, resulting in a temperature rise across the reactor.
More steam generation.Additional medium-pressure steam is generated, reducing the hot-shift reactor effluent to a temperature of about 500oF, which shifts the reaction equilibrium toward more hydrogen production.
Cold shift-gas reaction.Additional hydrogen is produced by the gas-shift reaction at the lower temperature. The shift reaction is exothermic, which results in a temperature rise across the reactor.
Condensate removal. Cold gas-shift effluent is cooled by heat exchange with BFW, deaerator feedwater, and cooling water to about 34oC (100oF). Condensate is separated from the gas in a vertical knockout drum.
Hydrogen purification is generally carried out using one of two approaches — solvent-based systems or pressure-swing adsorption (PSA) processes.
Solvent systems Most older units remove carbon dioxide from the hydrogen rich gas using a solvent, such as Catacarb or amines, in a typical acid gas separation unit (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Most older units remove carbon
dioxide from the hydrogen-rich gas with
Remaining carbon oxides (primarily carbon monoxide) are reacted with hydrogen in a methanator reactor to convert them to methane. Methane is an undesirable component in the makeup gas to a hydrocracker because it builds up in the recycle gas, requiring bleeding of the recycle gas to maintain the desired hydrogen partial pressure in the hydrocracker.
Most solution-type carbon dioxide removal systems are similar. Gas enters the bottom of the absorber, where it contacts lean solution. The carbon dioxide is absorbed from the gas, leaving the rest of the contaminants and hydrogen relatively untouched.
The rich solution is then heat-exchanged with lean solution and enters the top of the stripper. The stripper uses a steam reboiler to regenerate the solvent, stripping out the absorbed carbon dioxide. The overhead from the stripper goes through a condenser to condense solvent and then to an overhead drum, where the carbon dioxide is separated from the stripper reflux.
PSA unit.The newer PSA process produces a hydrogen stream of four-nines (99.99%) purity. It separates carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and unconverted hydrocarbons. A bank of adsorbers operates in a cycle where the adsorbers are rotated through a higher-pressure adsorption portion, followed by a pressure reduction, which allows the contaminants to be released from the adsorber. The hydrogen gas passes through the adsorber as almost-pure hydrogen. The contaminants flow into a fuelgas surge drum.
Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram of such a system. The valve openings and closings are all controlled by the central processing unit.
Figure 6. A PSA unit separates carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and unconverted hydrocarbons from hydrogen. Adsorbers operate in a high-pressure to low-pressure cycle to adsorb and then release contaminants
The fuel gas is relatively low-BTU carbon oxides. It is supplemented with natural gas or other fuels as feed to the reformer furnace burners.
Pre- and post-reforming
These are two techniques used to expand the capacity of exisiting plants where the reformer furnace is heat-transfer-limiting.
Pre-reforming Pre-reforming is used when spiking the feed with liquified petroleum gas, which is used to increase the capacity of the existing unit. Examining the reforming Equations (1), (2) and (4) reveals the advantage of a heavier feed that yields more hydrogen per feed mole. The pre-reformer reaction breaks down the heavier hydrocarbons (propane and butane) to methane ahead of the heat-intensive reforming reactions, essentially shifting part of the load upstream of the reformer heater as shown in Figure 7 .
Figure 7. A pre-reformer breaks down heavier hydrocarbons into methane ahead of the reforming reactions
Feed at 950oF passes down through the pre-reformer reactor, where the breakdown reactions occur. Then the pre-reformed feed passes through another convection coil to reheat it to about 1,100oF before entering the reformer.
Adding the pre-reformer as a retrofit to an existing facility presents two problems — one of space and one of compatibility. Physical space contraints may not allow adding a feed reheat coil within the convection section. Also, the metallurgy of the inlet pigtails may not be able to handle the higher feed temperature.
Post-reforming. Post-reforming is an attempt to provide additional reforming catalyst outside the reformer heater. A down-flow reactor is added between the outlet transfer line and the waste heat steam generator. This can present a space and piping problem. The additional post-reformer catalyst reduces the overall total space velocity of the combined reformer and post reformer, thus achieving additional reaction. This reduces the downstream shift-reaction requirements. ■ Edited by Scott Jenkins | <urn:uuid:1e5943a6-2ad7-49aa-bb3b-7eee9434a453> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://chemeng-processing.blogspot.com/2010/05/hydrogen-production-by-steam-reforming.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918441 | 3,669 | 3.171875 | 3 |
New Rechargeable Cell Has 7 Times Higher Energy Density Than Li-ion Cells
A Japanese research group developed a rechargeable battery based on a new principle in cooperation with Nippon Shokubai Co Ltd.
The group is led by Noritaka Mizuno, professor at the School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo. The new battery uses the oxidation-reduction reaction between oxide ions and peroxide ions at the positive electrode. The group proved that peroxides are generated and dispersed due to charge and discharge reactions by using a material made by adding cobalt (Co) to the crystal structure of lithium oxide (Li2O) for the positive electrode, verifying a battery system based on a new principle.
The new technology can realize an energy density seven times higher than that of existing lithium (Li)-ion rechargeable batteries, increase capacity, lower price and enhance safety. It is expected to be used for batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and next-generation stationary batteries.
The oxidation-reduction reaction between Li2O and Li2O2 (lithium peroxide) and oxidation-reduction reaction of metal Li are used at the positive and negative electrodes, respectively, of the new battery. The battery has a theoretical capacity of 897mAh per 1g of the positive/negative electrode active material, voltage of 2.87V and theoretical energy density of 2,570Wh/kg.
At that time, the energy density is 370Wh per 1kg of the positive/negative electrode active material, which is about seven times higher than that of existing Li-ion rechargeable batteries using LiCoO2 positive electrodes and graphite negative electrodes. The theoretical energy density of the new battery is lower than that of lithium-air batteries (3,460Wh/kg). But it has a sealed structure like conventional Li-ion batteries, realizing a high reliability and safety.
