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Fifty years ago, on May 1, 1960, a Soviet missile brought down a CIA U-2 near the city of Sverdlovsk deep in Russia. The shoot-down had serious consequences. Apart from heightening Cold War tensions, it marked the end of a remarkably successful collection program against the Soviet Union, and was certainly a life-changing event for Francis Gary Powers, the civilian pilot who miraculously survived the crash.
Building the U-2
- An early U-2 in flight.
The story began in the early 1950s when the United States realized that it knew dangerously little about the Soviet Union. Over the strenuous objections of then-Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) Allen Dulles, who insisted that CIA’s focus should remain human intelligence, President Dwight Eisenhower decided that the CIA, and not the military, should develop an overhead collection program.
The result was that the brilliant and extremely energetic Richard Bissell, operating as Special Assistant to the DCI, became the Agency’s project manager for the development of a photo reconnaissance plane that would fly far above Soviet air defenses. Bissell in turn worked with Kelly Johnson, of Lockheed’s famous “Skunkworks,” and the only slightly less famous Edwin Land, the developer of the Polaroid camera. Together, in the space of 18 months, they created, tested, and fielded the U-2, a power glider that:
- Could fly at 70,000 feet
- Had a range of 2,950 miles and
- Carried the finest camera lenses in the world.
In the Hands of the Soviets
- Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev viewing paraphernalia from Powers’s U-2. Photo: Courtesy of National Archives.
The U-2 was ready to leave the nest in the summer of 1956. Concerned by the potential for international incidents, and even war, that overflights of the Soviet Bloc could cause, Eisenhower reserved the right to approve missions himself. Eisenhower limited the number of missions to what he considered the minimum to close vital intelligence gaps, which the photographs from the U-2 did with great success.
Between 1956 and 1960, there followed an arms race within an arms race. Soviet radars tracked most, if not all, U-2 flights over Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, but their missiles and fighters could not reach high enough to shoot the U-2 down. All the Soviets could do was to deliver protest notes to the United States, and push their developers for technological or tactical breakthroughs, while American developers tried in vain to make the U-2 invisible to radar. After many failures, the Soviets were able to get a missile close enough to a U-2 for a kill on May 1, 1960.
American pilot, spy film, and wreckage in hand, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev played the situation for all it was worth, scoring propaganda victories while the United States countered with the weak cover story that the lost U-2 had been a weather plane that had wandered off course. At the previously scheduled Four Power Summit in mid-May, Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower. When Eisenhower refused, the talks collapsed.
- The pilot, Francis Gary Powers, using a model of the U-2 to brief American listeners on his ordeal after being released from Soviet prison.
After a show trial, Powers received a 10-year sentence. He served 18 months of that sentence before being exchanged for the Soviet “illegal” Rudolf Abel, who had been in a federal prison after years of coordinating a spy ring from his apartment in New York City.
Upon return to the United States, Powers faced numerous inquiries, including a formal board convened by CIA. Despite pressure from DCI John McCone to find fault with Powers, the CIA board of inquiry exonerated him, and he eventually received an Intelligence Star for his services.
He went on to work as a test pilot at Lockheed, write a book, and, sadly, die in 1977 while piloting a helicopter for a TV station.
Paving the Way for the Future
In retrospect, was the U-2 program against the Soviets worthwhile? Arguably, yes. Though the program was exposed by Powers’ crash in 1960, before that time it produced intelligence that allowed the United States to moderate its responses in the arms race with the Soviets, and thereby helped to keep the peace.
Moreover, the United States now had an airframe that it or its allies could use against other targets, and which both the (Nationalist) Chinese and U.S. Air Forces went on to fly. It proved to be a useful complement to the reconnaissance satellites that began to produce imagery a few months after Powers was shot down.
The CIA Museum contains various pieces from the history of the U-2, among them a piece of the wreckage of Powers’s plane, a pressure suit worn by early U-2 pilots, and the model that Powers used when giving testimony to the Senate Armed Services Committee following his release from the Soviet Union in 1962.
Related Stories and Links: | <urn:uuid:621a5557-349a-44dc-9c88-2c1b06883e5b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2010-featured-story-archive/cia-and-u-2-a-50-year-anniversary.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959727 | 1,049 | 3.140625 | 3 |
In this tutorial we will discuss Hibernate mapping.
Hibernate Mapping :
Hibernate mapping is of different types. database tables mapping ,O/R mapping etc.
Here we are discussing Object/Relational mapping. In general, you can do O/R mapping in XML file.
You can also do mapping by using annotations.
Types of mapping :There are four kinds of mapping you can done through hibernate-
One-to-One Mapping : One-to-One relationship is
single-valued in both the directions. In one to one
relationships occurs when one entity is exactly related to single occurrence in
You can say , each row in table A is linked to only one row of B .
Example :If we take two table as employee and department.
Then the relation one head of department manages one department and each
department has only one head.
you can see ,there is one to one relationship from both side.
One-to-Many Mapping : One-to-Many relationship is
single valued in one side and multi valued in other side. It means one entity is
related to many occurrence in another entity.
You can say, each record of one table A is linked to multiple records in another table B.
Many-to-One Mapping : Many-to-one relationship is multi
valued in one side and single valued in other side. It means many occurrence of
a entity is related to one occurrence in another entity.
You can say, multiple records of one table A is linked to one record in another table B.
Example : Employee and address. Many employee live in same house so many employee belongs to one address.
Many-to-Many Mapping : Many-to-Many relationship is
multi valued in both side. It means many occurrence of a entity is related to
many occurrence in another entity.
You can say, multiple rows of one table A is linked to multiple rows in another table B.
Example : A student can have many subjects .In the same way one subject can have many students so here is many-to many relationship.
Posted on: August 18, 2012 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles | <urn:uuid:f6044bfd-364f-4237-9571-3e2c17633992> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://roseindia.net/hibernate/HibernateMapping.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927694 | 476 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Autism Grows Up
Airs Sunday, April 14 at 6 p.m In the 1990s autism rates around the US began to rise. Each year since then thousands of children have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. Now, these children are “aging out” of school-based special education programs. They are the first generation of adults with autism spectrum disorders to be diagnosed early enough to participate in these programs for most of their school years. Once they are no longer eligible for these services, it will be left to them and their families to find the employment, education, housing and other services they need to live as independently as possible for the rest of their lives. Each of them enters adulthood with a unique combination of social, behavioral and communication deficits that promises an unusually challenging life. Depending on the severity of the disorder, they may or may not be able to live independently, find a job, go to college, date or marry.
The View From Here: Autism Grows Up follows four adults with autism who are aiming for a life of choice and opportunity. Listen Again Online Here.
Listen here to Bill Beckett who speaks with Susan Lay, a Special Education Specialist with Region 7 Education Service Center in Kilgore, Texas about adult service for the autistic. | <urn:uuid:4938dac9-41c1-431e-a986-b065d2796557> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://redriverradio.org/post/autism-grows | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964831 | 258 | 2.875 | 3 |
Dr. Tony Buffington is on a mission to improve the standard of living for cats and the owners who love them.
Buffington, a professor at Ohio State’s College of Veterinary Medicine, is recognized around the world by researchers and veterinarians alike for his groundbreaking work in linking everyday stressors to feline illnesses, including urinary tract disorders. But he hopes to reach the much broader audience of cat owners through a new digital book and iTunes U course released this month.
“Cat owners want to do the right thing, but there’s a lot of misinformation on the Internet. What we hoped to do was to put in one place some guidelines and suggestions for a new standard of care in the home,” Buffington says.
“Cat Mastery” offers multiple interactive opportunities
The digital book, “Cat Mastery,” offers multiple interactive opportunities to engage with the material through quizzes, slide decks, videos, diagrams and more. The book illustrates the fundamental components needed to create an environment that keeps cats happy and, therefore, healthy.
Buffington has spent the past 30 years studying cats and how their environment affects their health, authoring more than 100 scientific publications, 30 book chapters and three books. Observing hundreds of cats over the course of years, Buffington and researchers at Ohio State found that bladder disorders and other serious health issues dissipated once cats were placed in an “enhanced environment” that more closely resembled their natural habitat, over which they have greater control.
“Cats are more removed from their natural environment than we are, which means that when cats are exposed to threatening situations in the home, their underlying physical vulnerabilities are exposed,” Buffington says.
Cats can view other family pets, household appliances and even owners as potential predators. When exposed to that stress, weak organs sometimes pay the price.
Through the Indoor Pet Initiative, Buffington and a team of Ohio State researchers have suggested simple steps owners can take to enrich the lives of cats in the home. Where the litter box is placed, places to perch and opportunities to “hunt” in the home are part of creating the enhanced environment where their beloved companions can thrive.
Interestingly, his research with cats has led Buffington to study how stress affects human suffering and contributes to illness.
“It’s about the balance of perception of control to perception of threat,” Buffington explains. “As long as the brain believes it is more in control than threatened, things are OK. That goes for all mammalian species.”
Buffington’s “Cat Mastery” and complementary iTunes U Course are products of Ohio State’s Digital First initiative, which is redesigning the learning experience on campus and beyond by optimizing emerging wireless and mobile technologies. Led by the Office of Distance Education & eLearning, the impact of Digital First can be seen far and wide – from the iBooks faculty and staff have authored for use at the university to the more than 2.4 million iTunes course downloads to date.
"Dr. Buffington is an example of Ohio State’s incredible intellectual power. Now, with ‘Cat Mastery,’ his wit and wisdom are accessible to a worldwide audience. The technology behind the digital book and iTunes U course will expand the reach of Ohio State well beyond the original vision of a land grant institution and engage new learners for both academic knowledge and individual curiosity,” says Mike Hofherr, vice president and chief information officer. | <urn:uuid:acf89608-d741-4403-b6af-047a6c25ea12> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.osu.edu/features/2014/happy-cats-healthy-cats.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947952 | 723 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Japanese scientists have proposed a new method for storing more data on optical discs by using arrays of multidirectional V-shape pits.
Current high-density optical recording systems in combination with a blue laser diode and a high numerical aperture (NA) optics have increased the capacity of optical disks to a 20 Gbits level in the Blu-ray system. For further increase of the data storage capacity, technologies such as a holographic data storage, a polarization multiplex recording system, a
multilayer optical disk have now been developed. However, these technologies have not the simplicity enabling mass-production by simple stamper processing applied in the production of current CD and DVD media. Other methods proposed for the increase of the capacity of discs include multi-bits configurations of depth controlled single pits. Although these methods enabled stamper reproduction, they require high precision in the pit shape reproduction since the principle is based on the optical multiplexing involving the reflection
phase modulation by the pit geometry.
Toshihide Tsuru and Masaki Yamamoto of Tohoku University in Japan, proposed a new concept of high-density recording by imprinting an array of V-shape pits composed of mirror facets of specified directions and slopes on a media surface.
The method can increase the capacity of CD and DVD media by nine times, according to the scientists.
Reading the stored data on the CD or DVD media (1 and 0) requires the read out of the direction of the facet. This has been achieved by determining the parameters of the reflected light, which appears as elliptically polarized . Scientists claim that they have successfully read out the stored data with very high accuracy.
Scientists said that structure of this single layer geometry is compatible to current mass-production of optical storage discs by stamping.
The technology may also help realizing a variety of high density memory applications. However, it cannot be applied on Blu-ray discs and of course, the V-pit cd /DVD discsc are not compatible with current CD/DVD ROM drives.
More information is available in the Japanese press release
of the Tohoku University. | <urn:uuid:49636b24-7057-431c-9f3a-c05c5adbf16f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=23604 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91948 | 431 | 3.046875 | 3 |
After noting that her country of origin, the Republic of Chile, was the second largest exporter of dehydrated plums in the world, Genoveva Cifuentes sought to find a use for the 47,000 tonnes of annually wasted plum pits -- InPlum is the result of her quest for sustainability and manages to find room for aesthetics, too.
Typically, the refuse and waste from producing dehydrated plums is left to rot in landfills, burned in industrial fires or used in composting. Yet, while some of the fruit pits are safely discarded, too much is left to waste -- Genoveva Cifuentes decided that the cellulose and lignin components of the seeds could be used to compose a biodegradable material. InPlum, the name of her project, upcycles plum pits and converts their normally-ignored nutrients into a sturdy compound for gardening purposes! These plant pots and seed beds can be deployed directly into the soil and will not only decompose harmlessly, but will improve germination by adding the InPlum pots' nutrients to the mix.
Not only will your garden look better than your neighbors, you won't have the shame of knowing you added pesticides or strange chemicals to improve your plants.
Upcycled Plum Containers
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50 Awesome Upcycled Accessories
12 Upcycled Wine Bottle Innovations
Artistically Upcycled Lighting
Upcycled Rugby Balls
Customized Upcycled Shades | <urn:uuid:2ba1aa36-3c1f-4a82-97de-dafb098bf21f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/inplum | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921786 | 306 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Common heart drug questioned
Research examines beta-blocker benefits
3rd October 2012 - A new study suggests many patients may not benefit from beta-blockers, one of the most commonly prescribed medications for heart disease.
The research from Chicago, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, shows beta-blockers are not associated with a lower risk of heart attacks or stroke among patients with only coronary artery disease risk factors, or those who have had a prior heart attack, or those with coronary artery disease without a prior heart attack.
Beta-blockers work by slowing down the heart and stopping it beating too quickly and too forcefully. This reduces the amount of work the heart has to do and also increases the amount of blood it is able to pump with each beat.
They're life savers for people with heart failure and others with fragile hearts badly damaged by heart attacks. However, they're also given to people whose hearts aren't so fragile, including:
- People at high risk of heart disease
- People with partially blocked arteries (coronary artery disease, or CAD) but who have not had a heart attack
- Heart attack survivors
Dr Sripal Bangalore, who led the research, told us:"In all these three subgroups of patients, there is no benefit of using beta-blockers." He says recommendations for beta-blockers are mostly based on data collected two decades ago. Since then, treatment of heart attack and CAD patients has greatly improved.
Amy Thompson, Senior Cardiac Nurse at the British Heart Foundation, says in a press statement: "Beta-blockers are commonly prescribed in the UK to treat a range of conditions, including high blood pressure and heart failure. This study refines our understanding of who does, and who does not, benefit from taking a beta-blocker."
Dr Bangalore and an international team of researchers looked at data from more than 44,000 people who were either at high risk of coronary heart disease, had coronary heart disease, or had suffered a heart attack some time ago.
They followed up patients and looked at whether patients given beta-blockers were less likely to die of heart disease or to suffer a heart attack or stroke. They weren't.
They found beta-blocker use was not associated with a lower number of heart attacks and strokes across these groups.
"We have shown in our study that if you have a heart attack and take beta-blockers for a year, you probably will benefit," Dr Bangalore says. "But the question is, how long after a heart attack would beta-blockers offer a benefit? The European Union says use these drugs long-term only in patients with heart failure."
Senior Cardiac Nurse, Amy Thompson, says:"In this country, the current recommendations are that everyone who has an acute heart attack should be offered a beta-blocker, as they have been proven to reduce the risk of a further heart attack and death. However, these guidelines are under constant review and the results of this study are likely to be considered when they are next updated.
"If you take a beta-blocker, don’t stop taking it as this could worsen your symptoms. If you have any concerns about your medication, it’s best to talk it over with your GP first." | <urn:uuid:f518a2f4-5aef-4244-adab-882d530564b6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.boots.com/heart-disease/news/20121003/beta-blockers-questioned | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959594 | 675 | 2.875 | 3 |
It all goes back to when William of Normandy invaded England in 1066 and declared himself William I. Rather than having the modern American idea that those in public service are there to serve the public, the enforced view (legally and militarily) was that the whole of the British Isle belonged to William personally; every person, place, and thing. Every inhabitant was subject to his rule; everything that something could be gotten from owed a tribute to him; he was beyond question from anyone, and the law consisted of his will and decree.
The “right to rule,” both in England and in the United States, is still based on conquest and theft. [See references below.] Invasion and conquest is like the Mafia moving in, taking over your town, and there is nobody – no FBI, no police, no national guard – to stop him. In fact, it is the Mafia that is all of the above. But they aren’t there “to protect and to serve” the public. They are there to enforce the conqueror’s will.
What has been misnamed in the United States as the “justice system” actually isn’t meant to dispense “justice”; instead, it is merely the continuation of the ancient custom of using sheriffs (in modern times, also any other law enforcement personnel) serving as a mechanism to enforce the king’s will. In America, just replace the word “king” in the previous sentence with “Congress” or “legislature” or “city council” and you have basically the same thing. Try telling any of them that you aren’t going to do what they tell you to do, and they will send knights with swords or badges with guns to make sure that you do conform to the king’s will.
The court system started out as ecclesiastical courts of the Church, just to remind the king that God, not he, was the final arbiter. Without them, there would be no check on the king’s activities. So, before the king could deprive anyone permanently of life, liberty, or property, it first had to be run by the Church’s ecclesiastical courts to make sure the king’s will conformed (more or less) to God’s will.
Now for some background history:
At Christmas 1085, William I commissioned a survey of his English dominions. His bureaucrats (seven or eight committees of bishops and earls) interviewed representatives from all over England on the ownership of land in their locality.
The results were compiled in "the King's great book" soon known as the Domesday Book. It soon influenced taxation levels, as the government became aware how wealthy English localities were.
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerv ... n%20ii.htm
For King William to pay for the mercenary army he hired to defend his kingdom; he needed a record of all financial and military resources available to him. He commissioned a survey of all the land and people in it, including even the farm animals. He wanted to know who owned what, how much it was worth and how much was owed to the King in tax, rents and military service.
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_was_the_D ... ok_created
William consolidated his conquest by starting a castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area) surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order.
William's wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies.
He created up to 180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military arrangement which had survived the Conquest.
The King's tenants-in-chief in turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing class.
To strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to a continuing complex legal framework.
More severe forest laws reinforced William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve. These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will....’
http://www.royal.gov.uk/historyofthemon ... ueror.aspx
The Medieval Holdovers in American Law and Government
GAME AND HUNTING RIGHTS AND REGULATIONS
Under English common law, all wildlife belonged to the crown. This ownership was held in trust for the benefit of all the people. The English government, as trustee for the people, exercised its power to protect, control, and regulate the taking of game and fish. This attribute of government ownership of wild animals was introduced into the Colonies and remains in effect today in all states including Alabama.
[Actually, it wasn’t for the benefit of all people. Actions against game poachers were to protect the personal property of the king from the people’s ancient practice of hunting and gathering from lands open to all known as "the commons".]
http://www.aaes.auburn.edu/comm/pubs/ci ... irc250.pdf
Similarities between the legal and governmental systems of England and the U.S.
Common law - (also known as case law or precedent) is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action. A "common law system" is a legal system that gives great precedential weight to common law, on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different occasions. The body of precedent is called "common law" and it binds future decisions. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, a common law court looks to past precedential decisions of relevant courts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision (this principle is known as stare decisis). If, however, the court finds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases (called a "matter of first impression"), judges have the authority and duty to make law by creating precedent. Thereafter, the new decision becomes precedent, and will bind future courts.
Common law in England - Judge-made common law operated as the primary source of law for several hundred years, before Parliament acquired legislative powers to create statutory law. It is important to understand that common law is the older and more traditional source of law, and legislative power is simply a layer applied on top of the older common law foundation. Since the 12th century, courts have had parallel and co-equal authority to make law -- "legislating from the bench" is a traditional and essential function of courts, which was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the "judicial power" specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. observed in 1917 that "judges do and must legislate." There are legitimate debates on how the powers of courts and legislatures should be balanced. However, a view that courts lack law-making power is historically inaccurate and constitutionally unsupportable.
Common law in the United States - As colonies gained independence from Britain, in most cases the newly independent countries adopted English common law precedent as of the date independence as the default law to carry forward into the new nation, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the newly freed colony's founding documents or government. In some cases, the carry-forward was simply understood, with no express provision in either the new independence constitution or legislation. In other cases, the new legislature felt it necessary to "dot i's and cross t's" by enacting an express reception statute, even if common law had been received during the colonial period. Examples of both patterns are described below.
Reception statutes in the United States
For example, following the American Revolution in 1776, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by each of the newly independent states was to adopt a "reception statute" that gave legal effect to the existing body of English common law to the extent that American legislation or the Constitution had not explicitly rejected English law. Some states enacted reception statutes as legislative statutes, while other states received the English common law through provisions of the state's constitution, and some by court decision.
British traditions such as the monarchy were rejected by the U.S. Constitution, but many English common law traditions such as habeas corpus, jury trials, and various other civil liberties were adopted in the United States. Significant elements of English common law prior to 1776 still remain in effect in many jurisdictions in the United States, because they have never been rejected by American courts or legislatures.
For example, the New York Constitution of 1777 provides that:[S]uch parts of the common law of England, and of the statute law of England and Great Britain, and of the acts of the legislature of the colony of New York, as together did form the law of the said colony on the 19th day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, shall be and continue the law of this State, subject to such alterations and provisions as the legislature of this State shall, from time to time, make concerning the same.
Alexander Hamilton emphasized in The Federalist that this New York constitutional provision expressly made the common law subject "to such alterations and provisions as the legislature shall from time to time make concerning the same." Thus, even when reception was effected by a constitution, the common law was still subject to alteration by a legislature's statute.
One could note a certain irony: one of the first acts of many of the newly independent states was to adopt the law of the foreign sovereign from whom independence had just been gained. But this is one more demonstration of the point mentioned above (Commercial economies), that the newly independent states recognized the importance of a predictable and established body of law to govern the conduct of citizens and businesses, and therefore adopted the richest available source of law.
The Northwest Ordinance, which was approved by the Congress of the Confederation in 1787, guaranteed "judicial proceedings according to the course of the common law." Nathan Dane, the primary author of the Northwest Ordinance, viewed this provision as a default mechanism in the event that federal or territorial statutes were silent about a particular matter; he wrote that if "a statute makes an offence, and is silent as to the mode of trial, it shall be by jury, according to the course of the common law." In effect, the provision operated as a reception statute, giving legal authority to the established common law in the vast territories where no states had yet been established.
Over time, as new states were formed from federal territories, these territorial reception statutes became obsolete and were re-enacted as state law. For example, a reception statute enacted by legislation in the state of Washington requires that "[t]he common law, so far as it is not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States, or of the state of Washington nor incompatible with the institutions and condition of society in this state, shall be the rule of decision in all the courts of this state." In this way, the common law was eventually incorporated into the legal systems of every state except Louisiana (which inherited a civil law system from its French colonizers before the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, adopting a code similar to but not directly based on the Napoleonic Code of 1804).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law ... lonizationRoyal Assent - The granting of royal assent refers to the method by which any constitutional monarch formally approves and promulgates an act of his or her nation's parliament, thus making it a law. In the vast majority of contemporary monarchies, this act is considered to be little more than a formality; even in those nations which still permit their ruler to withhold the royal assent (such as the United Kingdom, Norway and Liechtenstein), the monarch almost never does so save in a dire political emergency (see reserve power), or upon the advice of his or her government. While the power to withhold royal assent was once exercised often in European monarchies, it is exceedingly rare in the modern, democratic political atmosphere that has developed there since the 18th century.
U.S. Const. Art. I § 7 - Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States: If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law.The royal prerogative - is a body of customary authority, privilege, and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy as belonging to the sovereign alone. It is the means by which some of the executive powers of government, possessed by and vested in a monarch with regard to the process of governance of their state, are carried out.