This time, as the positive electrode material, the research group used a material made by using a planetary ball mill to add Co to the crystal structure of LiO2. And the group proved that it is possible to realize a battery system in which the oxidation-reduction reaction between oxides and peroxides reversibly proceeds. And it proved that (1) peroxides are generated in the positive electrode for charge, (2) the peroxides are dispersed for discharge and (3) those reactions are repeated, by quantitatively analyzing the peroxides.
The group also proved that neither O2 nor CO2 is generated in the range where it is possible to reversibly charge/discharge the battery.
The positive electrode used in the demonstration test enables to repeatedly charge/discharge the battery with a capacity of 200mAh/g and to quickly charge/discharge the battery with a large current. The positive electrode has a smaller mass ratio of Co than LiCoO2, which is used for existing Li-ion batteries, and possibly lowers costs. | <urn:uuid:33f7802e-a0ab-4adc-b583-920fdb95ff04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20140723/366762/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915156 | 605 | 3 | 3 |
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Roona M.R., Streke A., Marshall D.
In: Gullotta T.P., Bloom M., eds. Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention and Health Promotion. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2003, p. 1073–1078.
Unable to obtain a copy by clicking title? Try this alternative source.
The most influential finding in drug education research – that interactive teaching methods have the greatest prevention impact – was confirmed by the featured report but later questioned by unpublished analyses using better statistical methods, an episode which has left concern and uncertainty in its wake.
Note that this document has recently been acquired and processed by the Drug and Alcohol Findings Effectiveness Bank but dates from 2003. We feature it because of its importance in itself and the importance of the questions raised over this and similar analyses outlined in the comments from Drug and Alcohol Findings.
This book chapter synthesised research on the impacts of school-based programmes intended to prevent use of alcohol, tobacco or other drugs by young people.
A study which uses recognised procedures to combine quantitative results from several studies of the same or similar interventions to arrive at composite outcome scores. Usually undertaken to allow the intervention's effectiveness to be assessed with greater confidence than on the basis of the studies taken individually.
was used to compute an average
A standard way of expressing the magnitude of a difference (eg, between outcomes in control and intervention groups) applicable to most quantitative data. Enables different measures taken in different studies to be compared or (in meta-analyses) combined. Based on expressing the difference in the average outcomes between control and experimental groups as a proportion of how much the outcome varies across both groups. The most common statistic used to quantify this difference is called Cohen's d. Conventionally this is considered to indicate a small effect when no greater than 0.2, a medium effect when around 0.5, and a large effect when at least 0.8.
across studies of similar interventions in order to compare their relative effectiveness at delaying the onset of substance use over the following 12 months. The analysts found relevant evaluations of 207 programmes, which could be classified in to two broad types:
• 'non-interactive' programmes which rely on didactic teaching methods to lecture or otherwise convey information to pupils;
• 'interactive' programmes which give pupils the chance to exchange ideas with their teachers and classmates, try out new roles, or explore alternative ways to address potential future drug-related predicaments.
Overall, interactive programmes caused a small but statistically significant delay in the onset of substance use – an effect size of 0.15. This impact was particularly pronounced (effect size 0.21) among pupils identified as specially prone to (or 'at risk of') substance use. Of the interactive approaches, the highest effect size (0.27) was computed for studies of programmes which sought to create system-wide changes to enhance the school's atmosphere, to engage pupils more fully in school life and work, and to involve parents and local communities. However, such studies were few, methodologically weak, and the advantage of these programmes was reduced somewhat when the analysis was restricted to the better studies.
Next in their degree of impact were 'social influence' programmes intended to help pupils identify and resist pressures to use substances from peers or the media, or because the pupils overestimate how 'normal' substance use is among their peers. Such programmes had an effect size of 0.12, or 0.17 when allied with comprehensive life skills teaching to (for example) improve assertiveness, coping skills, communication and the setting of goals. Across all substances combined, only with these additional elements did programmes for primary school or older secondary school pupils improve on whatever comparators were used in the studies. But in the in-between younger secondary school ages (US middle school range), both types of programmes were effective to roughly the same degree. This also applied to the prevention of smoking and cannabis use in particular. In respect of drinking, the additional life skills elements remained essential for older secondary school pupils, but such programmes were ineffective among younger secondary school pupils.
With or without the additional life skills elements, social influence programmes were considerably more effective at preventing heavy drinking than drinking as such. This was exemplified across five studies which measured both. If preventing drinking was the criterion, the programmes tested in these studies would have to be judged ineffective, but if heavy drinking was the measure, they were unusually effective, delivering a statistically significant effect size of 0.25, one of the largest among universal prevention programmes.
In contrast to interactive variants, more didactic 'top-down' (or 'teacher-down') approaches were on average ineffective whether applied to all pupils or those identified as at-risk of early substance use. Among the latter they may even have been slightly counter-productive when set against whatever comparators were used in the studies – another contrast with the interactive programmes, which were maximally effective among at-risk pupils.
School-based prevention programmes which use scare tactics or non-interactive lecture formats do not work. Others of a more interactive nature seem to work quite well for some substances at some school grade levels, but less well or not at all for other substances or grade levels. Perhaps most effective of all are the comprehensive approaches which seek to create system-wide changes in the school and involve parents and the community. But these are costly; perhaps a more justifiable approach is to adopt similar kinds of system-wide programmes, but with the aim also of advancing the school's core education mission.
It is also clear from this analysis that preventing 'use' of substances is not the same as preventing 'abuse'. Some approaches which very effectively prevent heavy use do not prevent use. This finding mandates clarity in objectives, including the choice between focusing on legal and moral imperatives to prevent illegal and disapproved activities, or the public health imperative to focus on damaging patterns of use.