Individual prerogatives can be abolished by Parliament, although in the United Kingdom special procedure applies.
Though some republican heads of state possess similar powers, they are not co-terminous, containing a number of fundamental differences, and may be either more or less extensive (cf. reserve powers).
In England, while prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting alone, without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after Magna Carta), since the accession of the House of Hanover they have been generally exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or the Cabinet, who in turn is accountable to Parliament, exclusively so, except in matters of the Royal Family, since at least the time of Queen Victoria.
Executive privilege - In the United States government, executive privilege is the power claimed by the President of the United States and other members of the executive branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions by the legislative and judicial branches of government. The concept of executive privilege is not mentioned explicitly in the United States Constitution, but the Supreme Court of the United States ruled it to be an element of the separation of powers doctrine, and/or derived from the supremacy of executive branch in its own area of Constitutional activity.
The Supreme Court confirmed the legitimacy of this doctrine in United States v. Nixon, but only to the extent of confirming that there is a qualified privilege. Once invoked, a presumption of privilege is established, requiring the Prosecutor to make a "sufficient showing" that the "Presidential material" is "essential to the justice of the case."(418 U.S. at 713-14). Chief Justice Burger further stated that executive privilege would most effectively apply when the oversight of the executive would impair that branch's national security concerns.
Images such as this have recently been used as a cartoonish depiction of the President. But, considering the actual state of things as proved in the historical record above, it really isn’t all that far from the truth. As I said at the beginning, "Peel away that veneer and, beneath the surface, nothing much has really changed." | <urn:uuid:088c067b-1564-4547-b92f-4f26e6bb1597> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://forum.tuscaloosanews.com/viewtopic.php?f=4&t=17620&p=282498 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968669 | 3,534 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Lizards of Wisconsin
Lizards, like snakes, are covered with dry scaly skin. Scales help reduce water loss and increase a lizard's ability to take in solar heat. The two species of skinks in Wisconsin both have shiny, similar-sized overlapping scales covering their bodies. The prairie racerunner has small body scales and large, rectangular belly scales that are like those found on snakes. The slender glass lizard has small scales containing bony plates. This gives extra protection to its limbless body.
Most lizards have patterns that help them to blend in with their surroundings. Some species, such as the common five-lined skink, undergo a change in pattern as they mature.
Many male lizards undergo color changes on parts of their bodies during the breeding season. In Wisconsin, male common five-lined skinks develop orange-red colored heads; male prairie skinks develop bright orange throats, lips, and chins; and male six-lined racerunners turn a bluish color on their chins and bellies. It's all a way to draw attention. These bright colors are used to warn other males that a breeding territory is taken and to attract females. Some lizards, like chameleons and anoles are known for their rapid color-changing abilities.
Lizards shed their skin periodically during the active season. Slender glass lizards often shed their skin in one piece, like snakes, but most lizards shed their skin in patches. A lizard may rub itself against objects to loosen the old skin, and some lizards eat their shed skin for its nutrients. The new skin is vividly colored, but in time the color fades and eventually the old skin cracks in spots. This signals the start of a new shed cycle.
Continue Reading about Lizards of Wisconsin: | <urn:uuid:ecaf6aad-a478-4327-a4e1-3f8804e1d806> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dnr.wi.gov/org/caer/ce/eek/critter/reptile/lizardsOfWisconsin3.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964701 | 369 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Click photos for larger images.
Don't mound mulch up against the trunks of trees and shrubs (right). Those volcano-shaped piles may look good to some, but they can kill your trees.
Instead, spread the mulch about 3 to 4 inches deep in a circle at least 3 feet in diameter around young trees and shrubs. Then brush away mulch at the center of the circle so that it is several inches from the base of the tree.
A slight depression in the center is OK (left). Think lunar crater -- not Mt. Vesuvius.
Even if you keep it away from the trunk, spreading mulch deeper than 4 inches can create shallow, vulnerable root systems. As your trees grow, extend the mulch to their dripline (the edge of the canopy).
Trees benefit more from this kind of extensive mulching (right). You're not doing them any favors by piling it higher and deeper.
© Copyright, Department of Horticulture, Cornell University.
Website design: Craig Cramer email@example.com
Mention of trade names and commercial products is for educational purposes; no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by Cornell Cooperative Extension or Cornell University is implied. Pesticide recommendations are for informational purposes only and manufacturers' recommendations change. Read the manufacturers' instructions carefully before use. Cornell Cooperative Extension and Cornell University assumes no responsibility for the use of any pesticide or chemicals. Some of the links provided are not maintained by Cornell Cooperative Extension and Cornell University. Cornell Cooperative Extension and Cornell University are not responsible for information on these websites. They are included for information purposes only and no endorsement by Cornell Cooperative Extension or Cornell University is implied. Cornell Cooperative Extension provides equal program and employment opportunities. | <urn:uuid:f80cabc8-e956-4a62-93f3-d963137cd435> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardening.cornell.edu/factsheets/mulch/toomuch.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909706 | 356 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Charting Progress for Babies in Childcare
Build Supply of Quality Care
Examples of state-specific analyses of available data on babies and toddlers in child care:
Examples of state supply and demand analyses:
- California Child Care Resource and Referral Agency produces biennial reports on supply and demand for licensed care in the state, including analysis by age of children.
- Maryland Child Care Resource Network produces annual reports that map the supply of licensed slots and the population of children across the state.
National resources on increasing the supply of quality infant and toddler child care:
- CLASP and ZERO TO THREE studied state initiatives to build on the Early Head Start model. A report as well as state profiles are available.
- CLASP has written about the use of contracts to improve the quality and supply of infant/toddler care.
- The National Infant and Toddler Child Care Initiative has released recommendations for ensuring babies and toddlers are addressed in state QRIS.
- The Community Investment Collaborative for Kids, a project of the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC), provides financial and technical assistance to construct quality child care centers or improve existing centers in low-income neighborhoods.
Information on reaching and supporting the quality of family, friend, and neighbor caregivers:
Visit page: http://www.clasp.org/babiesinchildcare/recommendations/their-families-to-have-access-to-quality-options-for-their-care/build-supply-of-quality-care | <urn:uuid:8b336e03-5308-4d30-8a4e-00c420b3c12d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.clasp.org/babiesinchildcare/recommendations/their-families-to-have-access-to-quality-options-for-their-care/build-supply-of-quality-care/online-resources | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.895338 | 317 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Social Science vs Natural Science
Social science and Natural science are two subjects that differ from each other in terms of their subject matter. Social science is any study that is centered on society and its development. In short, it refers to any subject that does not come under the gamut of natural sciences.
Thus, social sciences include a variety of subjects such as anthropology, education, economics, international relations, political science, history, geography, psychology, law, criminology, and the like. Anthropology is a social science that deals with the history of man. Human biology and humanities get covered too by the term anthropology.
Economics is a social science that studies the various theories and problems relating production of goods, distribution of goods and of course the consumption of wealth. Physical geography and human geography are covered by the term geography which is yet another social science. History is a social science that explores into the past human events.
On the other hand, natural sciences are the branches of science that go into the details of the natural world by using scientific methods. It is important to know that natural sciences employ scientific methods to go deep into details regarding natural behavior and natural condition. This is the main difference between social science and natural science.
Sciences such as logic, mathematics, and statistics are called as formal sciences and they too are different from natural sciences. Astronomy, Biology, Earth Science, Physics, Chemistry, Oceanography, Material Science, Earth Science and Atmospheric Science are some of the well-known natural sciences.
It is interesting to note that subjects such as meteorology, hydrology, geophysics and geology also fall under natural sciences since they all involve scientific methods in their approach. These are the differences between the two important terms, namely, social science and natural science. | <urn:uuid:a032296e-51b6-4128-be8c-5895251e50fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-social-science-and-vs-natural-science/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947961 | 362 | 3.03125 | 3 |
From the streets of Ferguson, Missouri to the favelas of Brazil, the police use of force and firearms makes global headlines when it turns fatal.
In countless other cases, including in response to demonstrations, police are too quick to use force instead of seeking peaceful conflict resolution. In many countries police deploy tear gas, rubber bullets and other weapons in arbitrary, abusive or excessive use of force, causing serious casualties, including killing and maiming people, often with little or no accountability.
Amnesty International is responding to this serious deficiency in law enforcement by publishing comprehensive new Guidelines for authorities to ensure that police give utmost priority to the respect and protection of life and physical integrity.
“All too often, in many countries around the world, people are killed or seriously injured when police use force in violation of international standards or existing national laws,” said the report’s author, Dr. Anja Bienert of Amnesty International Netherlands’ Police and Human Rights Program.
“Nobody is disputing that police have a challenging, and often even dangerous, duty to perform. But governments and law enforcement authorities frequently fail to create a framework to ensure that police only use force lawfully, in compliance with human rights and as a last resort.
“These new Guidelines aim to close that gap and provide legal and practical measures which states can and must take to ensure police use of force is not excessive, abusive, arbitrary or otherwise unlawful. For this to happen, full accountability must be ensured for any use of force by police.”
Amnesty International is launching Use of Force – Guidelines for Implementation of the UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by law enforcement officials to mark the 25th anniversary of the adoption of the UN Basic Principles in September 1990. The Basic Principles are regarded as the key instrument for states to ensure compliance with their obligations to uphold the right to life and physical integrity.
The Guidelines draw on examples of national laws, internal regulations and training documents from 58 countries in all regions of the world. Their detailed conclusions and recommendations are meant to support government authorities to implement the UN Basic Principles and ensure good, effective, human rights-compliant policing.
The power to use force and firearms is indispensable for police to carry out their duties, but that does not mean it is an inevitable part of the job – in fact, the underlying principle of the international standards for police is not to use force unless it is really necessary. In many countries, police currently fall short of this mark, and often resort to the use of force and firearms in an arbitrary, excessive or otherwise unlawful manner.
In all regions of the world there are examples where deaths and serious injuries have resulted from police use of force and firearms. In recent years these include:
- killings by police in Brazil which impact disproportionately on young black men;
- numerous police shootings in the USA resulting in the death of unarmed people, likewise with a disproportionate impact on African American men;
- in Bangladesh, special police forces carrying out heavy-handed police operations with lethal force, resulting in the death of many people;
- use of tear gas, rubber bullets and other means of force, sometimes even firearms, during public assemblies, resulting in serious casualties, including in Burundi , Cambodia, Greece, Spain, Turkey, Venezuela and Ukraine.
This is due to a variety of reasons, including domestic laws that contradict international human rights obligations, deficient internal regulations, inadequate training and equipment, lack of command control and the absence of accountability for police who act outside the law.
Amnesty International is calling on governments to use its new Guidelines to help to address these deficiencies and to bring national law and implementation in line with the UN Basic Principles.
“The UN Basic Principles are an acknowledgement that, in certain limited circumstances, police can and will need to use force to maintain law and order. But this must be done in compliance with international human rights law and it certainly must never be seen as a licence to kill nor as granting immunity to police officials: nobody is above the law, especially those who have a duty to uphold the law,” said Dr. Anja Bienert. | <urn:uuid:7315be8d-2554-46ef-b522-9f7b15d1d224> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.amnestyusa.org/news/news-item/new-guide-to-curb-excessive-use-of-force-by-police | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934141 | 845 | 3.078125 | 3 |
This is an advanced topic. It assumes that your are familiar with Dynamic programming table
The Four Russians algorithm provides increased performance of the sequence alignment by partitioning dynamic programming table into multiple blocks and filling in the table one block at time rather than one cell at time. The idea is to spend only and not per block. To do this, blocks are precomputed in advance and during the filling in step these precomputed values are reused. The theoretical limit of this algorith is
It is possible to pre-compute blocks because the value of every cell in the table only depends on three adjacent cells (top, left and top left) and the two characters, one in the pattern and one in the text string. If blocks partially overlap, adjacent blocks sharing one row and one column, the all content of the block is a function of its first row, first column and the substrings of text and pattern that are along the edges of the block.
Division into blocks is not efficient enough on its own to increase the performance. However the algorithm uses one more optimization, the offsets. In any row, column or diagonal of the simple dynamic programming table for edit distance (insertion, mismach and deletion penalties are equal), the values of the two adjacent cells differ at most by one. Using this lemma, the values in a single row of the block can be encoded specifying the absolute value for only the first cell in a row. For other cells, it is enough to specify the difference (offset) of the each successive cell to its left neighbour. The first member belongs to the left or top row and is actually the input of the block function; need not be stored. Only the difference rows need to be stored and there are much less of them than it would be vectors to enumerate all possible absolute values for the row.
The Four Russians algorithm is often viewed as a theoretical contribution and is seldom implemented exactly as described in the original paper. Instead, the basic ideas of precomputed blocks and offsets are commonly reused.
Only one of the four authors is actually Russian . | <urn:uuid:0fe4567c-d5e9-43a2-9002-f080ed6f9a98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ultrastudio.org/en/Four_Russians_(algorithm) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936582 | 422 | 3.109375 | 3 |
A Web API, or Web Application Programming Interface, is relative of the traditional computing Application Programming Interface (API). Just like an API helps different elements on a traditional computer talk to each other using common routines and tools, a Web API allows clear communication between a web-based service (and its data set) and a third party tool (like a desktop widget).
In our tutorial, Build an LED Indicator with a Raspberry Pi (for Email, Weather, or Anything), for example, we use the Web API of Weather Underground so that our weather station can poll the weather data contained on the Weather Underground servers and use that data in a meaningful way. Other Web APIs offer everything from access to Twitter data to real estate information to maps.
- By Jason Fitzpatrick on 07/28/13 | <urn:uuid:f21d1c95-5347-4a31-a9f4-80f3b898c0c5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.howtogeek.com/glossary/web-api/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.8564 | 159 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Against her better judgment, fifteen-year-old Izzy let Marco drive her home from the football team’s post-game party even though he had been “swilling beers” all night. Once she got into the car with him, Izzy realized that Marco’s driving was impaired—the car was in the middle of the road swerving from side to side, and suddenly she “felt the weight of the car swing out of control before I heard Marco’s voice, cursing, and I watched the tree—an elm—rise up at me” (Voigt 26).
When Izzy woke up in the hospital: “I moved my toes back and forth. At the end of my left leg the blanket twitched, but nothing happened under the flat white blanket on the rest of the bed. I looked at my legs and one of them had been cut off short forever” (61).
In both Izzy, Willy-Nilly (Cythnia Voigt, 1986) and The Crazy Horse Electric Game (Chris Crutcher, 1987), the teen protagonists face the life-altering consequences of a sudden physical disability after an accident. Twenty years after their publication, these books by highly acclaimed authors Voigt and Crutcher continue to be recommended for young adult readers as realistic portrayals of characters with disabilities, and both continue to be read and used widely in secondary schools (Landrum 284-290).
The issue of disability even further complicates the already complicated path of adolescent development and the search for identity. Good young adult fiction can provide a foundation for adolescents to face crises and to forge new identities. Young adult literature, “in which characters encounter conflict and violence, face its consequences, and assume responsibility for their actions,” can provide teachers and students with a positive form in which to “wrestle with complex problems” (Brown and Stephens). For adolescents with disabilities, the characters portrayed in books tend to influence how they develop their own identities and autonomy (Carroll and Rosenblum 620-630). Young adult literature can be effective in promoting understanding, awareness, and acceptance of those with disabilities and in creating positive attitudes towards others (Andrews; Myracle; Smith-D’Arezzo and Thompson 335-347).
Both Izzy and Crazy Horse take the reader on the journey of transformation that Izzy and Willie experience after they suffer accidents that leave them suddenly disabled. Izzy’s right leg is amputated after her drunken date crashes his car into a tree, and Willie suffers brain injury from a waterskiing accident that leaves him with a speech impediment and a loss of movement and control on his left side. Both novels show how self images are shattered as well as the expectations that families and communities hold for them. Izzy’s adjustment to the loss of her leg is narrated over the period of six months, and half the novel relates her emotions directly after the accident while she is still in the hospital. Crazy Horse takes place over two years as Willie winds up leaving his community to seek a new life and to recover elsewhere. The sudden physical disabilities unleash a host of reactions for the main characters and for family members and friends, including guilt, fear, avoidance, pity, anger, depression, and rage. These reactions reflect societal perceptions of disabilities and influence the formation of Izzy’s and Willie’s new identities as disabled youth. This article looks critically at the assumptions and beliefs about disabilities and ideal body images that form the characters’ identities and how these identities are forged and challenged within their social worlds.
Both Izzy and Crazy Horse explore physical disabilities as well as the physical ideals held up for teens. In establishing ideals and norms, society ranks our intelligence, weight, height, and many other bodily dimensions, especially emphasizing physical beauty and athletic prowess. This ideal, unobtainable for most people, is constantly present in the media and especially influences young people. Fear of not being able to meet the standard (normal or ideal) is the source of anxiety for many teenagers, especially girls.
To understand how it feels to be disabled, it is important to understand how normalcy is constructed. The concept of a norm implies that the majority of the population must or should somehow be part of it. The concept of the norm also implies the concept of deviations or extremes, and often people with disabilities have been thought of as deviants (Davis 1-28). On the other extreme is the ideal body, something that is strongly wished for, but rarely attained. Izzy and Crazy Horse reveal the attitudes and beliefs that the characters hold about both extremes and how they define themselves and others in those terms.
Physical attractiveness and appearance play a central role in Izzy, Willy-Nilly . Voigt’s protagonist, Izzy, begins the novel as the “ideal” high school student—successful, attractive, and athletic. Izzy has always been particularly concerned with how she looks and describes herself and her friends in terms of their physical appearance, e.g., Lauren’s “ash blonde hair . . ., arched eyebrows she plucks carefully . . ., little Clara Bow mouth . . ., even at slumber parties her face is perfectly made up” (Voigt 43). Izzy tends to downplay her own sense of physical perfection before the accident, however: “boys would like me better if I didn’t show off” (47); rather, she emphasizes what a nice person she is and how she will always try to do what is expected of her by others, especially family members.
Izzy describes herself repeatedly as a “nice” girl:
Nice suited me: pretty but nowhere near beautiful; popular enough, with girls and boys; although no jock, I could give somebody a respectable game of tennis, and I was one of only three sophomores on the school cheerleading squad. A B student . . ., I did the work I was told to do and didn’t mind school: just a nice person, easy to get along with, fun to have around. (1)
Although Izzy views herself as an average, normal type of person, other characters in the book look at her as an ideal. This comes out most clearly when Rosamunde, her less attractive but more studious friend, refers to her as being part of the “in-crowd,” coming from an almost Brahmin-like family, and being the object of great interest from boys: “You’re used to people looking at you and envying you, wishing they were you” (241). There is a tension between craving and emphasizing physical beauty and downplaying it or not talking about it explicitly as well as trying to please people and being compliant.
In Crazy Horse , Willie also represents an ideal of adolescence: that of the athletic hero. Willie’s reputation as a baseball hero has assumed mythic proportions after his winning game as the pitcher against the Crazy Horse Electric team. Coho, Montana, is a town with a long history of supporting athletics, and Willie’s family has played a major role in establishing the tradition. His grandfather donated the land for the baseball team and was a legendary athlete in town and as a football, basketball, and baseball player at the University of Notre Dame. His father was also a hero, one who was voted most valuable football player at the University of Washington and played in the Rose Bowl. “In Coho, they had a day in his honor, with a parade down Main Street” (Crutcher 22). Willie is following in his father’s and grandfather’s illustrious footsteps. He wants his dad to be proud of him, but “there was a vague, uncomfortable feeling that Big Will lived through Willie. Willie’s successes were Big Will’s too; and likewise his failures” (22). Crutcher sets up the psychological pressure and tension right in the beginning of the novel. Big Will is Willie’s role model, but Big Will is also living vicariously through Willie.
Willie’s performance in the Crazy Horse Electric baseball game comes at the height of his physical perfection. He feels like he could do anything, and his body is getting bigger and stronger every day. The game is important to him, to his dad, and to the town. They need to defeat the team that won a place in the championships three years in a row. Willie feels that he cannot let anyone down. At the bottom of the ninth inning, Willie catches the hard line drive that would have snuffed out his team’s dream of the Eastern Montana American Legion championship, and they win. With the game as history, “Willie Weaver becomes a minor legend” (32).
Adolescents are in the process of coming to realize who they are and where they stand in terms of family and community. They want to belong, to fit in, and to find their place in the larger whole (Steiner 20-27). As soon as Izzy becomes aware of the consequences of the accident, she starts to talk about herself in the past tense: “I liked myself pretty much exactly the way I was” (Voigt 3). Her new body is difficult for her to acknowledge, and she tends to discuss herself in the third person, as if the real Izzy is somewhere else. She even imagines a “little Izzy” within herself, who is able to express the emotions that Izzy cannot show to the world.
Izzy’s accident almost cancels out her self-image, which has been built largely on physical appearance. She has been part of a circle of friends who are “perfectly made up,” stylishly dressed, always dieting to keep their figures in shape, and who base their conversations with each other on shopping and boys. Izzy characterizes herself after the accident as being differentiated from others, as well as her former self based on her physical characteristics. The labels that she applies to herself are ones that have tended to arouse strong feelings in others and are negative in connotation: “The words hammered on the back of my neck. Crippled. Amputated . ‘Not me,’ I answered each one of them. Handicapped . ‘No, not me.’ Deformed . ‘Not me, please’” (54).
Izzy depersonalizes her body as a means of coping with her accident. When the physical therapist arrives in her hospital room, she likens the massage of her body to the kneading of pizza dough, and describes herself in terms of her physical deficit: “[T]hat’s what I was, a thing, a messed-up body” (57). She describes the personal consequences of her accident as resulting in deficits, or loss of “normalcy”:
I wasn’t normal anymore. I was abnormal. I wasn’t going to be able to be a cheerleader, or even to walk around. I couldn’t ride my bike or play tennis—I don’t think crippled people could drive cars, not with only one leg. Not to mention dances . . .,who would ask me to dance with him now? Who would want to go out with a cripple? (61)
The kind of language used in Izzy to discuss disabilities shows that she is her disability. She defines herself in terms of what she is not, how she is deficient, how her life will be constricted, and how she is suddenly abnormal. The language she uses tends to reinforce a deficit view of disability, which assumes that those who are different from the perceived norms are missing something or are sick, helpless, or invalid (McDermott and Varenne 324-348; Gartner and Joe 2).
Willie also has a similar reaction to the changes in his body shortly after his accident. He describes his body as being “cooperative” or “not cooperative.” Before the accident, his body was “his friend” and would do anything he asked of it: “He felt so fast and strong and confident that nothing could touch him” (18). His identity was tied very closely to his performance as an athlete, his father’s expectations of him, as well as his community’s traditions. After the accident Willie “can’t get used to his body; hauling his left side around is like dragging small sacks of concrete . . . [H]e feels like a circus freak” (80). Willie also feels an uncontrollable rage at his circumstances. He is angry and resentful at friends who are able to do things that he is not longer able to do. His therapist tells him: “[I]t just taps into what you’ve lost and you get angry at yourself and the world. . . . That golden boy isn’t you anymore, and as long as you keep measuring yourself up against him, you’re gonna be mad as hell at everybody” (70).
Willie, like Izzy, views his changes as losses in relation to the ideal self he was before the accident. He, too, uses derogatory terms, such as “cripple,” in describing himself. His whole identity and history as well as his place in the community have been tied up with his performance as an athlete. After the accident, he no longer feels that he fits in anymore and must go out of his community in order to heal.
Izzy and Willie’s views of themselves as disabled are shaped strongly by the reactions and attitudes of the people around them. Directly after the accident, Izzy is shunned by her friends. Although they visit her, it is clear that they feel awkward and uncomfortable. They stare at her face, trying to avoid looking at her amputated leg: “[T]hey didn’t have anything to say. . . . They just stood there saying nothing” (Voigt 47). One of her friends, Lauren, who is aspiring to be a model, avoids entering the hospital room fully and never actually speaks to her. Her best friend, Suzy, calls her on the phone to convince her that she should not bring charges against Marco, the boy responsible for the car accident. Izzy finds out later that Suzy has started dating him.
Marco never apologizes or even speaks directly to Izzy, and although Izzy inflicts a form of mild revenge on him later in the book, she never confronts him directly about the accident or feels enraged about what happened. Her parents also do not want to press criminal charges against Marco, because that is not the “kind of people” they consider themselves to be.
Izzy’s family fosters dependency in Izzy, which is a continuation of their behavior towards her before the accident. Her mother is an organizer and the smoother-over of problems. Her reaction to Izzy’s accident is to redecorate the house so that Izzy has easier access to the ground floor while she is wheelchair-bound. Her father is portrayed as the family provider. For example, he announces that he will have a swimming pool installed so that Izzy can continue her physical therapy in the privacy of her own home. Izzy’s younger sister is jealous and resentful of the special attention that Izzy is receiving, and her older twin brothers, star athletes and college students, are unable to discuss openly Izzy’s disability with her.
Izzy’s sudden disability does not seem to bring about significant changes in her family members. Her family tries to preserve appearances in the face of change and to hold desperately onto the status quo. Part of it comes from a stiff-upper-lip mentality. They believe that people should not complain about adversities but rather deal with them as well as possible. Much of their behavior is built on maintaining the facade of an upper-middle-class lifestyle. Their attitudes do not allow Izzy to express any conflicts about her situation or to develop independence in spite of physical limitations.
Izzy does not make waves, does not ask questions, and accepts everything but then suffers in silence. Izzy’s isolation and negative self-image cause her to sink into a deep depression. Not only has she been shunned by her friends, but also her family members are unable to discuss her feelings of despair and confusion with her. None of the professionals involved with her treatment is portrayed as providing information, advice, or therapy that contributes to her acceptance or understanding of her disability.
The one ray of hope and help in her life is Rosamunde, a brainy acquaintance from Latin Club. Rosamunde is the only person who actually speaks what is on her mind and asks Izzy the questions that no one else dares to: “Nobody . . . was talking about what had happened, as if everyone was pretending everything was normal and all right” (82). Rosamunde, on the other hand, encourages Izzy to express herself: “C’mon, Izzy, you can have a negative thought” (89).
Rosamunde’s directness, honesty, and intelligence, however, are somewhat devalued by her physical appearance and social status, “sort of lumpy and badly dressed and not pretty” (191). Although Izzy is grateful for Rosamunde’s companionship, her parents seem to disapprove of Rosamunde, especially Izzy’s mother, who comments several times on her physical appearance: “She probably feels uncomfortable because of the way she looks . . . with that nose? And that hair? And her figure?” (125). Izzy’s mother also comments unfavorable about the profession of Rosamunde’s father: “The city police are lower on the respectability scale than the state police” (171).
Still, Izzy realizes that Rosamunde has been more of a genuine friend than the friends who are now shunning her: “She wasn’t the kind of person who I had for friends . . . . [S]he was different. . . . Except I knew I like talking to her. . . . [W]hen she came to see me I had a better time than when my friends came to see me” (176). Rosamunde is the only person in the book with whom she can talk about her problems and her feelings of depression. Her family wants to pretend that nothing has changed, her friends have shunned her, and the professionals at the hospital never even break the surface of real conversation. Rosamunde, on the other hand, is the only one who encourages Izzy to be independent, when she is at home and when she eventually returns to school.
Izzy struggles with issues of social acceptance, class values, dependence, and public attitudes versus private beliefs. Like Willie, her sudden disability brings to the surface the values, expectations, and assumptions about the physical and behavioral attributes that people ought to possess. Society places a high premium on physical and behavioral capabilities for mastering the environment, and sudden disability violates important cultural norms and values. In Izzy’s case, she engenders what Hahn has termed “aesthetic anxiety,” which are fears raised by persons “whose appearance deviates markedly from the usual human form or includes physical traits regarded as unappealing” (42). The fears are expressed by a tendency to shun those with undesirable bodily attributes, which are used to differentiate them from the rest of the population. Those people are placed in subordinate positions within society, elicit serious discomfort, make others feel anxious, and are viewed as inferior and threatening. These anxieties are prevalent in a society that places “extraordinary stress on beauty and attractiveness” (Hahn 43).
Izzy’s friendship with Rosamunde serves to emphasize the theme in Izzy about how surface appearances can be misleading. Rosamunde explains to Izzy that, if you look different, “you have to face up to people’s preconceptions right away. . . . You can’t hide it” (138). Rosamunde has been marginalized because of her appearance, her open and direct behavior, and her social status, yet Izzy comes to realize that Rosamunde’s friendship and support are more genuine than what she has been receiving from friends who only appear to be “perfect.”
Willie’s interactions with others evolve as the novel progresses. After his accident, Willie is seen by others and views himself as a pathetic victim of circumstances and somewhat pitiable. His friends, however, do not desert him. Willie feels that he is a burden to them and that brings on the breakup with his girlfriend, Jen, and the added tension between his parents. He tends to view himself as his own worst enemy. Willie’s accident takes the lid off unspoken problems and tensions that have been simmering in his family since the death of his baby sister two years earlier to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. His father has been playing the role of stoic and trying to hold his family together. He has had a great deal of his own identity invested in Willie’s success as an athlete. When Willie is injured because of his father’s carelessness, he is unable to keep the facade from crumbling.
In Willie’s hometown, his identity is so wrapped up in his image as a sports legend that he feels he must leave and start a new life elsewhere. On his trip to Oakland, California, he is beaten up by a street gang. He realizes, as the novel unfolds, that he has been advertising himself as a victim, and he is determined to change.
In his new environment, many of the students attending One More Last Chance High School are also facing difficulties and obstacles in their personal lives. Willie is not the only student to struggle with a physical disability or emotional difficulties. He is given shelter by Lacey, an estranged father who is responsible for the disfigurement of his own son. Lisa, the gym teacher at his new school, who is also studying physical therapy and sports medicine, teaches him visualization and movement techniques. Willie joins a health club and Sammy, a Tai Chi instructor, teaches him to harmonize both body and mind. Willie realizes that a large part of his body’s “cooperation” with him is mental.
In contrast to Izzy’s situation, many people in Willie’s environment help him to achieve greater independence and autonomy by giving him encouragement, friendship, skills, and opportunities for talk and reflection. Both novels reveal that the restrictions of a disability do not lie solely within the disabled individual but rather may be located more powerfully in the social world in which people live. Neither Willie nor Izzy is able to continue with an unchanged identity. Willie needs to escape a community that has turned him into a sports icon; Izzy finds genuine friendship outside a circle of friends who have shunned her. Both become outsiders and, with the help of other outsiders, are able to transform themselves.
Not only do Izzy and Crazy Horse reveal certain societal attitudes and beliefs towards persons with disabilities; they are also both reflective of a literary tradition that has portrayed characters with disabilities as either victims or survivors. As a victim, a character is portrayed coping with a disability either by suffering self-blame or by denying that he or she is really suffering. The disability becomes central to the person’s self-concept, self-definition, social comparisons, and reference groups (Fine and Asch 3-21). This person assumes a role of helplessness, dependence, and passivity. People with disabilities, therefore, are seen as the recipients of help or pity. The role in literature of these victims soothes middle class values, because he or she refuses to accept the disability as a source of rage (Kriegel 31-46).
For most of the novel, Izzy is characterized as a victim. She admonishes herself for causing discomfort to others: “I minded the guilty feelings I was having, for causing all the changes” (Voigt 146). She blames herself “as if I was being punished, as if it was my fault” (71). She tries to excuse the behavior of her friends: “probably it made them sick to look at me. . . . [T]hey had more interesting things to do” (75). Other people convey to her their pity: “We all feel so bad for you, it seems so cruel and unnecessary and . . . it’s a terrible thing” (75).
In real life, there is rarely anyone to blame for a disability. Kent states that most disabilities occur as the result of natural causes, such as genetic conditions or illnesses. Izzy’s disability, however, is not the result of natural causes. She is portrayed as a victim, someone physically damaged by the actions of a man. Images of disabled women in literature as victim “serve to heighten the sense that she is inadequate and helpless, [and] more vulnerable than her disabled peers” (59). Women tend to be portrayed as victims in literature much more often than men, to be shown as the lonely outsider, judged unattractive due to her impairment. By the end of the novel, however, Izzy begins to make her first strides towards independence.
In Crazy Horse , Willie is portrayed as a survivor. Although he is initially the object of pity and even violence from others, his character undergoes considerable transformation in coping with his disability. In modern literature, protagonists often lack a sense of wholeness or are victimized by the limitations of humanity (Kriegel 31-46). The image of the modern character with disabilities is often one who endures, and as a survivor, discovers that he is an outsider in a world that possesses growing doubts about its insiders: “He has been ennobled not by his condition but by his willingness to accept the condition as his own. To endure is to outlast circumstance, to step into, if not beyond, the pain of one’s existence” (38). Outside of the town where he has grown up, Willie is able to accept his disability and change. His return home at the end of the novel shows an environment that is not only intolerant of Willie’s disability but of others’ personal shortcomings, as well.
Willie leaves the environment where he is seen only as a sports icon and joins a group of teenagers who are struggling with their identities as outsiders. The story focuses not only on Willie’s adjustment to his disability, but on the lives of the other characters who also undergo transformations. Willie has helped Lacey, the man who took him in, to accept the hospitalization of his son. The story of Willie’s disability is interwoven with themes that every adolescent faces—issues of independence, identity, friendship, physical appearances—as well as other subplots, such as street gang violence.
Willie makes a speech at his high school graduation and credits the people he met at the alternative high school for helping him to achieve autonomy once again: “This school . . . saved my life. . . . Nobody here preached at me. . . . They let me figure it out for myself, demanded that I figure it out for myself” (Crutcher 200). Willie gained insights that his “mind and body are just different parts of the same thing, and there are not limits for either, that most of the really important answers are already inside me” (200). With this statement, the focus is shifted from Willie’s struggles with his disability to larger issues that every adolescent seeks to learn.
One criticism of Crutcher’s complex and realistic portrayal of Willie is perhaps an overemphasis on how much Willie was able to return to “normal.” He measures his recovery by how well he is able to play basketball with nondisabled peers, and his physical therapy regime is so successful that it is “nearly impossible to tell there was anything wrong with him” (195). Even his best friend Johnny does not immediately recognize him when he returns home to Montana: “God, I can’t believe how you look. I thought you were crippled for good” (213).
Part of Willie’s transformation, however, has been achieved through the support of his new friends in an environment where difference is accepted and strengths are developed. In his home environment, Willie quickly reverts back to feeling only limitations: “[H]e feels crippled here, like he did before he left” (223). Willie has accepted his disability and has been able to create a new self out of his accident, rage, courage, and resourcefulness, but he needs an environment that will mirror his new self rather than reflect what he is not.
Izzy, Willy-Nilly and The Crazy Horse Electric Game accurately portray the emotions that young people would face in dealing with a sudden physical disability, which attests to the popularity of these novels over the years. A close analysis reveals that many positive, but also some negative messages, about disabilities are embedded within the texts. Izzy questions the world of appearances after her accident. She realizes that her friendships are based on the superficial concerns of physical appearance and are not able to stand up to a crisis. The book provides many insights into the feelings and thoughts of Izzy as she deals with a sudden disability. However, there are many stereotypes about disabilities that are not sufficiently challenged in the novel. Izzy is portrayed, for the most part, as a passive victim of her circumstances. Derogatory language is used to describe her in terms of her disability, such as “crippled.” She is viewed as the object of people’s pity, someone who needs to be protected, and dependent on others, and incapable of independently participating in everyday life.
Willie, at the beginning of the book, is also presented as a victim, his own worst enemy, pitiable, pathetic, and the object of violence. Crazy Horse , however, evolves beyond this state. Throughout the book, information about his disability and ways in which to cope with it are provided through a series of conversations with therapists. Willie’s story becomes interwoven with the stories of the other characters who are attending the alternative high school. The focus shifts away from the disability and shifts towards Willie’s maturity and transformation with the help of others in the story.
The complex, realistic portrayals of physical disabilities in both of these novels can help young readers to think critically about their personal views and can play an important role in the evolution of a young person’s sense of self. Young people, especially, need to develop critical faculties in order to look beyond the surface of stories in order to understand which values and beliefs are being conveyed. If young adult fiction is to provide a forum for discussion of differences, it is important that literature does not serve merely to perpetuate myths and stereotypes about disabilities but rather to provide a foundation with which to face crises and forge new identities (Brown and Stephens).
Donna Sayers Adomat is an assistant professor in the Department of Literacy, Culture & Language Education in the School of Education at Indiana University, Bloomington. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in children’s and adolescent literature and in literacy theory and methods. Her research centers on children’s and adolescent literature, drama and literary understanding, and disabilities studies. She can be reached at email@example.com or 3010 W.W. Wright Building, 210 N. Rose Ave., Bloomington, IN 47401.
Andrews, Sharon. “Inclusion Literature: A Resource Listing.” ALAN Review 25.3 (1998). Digital Library. 4 Jan. 2009 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/spring98/andrews.html
Brown, Jean E. and Elaine C. Stephens. “Current Studies in Young Adult Literature.” ALAN Review 26.3 (1999). Digital Library. 4 Jan. 2009 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/spring99/brown.html
Carroll, Pamela S. and L. Penny Rosenblum. “Through Their Eyes: Are Characters with Visual Impairments Portrayed Realistically in Young Adult Literature?” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 43.7 (2000): 620-630.
Crutcher, Chris. The Crazy Horse Electric Game . New York: Greenwillow Books, 1987.
Davis, Lennard J. “Constructing Normalcy.” The Disabilities Studies Reader . Ed. Lennard J. Davis. New York: Routledge, 1997. 1-28.
Fine, Michelle and Adrienne Asch. “Disability beyond Stigma: Social Interaction, Discrimination, and Activism.” Journal of Social Issues 44.1 (1988): 3-21.
Gartner, Alan and Tom Joe. Eds. Images of the Disabled, Disabling Images . New York: Praeger, 1987.
Hahn, Harlan. “The Politics of Physical Differences: Disability and Discrimination.” Journal of Social Issues 44.1 (1988): 39-47.
Kent, Deborah. “Disabled Women: Portraits in Fiction and Drama.” Images of the Disabled, Disabling Images . Eds. Alan Gartner and Tom Joe. New York: Praeger, 1987. 46-63.
Kriegel, Leonard. “The Cripple in Literature.” Images of the Disabled, Disabling Images . Eds. Alan Gartner and Tom Joe. New York: Praeger, 1987. 31-46.
Landrum, Judith E. “Adolescent Novels that Feature Characters with Disabilities: An Annotated Bibliography.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 42.4 (1999): 284-290.
McDermott, Ray and Herve Varenne. “Culture as Disability.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 26.3 (1995): 324-348.
Myracle, Lauren. “Molding the Minds of the Young: The History of Bibliotherapy as Applied to Children and Adolescents.” ALAN Review 22.2 (1995). Digital Library. 4 Jan. 2009 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/winter95/Myracle.html
Smith-D’Arezzo, Wendy M. and Susan Thompson. “Topics of Stress and Abuse in Picture Books for Children.” Children’s Literature in Education 37.4 (2006): 335-347.
Steiner, Stanley F. “Who Belongs Here? Portraying American Identity in Children’s Picture Books.” MultiCultural Review (June 1998): 20-27.
Voigt, Cynthia. Izzy, Willy-Nilly . New York: Atheneum Books for Young Readers, 1986. | <urn:uuid:ffff8e03-068c-433f-a4e6-936febcc8799> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/v36n2/adomat.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972632 | 7,309 | 2.625 | 3 |
Expanding Variables in a String
You can insert a variable into another string by using the special @ character. When a variable name appears inside a literal string, and the variable name is surrounded by @ characters, then Source Insight replaces the @variable@ with the variable value.
S = “Hey, @username@, don’t break the build again!”
This example replaces @username@ with the value of the variable username in the string.
You can escape the @ character with a backslash \ or by using two @ characters together. For example:
S = “Mail info@@company.com for information.” | <urn:uuid:b72e3730-2917-40fb-9af9-0bc2d96bcd3c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sourceinsight.com/docs35/ag922147.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.822332 | 136 | 2.765625 | 3 |
In our previous article on How to produce a process map – capturing your business activity we reviewed how standard process maps are built from various icons and shapes placed in sequence to reflect physical steps in a business process.
In this article we’ll take a look at a simple example process map, taking what we learnt in our first article and putting it into practice – in this example we’ve used a simplified purchasing process, to illustrate how a process map can be constructed.
Here’s our draft process (click the link get a larger version) – To begin with we’ve given the diagram a title (which refers to the process we’re mapping) – a creation date – an author, version number and status.
As you can see we start of our diagram with a terminator shape that we’ve simply labled start – we’ve then used process boxes to indicate where processes take place.
Decision boxes have been used to represent where questions are then asked within the process – as you can see we’ve followed the route of the process based on whichever decision is made (in this case a yes or no).
Where the process leads to another documented process we’ve used the Predefined process shape to indicate this.
Where the process raises a document (in this case a purchase order) we’ve used the document shape
We’ve finished the process off with another terminator shape labeled End
Note that in this example we’ve used a basic flowchart – while this details the steps made within the process it doesn’t indicate how long each step takes or who carries out the task.
As you can see producing process maps isn’t too difficult – choosing the correct shapes to use and ensuring that you follow all the appropriate routes within the process might take a little practice. To get started – pick some work processes and practice tracing the process through and capturing it as a flow diagram.
In the next article we’ll take a look at the same process but in the context of a cross functional flowchart.
- Process Mapping symbols: introducing common shapes used in process mapping
- An Introduction to the Event-driven Process Chain Diagram: EPC
- Using Standard Work principles in a lean office
- Creating a SIPOC diagram template in Excel
- How to create a Fishbone Diagram template using Microsoft Excel | <urn:uuid:a68b564e-b971-4cac-888d-89d54979b1a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.valuestreamguru.com/?p=118 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882974 | 496 | 3.171875 | 3 |
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While many people think that copyright infringement and plagiarism are more or less the same thing, that is not the case. In a sense, there is some connection between plagiarism and infringement of copyright in many situations, but the use of the two terms interchangeably is not correct. Here is some information on how the two are related, as well as how they differ.
Copyright infringement is the unauthorized use of the creation of another individual. Just about any type of created art form could be included in this category. Such items as articles, stories, books, songs, movie clips, and photographs are all examples of creative works that are copyrighted. Unauthorized use takes place when someone chooses to utilize these copyrighted creations without obtaining permission from the owner. In situations where authorization would involve providing compensation to the owner, the failure to do so would also fall under the heading of infringement.
Plagiarism shares some elements with copyright infringement. Both situations can involve the unauthorized use of intellectual property. However, it is possible to plagiarize without infringing on a copyright. For example, if a student preparing a report chooses to use a quote from a source and does not properly cite the original source, he or she is essentially claiming the quote to be his or her own words. This amounts to stealing the words of another person. While the quote may be from a work in the public domain and is not subject to any claims of compensation, plagiarism has still taken place.
There is also a legal difference between copyright infringement and plagiarism. Federal laws in many countries protect the interests of citizens who hold copyrights. When those copyrighted works are used without permission, the owner has legal recourse to collect damages as well as receive a share of any revenue generated from the unauthorized use. In some countries, it is possible for the punishment to include a prison sentence if copyright infringement is proven in a court of law.
By contrast, plagiarism is usually more a matter of ethics than of law. The failure to provide a proper citation for a direct quote will not necessarily carry any type of legal punishment. However, engaging in plagiarism often leads to censure by academic institutions and employers. For example, a writer who presents the work of another writer as his or her own and is caught in the act of plagiarism is likely to be dismissed from the workplace. Freelance writers who plagiarize often find that word gets around and it becomes extremely difficult to secure assignments. While the chances of going to jail for plagiarism are somewhat limited, the negative impact can have repercussions that will last for years.
Because of fair use practices in many countries, copyright law can sometimes blur the lines between copyright infringement and plagiarism. This means that it is possible to plagiarize and infringe on copyright at the same time. However, plagiarism that is also copyright infringement is usually not pursued in a court of law unless some type of economic harm to the owner can be demonstrated.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:e8aa5088-3652-4c8a-ab4e-9cb07541f2be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-difference-between-copyright-infringement-and-plagiarism.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962652 | 653 | 2.875 | 3 |
Reference material in support.
What does modern science conclude about when human life begins? (Excerpts)
By Dr. John Ankerberg and John Weldon
The complete article is available in
print friendly PDF format at:
What does modern science conclude about when human life begins?
Many people mistakenly feel that abortion is a religious issue. But it is not. It is a scientific issue and, specifically, a biological issue. The scientific authorities on when life begins are biologists. But these are often the last people consulted in seeking an answer to the question. What modern science has concluded is crystal clear: Human life begins at conception. This is a matter of scientific fact, not philosophy, speculation, opinion, conjecture, or theory. Today, the evidence that human life begins at conception is a fact so well documented that no intellectually honest and informed scientist or physician can deny it.
In 1973, the Supreme Court concluded in its Roe v. Wade decision that it did not have to decide the difficult question of when life begins. Why? In essence, they said, It is impossible to say when human life begins.3 The Court misled the public then, and others continue to mislead the public today.
Anyone familiar with recent Supreme Court history knows that two years before Roe V. Wade, in October 1971, a group of 220 distinguished physicians, scientists, and professors submitted an amicus curiae brief (advice to a court on some legal matter) to the Supreme Court. They showed the Court how modern science had already established that human life is a continuum and that the unborn child from the moment of conception on is a person and must be considered a person, like its mother.4 The brief set as its task to show how clearly and conclusively modern scienceembryology, fetology, genetics, perinatology, all of biologyestablishes the humanity of the unborn child.5 For example,
In its seventh week, [the pre-born child] bears the familiar external features and all the internal organs of the adult.... The brain in configuration is already like the adult brain and sends out impulses that coordinate the function of other organs . The heart beats sturdily. The stomach produces digestive juices. The liver manufactures blood cells and the kidneys begin to function by extracting uric acid from the childs blood.... The muscles of the arms and body can already be set in motion. After the eighth week everything is already present that will be found in the full term baby.6
This brief proved beyond any doubt scientifically that human life begins at conception and that the unborn is a person within the meaning of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.7
In fact, prior to Roe v. Wade, nearly every medical and biological textbook assumed or taught that human life begins at conception. That human life begins at conception was an accepted medical fact, but not necessarily a discussed medical fact. This is why many textbooks did not devote a discussion to this issue. But many others did. For example, Mr. Patrick A. Trueman helped prepare a 1975 brief before the Illinois Supreme Court on the unborn child. He noted,
We introduced an affidavit from a professor of medicine detailing 19 textbooks on the subject of embryology used in medical schools today which universally agreed that human life begins at conception those textbooks agree that is when human life begins. The court didnt strike that downthe court couldnt strike that down because there was a logical/biological basis for that law.8
Thus, even though the Supreme Court had been properly informed as to the scientific evidence, they still chose to argue that the evidence was insufficient to show the pre-born child was fully human. In essence, their decision merely reflected social engineering and opinion, not scientific fact. Even during the growing abortion debate in 1970, the editors of the scientific journal California Medicine noted the curious avoidance of the scientific fact, which everyone really knows, that human life begins at conception and is continuous whether intra- or extra-uterine until death.9
Even 25 years after the abortion revolution that politicized scientific opinion, medical texts today still often assume or affirm that human life begins at conception. For example, Keith L. Moore is professor and chairman of the Department of Anatomy at the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine. His text, The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, is widely used in core courses in medical embryology. This text asserts:
The processes by which a child develops from a single cell are miraculous .