On the basis of research to date, it seems advisable to consider prosocial schooling and other approaches which create protective schools and provide adolescents with sufficient developmental assets to ensure resilience, supplemented for particularly 'at-risk' pupils by individualised counselling, assistance and harm reduction programmes to develop the skills required to avoid dangerous behaviours like drinking and driving.
commentary The same authors drawing on essentially the same body of research have focused on the issue of the objectives of school-based prevention, concluding that "promoting abstinence may not be a viable objective when substance use is normative in the culture, but preventing abuse and its attendant harms may be viable". The authors' advocacy of non-drug focused school programmes designed to improve pupil engagement with school and improve the school's climate has support from a limited body of research, which indicates that such programmes may not only be more feasible than drug-focused approaches, but at least as effective.
The featured report does not specify the precise analytic methods used to reach its conclusions. In the light of the re-analyses described below, these could have been a crucial. The re-analyses were brought to light by the British researcher Jim McCambridge, who drew largely on information received from the first author of the featured report. This new work questioned that report's finding that interactive teaching was most effective – a finding among the most influential ever reached about drug education. The series of analyses which culminated in the featured report was identified with the lead analyst Nancy Tobler, whose work was commemorated by Drug and Alcohol Findings in a reproduction of one of her last publications before she died in February 2000. Partly due to her death, it seems a decision was taken not to publish re-analyses of her work which undermined her major achievement – the discovery of the importance of interactivity. These new analyses used more rigorous and appropriate statistical methods Namely maximum likelihood estimation instead of least squares regression to find which estimate of the true impacts of the programmes best fit the available data (for which see: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.74.671&rep=rep1&type=pdf) and a random effects rather than a fixed effects model, more appropriate for estimating the true impact of a type of programme from the limited sample of impacts available from the implementations of that programme which happen to have been researched (see for example the explanations at http://mindhive.mit.edu/node/92 or http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.62.5902&rep=rep1&type=pdf). to estimate the true impact of prevention programmes from the 'snaphsots' available from research studies. Not until 2007 were these findings published, and then only briefly on the web site of the funder of the work, not in a journal or book.
As highlighted by Jim McCambridge, assessed according to these more rigorous methods, most of the differences between drug education variants were no longer statistically significant. In particular, and contrary to previous analyses in the series, the web report concluded that across all grade levels and substances, interactive programmes could not be shown to be more effective than lecture-oriented, non-interactive programmes. The exceptions were smoking and the younger secondary school ages (in US terms, the middle school years).
Moreover, across all substances, interactive programmes which sought comprehensively to foster life skills were no more effective than those which focused more narrowly on countering social influences to use substances. However, as the featured analysis found, such programmes were sometimes more effective among primary school and older secondary school pupils – in the reanalyses, in respect only of cigarette smoking and 'hard' drugs, not cannabis or alcohol. This finding is in line with conclusions that the best-known and most widely researched of these life skills programmes (Life Skills Training) is most thoroughly proven in its impact on smoking. Again echoing the featured analysis, social influence programmes were (at least in the younger secondary school range) better at preventing heavy drinking, than drinking as such. However, these findings appear to have been based on the earlier statistical techniques, and it is unclear whether they would have survived the more rigorous and appropriate techniques.
Though not a blanket repudiation either of drug education in general or of interactive or life skills teaching, these findings have shaken confidence both in drug education and in research in to its effectiveness. The far-reaching implications are explored further below.
For the editor of the journal which published the featured analysis, "These findings raise huge doubts about the value of school drug education in the prevention of drug use and related harm". In some ways this slightly overstates the case. The doubts raised by the featured analysis are about whether sophisticated interactive and lifeskills programmes are better in preventive terms than routine drug education, not about drug education as such. Also the typical outcome in the featured analysis was any substance use, not harmful patterns of use or related harm. Had these outcomes more often been targeted and measured, they may well have been affected more by interactive teaching. Lastly, there is (as opposed to any narrowly defined preventive impact) the possible extra educational and personal development value of interactive teaching. Social and emotional teaching which incorporates active learning has been found to confer a wide range of benefits on pupils including pro-social and healthy emotional development and academic advancement, while teaching the same topics using less well developed or well implemented teaching methods has narrower impacts. Such findings raise the possibility that this form of teaching better equips pupils for taking autonomous responsibility for themselves, even if they then go on to make decisions many adults would rather they didn't.
For the director of the project which produced the featured analysis, a key lesson was that "different ways of analyzing the same data may yield very different, even contradictory, results". Commenting on Jim McCambridge's paper, the lead author of the featured analysis described the pressures on researchers to downplay uncertainties and negatives in order to reassure policy makers that they really do have reliable tools to prevent drug misuse. Such researchers gain in influence and credibility, while more sceptical colleagues are sidelined. Commentaries on Jim McCambridge's paper highlight the co-option of research to the policy priority of showing that something does work, rather than rigorously testing the claims of programme makers as far as possible to destruction – a reversal of scientific method made more likely by the fact that the researchers often are the programme makers. On other occasions it seems that conscientious accounts from researchers have been bowdlerised by publicity outlets with an interest in presenting attractive findings.
More broadly, there is a suspicion that drug education's patchy preventive record is (except in respect of smoking, where any use really is harmful and use really does often lead to addiction) due to inappropriately targeting and measuring use rather than harmful use, and to teaching methods which, even in 'interactive' programmes, are not interactive enough. In particular, they usually mandate set prevention goals rather than allowing these to emerge during multi-directional pupil and teacher interactions (1 2 3). Whatever the subject, in Britain teachers have rarely been able to implement truly interactive relationship and communication styles as opposed to surface innovations which retain the essence of the didactic, closed-questions and one-right-answer teaching antithetical to deep pupil participation.
Thanks for their comments on this entry in draft to Michael Roona of the University of California, Jim McCambridge of the Centre for Research on Drugs and Health Behaviour at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and Andrew Brown of the Drug Education Forum based in London. Commentators bear no responsibility for the text including the interpretations and any remaining errors.