Human development is a continuous process that begins when an ovum from a female is fertilized by a sperm from a male. Growth and differentiation transform the zygote, a single cell... into a multicellular adult human being.10
The reference to the miraculous processes in a purely secular text is not surprising. Even a single strand of DNA from a human cell contains information equivalent to a library of 1,000 volumes. The complexity of the zygote itself according to Dr. Hymie Gordon, chief geneticist at the Mayo Clinic, is so great that it is beyond our comprehension.11 In a short nine months time, one fertilized ovum grows into 6,000 million cells that become a living, breathing person.
Further, medical dictionaries and encyclopedias all affirm that the embryo is human. Among many we could cite are Dorlands Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Tubers Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, and the Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Allied Health, which defines the embryo as the human young from the time of fertilization of the ovum until the beginning of the third month.12
In 1981, the United States Congress conducted hearings to answer the question, When does human life begin? A group of internationally known scientists appeared before a Senate judiciary subcommittee.13 The U.S. Congress was told by Harvard University Medical Schools Professor Micheline Matthews-Roth, In biology and in medicine, it is an accepted fact that the life of any individual organism reproducing by sexual reproduction begins at conception....14
Dr. Watson A. Bowes, Jr., of the University of Colorado Medical School, testified that the beginning of a single human life is from a biological point of view a simple and straightforward matterthe beginning is conception. This straightforward biological fact should not be distorted to serve sociological, political or economic goals.15
Dr. Alfred Bongiovanni of the University of Pennsylvania Medical School noted: The standard medical texts have long taught that human life begins at conception.16
He added: I am no more prepared to say that these early stages represent an incomplete human being than I would be to say that the child prior to the dramatic effects of puberty... is not a human being. This is human life at every stage albeit incomplete until late adolescence.17
Dr. McCarthy De Mere, who is a practicing physician as well as a law professor at the University of Tennessee, testified: The exact moment of the beginning [of] personhood and of the human body is at the moment of conception.18
World-famous geneticist Dr. Jerome Lejeune, professor of fundamental genetics at the University of Descarte, Paris, France, declared, each individual has a very unique beginning, the moment of its conception.19
Dr. Lejeune also emphasized: The human nature of the human being from conception to old age is not a metaphysical contention, it is plain experimental evidence.20
The chairman of the Department of Medical Genetics at the Mayo Clinic, Professor Hymie Gordon, testified, By all the criteria of modern molecular biology, life is present from the moment of conception.21
He further emphasized: now we can say, unequivocally, that the question of when life begins is an established scientific fact . It is an established fact that all life, including human life, begins at the moment of conception.22
At that time the U.S. Senate proposed Senate Bill 158, called the Human Life Bill. These hearings, which lasted eight days, involving 57 witnesses, were conducted by Senator John East. This Senate report concluded:
Physicians, biologists, and other scientists agree that conception marks the beginning of the life of a human beinga being that is alive and is a member of the human species. There is overwhelming agreement on this point in countless medical, biological, and scientific writings.23
In 1981, only a single scientist disagreed with the majoritys conclusion, and he did so on philosophical rather than scientific grounds. In fact, abortion advocates, although invited to do so, failed to produce even one expert witness who would specifically testify that life begins at any other point than conception.24
Many other biologists and scientists agree that life begins at conception. All agree that there is no point of time or interval of time between conception and birth when the unborn is anything but human.
Professor Roth of Harvard University Medical School has emphasized, It is incorrect to say that the biological data cannot be decisive . It is scientifically correct to say that an individual human life begins at conception, when the egg and sperm join to form the zygote, and that this developing human always is a member of our species in all stages of its life.25
In conclusion, we agree with pioneer medical researcher, Landrum B. Shettles, M.D., Ph.D., that, There is one fact that no one can deny; human beings begin at conception.26
Again, let us stress that this is not a matter of religion, it is solely a matter of science. Scientists of every religious view and no religious viewagnostic, Jewish, Buddhist, atheist, Christian, Hindu, etc.all agree that life begins at conception. This explains why, for example, the International Code of Medical Ethics asserts: A doctor must always bear in mind the importance of preserving human life from the time of conception until death.27
This is also why the Declaration of Geneva holds physicians to the following: I will maintain the utmost respect for human life from the time of conception; even under threat, I will not use my medical knowledge contrary to the laws of humanity.28 These statements can be found in the World Medical Association Bulletin for April 1949 (vol.1, p. 22) and January 1950 (vol. 2, p. 5). In 1970, the World Medical Association again reaffirmed the Declaration of Geneva.29
What difference does it make that human life begins at conception? The difference is this: If human life begins at conception, then abortion is the killing of a human life.
To deny this fact is scientifically impossible.30
The judges in the Supreme Court overruled a Texas law against abortion that prevented McCorvey from acquiring an abortion. They reasoned that if a pregnancy could be terminated because of how it began, then other exceptions must also be considered. Of course, this neglected to even consider the point of the rights of the human life and essentially ruled that a woman's needs were more compelling. Once an exception could be made based upon conditions of how the pregnancy occurred, then it was only a matter of further prodding that the mother's “health” could also be factored it. The Doe vs. Bolton case furthered defined health as anything that would cause the mother harm and they included not just physical health, but financial, mental, societal and the age of the mother. That has resulted in the conditions we have today where abortion is legal at any time during the pregnancy and for any reason. It is abortion on demand - just as those behind it all envisioned.
By allowing for rape and incest - conditions even “Conservatives” have allowed - there was no going back since the rights of the person, the human life, were never considered. If an unborn baby can be killed because of his or her father's actions, then he/she can be killed for any reason. The rights innate to all human life are not made available to the unborn and, until this is changed, the “right” to abortion will never be removed. | <urn:uuid:0ca1d46c-2805-434a-b27a-b286c920a10f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/2744101/replies?c=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949862 | 2,441 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Published on November 4th, 2011 | by Chris Keenan1
Humpback Whales Not as Rare as Believed
By all accounts, the environment seems to be in peril. As years pass, one after another, we continue to see the consequences of human-caused issues. Depletion of resources, climate change, and the extinction of species have been increasing at an alarming scale, continually giving us screaming headlines about the latest environmental catastrophe.
We close our garage doors and drive off to work, hearing alarming statistics about the future of the environment, and good news is not usually the order of the day. However, in a time of great concern over the environment, it appears that at least one creature, the humpback whale, might not be as threatened as previously thought.
While still in danger, the population of humpback whales seems to be growing, which is wonderful news in light of the decline of most species. This is a great testament to the resiliency of life. It shows that, even on the brink of the collapse of the whole species, the population can be stabilized and extinction avoided. This information is excellent news considering the number of endangered plant species and animal species that seem to be on the proverbial brink.
Though the increase in humpback whales in the North Pacific might seem to be a small success, it shows that something can be done, even when it seems that all hope is lost. Protecting endangered species can actually help to stabilize their populations and bring them back in greater numbers.
These whales were hunted almost to extinction, but thanks to conservation laws and bans on the hunting of humpbacks, in a mere forty years, the population has gone from around 1,400 to 21,000. This is direct evidence that these laws do have the ability to stem the tide of extinction and protect even the most endangered of species.
In a world where it seems like we hear nothing but bad news, this is a great illustration of how protection of species, and a changing of our ways of doing things, can actually fix a problem of our own creation. All hope is not lost for endangered species.
In just forty years, the population of humpback whales in the North Pacific has gone from near extinction to over 21,000 animals. It is true that this is still just a fraction of their original population, but it is a significant improvement and it stands to reason that, if protection is continued, the populations will continue to rebound. This is one of the rare success stories in a sea of bad news.
image credit: Flickkerphotos on Flickr | <urn:uuid:22dbba75-6c8e-4dd8-be18-d4e4f0cc9e2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sustainablog.org/2011/11/humpback-whales-not-as-rare-as-believed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956997 | 526 | 3.375 | 3 |
Common Name: Leatherback - named because of its unique “leathery?looking shell is made up of a layer of thin, tough, rubbery skin, strengthened by thousands of tiny bone plates.
Scientific Name: Dermochelys coriacea
Description: Leatherbacks have a deeply notched upper jaw with 2 cusps on the head. Compared with other species of sea turtles, only the leatherback lacks a hard shell. Its carapace is large, elongated and flexible with 7 distinct ridges running the length of the shell. The leatherback's carapace is made up of a layer of thin, tough, rubbery skin, strengthened by thousands of tiny bone plates, has no scales, but hatchlings have scales. All flippers have no claws. The carapace is dark grey or black with white or pale spots, while the plastron is whitish to black with 5 ridges. The carapace of leatherback hatchlings has white blotches on it.
Size: Leatherbacks are usually 121-183 cm which is 4 to 6 feet. The largest leatherback ever found was nearly 305 cm which is 10 feet in length from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail and 916 kg which is 2,019 pounds in weight.
Weight: 550 to 1,545 pounds (250-700 kg).
Diet: Leatherbacks have delicate jaws that would be damaged by many things except a diet of soft-bodied animals. That is why leatherback sea turtles only feed on jellyfish. It is marvelous that this large, active animal can live on a diet of jellyfish, which are made up mostly of water and have a poor source of nutrients.
Habitat: Although recent satellite tracking research tells that leatherbacks feed in areas just offshore, they are mainly found in the open ocean, as far as Alaska in the north and as far as the southern tip of Africa in the south. Leatherbacks are known as the only reptile that can be active in water with a low temperature below 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
Nesting: Although recent research has indicated they can nest every year, the leatherbacks nest every 2 to 3 years. Nests between 6 to 9 times every season, with 10 days on average between nestings. A leatherback sea turtle lays 80 fertilized eggs the size of billiard balls, and 30 smaller unfertilized eggs in each nest. The time for the eggs to incubate is about 65 days. The leatherback is different from other species of sea turtles in that the females may change nesting beaches, even though they tend to stay in the same region.
Range: Most of all leatherback sea turtles are distributed widely. The largest north and south range of all the sea turtle species are found world wide. Because its body is streamlined and the front flippers is powerful, a leatherback can swim thousands of miles over open ocean and against fast currents.
Status: U.S. ?Because they are in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future, the leatherbacks have been listed as Endangered under the U.S. Federal Endangered Species Act.
International ?The leatherbacks have been listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources since they are facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.
Threats to Survival: Incidental take in commercial fisheries and marine pollution is the greatest threat for leatherback sea turtles, while they accidently eat balloons and plastic bags floating in the water which they mistaken as jellyfish.
Population Estimate: 35,860 nesting females. | <urn:uuid:b9635f6b-df6e-4574-950d-d4afc810e3c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.seaturtles911.org/turtle/leatherback.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953138 | 745 | 4.0625 | 4 |
Yaks. When people think of the animals of Tibet, a yak has to be among the first they think of. Eighty-five percent (or about 10 million) of the world's yaks live on the Tibetan Plateau. A yak is built to survive tough environments. Yaks have three times more red blood cells than normal cows so they are able to live without any problems on the high elevation grasslands of Tibet. Their long, thick hair insulates their bodies from winter temperatures that can get to -30C (-22F) or colder. Most yaks are black, but it is not uncommon to see white or gray ones especially on the grasslands of northern Amdo (modern day Qinghai province).
Tibetans have a long history of using yaks. Experts believe that yaks were first domesticated in Tibet at least 3000 years ago. They are sturdy, sure-footed and perfect for using as pack animals to cross high mountain passes. They can easily carry loads of 70kg (154lb) along rough and steep mountain trails. For centuries yaks have been used to carry salt from the Changtang (northern Plateau) to towns across Tibet and even across the Himalaya into the Dolpo region of Nepal. Yaks can begin being used as pack animals at age 2 and can often live to be over 20 years old.
Yaks are the most important animals to the Tibetan people. Nomads keep yaks in herds between 20 and 100. Most of Tibet is treeless, so dried yak dung is used as fuel for fires. Yak hair is woven into yarn and used to make tents and rope. Yak hide is used to make boots and boats. Yak meat is eaten by nearly every Tibetan family. It is high in protein with only one-sixth the fat of regular beef. In the summer months it is dried, but in winter it is often eaten raw. Yak milk is high in fat and is usually made into butter, yogurt and cheese. Yaks are always given names, but their names are different from the names given to people.
Wild yaks, called "drong" in Tibetan, once roamed all across Tibet. They were hunted to near extinction and now number less than 1000. Males can measure up to 2m (6ft 6in) at the shoulder and weigh up to 1000kg (2200lb). Most of the wild yaks of Tibet now live in the Kekexili Nature Preserve located in southwest Qinghai and northeast Tibet Autonomous Region. Inside Kekexili they are protected from hunters. China government officials are spending a lot of money in hopes of multiplying the number of wild yak in Tibet.
In nomadic areas, yaks are still used as a mode of transportation. Yaks are either fitted with a saddle or are ridden bareback. It is not uncommon to see children riding a yak while out grazing the yaks. Many towns across Tibet hold annual summer horse festivals. Nearly every horse festival will hold a yak race which adds to the fun of the festival. | <urn:uuid:61fbc965-8524-49ca-b71f-9426017ca96c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kekexili.typepad.com/life_on_the_tibetan_plate/2006/10/yaks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965101 | 624 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Truth suffers from too much analysis.
In the Oracle database you have a choice of two models for executing the PL/SQL code. The
default model (and the only one available until Oracle 8i (8.1.7)) is the Definer Rights model.
When using this model the program executes under the authority of the owner (or creator) of the
program. The other model is the Invoker Rights model. When using this model the program
executes under the authority of the invoker of the program. This means data and objects that
are available to the user are also available to the program. When running the code using the
Definer Rights model, the data and objects available to the definer of the code are available to
the code. This might mean a user may have access to data he is not supposed to have
access to. There are some differences between both models and your programs may run using a
combination of the two.
A PL/SQL program must be compiled and stored in the database before it can be executed. Any
reference in the code is resolved at compile time. This means the program must have directly
granted access to these objects. They are not resolved using roles granted to the definer or
owner of the program. Although the references are checked against the rights the owner has,
you can still grant execute rights to different schemas or users. Keep in mind though that when
another user executes the code, it runs under the authority of the definer of the code. This
means this user has access to all the objects needed by the code, while the user might not have
access to these objects either through directly granted privileges or through a role. This may be
a good thing when you want to make sure the user accesses tabledata only through a defined
interface (Table API) but if you want the user to see certain parts of the data, when different
parts should be hidden from him/her it means either building more code to hide parts of the data
or resort to Virtual Private Databases.
The other model available to you is the Invoker Rights model. In this model the code is executed
under the authority of the schema (or user) that started the code. This means that all objects
needed by the code need to be available to the invoker of the code. References are checked to
the references available to the rights the invoker has, instead of the rights the definer of the
code has. This means that every user that executes the code can have different objects
available than the ones available to the definer. If the code, for instance, references a table then
this table can be a completely different object than the one used by the compiling schema. This
way you can make sure the user only has access to his own data. If multiple users use the
same code to reference, for instance, a clients table, the different users will see different results.
This way you can easily implement a model where users have access to only their own data,
without the need for Virtual Private Databases or more code. Be aware though that when you
call a Definer Rights defined program from within an Invoker Rights program; from that time
on you will be using the rights for that Definer. If you are to call another Invoker rights program it
will be executed under the authority of that Definer, rather then the Invokers authority. If this
program calls an Invoker Rights program it will be executed under the authority of the Definer of
the program that was just called rather than the authority of the original invoker.
Oracle PL/SQL Programming 5th Edition – Steven Feuerstein
tahiti.oracle.com – all Oracle Documentation online | <urn:uuid:0e7570c2-e86c-4ff7-ba4e-a530b8c77728> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://allthingsoracle.com/invoker-rights-part-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884918 | 781 | 2.5625 | 3 |
154 illustrations from literature starting with the letter G, including: Gepetto, The Golden Goose, Goldilocks, Gulliver's Travels, and more
Old father Grey Beard, without tooth or tongue. If you'll give me your finger, I'll give you my thumb.
Scene from the story, "King Grizzle-Beard."
A scene from the story, How Grotius Left the Castle.
A view of Gulliver strapped to te ground with ligatures across his body. With curiosity the inhabitants…
Guinevere and Enid from the story of King Arthur
The Emperor of Lilliput marches tho royal army between Gilliver's legs.
Guliver inspects the royal palace and kisses the Queen's hand.
Gulliver bound by the Lilliputians.
Gulliver brings in the drifting boat.
The baby seizes Gulliver.
Gulliver returns to England.
Gulliver on a dinning table, with the giants of Brobdingnag, looking at a very large cat.
From the story Gulliver's Travels, a drawing of Gulliver and the king.
Gulliver sitting in a chair, having a conversation with the King of Brobdingnag.
Gulliver is discovered at sea by a crew of Englishmen, who help him out of his box.
The queen had built for Gulliver a first rate boat by the joiner for the palace. It was a miniature,…
Gulliver takes the enemy's fleet, the Blefuscudians, and victoriously drags them into the royal port…
Gulliver riding a horse around the foot of a giant in Brobdingnag.
Returning to England, Gulliver's mind set was still back at lilliput. He stoops down at his wife's knees,…
A giant in Brobdingnag taking a closer look with his glasses at Gulliver.
Gulliver being a gentleman towards a giant maid in Brobdingnag.
Gulliver draws his sword to defend himself against a giant rat in Brobdngnag.
The Queen of Brobdingnag thought Gulliver was a coward for his fearfulness.
A production of 900 men and 1500 horses were brought together to transport Gulliver to the Metropolis,…
From Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Gulliver finds himself in the land of Brobdingnag, where the people…
Gulliver's watch is being taken away. From Gulliver's Travels by Dean Swift.
From Gulliver's Travels by Dean Swift.
Gustavus Vasa hiding out with peasants in the story about the king from "The Red True Story Book" by…
Once a Week is a pencil drawing by English artist Charles Keene in 1859. This drawing is part of a novel… | <urn:uuid:6616cf5c-a21e-4cc1-87af-0715fd7e1f66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://etc.usf.edu/clipart/galleries/1154-literature-g/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94601 | 615 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Women's Land Army: a portrait
Clarke, Gill (2008) The Women's Land Army: a portrait, Bristol, UK, Sansom, 216pp.
Full text not available from this repository.
This portrait of the Women’s Land Army reveals their vital ontribution to keeping the nation fed in the First and Second World Wars. Land Girls dressed in their distinctive uniforms became an iconic image, symbolising Britain’s triumph in winning the domestic battle to raise food production. With the exception of the official history compiled by Vita Sackville-West
published under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1944 and Carol Twinch’s Women on the Land: Their Story during Two World Wars (1990), the history and role of the organisation has been largely overlooked. Yet, the work Land Girls undertook to maximise levels of productivity from the land was crucial to the success of the war effort.1
Official recognition of their role has been woefully late in coming. When the Women’s Land Army was disbanded in 1950 the members were shabbily treated, receiving neither medals nor gratuities, and being required to return most of their uniforms. It was not until the new millennium that members of the Women’s Land Army and Women’s Timber Corps were allowed to join the annual Remembrance Day march in London to the Cenotaph, despite the fact that other national service organisations had for some time been part of the parade. It took a further eight years
of pressure before the British Government agreed to officially recognise the efforts of Land Girls in 2008 and award a specially designed badge to commemorate their service.2
Although the two World Wars created new opportunities for women and a degree of social and economic independence – in many cases temporary – this should not be over romanticised, nor seen as adding greatly to women’s emancipation.3
The use of auto/biographical sources and in particular the life stories written by former Land Girls provide fresh insights into the actuality of their experiences, thereby avoiding the homogenisation of the contributions of members of the Women’s Land Army to the ‘Battle of the Fields’. Extracts from their life stories illuminate events and experiences that have not previously received the attention and recognition they warrant.
Uniquely, The Women’s Land Army: A Portrait also focuses
upon wartime paintings, posters and cartoons to portray the life of the Land Girls. Although few of these evocative works are strictly portraits, the artists, subject though they were to censorship, engage with the challenge of presenting a record of the experiences of those who worked on the land and ‘with ideas
of identity as they are perceived, represented, and understood in different times and places.’4
The formation of the Women’s Land Army in the First World War and its reforming in the Second World War afforded opportunities for artists to document the work Land Girls were undertaking, and in so doing interpret its impact on their identities in what was for many a strange and hostile environment.
Part 1 – Holding the Home Front: The Women’s Land Army in
the First World War – traces the emergence of women’s land-based societies and corps and the formation of War Agricultural Committees. Farmers’ reluctance and prejudice to employing women on the land is examined, as is the establishment of The Women’s National Land Service Corps which preceded the formation of the Women’s Land Army in March 1917 under the directorship of Dame Meriel Talbot. This is followed by a discussion of the work of the three sections of the newly formed Women’s Land Army: agriculture, forage and timber.
Part 2 – Back to the Land: The Women’s Land Army in the Second World War – reveals how the WLA ‘sprang into being
even before war had been declared’.5 This ordered planning led by the Honorary Director, Lady Denman, was in sharp contrast to the improvisation of the First World War, where all ‘had to be carried through at breakneck speed, with no precedent and no time for preparation.’6
In discussing the contribution of the WLA both autobiographical and biographical evidence is drawn on, including extracts from
interviews with Land Girls, a WLA administrator and an assistant secretary. In addition, life stories written by Land Girls illustrate the realities of life on the land.7
Part 3 – Recording Life on the Land – provides biographical
portraits of the lives of selected artists and illustrators who recorded the activities of the Women’s Land Army and Women’s Timber Corps, the life and work of a number of whom has hitherto received scant attention. These ‘portraits’ reveal the artists’ not insignificant contribution to twentieth-century British Art and cultural history and provide valuable insights into the commissioning and production of their distinctive wartime drawings and paintings.
1. I do not attempt here to assess the contribution of the WLA to the war effort vis-à-vis other types of workers, an exercise which is problematic – see section V in Gill Clarke (2007) ‘The Women’s Land Army and its recruits 1938–50’, in Short, B., Watkins, C. and Martin, J. (eds.) The front line of freedom. British farming in the Second World War. Readers are referred in particular to the research of H.T. Williams who, in an influential article written after the war, reported his attempts to
quantify the contribution of the WLA to the war effort. The article
‘Changes in the productivity of labour in British agriculture’, J. of the Agricultural Economics Society, X, 4 (1954) was endorsed by K.A.H. Murray (1955) in Agriculture, p.243. I am grateful to John Martin for bringing this to my attention.