Last revised 13 May 2011
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STUDY 2000 Education's uncertain saviour
REVIEW 2015 Prevention of addictive behaviours
STUDY 2001 Prevention is a two-way process
NASTY SURPRISES 2004 Confident kids ... like to party | <urn:uuid:333f9283-5907-4663-85e4-5cdb71aac49c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://findings.org.uk/count/downloads/download.php?file=Roona_M_3.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955224 | 2,888 | 2.78125 | 3 |
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The meat industry likes to say that factory farms are modern, efficient and produce cheap food. But in reality, factory farms increase the risk of pathogens like E. coli and salmonella that cause food-borne illness in people.
The bacteria is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms and, when people eat food contaminated with E. coli, they can develop diarrhea, urinary tract infections, respiratory illness and pneumonia and other illnesses.
You can guard against food-borne illnesses by making sure your food handling practices at home are effective. Here’s a list from the U.S Food and Drug Administration of four steps to food safety in your kitchen:
1. Wash hands and surfaces often. Bacteria can spread throughout the kitchen and get onto hands, cutting boards, utensils, counter tops and food.
- Wash your hands with warm water and soap for at least 20 seconds before and after handling food and after using the bathroom, changing diapers and handling pets.
- Wash your cutting boards, dishes, utensils and counter tops with hot soapy water after preparing each food item and before you go on to the next food.
- Consider using paper towels to clean up kitchen surfaces. If you use cloth towels wash them often in the hot cycle of your washing machine.
- Rinse fresh fruits and vegetables under running tap water, including those with skins and rinds that are not eaten.
- Rub firm-skin fruits and vegetables under running tap water or scrub with a clean vegetable brush while rinsing with running tap water.
- Clean canned goods lids before opening.
2. Separate raw meats from other foods. Cross-contamination can occur when bacteria are spread from one food to another. This is especially common when handling raw meat, poultry, seafood and eggs. The key is to keep these foods—and their juices—away from ready-to-eat foods.
- Separate raw meat, poultry, seafood and eggs from other foods in your grocery shopping cart, grocery bags and in your refrigerator.
- Use one cutting board for fresh produce and a separate one for raw meat, poultry and seafood.
- Never place cooked food on a plate that previously held raw meat, poultry, seafood or eggs.
- Don’t reuse marinades used on raw foods unless you bring them to a boil first.
3. Cook to the right temperatures. Food is safely cooked when it reaches a high enough internal temperature to kill the harmful bacteria that cause illness.
- Use a food thermometer to measure the internal temperature of cooked foods. Check the internal temperature in several places to make sure that the meat, poultry, seafood, eggs or dishes containing eggs are cooked to safe minimum internal temperatures as shown in the Safe Cooking Temperatures Chart. Color is not a reliable indicator of doneness.
- Cook eggs until the yolk and white are firm. Only use recipes in which eggs are cooked or heated thoroughly.
- When cooking in a microwave oven, cover food, stir and rotate for even cooking. Or rotate the dish by hand once or twice during cooking. Always allow standing time, which completes the cooking, before checking the internal temperature with a food thermometer. Food is done when it reaches the safe minimum internal temperature.
- Bring sauces, soups and gravy to a boil when reheating.
4. Refrigerate foods promptly. Cold temperatures slow the growth of harmful bacteria. Do not over-stuff the refrigerator. Cold air must circulate to help keep food safe. Keeping a constant refrigerator temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit or below is one of the most effective ways to reduce the risk of foodborne illness. Use an appliance thermometer to be sure the temperature is consistently at 40 degrees or below and the freezer temperature is zero degrees or below.
- Refrigerate or freeze meat, poultry, eggs, seafood and other perishables within two hours of cooking or purchasing. Refrigerate within one hour if the temperature outside is above 90ºF.
- Never thaw food at room temperature, such as on the counter top. Food must be kept at a safe temperature during thawing : in the refrigerator, in cold water, and in the microwave. Food thawed in cold water or in the microwave should be cooked immediately.
- Always marinate food in the refrigerator.
- Divide large amounts of leftovers into shallow containers for quicker cooling in the refrigerator.
- Use or discard refrigerated food on a regular basis. Follow the recommendations in the USDA’s Refrigerator & Freezer Storage Chart.
Visit EcoWatch’s FOOD page for more related news on this topic. | <urn:uuid:8167cf1b-4378-4d20-8d10-a75db855e973> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ecowatch.com/2013/12/10/4-steps-protect-kitchen-e-coli/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920355 | 978 | 3.484375 | 3 |
As an example of a successful adaptation to the global order, he begins with the Meiji Restoration in Japan of the 1870s, when the emperor sent a commission around the world to search for the best practices abroad, undertaking the "reverse engineering" of whole industries and governmental practices based on what the commission found. The result was, of course, a brilliant success.
"It's not that there is a `Japanese model' that other nations have to follow," says Sachs. "It's just that this is the single greatest historical example to be found of fundamental reform through the international borrowing of institutions."
The significance of this "international borrowing of institutions" is precisely the point that has for the last few years divided economic theorists of growth. The difference of opinion, you'll recall, has been between those who think the accumulation of physical capital (embodied in buildings and machines) and human capital (in the form of education) are enough to explain growth, and those who think that a third factor-ideas, or knowledge-is important, too.
Today's "New Kenynesian" economists, such as N. Gregory Mankiw of Harvard or Gary Becker of the University of Chicago, whose models employ only physical and human capital to explain economic growth, tend to think that either more savings or more schooling is all that is needed for nations to grow faster.
New-growth economists who believe that ideas are important-Paul Romer of the University of California at Berkeley, Elhanan Helpman of Tel Aviv University, Gene Grossman of Princeton University, among others-tend to emphasize all the institutions that are involved in the production and distribution of ideas: research and development activities, universities, patent systems, government extension services and, perhaps especially, foreign direct investment by corporations-because companies (while seeking lower labor costs) are inadvertently engaged in diffusing knowledge.