2. Application forms are available at ww.defra.gov.uk/farm/working/wla/ Telephone: Defra Helpline 08459 335577.
3. See Summerfield, P. (1988) ‘Women, war and social change: women in Britain in World War II’, in Marwick, A. (ed.) Total war and social change, Summerfield, P. (1995) ‘Women and war in the twentieth century’, in Purvis, J. (ed.) Women’s History: Britain, 1850–1945 and Summerfield, P. (1998) Reconstructing women’s wartime lives: discourse and subjectivity in oral histories of the Second World War.
4. West, S. (2004) Portraiture, p.11.
5. Sackville-West, V. (1944) The Women’s Land Army, p.9.
6. Shewell-Cooper, W.E. (c.1941) Land Girl. A Manual for volunteers in the Women’s Land Army, p.10.
7. My research over the past decade has also involved extensive
documentary analysis and attending reunions of Land Girls and
Services of Commemoration for the WLA and WTC veterans at the Cenotaph. The women involved in the study were aged between 17 and 29 at enrolment, and served from just over one year to 11 years; they are now aged between 77 and 96. For specific detail about the biographical research see Gill Clarke (2001) ‘Lives on the home front: the Women’s Land Army’, Auto/Biography, IX (1&2), pp.81–8.
|Additional Information:||Gill Clarke is Director of the Centre for Biography and Education and was guest curator for the exhibition 'The Women's Land Army: A Portrait' held at St Barbe Gallery, Lymington, UK, www.stbarbe-museum.org. from 18 October 2008 - 10 January 2009|
|Keywords:||biography, artists, women's land army, first & second world war|
|Subjects:||C Auxiliary Sciences of History > CT Biography
N Fine Arts > NX Arts in general
L Education > L Education (General)
|Divisions:||University Structure - Pre August 2011 > School of Education > Social Justice and Inclusive Education
|Date Deposited:||22 Oct 2008|
|Last Modified:||31 Mar 2016 12:48|
|RDF:||RDF+N-Triples, RDF+N3, RDF+XML, Browse.|
Actions (login required) | <urn:uuid:6c3217ef-82a9-4f5b-9c00-46dda5159053> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/63635/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923652 | 1,797 | 3.46875 | 3 |
By Richard Haut, Houston Advanced Research Center, and Raymond Dishaw, Global Systems
A new shoulder/thread verifier system (STVS) uses thermal imaging technology to enable verification of the shoulder, thread and seal engagement of tubular connections. Unlike devices that directly measure the torque applied to the connection, the STVS uses thermal imaging to measure the relative thread engagement of different parts of the connection. This gives a clear, comprehensive picture of how the connections are making up.
Years of testing with the STVS have revealed that many tubular connections currently used in the petroleum industry do not make up according to their designs. Thermal images of connections show that the friction they generate is concentrated in areas that are not designed to bear significant stress. This type of misappropriated engagement can potentially cause serious problems.
These problems – twisting off, wash-outs of tool joints, casing and tubing parting and leaks, sustained casing pressure and other problems caused by faulty tubular makeup – are far more common than estimates suggest. An API-Teche forum in 2004 revealed that almost half of the wells in the Gulf of Mexico have had problems with sustained casing pressure.
For drilling projects and workovers, operators and service companies can typically budget several million dollars for miscellaneous “problems” that are never reported outside the company because the cost of solving them ends up within the budget. STVS or similar thermal imaging systems would help prevent such problems.
The STV system works by recording and analyzing the infrared radiation emitted by connections as they are being made up. Coulomb’s laws dictate that the amount of torque applied to the pin by the operator’s tongs be equal to the total amount of torque applied to the pin by the box, or the sum of the torque applied in all parts of the connection. This torque comes from friction – which is really just a conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy (heat) – between the pin and the box.
The heat generated by friction raises the temperature of the pin and box at and near points where the friction is applied, and the increased temperature results in increased infrared radiation, which the STV cameras detect. By showing technicians the temperature of each point of the connection, they can effectively see where in the connection the friction is coming from.
Knowing where the friction is allows potential problems to be identified as the connection is being made up. The STVS allows the thermal image of the connection to be compared with the manufacturer’s specifications regarding which parts of the pin and box should be bearing what proportion of the friction and applying what amount of torque. In real time, before sending the connection downhole, it can be seen whether the connection has made up properly.
The system is set up with two thermal cameras positioned approximately 180° apart to give a full-circle view of the connection. The cameras feed data to technicians’ laptops, where software shows them a virtual makeup of the connection. The company man can observe the connection’s makeup or breakouts, which engineers and technicians can analyze extensively.
A system still under development will allow operators to control, rotate and re-position the cameras remotely; further planned developments will allow the imaging program to “find” the connection in the field of view and compare the relevant part of the image with a database of thermal signatures for similar connections. Future software developments will also be able to automatically overlay the connection with a profile of the threads being connected so that the engagement of specific parts of the connection can be visually identified.
Global Systems has tested the STVS for several years on common connections, including casing, production tubing and tool joints. Many such tests have revealed connections to make up in ways entirely inconsistent with their design.
One such round of testing was conducted under the auspices of the Drilling Engineering Association (DEA) from 2006 to 2008. Five DEA member companies participated, and each was to supply five examples of a tubular connection of its choice: one perfectly matched set and four with different combinations of high and low tolerances. No company matched the specifications exactly, but each did provide different examples of its choice connection for testing.
On each day of testing, the version of the connection chosen by a company would be made up in the lab while the connections were monitored with thermal cameras and imaging software. The connections were also monitored by a “torque-turn” system, gauged and photographed. Metal bluing was applied to the pin to verify metal-to-metal contact at each point.
Torque-turn measures the total amount of torque being applied to a connection at each point in time. It stops the tong rotation when a certain torque level is developed and collects data that is plotted into a torque-vs-turns graph. Certain connection problems can cause an irregular torque-vs-turns graph, and, since the use of torque-turn is common in the petroleum industry, operators can often spot problems before sending the connections downhole.
Torque-turn is limited, however, by its blindness to individual points in the connection; it can only measure the total amount of torque being applied on the connection at a given point in time, oblivious to the actual distribution of torque.
In four of the five test sessions, one example of each connection was intentionally damaged with a hammer after the initial test, and the connection was made up again to determine how the STVS would represent a makeup between damaged sections.
The following results illustrate the versatility of the system.
Figure 1 shows an example of a good makeup of a casing connection with a “bucked-on” collar, as viewed from the perspective of STV technicians. Notice the uniformity of color (representing temperature) throughout the box outlined in blue; this is the connection that is being made up. Below this area is the portion of the connection that was “bucked on,” that is, assembled in the factory beforehand.
Notice that the bucked-on portion does not appear to have a temperature appreciably different from that of its surroundings – this is because that portion of the connection is not moving, so friction is generating no heat. This is how a good casing connection should look. The friction should be applied nearly evenly throughout with the most intense engagement in the main body threads, and no motion at all in the bucked-on connection just below.
Figure 2, by contrast, shows a similar connection with collar rotation. Notice that the temperature in the top half of the collar (that is, the part being made up) shows nothing close to the uniformity of the connection in Figure 1. Worse, the highest temperatures are in precisely the wrong part of the connection – the edges – when the friction really should be greatest in the main body threads.
Worse still, there is a visible band of increased temperature below the connection being made up, in the bucked-on portion. This is not supposed to happen. Rig operators rely on the bucked-on connections to be correct and stable because they are performed under the supervision of the manufacturers.
Notice, too, that the friction in the bucked-on portion is localized in a relatively narrow band in the lower (outermost) part of the connection. This area contains “run-out threads,” which are not designed to bear a large portion of the connection’s torque – ideally there should be no friction or weight on these threads at all. The fact that this is the part heating up when the rig makeup portion is being connected suggests that most, if not all, of the torque applied in the bucking-on of the collar was opposed by friction in the run-out threads, which could cause structural problems.
Because the run-out threads are not designed to hold a lot of weight, there is a significant risk that the connection in Figure 2 may separate if it were sent downhole, potentially causing leaks.
Figure 3 shows how the system detects galling of certain threads. Galling occurs when an extreme amount of friction is applied to the material. In this case, nearly all the torque being applied to the connection is being opposed by friction in two mismatched threads, causing potentially serious structural damage.
The local concentration of the whole connection’s portion of friction to a few narrow bands also prevents the proper engagement of the rest of the threads.
Perhaps most alarmingly, this connection could appear completely normal to an operator examining its torque-turn graph, as the whole connection taken together applies about the same amount of friction (and consequently torque) as a proper connection would. The distribution of that friction is the problem.
One of the DEA project tests involved a tool joint connection from which, according to the manufacturer, 1/32-in. of material could be removed at the shoulder up to three times for maintenance. For the STV system test, Global Systems had 1/32 in., 1/16 in., and 3/32 in. removed from identical brand-new connections.
This is an underestimate of the amount of material that would be taken off in a real-life situation: The company normally shaves both the pin and the box shoulder areas, and real-life wear and tear would erode the shoulders further.
Regardless, the STV system tests and Figures 4 through 7 show that the removal of material in this way actually significantly alters the way the connections make up.
Figure 4 shows a good makeup of this connection. Most of the friction is concentrated in the shoulder area, consistent with the manufacturer’s design. Observe a slight change of color immediately below the shoulder: This is the proper amount of thread engagement for this type of connection.
Figure 5 shows the same connection with 1/32 in. removed from the box shoulder. There are two higher-temperature zones instead of one at the shoulder and significantly less friction on the shoulder than in the brand-new connection. Most importantly, these two pictures are fundamentally different.
Figure 6, with 1/16 in. removed from the box shoulder, shows no shoulder engagement at all. If the two shoulders were touching, there would be some thermal reaction. This is completely inconsistent with the design of the connection.
Figure 7, in which 3/32 in. has been removed from the box shoulder, shows something similar: All friction is concentrated in the threads, and the shoulder is not engaging at all. In fact, a gap of .033 in. was measured between the pin and box shoulders after this makeup.
The assumption that 1/32 in. can be shaved off both the box and pin shoulders up to three times without changing the way the connection makes up cannot be correct. It remains to be seen how safe the connections in Figures 6 and 7 are; no studies have been done.
The industry has been assuming that, because the connections in Figures 6 and 7 generate the same torque-turn feedback as the one in Figure 5, the connections should be making up the same way. The STV system has shown that they are not.
Agreement with torque-turn
Figure 8 shows the torque-turn (converted to torque-time) graph from the connection in Figure 5 superimposed on a graph of maximum temperature vs time as measured by the STVS.
It takes less than a second for the temperature reading to respond to changes in torque, that heat lingers in the connection after the tongs have stopped applying torque, and that the slope of the temperature graph closely approximates the slope of the torque graph when the dimensions are corrected to match the maximum values.
In fact, the relationship between the two quantities is more complicated, but the small scale of the example allows the assumption that the two are linearly related to yield a close approximation.
STVS premium connection images also can show ovality in the pin or box. In Figure 9, all the friction is in the run-out threads and the seal. More importantly, friction is not being applied evenly on the main body threads. The pin and box are both supposed to have circular cross sections on planes perpendicular to their axes, so the connection should heat up evenly along circular bands.
Here, however, either the pin or box is not perfectly circular, resulting in uneven friction and irregular temperature regions. Ovality like this can cause serious connection problems.
Tests have also shown that the STVS can detect and evaluate the engagement of soft seals. Operators would be able to detect problems before those connections are deployed. Images to illustrate this can be found in the online version of this article at www.DrillingContractor
The STVS is currently functional; however, a database needs to be compiled of manufacturer-approved examples of each connection making up properly so that engineers and technicians can see with greater certainty which connections make up acceptably.
This can be accomplished by the operator requesting an approved thermal signature from the manufacturer before tubular shipment to the location. Research needs to be done about how safe connections are at different levels of thread engagement. Several examples of connections that are clearly very good or very bad have been illustrated in this article; however, there are also cases in-between where determining the acceptability of a connection may be difficult.
A more comprehensive understanding of the risks and costs involved with different types of connection would allow operators and regulators to make more informed decisions.
With the STVS, operators will be able to verify the engagement of individual parts of a connection, giving them a more accurate representation of the mechanical integrity of the connection as a whole. Global Systems has demonstrated that engineers and technicians using the system can identify collar rotation, misapplied torque, soft seal failure, ovality, excessive shoulder removal, galling, lack of engagement in any part of the connection, and other similar problems.
This ability will enable the identification of potentially problematic connections before deploying them, averting downhole leaks, parting, accidents and environmental problems. | <urn:uuid:54bdb1d9-eaad-434c-856c-e8d3a214c180> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.drillingcontractor.org/shoulderthread-verifier-system-uses-thermal-imaging-to-detect-potential-connection-problems-2235 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952289 | 2,831 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Historical examples and enrichment activities aplenty partly compensate for dry prose and iffy language in this broad overview of maps and their uses.
In topical chapters, the author covers the development of local and world maps, explains map reading in painstaking detail, covers geophysical features and forces, focuses on New World maps, then closes with considerations of specialized and political uses of maps and (in a cursory way) how satellites have mapped our planet and others. Absent a needed illustration of the prehistoric maps he mentions, there are otherwise color maps or photos on every spread, accompanying barrages of informative observations and facts. Some of these, like a tally of European explorers who “discovered” parts of the Americas and a note that gold rush prospectors encountered “Indians, mountains, deserts, and great rivers” on their way to the gold fields, could have been more sensitively expressed. Aside from a vague invitation to disprove the four-color theorem somehow by coloring a map, the 21 side activities are enlightening and range widely in difficulty without requiring expensive or hard-to-get materials. If readers come away thinking that “graphy” is a Greek word, they’ll also have a clear notion of why maps are worth studying.
A wide-angled survey, but the pictures carry the problematic narrative. (bibliography, online resource list, index; not seen) (Nonfiction. 10-14) | <urn:uuid:ec263232-0f1c-4186-93d8-80d67af6d898> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/richard-panchyk/charting-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914482 | 294 | 3.6875 | 4 |
For immediate release:
July 16, 2015
Media contact: Catherine Zandonella, firstname.lastname@example.org, 609-258-0541
After 85-year search, massless particle with promise for next-generation electronics discovered
An international team led by Princeton University scientists has discovered an elusive massless particle theorized 85 years ago. The particle could give rise to faster and more efficient electronics because of its unusual ability to behave as matter and antimatter inside a crystal, according to new research.
The researchers report in the journal Science July 16 the first observation of Weyl fermions, which, if applied to next-generation electronics, could allow for a nearly free and efficient flow of electricity in electronics, and thus greater power, especially for computers, the researchers suggest.
Proposed by the mathematician and physicist Hermann Weyl in 1929, Weyl fermions have been long sought by scientists because they have been regarded as possible building blocks of other subatomic particles, and are even more basic than the ubiquitous, negative-charge carrying electron (when electrons are moving inside a crystal). Their basic nature means that Weyl fermions could provide a much more stable and efficient transport of particles than electrons, which are the principle particle behind modern electronics. Unlike electrons, Weyl fermions are massless and possess a high degree of mobility; the particle's spin is both in the same direction as its motion — which is known as being right-handed — and in the opposite direction in which it moves, or left-handed.
"The physics of the Weyl fermion are so strange, there could be many things that arise from this particle that we're just not capable of imagining now," said corresponding author M. Zahid Hasan, a Princeton professor of physics who led the research team.
An international team led by Princeton University scientists has discovered Weyl fermions, elusive massless particles theorized 85 years ago that could give rise to faster and more efficient electronics because of their unusual ability to behave as matter and antimatter inside a crystal. The team included numerous researchers from Princeton's Department of Physics, including (from left to right) graduate students Ilya Belopolski and Daniel Sanchez; Guang Bian, a postdoctoral research associate; corresponding author M. Zahid Hasan, a Princeton professor of physics who led the research team; and associate research scholar Hao Zheng. (Photo by Danielle Alio, Office of Communications)
The researchers' find differs from the other particle discoveries in that the Weyl fermion can be reproduced and potentially applied, Hasan said. Typically, particles such as the famous Higgs boson are detected in the fleeting aftermath of particle collisions, he said. The Weyl fermion, however, was discovered inside a synthetic metallic crystal called tantalum arsenide that the Princeton researchers designed in collaboration with researchers at the Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter in Beijing and at National Taiwan University.
The Weyl fermion possesses two characteristics that could make its discovery a boon for future electronics, including the development of the highly prized field of efficient quantum computing, Hasan explained.
For a physicist, the Weyl fermions are most notable for behaving like a composite of monopole- and antimonopole-like particles when inside a crystal, Hasan said. This means that Weyl particles that have opposite magnetic-like charges can nonetheless move independently of one another with a high degree of mobility.
A detector image (top) signals the existence of Weyl fermions. The plus and minus signs note whether the particle's spin is in the same direction as its motion — which is known as being right-handed — or in the opposite direction in which it moves, or left-handed. This dual ability allows Weyl fermions to have high mobility. A schematic (bottom) shows how Weyl fermions also can behave like monopole and antimonopole particles when inside a crystal, meaning that they have opposite magnetic-like charges can nonetheless move independently of one another, which also allows for a high degree of mobility. (Image by Su-Yang Xu and M. Zahid Hasan, Princeton Department of Physics)
The researchers also found that Weyl fermions can be used to create massless electrons that move very quickly with no backscattering, wherein electrons are lost when they collide with an obstruction. In electronics, backscattering hinders efficiency and generates heat. Weyl electrons simply move through and around roadblocks, Hasan said.
"It's like they have their own GPS and steer themselves without scattering," Hasan said. "They will move and move only in one direction since they are either right-handed or left-handed and never come to an end because they just tunnel through. These are very fast electrons that behave like unidirectional light beams and can be used for new types of quantum computing."
Prior to the Science paper, Hasan and his co-authors published a report in the journal Nature Communications in June that theorized that Weyl fermions could exist in a tantalum arsenide crystal. Guided by that paper, the researchers used the Princeton Institute for the Science and Technology of Materials (PRISM) and Laboratory for Topological Quantum Matter and Spectroscopy in Princeton's Jadwin Hall to research and simulate dozens of crystal structures before seizing upon the asymmetrical tantalum arsenide crystal, which has a differently shaped top and bottom.
The crystals were then loaded into a two-story device known as a scanning tunneling spectromicroscope that is cooled to near absolute zero and suspended from the ceiling to prevent even atom-sized vibrations. The spectromicroscope determined if the crystal matched the theoretical specifications for hosting a Weyl fermion. "It told us if the crystal was the house of the particle," Hasan said.
The Princeton team took the crystals passing the spectromicroscope test to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California to be tested with high-energy accelerator-based photon beams. Once fired through the crystal, the beams' shape, size and direction indicated the presence of the long-elusive Weyl fermion.
First author Su-Yang Xu, a postdoctoral research associate in Princeton's Department of Physics, said that the work was unique for encompassing theory and experimentalism.
"The nature of this research and how it emerged is really different and more exciting than most of other work we have done before," Xu said. "Usually, theorists tell us that some compound might show some new or interesting properties, then we as experimentalists grow that sample and perform experiments to test the prediction. In this case, we came up with the theoretical prediction ourselves and then performed the experiments. This makes the final success even more exciting and satisfying than before."
In pursuing the elusive particle, the researchers had to pull from a number of disciplines, as well as just have faith in their quest and scientific instincts, Xu said.
"Solving this problem involved physics theory, chemistry, material science and, most importantly, intuition," he said. "This work really shows why research is so fascinating, because it involved both rational, logical thinking, and also sparks and inspiration."
Weyl, who worked at the Institute for Advanced Study, suggested his fermion as an alternative to the theory of relativity proposed by his colleague Albert Einstein. Although that application never panned out, the characteristics of his theoretical particle intrigued physicists for nearly a century, Hasan said. Actually observing the particle was a trying process — one ambitious experiment proposed colliding high-energy neutrinos to test if the Weyl fermion was produced in the aftermath, he said.
Hasan (pictured) and his research group researched and simulated dozens of crystal structures before finding the one suitable for holding Weyl fermions. Once fashioned, the crystals were loaded into this two-story device known as a scanning tunneling spectromicroscope to ensure that they matched theoretical specifications. Located in the Laboratory for Topological Quantum Matter and Spectroscopy in Princeton's Jadwin Hall, the spectromicroscope is cooled to near absolute zero and suspended from the ceiling to prevent even atom-sized vibrations. (Photo by Danielle Alio, Office of Communications)
The hunt for the Weyl fermion began in the earliest days of quantum theory when physicists first realized that their equations implied the existence of antimatter counterparts to commonly known particles such as electrons, Hasan said.
"People figured that although Weyl's theory was not applicable to relativity or neutrinos, it is the most basic form of fermion and had all other kinds of weird and beautiful properties that could be useful," he said.
"After more than 80 years, we found that this fermion was already there, waiting. It is the most basic building block of all electrons," he said. "It is exciting that we could finally make it come out following Weyl's 1929 theoretical recipe."
Ashvin Vishwanath, a professor of physics at the University of California-Berkeley who was not involved in the study, commented: "Professor Hasan's experiments report the observation of both the unusual properties in the bulk of the crystal as well as the exotic surface states that were theoretically predicted. While it is early to say what practical implications this discovery might have, it is worth noting that Weyl materials are direct 3-D electronic analogs of graphene, which is being seriously studied for potential applications."
The team included numerous researchers from Princeton's Department of Physics, including graduate students Ilya Belopolski, Nasser Alidoust and Daniel Sanchez; Guang Bian, a postdoctoral research associate; associate research scholar Hao Zheng; and Madhab Neupane, a Princeton postdoctoral research associate now at the Los Alamos National Laboratory; and Class of 2015 undergraduate Pavel Shibayev.
Other co-authors were Chenglong Zhang, Zhujun Yuan and Shuang Jia from Peking University; Raman Sankar and Fangcheng Chou from National Taiwan University; Guoqing Chang, Chi-Cheng Lee, Shin-Ming Huang, BaoKai Wang and Hsin Lin from the National University of Singapore; Jie Ma from Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and Arun Bansil from Northeastern University. Wang is also affiliated with Northeastern University, and Jia is affiliated with the Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter in Beijing.