To put this a little differently, in the terms that economists themselves are beginning to borrow from the computer industry to frame the issues, the question here has to do with the relative importance of hardware, software and wetware. The advantage is that everyone here is familiar with the difference, at least intuitively.
Hardware in this analogy corresponds to the broader category of physical capital, the physical machinery necessary to computation. Wetware, in the newest wrinkle of Silicon Valley lingo, refers to human beings who operate the machinery, and to the combination of background knowledge and attributes of character they bring to their tasks.
In the computer world, software refers to the long, complicated codes of instructions that program the machinery to accomplish certain tasks. In the larger economic world, software can be anything we think of as being a valuable idea: from the formula for a manmade fiber, to the know-how necessary to loom it, to the distribution and marketing system necessary to sell it, to the system of property rights that protects in varying degrees all these different sorts of ideas.
The key aspects of ideas-what makes their economics different from the economics of other sorts of goods-have to do with their appropriability; once you know how to do it, anybody can have it, virtually for free. | <urn:uuid:1e512113-9856-4848-95fe-b5d867dfd33d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-07-17/business/9407170380_1_anders-aslund-dynamic-modeling-world-bank/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950077 | 641 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Help us spread the word about the importance of access to information.
Watch our new video below, fill out our survey, and most importantly, share this with your friends and colleagues.
You may think Canada is a global leader when it comes to access to information, but that’s not the case. A recent study by the Centre for Law and Democracy (CLD) assessed each country with right to information legislation.
Out of 93 countries, Canada is ranked 55.
An efficient access to information system is a critical component of the right to freedom of expression, allowing us to make informed decisions and keep those in authority accountable.
What are your thoughts on Canada’s access to information system?
In 1982, Canada was one of the first nations to adopt a “right to information” law. Our Access to Information Act was, for its day, one of the best in the world.
Three decades later, however, our access to information system is mired by delays, extensions, exceptions, and exemptions - and, on occasion, by blatant political interference, the destruction of documents and intentional failure to create records.
Instead of leading the world, Canada now finds itself behind countries like Mongolia, Tunisia, Uganda and Peru, ranking 55th out of 92 countries analyzed for the strength of their right to information laws.
The federal Information Commissioner has launched public consultations to identify specific reforms that would improve the Access to Information Act. CJFE will be submitting our views on the matter, and we want your input.
We think some of the needed changes are obvious, but we’d like your input to give weight to our submission. We’ll also summarize our findings in the annual CJFE Review of Free Expression in Canada.
Thank you to everyone who took part in our survey. The survey has now closed, but you can view the results as a part of our report on access to information, A HOLLOW RIGHT: Access to information in crisis. | <urn:uuid:d90302e0-5456-4dee-825a-091e8fa43b43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cjfe.org/resources/features/our-right-information-disappearing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929264 | 403 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Table of Contents
A SlackBuild script is a shell script (usually Bourne shell compatible) that automates the process of configuring, compiling and creating a Slackware package (*.tgz, *.txz, *.tbz files) from source archives.
The basic process of creating a Slackware package from source can be summarized as follows, while details may vary from one build system to another.
- Uncompress the source archive (usually .tar.gz or .tar.bz2 file) into a “work directory.”
- Create a
slack-descfile, with the description of the software in the correct format.
- Configure the source, and apply patches if needed.
- Compile/build the source and generate the binaries.
- Install the program to a temporary directory. This step may be a little bit tricky, depending on how the
make install(or similar functionality) of the build system works. In standard GNU Makefiles, the
DESTDIRvariable passed to the
make installcommand should be sufficient. In non-standard Makefiles and build systems which don't support that option, this might involve patching the
Makefile(or similar file) or editing a build configuration setting of the build system.
- Copy the program documentation and other necessary files (including post-installation scripts) to the appropriate subdirectories in the temporary installation directory. These locations should adhere to default directory structure used by Slackware to store applications installed by the package manager, viz. inside the
- Use the
makepkgutility from the temporary directory (installation location) to create a Slackware package that can then be installed using the
While the above steps can be done by hand, the process is tedious, sometimes complex, and involves typing in a lot of commands. Automating the process by a shell script allows the user to share the process with the community at large. It also makes sense to use and modify existing SlackBuild scripts for upgrading the same program to a newer version.
Creating SlackBuild scripts
However, software may be written in different programming languages, use different build systems, or may even simply be written in an interpreted programming language with no obvious way to “install” it. In such cases, many steps involved in writing a SlackBuild script will differ from the standard way. Blindly copying and pasting commands from other SlackBuild scripts may or may not work.
It is recommended that anybody who wishes to write a SlackBuild script, study and understand the build system of a software project before attempting to write a SlackBuild script for it. A degree of proficiency in writing shell scripts is also a definite benefit, as it is the practice to use Bourne shell compatible scripts for SlackBuilds. Ideally, simple C projects which use the standard GNU Make system is a good way to start practicing writing SlackBuild scripts.
Submitting SlackBuild scripts to a public repository such as http://www.slackbuilds.org may additionally require adherence to certain conventions and coding standards. For instance, it would be necessary for the script to determine the target architecture at runtime rather than hard-coding it into the script. These standards attempt to make SlackBuild scripts as portable as possible.
Automated SlackBuild generators
Some tools exist that can assist you with creating a SlackBuild script. Here are a few examples.
A SlackBuild generator script by David Woodfall
- Originally written by V.Harishankar for the SlackDocs Wiki Project | <urn:uuid:df00920d-a3d1-4a5d-8721-4f38a3cdbed3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://docs.slackware.com/slackware:slackbuild_scripts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869009 | 724 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Demonstrating the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide and identifying various physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide.
Aim / Objective:
To demonstrate the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide and to identify various physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide, CO2, is one of two oxides of the element carbon and is the main product oxide of carbon formed from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere and is produced by respiration and combustion. However it has a short time in this phase as it is consumed by plants during photosynthesis.
Some physical properties of carbon dioxide are:
– Soluble in water, ethanol and acetone
– Melting point is -78°C
– Boiling Point is -57°C
Some chemical properties of carbon dioxide are:
– Carbon dioxide is a covalent molecule.
– Carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide and reacts with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
– Carbon dioxide reacts with alkalis to form carbonates and bicarbonates
CO2 + NaOH = NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl), Lime water, magnesium ribbon, calcium carbonate (marble chips), spatula, candle, universal indicator, thistle funnel, glass jar, U-tube, matches, flask, silica gel.
Method / Procedure:
- Add three spatulas full of calcium carbonate chips to the flask.
- Pour dilute hydrochloric acid into the top of the funnel; ensure that the liquid covers the tip of the funnel in the flask.
- Perform these various tests on the gas collected and note your results;
i. Observe the gas for color.
ii. Uncover one of the gas jars and use your hand to gently waft the gas towards the nostrils. Not e the smell.
iii. Add lime water to one of the gas jars and shake the mixture gently. Note the results.
iv. Uncover one of the gas jars and place a lit candle over the mouth of the jar. Note results.
v. Use a match to light a small piece of magnesium ribbon and place in gas jar. Note the results.
vi. Add a universal indicator to an uncovered jar and shake the mixture gently to determine its pH. Note your observations.
- Write the equation for the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide.
>>>CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) = CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
- State some uses of carbon dioxide.
>>> Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers
>>>Also used to produce carbonated drinks e.g. soft drinks and soda water.
>>>Carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is used in the winemaking process to cool down grapes to help prevent spontaneous fermentation. This use of dry ice, instead of regular water ice, does not add any additional water that may decrease the sugar concentration in the grape and hence the alcohol concentration in the finished wine. | <urn:uuid:ba008b76-e7c3-4113-91e7-8f26d7d0e389> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://highschoolchemistryguide.com/category/labs-and-experiments/lab-prep-of-carbon-dioxide-and-observing-its-physical-and-chemical-properties/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.844506 | 656 | 4.0625 | 4 |
Teaching Geography: Workshop 3
Programs and Activities: Part 1. Boston and Denver"
Getting Ready 1 (15 minutes)
Please complete this activity prior to watching "Part 1. Boston and Denver: Mapping Urban Economic Development."
Site Leader: Please divide participants into groups of three to four for this activity and see that each group has a set of seven maps. To print maps, click here.
In the upcoming classroom segment, Denver teacher Rick Gindele has his students determine the best location for federal enterprise-zone funding. Below are some of the maps he gives his students. As a group, analyze these maps of Denver census data. With these maps as your only reference, what conclusions can you draw about Denver's development? Where are the wealthy areas? Where are the poorer areas? What patterns of ethnicity do you see? How do transportation routes affect what you see? How did you organize the maps in order to facilitate your analysis? Where would you allocate enterprise-zone funding? Write your conclusions down.
|General Map with Transportation Routes||No Vehicle Ownership|
|Median Income||Hispanic Population|
|College Graduates||African American Population|
|Children Living in Poverty| | <urn:uuid:c08f5992-3f5b-4211-b368-204449151a28> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://learner.org/workshops/geography/workshop3/wkp3bos1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915218 | 249 | 3.125 | 3 |
Definitions for PAVA
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word PAVA
Pava is a city in ancient India, at the time of Gautama Buddha. It was a city of the Mallas which the Buddha visited during his last journey, going there from Bhogagama and staying at Cunda's mango grove. Pava is located about 15 kilometres east of Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, India. Cunda lived in Pava and invited the Buddha to a meal, which proved to be his last. It was on this occasion that the Cunda Sutta was preached. From Pava the Buddha journeyed on to Kushinagar, crossing the Kakkuttha River on the way According to the Sangiti Sutta, at the time the Buddha was staying at Pava, the Mallas had just completed their new Mote hall, Ubbhataka, and, at their invitation, the Buddha consecrated it by first occupying it and then preaching in it. After the Buddha had finished speaking, Sariputta recited the Sangiti Sutta to the assembled monks. Pava was also a centre of Jainism and, at the time mentioned above, Mahavira had just died at Pava and his followers were divided by bitter wrangles. Cunda Samanuddesa was spending his rainy season at Pava, and he reported to the Buddha, who was at Samagama, news of the Nirgranthas’ quarrels. After the Buddha's death, the Mallas of Pava claimed a share in his relics. The Brahmin Dona satisfied their claim, and a Stupa was erected in Pava over their share of the relics.
The numerical value of PAVA in Chaldean Numerology is: 7
The numerical value of PAVA in Pythagorean Numerology is: 4
Images & Illustrations of PAVA
Find a translation for the PAVA definition in other languages:
Select another language: | <urn:uuid:39d5ce34-6c0f-4941-8c65-25dd0c835f1a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/PAVA | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978412 | 411 | 3.234375 | 3 |
The declawing of cats can be quite a heated topic. Although the surgery may stop a cat from partaking in harmful and destructive scratching behavior, it may also bring upon a variety of other negative consequences -- think serious emotional distress and depression in your little one. Definitely not fun.
Purpose of Claws
A cat's claws are useful to them for a variety of reasons. Not only are they beneficial for self-defense, they also enable cats to partake in the perfectly healthy feline behavior of scratching. When a cat scratches, it isn't a vindictive or hostile act, no matter how frustrated by it you might feel. Scratching also is a means of territorial marking and stretching for exercise.