The paper, "Discovery of Weyl fermions and topological Fermi arcs," was published online by Science on July 16. The work was supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundations Emergent Phenomena in Quantum Systems (EPiQS) Initiative (grant no. GBMF4547); the Singapore National Research Foundation (grant no. NRF-NRFF2013-03); the National Basic Research Program of China(grant nos. 2013CB921901 and 2014CB239302); the U.S. Department of Energy (grant no. DE-FG-02-05ER462000); and the Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology (project no. 102-2119-M- 002-004). | <urn:uuid:abb41257-751a-40a9-8c9a-179c715280b1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S43/64/59M11/index.xml?section=newsreleases | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951413 | 2,287 | 3.203125 | 3 |
[The following excerpt from The Victorian Age in Literature is based on Project Gutenberg's EBook #18639, which Karina Aleksandrova, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net produced.George P. Landow formatted the text and added links to other material in the Victorian Web]
It is natural, in the matter of Victorian moral change, to take Swinburne as the next name here. He is the only poet who was also, in the European sense, on the spot; even if, in the sense of the Gilbertian song, the spot was barred. He also knew that something rather crucial was happening to Christendom; he thought it was getting unchristened. It is even a little amusing, indeed, that these two Pro-Italian poets almost conducted a political correspondence in rhyme. Mrs. Browning sternly reproached those who had ever doubted the good faith of the King of Sardinia, whom she acclaimed as being truly a king. Swinburne, lyrically alluding to her as "Sea-eagle of English feather," broadly hinted that the chief blunder of that wild fowl had been her support of an autocratic adventurer: "calling a crowned man royal, that was no more than a king." But it is not fair, even in this important connection, to judge Swinburne by Songs Before Sunrise. They were songs before a sunrise that has never turned up. Their dogmatic assertions have for a long time past stared starkly at us as nonsense. As, for instance, the phrase "Glory to Man in the Highest, for man is the master of things"; after which there is evidently nothing to be said, except that it is not true. But even where Swinburne had his greater grip, as in that grave and partly just poem Before a Crucifix, Swinburne, the most Latin, the most learned, the most largely travelled of the Victorians, still knows far less of the facts than even Mrs. Browning. The whole of the poem, “Before a Crucifix,” (text) breaks down by one mere mistake. It imagines that the French or Italian peasants who fell on their knees before the Crucifix did so because they were slaves. They fell on their knees because they were free men, probably owning their own farms. Swinburne could have found round about Putney plenty of slaves who had no crucifixes: but only crucifixions.
When we come to ethics and philosophy, doubtless we find Swinburne in full revolt, not only against the temperate idealism of Tennyson, but against the genuine piety and moral enthusiasm of people like Mrs. Browning. But here again Swinburne is very English, nay, he is very Victorian, for his revolt is illogical. For the purposes of intelligent insurrection against priests and kings, Swinburne ought to have described the natural life of man, free and beautiful, and proved from this both the noxiousness and the needlessness of such chains. Unfortunately Swinburne rebelled against Nature first and then tried to rebel against religion for doing exactly the same thing that he had done. His songs of joy are not really immoral; but his songs of sorrow are. But when he merely hurls at the priest the assertion that flesh is grass and life is sorrow, he really lays himself open to the restrained answer, "So I have ventured, on various occasions, to remark." When he went forth, as it were, as the champion of pagan change and pleasure, he heard uplifted the grand choruses of his own Atalanta, in his rear, refusing hope.
The splendid diction that blazes through the whole of that drama, that still dances exquisitely in the more lyrical Poems and Ballads, makes some marvellous appear ances in Songs Before Sunrise, and then mainly falters and fades away, is, of course, the chief thing about Swinburne. The style is the man; and some will add that it does not, thus unsupported, amount to much of a man. But the style itself suffers some injustice from those who would speak thus. The views expressed are often quite foolish and often quite insincere; but the style itself is a manlier and more natural thing than is commonly made out. It is not in the least languorous or luxurious or merely musical and sensuous, as one would gather from both the eulogies and the satires, from the conscious and the unconscious imitations. On the contrary, it is a sort of fighting and profane parody of the Old Testament; and its lines are made of short English words like the short Roman swords. The first line of one of his finest poems [“Hymn to Proserpine“], for instance, runs, "I have lived long enough to have seen one thing, that love hath an end." In that sentence only one small "e" gets outside the monosyllable. Through all his interminable tragedies, he was fondest of lines like —
"If ever I leave off to honour you
God give me shame; I were the worst churl born.
The dramas were far from being short and dramatic; but the words really were. Nor was his verse merely smooth; except his very bad verse, like "the lilies and languors of virtue, to the raptures and roses of vice," which both, in cheapness of form and foolishness of sentiment, may be called the worst couplet in the world's literature. In his real poetry (even in the same poem) his rhythm and rhyme are as original and ambitious as Browning; and the only difference between him and Browning is, not that he is smooth and without ridges, but that he always crests the ridge triumphantly and Browning often does not —
"On thy bosom though many a kiss be,
There are none such as knew it of old.
Was it Alciphron once or Arisbe,
Male ringlets or feminine gold,
That thy lips met with under the statue
Whence a look shot out sharp after thieves
From the eyes of the garden-god at you
Across the fig-leaves."
Look at the rhymes in that verse, and you will see they are as stiff a task as Browning's: only they are successful. That is the real strength of Swinburne — a style. It was a style that nobody could really imitate; and least of all Swinburne himself, though he made the attempt all through his later years. He was, if ever there was one, an inspired poet. I do not think it the highest sort of poet. And you never discover who is an inspired poet until the inspiration goes.
With Swinburne we step into the circle of that later Victorian influence which was very vaguely called Æsthetic. Like all human things, but especially Victorian things, it was not only complex but confused. Things in it that were at one on the emotional side were flatly at war on the intellectual.
Chesterton, G (ilbert) K(eith). The Victorian Age in Literature. London: Butterworth: 1913. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1913.
Last modified 3 January 2011 | <urn:uuid:faba140a-cef3-4f5b-9afd-2b2f770770f5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/chesterton/swinburne.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982312 | 1,524 | 2.875 | 3 |
Cool Things - Civil War Valentines
Valentine cards have been a popular way to send affectionate greetings for many years. These examples date from the Civil War.
The switch from handmade to manufactured Valentine's cards began during the 1840s. By the start of the Civil War in 1861, many manufacturers were marketing the cards to soldiers far away from their loved ones.
This large paper Valentine (top, right) has an embossed border. It is glued with scrap: a classical bust at top, floral spray at center, and leaves at the bottom.
Between the leaves at the bottom of the card is a small piece of paper printed with this short verse:
Fondly I gaze in
Thy sweet face,
And clasp thy little
Hand in mine,
Love swiftly speeds
Us to the place
Where I shall claim
Civil War Sweethearts
The three cards pictured here were sent by Joseph Forrest to Elizabeth Ehrhart during the Civil War. Joseph and Elizabeth, both residents of Macon County, Illinois, became engaged in 1858, three years before the start of the hostilities. They delayed marriage at first because of Elizabeth's young age, secondly because of some business concerns, and thirdly because of the war.
Joseph enlisted on July 25, 1861 (shortly after the war began), at Decatur, Illinois. He was mustered into service as a private in Company A of the Eighth Illinois Volunteer Infantry. The couple decided to wed on Joseph's first furlough, which unfortunately for them didn't occur for another two years. When Joseph finally returned to Macon County to marry Elizabeth, he also was on a mission to uncover deserters hiding in the area. The couple married on August 9, 1863, and (according to family lore) spent much of their honeymoon riding around the countryside on horseback in pursuit of runaway soldiers.
The Eighth Illinois saw much action during the war. It was involved in battles at Shiloh and Corinth (1862), and Vicksburg (1863). After three years of active duty, Joseph was mustered out and honorably discharged in early December 1863. A few days later, he rejoined the same outfit while it was in camp at Vicksburg, Mississippi.
The Forrests' first child was born in 1864 while Joseph was recovering in a New Orleans hospital from wounds suffered at a battle near Jackson, Mississippi. This daughter died shortly after birth. Joseph was honorably discharged at Marshal, Texas, in July 1865, because of wounds which, according to his papers, caused him to be "Incapacitated for seven months, in hospitals all that time." Liver and lung damage would adversely affect his health for years.
Moving to Kansas
Four more children were born to the Forrests after the war. Deciding that Kansas might be good for Joseph's weakened health, the family moved to Jewell County in the spring of 1872, where Joseph served as a Methodist minister. In March 1875 they moved to Minneapolis, Kansas. One day a few months later, after preaching at several sites, Joseph sickened and died. He was 35 years old, and left behind a wife and four children.
Elizabeth stayed in Kansas, enduring the deaths of two more children from diphtheria in 1876. Although Joseph had never filed for a veteran's pension on ethical grounds (the funds came from a whiskey tax), financial difficulties forced Elizabeth to apply for a war widow's pension. She proved up the Forrest homestead claim herself, and lived in Kansas until she died in 1920.
The Valentine at bottom right is embossed with scenes depicting the American Revolutionary War or perhaps an earlier conflict. It is printed with the following verse:
'Mid bugle's blast and cannon's roar,
And 'mid the battles angry flame;
'Mid clashing sabres red with gore,
I fondly breathe they much-loved name.
I feel thee near at dead of night,
When I my vigil lone am keeping--
Thy image guards me, angel bright,
In dreams when wearied I am sleeping,
Each northward wind wafts on its breath,
To thee a yearning kiss of mine--
On glory's field or bed of death,
I live or die thy Valentine.
These Valentines are in the collections of the Kansas Museum of History.
Entry: Cool Things - Civil War Valentines
Author: Kansas Historical Society
Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history.
Date Created: November 1999
Date Modified: December 2014
The author of this article is solely responsible for its content. | <urn:uuid:6999738f-39a9-4ecf-acf8-bc54be9a2a61> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kshs.org/kansapedia/cool-things-civil-war-valentines/10346 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972902 | 966 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Existence of nuclear weapons and human fallibility make repeat of Cuban missile crisis an ever-present threat.
This month is the 50th anniversary of the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16-28, 1962), so we're going to hear a great deal about the weeks when the world almost died. But the past is a foreign country, a place where everything was in black-and-white and men still wore hats, so it's just scary stories about a long-gone time.
Or so it seems.
The outlines of the tale are well known. It was 17 years since the United States had used nuclear weapons on Japan, and the Soviet Union now had them, too. Lots of them: the American and Soviet arsenals included some 30,000 nuclear weapons, and not all of them were carried by bombers any more. Some were mounted on rockets that could reach their targets in the other country in half an hour.
So both Washington and Moscow had a version of a "launch on warning" policy: if you think the other side's missiles are inbound, launch your own missiles before you lose them. There couldn't be a more hair-trigger situation than that, you might think - but then things got a lot worse.
At the start of the 1960s Moscow had gained a new communist ally in Fidel Castro, but the US kept talking about invading Cuba. So Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev moved some nuclear-tipped missiles to Cuba to deter the US from attacking the island. However, from Cuba the Soviet missiles would be only five minutes away from their American targets. That caused panic in Washington.
Early in October 1962 the first Soviet SS-4 missiles arrived in Cuba, and American U-2 spy planes discovered them almost at once. President John F. Kennedy knew about them by October 16, but he did not go on television and warn the American public of the risk of nuclear war until October 22.
He then declared a naval blockade of Cuba, saying he would stop Soviet ships carrying more missiles from reaching the island by force if necessary. That would mean war, and probably nuclear war, but at least the blockade gave the Russians time to think before the shooting started.
The Soviet leaders were now desperately looking for a way out of the crisis they had created. After a few harrowing days a deal was done: the Soviet SS-4 missiles would be withdrawn from Cuba in return for a public promise by the United States not to invade Cuba.
The crisis was officially over by October 28, and everybody breathed a sigh of relief. It was the closest the world ever came to an all-out nuclear war.
Even so, they weren't really scared enough. They thought that a couple of hundred million people would die in a "nuclear exchange". At that time, nobody yet knew that detonating so many nuclear warheads would cause a "nuclear winter": the dust and smoke put into the stratosphere by firestorms in a thousand stricken cities would have blocked out the sunlight for a year or more and resulted in a worldwide famine.
What almost nobody knew until very recently is that the crisis did not really end on October 28.
A new book by Sergo Mikoyan, The Soviet Cuban Missile Crisis: Castro, Mikoyan, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Missiles of November, reveals that it continued all the way through November.
US intelligence was unaware that along with the SS-4s, the Soviet Union had also sent more than a hundred shorter-range "tactical" nuclear missiles to Cuba. They weren't mentioned in the Soviet-US agreement on withdrawing the SS-4s from Cuba, so technically Khrushchev had not promised to remove them.
Fidel Castro was in a rage about having been abandoned by his Soviet allies, so to mollify him, Khrushchev decided to let him keep the tactical missiles.
It was crazy: giving Fidel Castro a hundred nuclear weapons was a recipe for a new and even bigger crisis in a year or two. Khrushchev's deputy, Anastas Mikoyan, who was sent to Cuba to tell Castro the happy news, quickly realised that he must not have them.
The second half of the crisis, invisible to Americans, was Mikoyan's month-long struggle to pry Castro's fingers off the hundred tactical nuclear missiles.
In the end, he only succeeded by telling Castro that an unpublished (and in fact non-existent) law forbade the transfer of Soviet nuclear weapons to a foreign country. In December, they were finally crated up and sent home.
So it all ended happily, in one sense - but the whole world could have ended instead. As Robert McNamara, Kennedy's Defence Secretary in 1962, said 40 years later, "we were just plain lucky in October 1962 - and without that luck most of you would never have been born because the world would have been destroyed instantly or made unlivable in October 1962."
Then he said the bit that applies to us. "Something like that could happen today, tomorrow, next year. It WILL happen at some point. That is why we must abolish nuclear weapons as soon as possible."
They are still there, you know, and human beings still make mistakes. | <urn:uuid:3df67ee9-5b25-4ec8-aef2-f86c08afcd0a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nzherald.co.nz/gwynne-dyer-on-global-affairs/news/article.cfm?c_id=1502885&objectid=10842030 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982886 | 1,071 | 2.8125 | 3 |
EDINBURGH, Scotland, July 11 (UPI) -- A British Antarctic Survey team says it has discovered underwater volcanoes in waters around the remote Sandwich Islands.
Using sea-floor mapping technology during research cruises, the scientists found 12 volcanoes beneath the sea surface, some almost 10,000 feet high, and 3-mile-wide diameter craters left by collapsing volcanoes, a release from the survey group said Monday.
The researchers also identified seven active volcanoes visible above the sea as a chain of islands, it said.
Researchers say the findings are important for understanding what happens when volcanoes erupt or collapse under water and their potential for creating serious hazards such as tsunamis.
"There is so much that we don't understand about volcanic activity beneath the sea -- it's likely that volcanoes are erupting or collapsing all the time," survey researcher Phil Leat said at the International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Sciences in Edinburgh, Scotland.
"The technologies that scientists can now use from ships not only give us an opportunity to piece together the story of the evolution of our Earth, but they also help shed new light on the development of natural events that pose hazards for people living in more populated regions on the planet." | <urn:uuid:18d48455-73b8-41ae-b69c-65385455add1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2011/07/11/Antarctic-suvey-finds-undersea-volcanoes/UPI-33171310422729/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943127 | 252 | 3.28125 | 3 |
, go to <http://www.sfsu.edu/~cadbs/News.html>
Abstract: A parent describes how she prepared her family before moving into a new house in another community. The steps she took resulted in a smooth transition for her child with deafblindness.
Keywords: family wisdom, transitioning children with special needs, deafblind, multiple disabilities, cultural competence
Many years ago when I left Mexico to come and live in the United States, the move happened so suddenly that I didn’t stop to think about what it implied. It was during Christmas vacation and the worst part was that I wasn’t aware I would be leaving so soon. I did not even have time to say goodbye to my classmates and friends. I arrived here to a totally different place—a different culture, a different language, and different people. It was very traumatic and scary, and I felt anxious trying to adjust to my new environment.
A couple of years ago I made another change in my life— my family and I moved from Los Angeles to Riverside, which is about 50 miles to the east of L.A. When we were looking for the house it never occurred to me that this would be a big change for my kids, especially for Norman, my 8-year-old who is deaf-blind and has multiple disabilities. Right after we found the house we wanted and knew exactly where we were going to live, I suddenly remembered all that I had been through years ago when I came to the U.S. Deep down in my heart I was concerned about Norman; because of all of his special needs this move was very likely to have a great impact on him.
Keeping in mind the fact that the move would be a challenge, my husband and I started to plan a transition to make things easier for Norman. We knew there were factors working against us like timing and distance (timing because it was during school session, and distance because the new house wasn’t around the corner from our old house but instead many miles away). Nevertheless, we were excited about the move.
When designing our transition plan we considered all the factors involved, such as home environment, school for our daughter, school program for Norman, etc. We then asked ourselves, How can we do this? How can we make sure this transition works? And the big question—How can we make sure Norman’s new school program is the right one for him?
First, we did not move right away to our new house. We decided to have Norman stay in his old program for the remainder of the school year (since it was almost vacation) in order to minimize the number of changes in his life. We thought this might make him confused with so many things happening at the same time. We chose instead to visit our new home as often as possible. We even spent some weekends at our new place, exploring and getting familiar with the new home, the neighborhood, and we also visited the new school.
Soon after, I visited the new school program and met the person who would be Norman’s new teacher. I explained to her all about Norman’s needs and asked how she felt about having a child with deaf-blindness in her class. I inquired all about other related services, and the possibility of meeting with the one-to-one assistant before school started. The next step was to take Norman to the classroom so he could meet his new teacher and she could meet him.
When the school year started, I went with Norman to school for the first few days. Even though we had all met before, everything was kind of new for Norman as well as for his teacher and one-on-one aide. Me being there in the classroom and showing the school staff how to communicate and work with Norman made everything much easier. Norman didn’t feel that I had just left him there and the teacher didn’t feel so lost. Shortly after that, his educational team and I met to discuss all the information related to Norman.
Thinking about what was best for our children—along with all the planning, time, and effort—made this transition a success. We finally moved into our new home. Norman is progressing in his new program without any major complications. In addition, our daughter likes her new school, too. And they even got a dog named Buster. | <urn:uuid:11bdf903-4de9-47d0-9df8-24cc18d08bf2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tsbvi.edu/resources/3132-a-well-planned-move | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988273 | 898 | 2.75 | 3 |
The issue was unconditional independence. The first blow was struck in 1975 when a militant group that came to be known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) assassinated Alfred Duraiappah, the mayor of Jaffna. By July, 1983, Sri Lanka was in a full-blown civil war that pitted the Sinhalese majority against the secessionist ethnic Tamils who occupied the north of the island nation off the coast of India.
What followed was decades of assassinations and suicide bombings and failed peace talks and outright toe-to-toe warfare.
This past week the Sri Lankan army finished off the LTTE, trapped in a tiny sliver of land on the country's northeast coast. The war cost the lives of some 100,000 Sri Lankans. Among the dead in the final battle was Velupillai Prabhakaran, the charismatic leader of the Tamil movement.
Here are some scenes from the final days of that long, bloody war: | <urn:uuid:844c2753-c61b-49ad-ad9f-9464e753684c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.silive.com/news/index.ssf/2009/05/in_sri_lanka_a_long_and_bloody.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947356 | 203 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Once there were 100,000 or more wild tigers in Asia. Today there may be as few as 3,200.
Much of the decline can be linked to a belief among the Chinese that tiger bones and organs have medicinal benefits. This made tiger poaching a very profitable business. It also led to the establishment of tiger factory farms in China, somewhat like the factory farms so prevalent in the United States for the meat we eat.
In this excellent video, the World Wildlife Fund tells the story of why the tiger populations became so endangered and the horrors of Chinese tiger farms.
China banned the sale of tiger parts in 1993, but this did not stop the farmers. They just stored the frozen carcasses while breeding more tigers.
Recently, an effort was made to again legalize these farms, arguing that the tiger products would undersell the products of the poachers. The WWF points out that this didn’t work with elephant tusks and asks why would tigers that have to be caged and fed, be cheaper than those who can be obtained for the price of a bullet?
Read more about the WWF 2010 Year of the Tiger initiative and the opportunity to even ‘adopt’ a tiger.
Photo credit: catlovers | <urn:uuid:266276bd-3f4b-4d87-a319-e56ad94739a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.care2.com/causes/tiger-farm-evils-video-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961899 | 252 | 2.890625 | 3 |
The following is a summary of language acquisition being a controversy in the scientific world. It tries to find answer whether innate capability or social interaction is effective in language acquisition. It voices both sides and gives sound evidence. On one side Chomsky, Gardner and others on the other side Piaget and Clark and others. I want to share this clear explanation of language acquisition with those interested in linguistics.
Nature vs. Nurture:
The Miracle of Language
by Malia Knezek
Why do some children build towers with blocks, cry when they scrape their knees, and shout, "Choo-choo mine!" when a sibling takes away their favorite toy train? Why are some children able to perform entire piano concertos or master complex mathematical concepts, while others cannot even learn to communicate in the normal way? In short, why do humans behave the way they do? With the exception of identical twins, each new human being receives a novel combination of genes divided among forty-six chromosomes. Undoubtedly, this genetic material provides the basis for growth and development and, in doing so, places certain restrictions on the new infant. If the limiting action of genes seems disputable, think of how many people you know who grow to heights of more than twenty feet tall, live longer than two hundred years, or can run faster than a cheetah. My guess would be not many!
Controversy does arise, however, when one tries to examine the extent of genetic influence on human behavior. Just how many of our abilities and shortcomings are innate in nature, and how many are acquired through our interactions with the environment? This debate has been going on for centuries, and popular attitudes have varied greatly throughout this time. At one extreme, we have John Locke's idea of "tabula rasa," which proposes that the minds of newborn infants are blank slates that will be differentiated and altered only through sensory experience. Modern biological determinism represents the other extreme. In its strictest form, this ideology suggests that behaviors are inherent and innate, resulting from the expression of genes. Most intellectuals subscribe to a view somewhere between these two extremes, on the gradient of a controversy that is still a hot topic of debate in many intellectual fields.
One particularly interesting field within the nature-nurture debate that has drawn heated testimony from both sides is language acquisition. How much of our ability to produce and comprehend language is programmed into our genes, and how much do we acquire only with environmental stimulus? Obviously, language cannot be completely genetic. Humans speak a wide variety of different languages, and very young children of any race or ethnic background can learn to speak and understand any of these if exposed to appropriate models at the proper time in development. Similarly, children cannot learn to speak a public language without this critical exposure. However, all humans use language in one form or another, and psychologists and linguists have noted many cross-lingual universals both in how children acquire language and in the inherent characteristics of the languages themselves. Therefore, as is the case with most aspects of human behavior, the truth most likely lies in some combination of nature and nurture.
The ability to use language is a very important part of human cognition. In fact, some would argue that it is this ability which distinguishes us from other animals. Regardless of one's view of the capability of animals to use language or language-like symbols, the fact that humans have language abilities far superior to those of other animals cannot be ignored. Despite the ubiquity of human linguistic ability, pinning down exactly how language helps us and how we use it is not at all a straightforward task. One obvious use for public language is to communicate one�s thoughts to other people. In fact, this may seem like the only, or at least the most important, use of our linguistic abilities. However, both Howard Gardner and Andy Clark stress other uses. Gardner, for example, lists four discrete uses for public language in his Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
People use language to induce action in other people. Examples of this might include a child asking a parent to hand him a toy that is on a high shelf or a boss sending a memo out to his employees asking them to hand in budget drafts by next Wednesday.
Language can be used as a tool by one individual to help that individual remember things. In this way, language expands cognitive abilities that are already present in the human brain. For example, a child may not be able to remember how many days are in December or May, but by learning the rhyme that begins, "Thirty days hath September�" he will easily be able to store these facts in memory. Wearing nametags at a conference and making oral or written shopping lists are other examples of using language to aid memory.
The third use of language involves the transfer of explanations or knowledge from one person to another. For example, the parent teaching his child how to tie his shoes and the professor giving a lecture on ionic bonding are both using language to share their knowledge with another person. It is this use that can lead to cultural evolution, which will be discussed later in this paper.