Depression is indeed a possibility for felines after declawing. The bone-amputation surgery in some cases may drastically change a cat's life. When a cat all of a sudden lacks her primary tools for defense and protection -- her claws -- she may quickly become more anxious, nervous, agitated and antisocial than before. If a declawed cat randomly starts behaving in a depressed manner, it could be because she is feeling helpless and, as a result, utterly and totally scared.
Depression isn't the sole behavioral change you might observe in a newly declawed cat. Even if a cat was previously the most jovial and harmless little fluffball on Earth, you may notice the emergence of unusually aggressive actions in her. When a cat doesn't have her claws, she may instead resort to biting. If she feels totally defenseless, biting may be a way for her to overcompensate and feel stronger. Cat bites can be just as dangerous as scratches, if not more so, so be very careful in these situations.
The Humane Society of the United States reports that some cats may also experience medical issues as a result of the surgery. The complex surgical procedure calls for bone extraction -- pretty serious stuff -- and is nothing like a simple nail trim. A declawed cat could encounter everything from severe pain to infection. If she is behaving not like herself and in an abnormally depressed way, consider the fact that discomfort is causing it -- and take her to the veterinarian as soon as possible.
- BananaStock/BananaStock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:c7a1df98-c18a-4890-a9ef-e49c5de79746> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pets.thenest.com/declawing-cats-make-depressed-8257.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944495 | 462 | 2.59375 | 3 |
For those cyclists who have ever wondered why there are so many different sized tires out there, I hope the following explanation will help you with part of the equation. For instance, why do I need a 23c as opposed to a 25c tire?
The 23c tires are the norm. They are the ideal size with considerations for weight, aerodynamics, size of contact patch, rolling resistance and comfort. Unfortunately, this is also assuming the road surface is paved and kept. The less perfect the road, the worse a 23c tire is for you to ride on. In many cases, a 25c tire will provide LOWER rolling resistance and increased comfort.
Personally, I usually ride on a 23c tires “just because” but often train my longer miles on the more comfortable 25c tires.
If you were to ride a kilo bike on a Velodrome on a mahogany wood surface, which is as smooth as a baby’s bottom, then those 20c tires inflated to 150+ psi would be the right choice. Or, if you were to ride the cobbles of Belgium or even the fractured chip seal roads in the United States, then 25c or 28c tires would be best.
There are three variables when choosing a tire; 1) Tires width, 2) Tire pressure, and 3) ROAD SURFACE. For some reason, everyone seems to forget the latter. It also depends what you want from your ride. Those 23c tires are preferred as they are perhaps the ideal compromise of all things. Another way to look at this is with pressure. A 25c tire inflated to 120psi on a rough road IS NOT going to roll better than a 23c tire inflated to say only 90psi.
Those 23c tires work very well for most situations, but a 25c tire is often just more comfortable.
I hope this information is helpful. If you have any other questions, please submit them via a “Comment’ and I will ask a Bike Shop Mechanic. | <urn:uuid:6088b843-4dfe-4d7d-b74b-3ea45469cdad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.timesunion.com/bike/questions-about-which-tire-to-use/5913/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970997 | 417 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Overview of illustrations
Stauffer, R. C. ed. 1975. Charles Darwin's Natural Selection; being the second part of his big species book written from 1836 to 1858. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Text Images Text & images
Compare with the diagram in the Origin of species. See also Darwin's conjectural diagrams of the development of mammals. | <urn:uuid:f0923c33-fd3c-4e42-9166-14c021e1de19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://darwin-online.org.uk/graphics/NaturalSelection_Illustrations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.855602 | 74 | 3.15625 | 3 |
For the sake of the U.S. Department of Education, if only it were still this easy.
As lawmakers, college presidents, and interest groups bicker over a proposed federal college-ratings system, a fossilized version has popped up on Twitter. From 1911.
As Vox’s Libby Nelson notes in a chronicle of the 1911 ratings, the Association of American Universities actually asked the government to devise them. Kendric Charles Babcock, the top higher-education official in the U.S. Bureau of Education, itself a division of the Interior Department, undertook the task. Few were happy with the result. (Anyone surprised?) President William Howard Taft later killed it.
So how did your college stack up more than a century ago? A few things to keep in mind: The four tiers of colleges were based on how prepared their graduates were for graduate school. Also, the asterisks in Class II were used to distinguish its stronger colleges, the equivalent of a “plus” in a paper grade.
To view the full ratings online, click here.Return to Top | <urn:uuid:1f710102-f407-46ac-b445-c9eca2398254> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://chronicle.com/blogs/ticker/how-did-the-federal-government-rate-your-college-a-century-ago/83411?cid=at | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974938 | 225 | 2.53125 | 3 |
While this bank is a government agency, it levels the global playing field and promotes U.S. jobs.
Having excoriated big-government liberals and tax raisers, the Tea Party has now set its sights on the Export-Import Bank.
To the anti-government Tea Party movement, the bank is just one more government intrusion into things that private parties can do for themselves.
Created in 1934 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Export-Import Bank is a U.S. government agency that lends money to foreign buyers to help them purchase our airplanes, computers, and other goods and services. Since 1945, its charter has been subject to periodic renewal by Congress. The latest renewal runs out in a couple of months.
In the vast majority of cases, the loans are paid back in full, with interest. Last year the default rate on loans the bank made was about 0.2%. The bank earned about $1.06 billion for the federal Treasury.
The bank is not supposed to compete with private lenders; therefore, it specializes in higher-risk loans that private institutions are unlikely to make. Over the years it has financed many large projects, including the Pan American Highway that runs from Alaska to Chile. It was involved in the Marshall Plan after World War II, and in the rebuilding of former Soviet countries after the fall of the Berlin Wall.
The purpose of the bank is not primarily to help the countries to whom money is lent. It’s to enable them to buy our goods and services, and therefore to create jobs in the U.S.
Between now and September, the reauthorization deadline, the Tea Party will be arguing that the main beneficiaries in the U.S. are big companies that don’t need help.