The fourth discrete use of language is to talk about language itself, or as Gardner states, "to use language to reflect upon language, to engage in �metalinguistic� analysis" (78). A child asking his father what the word "wish" means and a linguist examining the syntactic rules of various languages are both using this type of "metalinguistic analysis."
Gardner acknowledges the wide variety of ways in which we use language, but he believes that they all fit into one of these four categories (78). In his book entitled Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again, Andy Clark agrees that language is not solely a tool for communicating thoughts or ideas. He describes the uses of language in more general terms than Gardner. To borrow a fitting analogy from Clark�s book, language is a tool built for use by humans, just as is a pair of scissors. "Just as scissors enable us to exploit our basic manipulative capapcities to fulfill new ends, language enables us to exploit our basic cognitive capacities of pattern recognition and transformation in ways that reach out to new behavioral and intellectual horizons" (193-194). In other words, scissors take the manipulating abilities of human hands and use them to produce a skill that normally could not be accomplished by a human being: namely, cutting a fairly straight line through a piece of paper. Like these scissors, public language takes human abilities that already exist--this time cognitive rather than manipulative in nature--and expounds upon these to give this human-plus-tool combination abilities that were not achievable by the human (or the tool) alone (Clark 193-194). The use of language as an aid to memory, which Gardner lists as one of the four main uses, is an example of this type of ability-enhancement, as is the existence of technical vocabularies in such disciplines as math and physics. Can you imagine, for example, trying to calculate the correct trajectory angle at which to launch a space shuttle without having words to express such concepts as "trajectory," "angle," "force," "velocity," etc.? Such a feat would be near impossible.
Thus, there is general agreement on the importance of language in human cognition, and even in the different ways we use this necessary skill. The ability to use language sets humans apart from other animals and accounts, at least partly, for the uniqueness of our cognitive profile. We would definitely be a very different species were it not for this awesome skill. The question now is: How did we develop this unique ability?
Howard Gardner, along with Noam Chomsky and many others, believes that parts of the brain have evolved over time specifically for the purpose of producing and understanding language. Thinkers such as Andy Clark and Jean Piaget, on the other hand, believe that public language utilizes brain structures and psychological functions that were already present before the development of this important tool. In the first ("nature") school of thought, linguistic abilities have developed over time as a result of Darwinian evolution. In the conflicting ideology (a "nurture" position), there is no innate linguistic ability; and linguistic evolution occurs as a result of learning and cultural evolution, which will be explained in greater detail below, rather than through natural selection. The beliefs do overlap; and oftentimes the proponents of one side argue against what they suppose the other side would believe, when in fact the other side subscribes to no such ideology. For example, the nature proponents argue that human brains are biologically different from the brains of other animals; and that at least part of this diference is due to innate, inherited differences in genes. However, they really need not spend time arguing for this point because the nurture proponents do not, in actuality, disagree with the fact. They also believe that genetic factors are responsible for some of the differences between the brains of humans and those of other animals. The disagreement lies only in how different our brains are from those of other animals, and how much of this difference can be attributed to genetic variances.
Similarly, both sides agree that language draws from and influences other thought processes. However, there is a controversy centered around the extent of this interaction. Nature proponents see language as a very autonomous ability, while nurture proponents tend to see it as more inseparable from other, general cognitive abilities. (For more information on how language influences thought, please see "Something to Talk About" by Brian Skotko.) Do the only disagreements, then, center around questions of degree and extent? It seems, upon cursory examination of the arguments, that the two schools of thought agree on almost all basic tenets of language use, and disagree only on the exact recipe for combining these tenets. This is not the case, however, as true disagreement does exist on some fundamental issues.
First of all, Chomsky, Gardner, and others of similar ideologies believe that infants are born with a significant prewired knowledge of how languages work and how they do not work. Views within this group vary slightly, but they all hold to this basic tenet and cite ample evidence in defense of this view. These proponents of the innateness of linguistic ability also believe that the genetic basis for language came about as the result of Darwinian evolution and by an extension of the "survival of the fittest" argument. Again, individual views vary slightly, but all supporters of this school of thought see language as a product of Darwinian evolution (Gardner 90-91).
On the other hand, Piaget, Clark, and others see the newborn as possesing only a few basic cognitive abilities. The more specific abilities we see in the developing child, they argue, are due to interactions with the environment and are independent of any inheritable code found in the genes. They place language skills in this category, and so they disagree completely with Chomsky�s assertion that humans inherit certain linguistic knowledge (Gardner 80). In addition, proponents of the Nurture ideology view public language as a tool constructed by people for use by people, and they believe its development is due to cultural evolution, a completely different mechanism for change (Clark 200-213).
Perhaps it is worth taking a few moments to describe the differences between Darwinian evolution and cultural evolution. Most people are familiar with the tenets of Darwinian evolution as proposed by Charles Darwin in his Origin of the Species, and as expanded upon by numerous scientists since then. In this type of evolution, natural selection or "survival of the fittest" results in actual changes in the gene frequency of a species. These changes are innate and inheritable, passed down from one generation to the next by means of biological reproduction. This type of evolution is very slow, and even minor changes in a species tend to take thousands or even millions of years to occur.
Cultural evolution, like Darwinian evolution, brings about changes within the human species. However, these changes occur at a much faster rate and by different mechanisms. Whereas traits in "Darwinian" evolution are passed from one generation to the next through genes only, without regard to what progress one generation has made or what it has learned during its lifetime, traits in cultural or "Lamarckian" evolution are passed on through language from one generation to the next. This means that progress made by one generation can be selectively passed on to the next, which does not occur with random genetic mutations. The focus and ease of transfer characteristic of cultural evolution lead to changes that takes place at such a fast rate that the effects of Darwinian evolution, in comparison, are practically negligible. As scientist Stephen Jay Gould remarks, "While the gene for sickle-cell anemia declines in frequency among black Americans, we have invented the railroad, the automobile, radio and television, the atom bomb, the computer, the airplane and spaceship." Clearly, cultural evolution is a distinct process from Darwinian evolution and accounts for many changes in human behavior (324).
"Nurture" advocates in the language debate believe that humans invented language as they did computers through the process of cultural evolution. Again, subscribers to this school of thought have gathered much evidence in support of their theories. Indeed, determining which of these two theories better describes human linguistic ability will require careful examination of the arguements and evidence, and even after such examination will nonetheless prove to be a difficult task.
THE "LANGUAGE FACULTY"
As mentioned before, linguist Noam Chomsky suggests that humans are born with an innate knowledge of language, and he calls this knowledge the "language faculty." He invisions this "language faculty" as a biologically autonomous system in the brain that "has an initial state which is genetically determined, like. . . the kidney, the circulatory system, and so on" (13).
Chomsky supports his claim with several lines of evidence. For one thing, he argues that all humans (except, of course, those suffering from a language-related pathology) understand certain ambiguities of language the same way. For example, take the expression "brown house," which could be expressed in another language as well as English. Upon hearing this expression, any human would have certain understandings that were not expressed with language explicitly. For example, even children realize that this expression contains two separate words with separate meanings, quite a feat when considering that the spoken phenomes generally run together. When spoken in English, a listener will know that the two words contain the same vowel sound. More surprisingly, when this phrase is spoken in any language, the listener will understand that the speaker is referring to a house that is brown on the outside. This is remarkable, because houses can just as easily have brown interiors, but listeners never have to ask which surface (inner or outer) the color is naming (Chomsky 20-21). Chomsky argues that this type of linguistic knowledge must be innate since every healthy human makes the same assumptions. He also suggests that knowledge such as that described above must exist in the language faculty in the brain.
Linguist M. Y. Liberman describes other characteristics found in every spoken human language. First, all of these languages have very large vocabularies consisting of words "whose articulatory/acoustic definition is mediated by a phonological system." Second, all languages have a grammatical system that governs the way in which these words are combined to express meaning. Third, all languages change throughout time with new words being added and old ones being dropped or changed continuously (qtd. in Studdert-Kennedy 8).
Anthropologist Donald E. Brown describes even more detailed aspects of language that all humans share. First, in any given language words can exist that are the equivalent of "good," "wide," and "deep." In some languages, opposite words (bad, narrow, and shallow) exist also. In others, however, the opposites are formed with a negating word and the original juxtaposed (not good, not wide, not deep). The surprising finding is that in no language does the negation go the other way ("not bad" to express "good," etc.). Does this happen because the expression of such concepts as good, wide, and deep lies in the language faculty and is innate in all humans? Chomsky would say that it does. He would also cite other universals listed by Brown, including the fact that all languages contain nouns, verbs, and possessive formations, as well as the fact that poetry around the world has lines that last about three seconds in between pauses, as evidence of a "language faculty" genetically present in all human brains (Brown 132).
Another fact that Chomsky believes supports his theory of the "language faculty" involves comparing humans to other species. Not only do we have a linguistic ability much superior to that of other animals, but the rules we have regarding language and symbols in general cannot be found in any other species (Chomsky 13). For example, if one were to teach a chimpanzee signs that meant "brown house," he would not have all the innate knowledge described above which is present in all humans. In addition, this process would involve much teaching and learning before a chimp could learn these signs; whereas humans acquire such knowledge with little or no conscious effort taking place.
This brings us to another fact that provides strong evidence for Chomsky's theory: that all normal children acquire language in the same way. Chomsky prefers the term "language acquisition" rather than "language learning," because he sees this process as a maturation of the language faculty (much like the growth of a heart or kidney) rather than a learning process (Chomsky 13). Gardner also describes this very process in his chapter on linguistic intelligence. Infants begin babbling not too long after birth, and the sounds produced during this period contain the basic sounds they hear spoken around them as well as phenomes not present in their native tongue. This is strong evidence for an innate language faculty. By the time the child turns two years old, he or she will speak single words in the native language, and soon thereafter, will begin to form very simple, two-word "sentences." These word pairs are meaningful and often novel combinations of words known by the child. Examples may include "drink milk," "byebye Daddy," and "doggy run." By the age of three, these two-word utterances grow in length and complexity, so that the three-year-old child can utter sentences of several words long, even including questions, negations, and clauses. These sentences often have grammatical errors (which can be explained by overgeneralization and remain consistent throughout speakers of a single language), such as in the example, "I no watch T.V. no more." By the time the child is four or five years old, he no longer makes these grammatical mistakes; and he "can speak with considerable fluency in ways that closely approximate adult syntax" (Gardner 79).
Three aspects of this form of language acquisition are of interest in light of Chomsky's theory. That all children follow this development regardless of the language they speak supports Chomsky's claim of an inate language organ that is maturing through this process. Secondly, during the babbling stage, babies produce phenomes they have never heard, from a variety of different languages spoken around the world. Chomsky believes that this is due to the fact that the "language faculty" already contains knowledge of all the sounds that can be produced in any natural spoken language, more evidence for extensive innate language knowledge. Third, normally-developed four-year-olds are already able to "come up with appealing figures of speech (comparing a foot falling asleep to bubbling ginger ale); tell short stories� alter their speech register depending upon whether they are addressing adults, peers, or toddlers younger than themselves, and even engage in simple metalinguistic banter." The latter includes asking such questions as "What does X mean?" and "Should I say X or Y?" These feats are truly remarkable, and as of yet no machine or computer program has even come close to reproducing them (Gardner 80). According to Chomsky, young children would not be able to accomplish such feats without the aid of an innate knowledge system based on language.
The biology of the brain can also support Chomsky's theory. Almost all right-handed humans have language centers located in the left hemisphere of the brain. This left hemisphere is larger and structurally different from the right hemisphere, an asymmetry that can be traced to the Neanderthal man, but is not seen in monkeys (Gardner 90). There are several specialized regions in the left hemisphere that are used for various language tasks, such as Broca's area for producing language and Wernicke's area for comprehending language spoken by others. Lesions to various regions of the brain cause very distinctive aphasias, or language problems; and the same area causes the same aphasia across the species. For more information on the neurobiology of language and the specific aphasias, please see Bora Lee's paper entitled ??? The evidence gleaned from studies of aphasic patients supports Chomsky's theory by pinpointing various areas of the brain that seem to be a part of this innate "language faculty."
The final evidence for Chomsky's view of language comes from evolutionary studies. As mentioned earlier, brain asymmetry linked to the language faculty has been found to exist in Neanderthal man, which means they date back thirty thousand to one hundred thousand years. There is also evidence that this asymmetry may exist even in the great apes, although evidence is not conclusive. Either way, the structural brain regions needed for language have been present in the species long before recorded history, which suggests a gradual evolution of intellectual capacities (Gardner 90). Many intellectuals on the "nature" side of the language debate believe that this could explain how humans acquired their language abilities through gradual evolution. Chomsky, however, has a different view. He believes that our language capabilities could not have evolved gradually; and, instead, he proposes that the entire language faculty came in one evolutionary step (Gardner 91).
Regardless of their views on the specifics of evolution, all "nature" advocates believe that human lingual ability results from an innate, inherited "language faculty" through which lingual information is passed on from one generation to the next.
LANGUAGE AS AN ARTIFACT
Those who believe that language is learned through intellectual processes common to all learning and who do not believe in an innate "language faculty" explain the evidence presented above in another way. According to proponents of the "nurture" theory, humans are much more advanced than other animals because they are able to use language, rather than the other way around. The mechanisms that make this possible will be explained in the next few pages.
One major type of evidence that Chomsky and others who believe in an innate language faculty often cite is the universal characteristics of language itself and of language acquisition in humans. But does the fact that all humans exhibit a certain behavior really prove that that behavior is due to the genetic code of the human? As Donald E. Brown explains in his book entitled Human Universals, this is not necessarily the case. "[U]niversals form a heterogeneous set. A great many, for example, seem to be inherent in human nature. Some are cultural conventions that have come to have universal distribution" (4).
To understand how a behavior exhibited by all humans can be due to culture rather than genetics, consider the example of cooking food. All humans cook their food, but there is no "cooking gene" that genetically programs us to do this. Rather, cooking was discovered by some human and found to be so beneficial that every human who came in contact with the procedure adopted it. In this way, cooking spread across the earth and became a universal, even without a genetic basis.
Could the universals found in language be explained in the same way? Language certainly seems to be beneficial enough to have spread this way from human to human and culture to culture. However, this does not explain why we have special parts of the brain dedicated to language or why humans can communicate through language while other animals cannot.
In order to understand how a culturally based model of language could account for these facts, it is important to examine how new models are being used to explain the brain and human behavior. The brain, above all else, is an organ whose purpose is to manipulate the behavior of the body in an environment to secure survival. This is true of all species from the snail to the human. It has been shown experimentally that experience causes structural and chemical changes at the synapses between neurons which means that learning takes place in the connections between neurons. If, for example, a dog finds that jumping over a fence allows him to eat some meat barbecuing in the neighbor's yard, and if this behavior gets this reward several times, then the connections between his neurons will strengthen in the path that goes from smelling meet to jumping the fence. If, however, the dog tries to jump the fence one day and gets shocked by an electrical wire, the weights of connections will become weaker. If this happens several times, then the neuronal path between smelling meat and jumping the fence will have a strong inhibitory connection, so that the dog no longer performs this behavior.
How does this relate to a human brain producing and understanding language? Well, suppose a baby finds that if he produces the sound "wa-wa" he will receive a drink of water. The neuronal connections between his feeling of thirst and his speaking the sound "wa-wa" will be strongly excitatory, and he will have learned to communicate. If, however, his mother decides to break him from the habit of baby-talk and only gives him water when he pronounces the entire word "water," then the connections between thirst and "wa-wa" will become inhibitory and a new neural path, between thirst and "water," will become more excitatory.
This still does not explain why so many people have the same assumptions when hearing the phrase "brown house" or why language functions are so specific to regions of our brains. To understand these phenomena, one must realize that humans use language as "a tool that alters the nature of the computational tasks involved in various kinds of problem solving" (Clark 193). To return to the scissors analogy from before, humans created scissors in order to increase the scope of our manual skills to include cutting straight lines. Similarly, we created language to increase the scope of our mental abilities. Just as scissors have one part for manipulating the environment (the blades) and one for making them easier to hold (the handles), language also performs a double function. Not only must language be able to cause changes in the environment (or in our own thinking, such as when we write a grocery list to remember what we need to buy), but the language we use must also fit the intellectual abilities we already have. Thus, language as a tool would not be helpful if it demanded more of our intellect than it provided in benefits. Because of this fact, language is constantly evolving in two directions--to better express our ideas and manipulate the world and to better fit the structures and functions of our various brain regions (Clark 193-194). If, for example, the area in the left hemisphere that we call Broca's area was already well-adapted to finding structure and rules in a random input of stimulus, then this area would naturally be where the grammatical structure of language is stored; and a lesion to this area would then make it hard for the subject to produce gramatically meaningful speech. This could explain the assymetry of the brain and the cases of aphasia that show the brain's specificity. Just because all humans have a Broca's area that houses the faculties for producing grammatical speech does not necessarily mean that Broca's area evolved for this purpose.
What about the fact that other animals do not have similar language capabilities? Obviously, if you place a snail (or even a monkey) in a situation where it comes in contact with many models of human speech, it will still not learn to use language. This obviously involves some innate difference between humans and other animals, which means that we have genes that are different from those of other animals. However, the difference could just lie in our vocal tracts and our hearing ability. Chances are that this is not the case since other animals do not use any other form of language (i.e. sign language) even though they have the physiological capabilities. Most likely, there are some differences between human brains and those of other animals, though the differences need not be nearly as pronounced as Chomsky and others believe they are. As explained above, the language tool that we have invented gives us many mental capabilities we would not have otherwise, including thinking about thinking. Thus, a tiny evolutionary difference in our brain could have given us the ability to invent language, an artifact that may make possible not only higher-order thinking exhibited by humans, but perhaps even the consciousness that we so dearly treasure (Clark 208-209).
So all we can say for sure is that language, like so many other aspects of human behavior, has proven to be the product of nature and nurture working together. This amazing human ability to communicate through language is both the result and the cause of our uniqueness as human beings. Language is a tool indeed: Simple enough for a child to effortly grasp, yet so complex that we may never completely understand just how genetics and experience interact to produce this most integral human trait.
Brown, Donald E. Human Universals. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
Chomsky, Noam. Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Socail Order. Boston: South End Press, 1996.
Clark, Andy. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997.
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Harper Collins, 1983.
Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1981.
Studdert-Kennedy, Michael, ed. Psychobiology of Language. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1983. | <urn:uuid:6ef5ab7b-2624-4a9d-b2f3-dddd1345e4e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dilforum.com/forum/showthread.php/11322-Nature-or-nurture-Language-Acquisition | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958881 | 6,227 | 3.28125 | 3 |
A thematic catalogue is a list of works accompanied by musical sketches of their opening bars.
This thematic catalogue, kept by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, lists all his works from 1784 until his death in 1791. He began keeping the catalogue on 9 February 1784 with his entry for the E-flat Piano Concerto, K.449.
In general Mozart uses the left-hand page to list the date of composition, its title and, more often than not, the instruments for which it was scored. Entries for works that included voices also often include the names of those who gave the first performances.
He writes these notes in German or Italian, according to the language in which the works were sung. On the opposite page are ruled five pairs of musical staves on which Mozart wrote the ‘incipits’ (from the Latin word to signify ‘here begins’) for each composition.
These two pages show the last entries into the catalogue, and include those for Die Zauberflöte ('The Magic Flute') and La Clemenza di Tito which it states it was written ‘for the coronation of his Majesty the Emperor Leopold II’.
See more of Mozart's musical diary on Turning the Pages™.
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Amongst our collections of printed and recorded music you can admire music manuscripts written by renowned composers. Here are some of our most famous, starting from the 13th century. | <urn:uuid:8fd9173b-df68-4e11-a8ab-383fabed7e55> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/mozart--thematic-catalogue | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970624 | 309 | 3.203125 | 3 |
There is no honour in violence against women
Violence against women is a worldwide issue and exists in all communities. Violence is used to maintain power and control. Violence that’s used to control women and girls is sometimes justified in the name of “honour.”
If you are being threatened or are experiencing abuse there are services available to help you.
For more information, please call MOSAIC at 604-254-9626. | <urn:uuid:fc1efd02-076c-4606-9884-0d48c0efe692> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://honourforwomen.ca/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953514 | 95 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Teacher resources and professional development across the curriculum
Teacher professional development and classroom resources across the curriculum
Scientist Britt Argow and geoscientist Chuck Blay, of Teok Investigations, describe that, due to the differing thickness and density of continental and oceanic crusts, basaltic ocean crust is subducted under less-dense granitic continental crust. This happens at plate margins where these two types of crust collide. Britt Argow and teacher Joe Reilly discuss how, at subduction zones, ocean crust is forced down to a zone of higher pressure. Volcanologist Dave Sherrod, of the Hawaii Volcano Observatory, USGS, and geologist Keith Klepeis, of the University of Vermont, describe the oceanic crust. Oceanic crust carries a load of CO2-rich sediment and water, which changes the chemistry of the crust, allowing the rock to melt and to form magma (molten rock) at a lower temperature than would usually be required. Magma from this type of rock is enriched with highly-pressurized steam and CO2 and rises to the surface and forms volcanoes. This kind of volcano usually erupts explosively. A good example is Mount St. Helens, which exploded on May 18, 1980, killing 57 people. Featured Scientists: Chuck Blay, Ph.D., Keith Klepeis, Ph.D., Andy Kurtz, Ph.D., Michael Manga, Ph.D., and David Sherrod, Ph.D.
High School Standard D. Earth and Space science | <urn:uuid:4f0967bf-3f81-49ce-9c48-eee1b45f39a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/series/modules/express/pages/scimod_24.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906646 | 315 | 3.953125 | 4 |
>How about if we say that it's a unique hominid activity? Since we're the
>only lineage left among the hominids, it's impossible to tell whether a
>given activity is uniquely human or shared by all hominids.
>This is not an uncommon situation in evolution--where some ancestral
>shared character is presently extant in a single surviving species. We
>can use the character now to identify the species, but not necessarily so
>before other sibling species had gone extinct.
I smell a semantic trap! :-) All humans are hominids but not all
hominids are human. All I can judge this by is the present data. The
only beings I know who make such objects are human and are susceptible to
lust. I have no basis for knowing whether Australopithecus made such
objects because there are none found in the fossil record associated with
them. They might or might not have made such objects out of wood, but we
will never know. Thus you can not claim that this is a hominid trait.
Foundation,Fall and Flood | <urn:uuid:7e8f0134-9d70-4e23-a043-ed340519af66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.asa3.org/archive/asa/199605/0271.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946687 | 231 | 2.546875 | 3 |
In 1983 in Russia, there was a man who would have been considered an enemy by the people of America. But as it turned out, he would become for them and for the world an unknown hero perhaps the greatest hero of all time. Because of military secrecy, and political and international differences, most of the world has not heard of this man. He is Stanislav Petrov.
The extraordinary incident leading to his heroism occurred near Moscow, in the former Soviet Union, just past midnight, Sept. 26, 1983. Because of time-zone differences, it was still Sept. 25 in America, a Sunday afternoon.
During the Cold War at this time, the United States and the Soviet Union were bitter adversaries. These two world powers did not trust each other, and this distrust led to a dangerous consequence: They built thousands of nuclear weapons to be used against each other if a war should ever break out between them. If there ever were such a war, these nations would very likely devastate each other and much of the world many times over, resulting in the deaths of perhaps hundreds of millions of people.