When you look at the organizations now lobbying for a renewal of the Export-Import Bank, it might appear that the Tea Party has a point there.
Among the organizations that have been speaking up on behalf of the bank are Boeing, General Electric, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and the National Association of Manufacturers.
At this moment, the battle is too close to call. In the Senate, sentiment appears to favor renewal of the bank’s charter. In the House, there is a good chance that the majority will vote for its abolition.
My biggest disagreement with the Tea Party here is that it doesn’t make sense to be an ideological purist and think only in terms of the U.S.
Foreign companies such as Airbus receive a variety of subsidies to help them compete internationally. The Export-Import bank provides an indirect subsidy to U.S. manufacturers, helping their customers afford our goods and services.
Why should the Tea Party attack an institution that evens the playing field, helps to create jobs in the U.S., and makes money for the Treasury?
Harry Reid (D., Nev.), the Senate majority leader, is talking about a short-term reauthorization of the bank, tied to a bill that would fund the government past September 30 — again, for the short term.
A more statesmanlike solution, I’d say, would be to extend the bank’s charter for at least another three years, as Congress has done 16 times before. The most common extension period has been five years. That’s what the administration has asked for this time, and that’s what Congress should do.
John Dorfman is chairman of Thunderstorm Capital LLC, a Boston money-management firm. He can be reached at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:c814143e-acb0-4207-975a-c91e9b1b6ee8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://time.com/money/2974013/the-capitalist-argument-for-renewing-the-export-import-bank/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960316 | 741 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Lightning a threat to N.D. saltwater disposal sites
Strikes already have caused three major fires since June
WILLISTON, N.D. — Three massive fires since the beginning of June have highlighted the threat lightning poses in the North Dakota oil patch, and in each case it was tanks that store the toxic saltwater associated with drilling — not the oil wells or drilling rigs — that were to blame.
The lightning-sparked fires destroyed the groups of silo-like storage tanks at the three locations, which are among more than 440 sites in North Dakota where so-called saltwater is stored before being pumped into permanent disposal sites miles underground. In each case, the fires burned for days, spewing noxious black smoke into the air and literally salting the earth.
Although disposal tanks aren’t likely more susceptible to lightning strikes than similar structures that jut out over the prairie, their fiberglass components and combustible contents make it very likely they’ll go up in flames when they are hit.
“You’re creating the perfect mixture for ignition,” said Bruce Kaiser, president of the Clearwater, Florida-based Lightning Master Corporation, which is one of several companies that provide lightning protection systems to oil field facilities. “Counterintuitively, it’s the water tanks that blow up, not the oil tanks.”
Also called brine, saltwater is a byproduct of oil production that is between 10 and 30 times saltier than seawater and that contains oil residue when it is put in the tanks, where gas vapors also collect. Companies allow the liquid to settle and separate, then skim and sell off the oil to pad their profits while injecting what remains into the ground.
Due to brine’s corrosiveness, companies would have to replace their disposal tanks every few years if they were just metal, so they commonly use tanks made of or lined with fiberglass, which last longer.
Metal-only tanks would allow the electricity to pass through them and into the ground more easily than those with fiberglass, said John Jensenius, a lightning safety expert at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
“Because fiberglass is more resistant to electrical charge movement, it’s going to heat up. That’s why you’re seeing the fires,” he said.
Despite the risks posed by lightning, North Dakota doesn’t require companies to install any protections. Some do it anyway — the owner of tanks near the town of Ross that were struck June 27 estimates it will cost $2 million to replace them and clean up the site. | <urn:uuid:1ac41903-4850-4918-9ff4-5f807dab953a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chieftain.com/news/weather/2740615-120/tanks-lightning-oil-disposal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966228 | 547 | 2.625 | 3 |
By MITCH LIES
HERMISTON, Ore. -- Dryland winter wheat production in the Northwest, surprisingly, may improve with climate change.
And potatoes and spring wheat, also probably will fare just fine.
Scientists are finding some surprising results two years into a five-year look at the effects of climate change on inland Northwest crop production
"What I find interesting is it is not all doom and gloom for us in the Pacific Northwest," said Steve Petrie, director of the Oregon State University Columbia Basin Agricultural Research Center.
"We're unique," he said. "If you're a corn grower in Iowa, your world is probably going to change."
The study is funded by a $20 million grant from the National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Three land-grant universities, including OSU, and the USDA Agricultural Research Service are involved in the study.
The study uses an array of climate models and CropSyst, a crop model developed by a Washington State University scientist to predict how Northwest agriculture will be affected by climate change between now and 2080.
The models show an increase in precipitation and temperatures over the next 70 years and take into account an increase in carbon dioxide emissions.
Scientists involved in the study gauged wheat yields under different cropping system, including crop-fallow and annual cropping.
The models assumed good crop management.
The models didn't take into account changes in weed, disease and insect pressure, which could rise, Petrie said.
Because of warmer winters, Petrie said: "It sounds to me like we might have more diseases.
"And," he said, "we may have more insect problems. We may have more flights in the fall and more flights in the spring."
"Also," he said, "weeds could become more of a problem than they are now."
But increased rainfall in the winter and the increased carbon dioxide emissions, which serves as a plant nutrient, are expected to increase Northwest dryland winter wheat yields, he said.
Petrie's snapshot of the study's second year findings was aired at the Hermiston Farm Fair Nov. 29.
The first-year report is available online. The just-completed second-year report will be online in a couple of weeks, he said.
Despite the positive findings, Petrie said it is not all rosy for Northwest farmers. Some Northwest crops, such as apples, he said, will suffer under climate change, according to the models.
More information on the study, including the results of year-one, can be found at firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:fae50212-c553-4fb8-9948-77b738e2555d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.capitalpress.com/content/ml-hermiston-climate-change-113012 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959267 | 538 | 2.96875 | 3 |
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