It was Lieutenant Colonel Stanislav Petrovs duty to use computers and satellites to warn the Soviet Union if there were ever a nuclear missile attack by the United States. In the event of such an attack, the Soviet Unions strategy was to launch an immediate all-out nuclear weapons counterattack against the United States.
On this particular day, something went wrong. Suddenly the computer alarms sounded, warning that an American missile was heading toward the Soviet Union. Lt. Col. Petrov reasoned that a computer error had occurred, since the United States was not likely to launch just one missile if it were attacking the Soviet Union it would launch many. Besides, there had been questions in the past about the reliability of the satellite system being used. So he dismissed the warning as a false alarm, concluding that no missile had actually been launched by the United States.
But then, just a short time later, the situation turned very serious. Now the computer system was indicating a second missile had been launched by the United States and was approaching the Soviet Union. Then it showed a third missile being launched, and then a fourth and a fifth. The sound of the alarms was deafening. In front of Lt. Col. Petrov the word Start was flashing in bright lettering, presumably the instruction indicating the Soviet Union must begin launching a massive counterstrike against the United States.
Even though Lt. Col. Petrov had a gnawing feeling the computer system was wrong, he had no way of knowing for sure. He had nothing else to go by. The Soviet Unions land radar was not capable of detecting any missiles beyond the horizon, information that by then would be too late to be useful. And worse, he had only a few minutes to decide what to tell the Soviet leadership. He made his final decision: He would trust his intuition and declare it a false alarm. If he were wrong, he realized nuclear missiles from the United States would soon begin raining down on the Soviet Union.
He waited. The minutes and seconds passed. Everything remained quiet no missiles and no destruction. His decision had been right. Stanislav Petrov had prevented a worldwide nuclear war. He was a hero. Those around him congratulated him for his superb judgment.
But he had disobeyed military procedure by defying the computer warnings. And because of this, he later underwent intense questioning by his superiors about his actions during this nerve-racking ordeal. Perhaps because he had ignored the warnings, he was no longer considered a reliable military officer. Presumably in the military it is understood that orders and procedures are to be carried out unfailingly, without question.
In the end, the Soviet military did not reward or honor Stanislav Petrov for his actions. It did not punish him either. But his once promising military career had come to an end. He was reassigned to a less sensitive position and soon was retired from the military. He went on to live his life in Russia as a pensioner.
Because of Stanislav Petrovs actions that day in 1983, the Earth was spared what could have become the most devastating tragedy in the history of humanity. Stanislav Petrov has said he does not regard himself as a hero for what he did that day. But in terms of the incalculable number of lives saved, and the overall health of the planet Earth, he undeniably is one of the greatest heroes of all time.
There is yet something else unsettling about this incident. Stanislav Petrov was not originally scheduled to be on duty that night. Had he not been there, it is possible a different commanding officer would not have questioned the computer alarms, tragically leading the world into a nuclear holocaust. As it turned out, this incident ended fortunately for America and for the world. But unfortunately for Stanislav Petrov, it ruined his career and his health, and it deprived him of his peace of mind. This is one debt the world will never be able to repay.
(More about this incident below)
Article by Glen Pedersen
©2003, Bright Star Sound
Photo of Stanislav Petrov
©1999, The Washington Post
Reprinted with permission
Burrelles Information Services (Dateline NBC, Nov. 12, 2000)
Washington Post (Feb. 10, 1999)
BBC News (Oct. 21, 1998)
Daily Mail (Oct. 7, 1998)
In 1983 relations between the United States and the Soviet Union were severely strained. The timing probably could not have been worse for a mistaken nuclear attack warning. Had Stanislav Petrov declared the warning valid, as his computers indicated, the Soviet leadership likely would have taken his decision as fact. Consider what was happening in the weeks and months leading up to Sept. 25, 1983:
- The Soviet military shot down a Korean passenger jet Sept. 1, 1983 (only three weeks before this incident), killing all 269 people on board, including many Americans. Soon after, the KGB sent a flash message to its operatives in the West, warning them to prepare for possible nuclear war, according to CNN.
- The American leadership began referring to the Soviet Union as an evil empire.
- Throughout 1983 the Kremlin assumed the West was planning a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, according to experts quoted by the Federation of American Scientists.
- After President Reagans Star Wars speech March 23, 1983, the Soviets feared such a system would increase the likelihood the United States would launch a first attack since the United States would not fear retaliation, according to CNN.
- The Russians saw a U.S. government preparing for a first strike, headed by a President capable of ordering a first strike. Russian strategy is to fire its arsenal as soon as possible after receiving indications of an attack, according to Bruce Blair, an expert on Cold War nuclear strategies (Dateline NBC, Nov. 12, 2000).
- The United States and NATO were organizing a military exercise that centered on using tactical nuclear weapons in Europe. Soviet leaders were concerned this was a cover for an actual invasion. (IEEE Spectrum, March 2000)
- The National Security Archive in recent years has obtained from the U.S. government numerous declassified Cold War era documents, some of which reveal how dangerously close the world came to nuclear war in 1983. The document The Soviet “War Scare” can be viewed on the National Security Archive website. (The National Security Archive is a non-governmental, non-profit research and archival institution located on the campus of George Washington University in Washington, D.C. It is the largest repository of declassified U.S. documents outside of the federal government.)
Listen to the recording World Hero to hear more of what happened that day (free listen/download).
See Insight for significant events and insight related to Stanislav Petrov and World Hero.
See More. . . for accounts of this incident by the Washington Post, PBS, BBC and other sources.
See Photos for photographs of Stanislav Petrov.
Courtesy of NASA
Scientist and humanitarian Albert Einstein, when asked what weapons would be used in the Third World War: I dont know. But I can tell you what theyll use in the Fourth rocks.
Contact BRIGHT STAR SOUND via e-mail: | <urn:uuid:e4b41ed1-f9e9-41dd-87b3-c90da3b05925> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.brightstarsound.com/world_hero/article.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978765 | 1,712 | 2.8125 | 3 |
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Rats and Mice
Rats and mice are the two rodent species most widely used in research generally and in pain-related research specifically, so it is important that researchers and IACUCs recognize when these species are in pain. Rats and mice in acute pain may vocalize and become unusually aggressive when handled. Because rodents also vocalize at ultrasonic frequencies inaudible to humans, the absence of audible vocalization does not necessarily signify the absence of acute pain. Inappetence or a change in feeding activity can be noted; for example,they may eat bedding or their offspring. If they are housed with others, the normal group behavior or grooming might change. Rodents in pain may separate from the rest of the animals in the cage and attempt to hide, or they may no longer exhibit nest-building behavior. In rats, porphyrin secretion (“red tears”) may appear around the eyes and nose, although this is a general response to stress of any kind.
Normal guinea pigs stampede and squeal when startled, when attempts are made to handle them, or when strangers are in the room, but sick guinea pigs and those in pain usually remain quiet. However, since the initial response to the presence of an observer by a normal guinea pig is to remain immobile, assessing signs of pain can be extremely difficult. Guinea pigs in pain reduce their food and water consumption, or become anorexic.
Hamsters and Gerbils
There is virtually no information about signs of pain in hamsters and gerbils, although it is assumed that they, like rats and mice, will show decreased activity, hair “standing on end,” and an ungroomed appearance when in pain. As with other species they may adopt an abnormal posture, which may be particularly obvious when moving. Respiration may change. | <urn:uuid:e2fac3bb-d92d-4540-92ac-da16f5c8a9ac> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nas-sites.org/animal-pain/how-to-recognize-pain-in-animals/laboratory-rodents/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944356 | 383 | 3.453125 | 3 |
>> [most previous material sniped]
>As far as I know, error catastrophe occurs when the mutation rate gets
>above one harmful mutation per progeny - .5 harmful mutations per gamete
>per generation. Since Kimura (1983) estimated that amino-acid altering
>mutations are ten times more likely to be harmful than neutral, then the
>estimated rate of neutral mutation would be .05 per generation. That
>figure seems to be too small to explain every much. In ten millions
>years, using the example above, you get only about 25000 neutral
Much of the genome does not code for anything actually used by the cell
and, so far as we know, could vary freely (spacers, exons, pseudogenes,
etc.). Also, the estimate of harmful to neutral mutations of Kimura sounds
high relative to the results of mutational studies. A recent (this year)
Nature (sorry for the vague reference, but it's as much as I remember)
reviewed a paper that found most mutations had little effect on efficiency
of the studied proteins.
>> >> In particular, a minor change affecting courtship behavior could
>> >> be enough to isolate two subpopulations. Also, one mutation may easily
>> >> involve more than one nucleotide. Gene duplications (e.g., unequal
>> >> crossing over) and retroviruses can produce large changes in a single
>> >Aren't these events also exceedingly rare? Are they enough to solve the
>> These events are generally rare (although many plants can easily form
>> polyploid hybrids that act as genome duplication events, this is unusual in
>> animals), but the time spans involved are also quite long.
>Given the above example of ten million years, would it be long enough?
>For starters, how rare are these events anyway?
Another mailing list cited 2 million as the time since the most recent
incorporation of a recognized retrovirus into the human genome, but that
other mammals have much more recent ones. If this is representative, ten
million is enough. In animals, genome duplications seem to have been quite
rare, but gene duplication is not all that unusual. Several common genetic
diseases (e.g. Down's syndrome) represent duplication of sizable portions
to entire chromosomes; duplication on the scale of genes would rarely be
noticable unless it were looked for. | <urn:uuid:fe2b0b66-8d43-4f90-b819-79e16613d9bf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.asa3.org/archive/asa/199704/0091.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937153 | 509 | 2.78125 | 3 |
My 15 year old son is rather excited at the prospect of Adelaide’s first Krispy Kreme factory. This factory will be pumping out 5,000 donuts an hour.
Now a donut contains about 1000 kJ of energy. This is chemical energy, in the form of fat and sugars and carbohydrates. Our bodies are designed to run by “burning” this chemical energy. If we don’t need more energy when we consume the donut then some of the excess will be stored as fat.
Now energy comes in different forms, for example as electricity, mechanical, solar, thermal, or potential energy. It’s possible to convert between one form and another using a machine, for example a petrol motor converts chemical into kinetic energy. A solar panel converts the energy in the suns radiation to electricity.
Energy is measured in Joules (J), lots of energy in kilojoules (kJ), or megajoules (MJ). Power is the rate we use (or produce) energy. If I use 1 J/s in my LED torch, that is 1 Watt (W). My electric car uses 5 kW when I cruise along at 60 km/hr. So 5,000 J/s is moving from my batteries to the electric motor of the car.
The average human uses 8700 kJ per day. That means we need to injest roughly 8700 kJ of energy, and our body uses about the same amount of energy. This energy runs our body, and gives us some energy for moving about. There are 24(60)(60) seconds in a day. So the power consumption of the average human (energy/second) is 8,700,000J/(24(60)(60))=100W. About the same as a large incandescent light bulb.
So as we know the energy in a donut, and the rate at which the donuts are produced, we can measure the Power Output of the Krispy Creme factory. Then compare that to all sorts of other power producers and users in our lives.
Here are a few energy equivalents (spreadsheet):
A related analysis is Fuel Consumption of a Pedestrian Crossing. | <urn:uuid:bc30bb7c-091b-4421-9db2-c92213cea109> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rowetel.com/blog/?p=3411 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913695 | 455 | 2.84375 | 3 |
From 11 to 13 July 1995, the Bosnian Serb army shot more than 8,000 Muslim men and boys in and around the town of Srebrenica.
The Srebrenica massacre, the worst atrocity in Europe since the Nazi era, was carried out under the command of General Ratko Mladić during the Bosnian war.
The town of Srebrenica in north-eastern Bosnia had been declared a UN "safe zone". However, Serb forces managed to overrun the town, despite the efforts of UN forces, represented by Dutchbat, a 400-strong contingent of Dutch peacekeepers.
By 11 July, up to 25,000 Muslim Bosnian refugees were seeking refuge in a UN compound in Potočari, near Srebrenica. Serb forces allowed the women to travel on buses to Muslim-held territory, but held on to all of the men of military age as well as many boys.
On the nights of 12 and 13 July 1995, they were loaded onto buses or trucks and taken to isolated killing fields for execution. Their bodies were piled into mass graves, making identification of the victims a difficult and lengthy process. | <urn:uuid:c31a919a-3dea-43a5-aadd-4089de98d3c8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/srebrenica-massacre-anniversary-1995-genocide-carried-out-by-serb-forces-during-bosnian-war-1456177 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981463 | 241 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The summer rotation in the Robert Wood Johnson Jr. Gallery focuses on a selection of drawings and prints from southern Europe and Mexico and covers over 450 years of art in different media.
The earliest works on view are drawings by two great artists of the Italian Renaissance: Filippino Lippi (Italian, ca. 1457–1504) and Vittore Carpaccio (Italian, 1460/66?–1525/26). They were close contemporaries and represent the two major artistic centers of fifteenth-century Italy: Florence and Venice, respectively. Filippino Lippi, the illegitimate son of the great painter Fra Filippo Lippi (Italian, ca. 1406–1469), was a brilliant muralist and easel-painter active in Florence and Rome. Filippino's virtuosity as a draftsman is especially evident in his quick expressive sketches and meditated life studies in the difficult technique of metalpoint; many of his highly inventive compositions were also recorded by engravers of his time, as seen in the present selection. Carpaccio was a prolific draftsman, unlike most Venetian Renaissance artists of his generation, and used drawings for a variety of purposes. Some of his drawings in the Museum's collection can be firmly connected to extant paintings by him, and others served as models for consultation in the workshop.
The rotation also features several new acquisitions of the Department of Drawings and Prints. A rare, circular architectural print by the French Renaissance artist Hugues Sambin (French, ca. 1520–1601) forms the central focus of a selection of works on paper exploring the interest in Classical architecture in France during the sixteenth century. The monumental circular drawing of Venus at the Forge of Vulcanof the early eighteenth century is one of Sebastiano Conca's most accomplished extant works, and it is shown here with a group of exuberant compositional studies and figural drawings by Italian Baroque painters. On display nearby is the French nineteenth-century design for a mural by the artist Paul Chenavard (French, 1808–1895). This heretofore unidentified project represents the so-called Gigantomachy, or the battle of the Olympian Gods against the Giants, and is paired with other drawings and prints showing scenes of divine omnipotence.
A separate group of drawings and prints focuses on Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973). Picasso was a prolific printmaker who throughout his long career explored different printmaking techniques. His subjects embody a perpetual conversation, both between his own works and those of his predecessors and colleagues. In this selection from the Museum's collection, six works from his oeuvre are contrasted with prints and drawings by other artists. The comparisons highlight his connection to artistic traditions as well as his own very distinct contributions to art history.
In part contemporary to Picasso's work, a large section of the rotation is dedicated to twentieth-century Mexican prints. Emerging from the political climate of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), the spirited prints and posters address political themes inspired by the unstable climate of the first half of the twentieth century, whereas others celebrate Mexican traditions and culture such as José Guadalupe Posada's skeletons relating to the Day of the Dead. | <urn:uuid:546bd42f-54f1-4be1-b3aa-67bbdf0d87ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artslant.com/ny/events/show/347817-drawings-and-prints---selections-from-the-permanent-collection | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964486 | 667 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Orthomolecular medicine is a form of complementary and alternative medicine which aims to prevent and treat disease with substances which are natural to the body. Prescriptions typically focus on providing nutrients, either through dietary supplements or modified diets which provide proper nutrition and eliminate deleterious substances such as allergens, refined foods, sugar and transfats.
The term "orthomolecular" was first coined in a 1967 letter by Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling and later elaborated on in a 1968 paper on micronutrients and psychiatry to express the idea of "the right molecules in the right amounts" (ortho is Greek for right). In this paper, Pauling indicated that the right molecules are "substances that are normally present in the human body."
Orthomolecular medicine began with a particular focus upon mental illness, and orthomolecular psychiatry remains a major subdiscipline. Proponents state that orthomolecular treatments are based on patients' personal biochemistries and employ naturally-occurring or bioequivalent biomolecules, particularly nutrients such as vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, lipotropes, prohormones, dietary fiber, fatty acids and other similar substances, as well as various digestive factors.
Some megavitamin therapies can be classified as components of orthomolecular medicine. Orthomolecular practitioners often recommend levels beyond the Recommended Daily Allowance, especially in the prescription of vitamin C megadosage. Megavitamin therapies have become relatively popular, with a survey in 2002 finding that approximately one in twenty-five US adults use high doses of vitamins as a form of therapy, with this being particularly common in people diagnosed with cancer.
Nutrients may be useful in preventing and treating some illnesses, but the conclusions of medical research are that the broad claims of disease treatment by advocates of orthomolecular medicine are unsubstantiated by the available evidence. The American Medical Association stated in 1997 that "much of the dietary intervention stressed by alternative healers is prudent and reasonable", but described as a "myth" the idea that "most diseases are caused by faulty diets and can be prevented by nutritional interventions". Critics have described some aspects of orthomolecular medicine as food faddism or even quackery. Research on nutrient supplementation in general suggests that some nutritional supplements might be beneficial, and that others might be harmful.
History and development
As a discipline focused upon using nutrients to treat illness, orthomolecular medicine practitioners trace the origin of the field back to the discovery of vitamins in the early 20th century, although the word "orthomolecular" was coined by Linus Pauling in 1967. Thus orthomolecular practitioners lay claim to figures who preceded later controversies and labels, and perhaps would have rejected the controversial treatments which were later called orthomolecular medicine. Practitioners claim these figures were orthomolecular because of their emphasis on the role of nutrition in treating disease. In a paper on the history of orthomolecular medicine, Menolascino notes that there were several eras in the use of nutrition to treat disease. After the discovery of nutrients at the dawn of the 20th century, some doctors began to think that vitamins could cure many ailments, and nutrition was incorporated into the medical curriculum. Supplements became widely available. As spectacular results were not forthcoming, in the 1950s and 1960s medical science slowly became disillusioned with nutrition and cut it from the standard curriculum, just as orthomolecular medicine was being founded. Orthomolecular medicine highlights some figures from these early years as their founders.
In the 1930s Max Gerson (1881 - 1959) developed Gerson therapy, a specific diet which he claimed could treat many diseases. In 1933, Wilfred and Evan Shute began to use vitamin E in attempts to treat heart disease. Some of the concepts frequently utilized in orthomolecular medicine, such as individual biochemical variation, inborn error of metabolism, and exogeneous supply of essential substances in therapy debuted in scientific and medical papers early in the 20th century. Orthomolecular megavitamin therapies, such as with tocopherols and ascorbates, date back to the 1930s.
In 1948, William McCormick theorized that vitamin C deficiency played an important role in many diseases, and began to use large doses in patients. In the 1950s, American doctor Frederick Klenner also experimented with the use of vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses, most notably polio, and authored 28 research papers during his career. McCormick and Klenner influenced biochemist Irwin Stone, who extensively researched vitamin C and received the first patent for its commercial use. Stone found that all living beings have vitamin C. Further, nearly all vertebrates produce vitamin C, and produce much more when stressed. Some primates, including humans, do not produce vitamin C, and Stone claimed that this was due to a genetic defect which he called hypoascorbemia. Based on a rat's production of vitamin C, a 70 kg human would produce between 1.8 and 4 grams of vitamin C, and a stressed human up to 15.2 grams. This contrasts with the current Dietary Reference Intake, which maintains that 90 mg is adequate, and increases that to 120 mg if pregnant. Based on the levels of vitamin C in other vertebrates, Stone believed that ascorbate was not a trace vitamin but was required in humans in large daily amounts. He produced four papers between 1965 and 1967 to back up this assertion. In 1966 Stone met Linus Pauling and sparked Pauling's interest in vitamin C.
Concurrent with vitamin C developments, orthomolecular psychiatry began to be developed in the early 1950s by a group of biochemists and psychiatrists who believed that certain vitamin deficiencies were associated with mental illness. In particular, psychiatrists Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer began to treat a subset of schizophrenics ("acute") with high doses of niacin, continuing work done by William Kaufman, who used niacinamide. Incidental to this effort, Hoffer contributed to the discovery that niacin could treat dyslipidemia in 1954-5.
In 1967, Linus Pauling introduced the expression orthomolecular medicine to describe one aspect of medicine, and the term "orthomolecular therapy", as published in Science in 1968, to express the idea of the right molecules in the right amounts. Pauling subsequently defined "orthomolecular medicine" as "the treatment of disease by the provision of the optimum molecular environment, especially the optimum concentrations of substances normally present in the human body" or as "the preservation of good health and the treatment of disease by varying the concentrations in the human body of substances that are normally present in the body and are required for health."
Orthomolecular medicine has diversified since its beginnings in1968, but the term orthomolecular is still associated with Pauling's advocacy of vitamin C megadosage for optimal health. Partly for this reason, detractors of orthomolecular medicine have described the practice entirely in terms of megadose nutrient therapy. Barrie R. Cassileth, a widely quoted critic of Pauling's ideas, asserts: "In 1968, the Nobel-prize-winning scientist Linus Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to describe the treatment of disease with large quantities of nutrients." In this way, criticism of orthomolecular medicine has, to a large extent, been confused with much older medical traditions of high-dose vitamin therapies, such as earlier "megadose" usages of retinol and ergocalciferol or synthetic pharmaceutical analogues, such as menadione. Such definitions of orthomolecular therapy are not synonymous with Pauling's definition. Interest in vitamin C has been renewed, beginning with the discovery that intravenous vitamin C can achieve plasma concentrations up to 70-fold higher than oral vitamin C. A 2005 paper in the Proceedings for the National Academy of Sciences noted that vitamin C selectively killed cancer cells in vitro. This paper noted that, although the original observational studies of vitamin C were based on intravenous administration, the subsequent double-blind placebo-controlled studies used oral ascorbate. In 2007, the researchers demonstrated how vitamin C in vivo could possibly kill cancer cells. A recent historical study of the past ten years has found three patients whose tumors shrank after receiving intravenous vitamin C along with other alternative and conventional treatments. The authors of the study claimed that the case studies "only significant treatment" for these patients was vitamin C. However, this is far from conclusive, and studies are currently planned at the McGill University.
In 2008 researchers gave vitamin C intravenously to mice with human derived cancers and observed slower tumor growth and may less metastasis. The authors suggested that the ascorbate was acting as a pro-oxidant and generating hydrogen peroxide in tumors. By injecting into the bloodstream it is possible to get much larger amounts of the vitamin to a tumor than is possible with oral supplements. However, other researchers studying the effects of vitamin C in cancers in mice saw no effect on tumor growth, and found that vitamin C interfered with many standard anti-cancer drugs. The Cancer Treatment Centers of America (CTCA) in Zion, Illinois, is currently (2008) testing the safety of intravenous vitamin C in late-stage cancer patients for whom there is no other treatment option.
Research since the 1960s has branched out further into nutrients besides niacin and vitamin C. David Horrobin did important work with essential fatty acids, which have played an increasingly important part in orthomolecular medicine. Patrick Kidd calls the omega-3 fatty acids docosahexanoic acid (DHA) and eicosapantenoic acid (EPA) truly "orthomolecular" in a 2007 review of their benefits.
Although orthomolecular medicine is based on the idea that nutritional imbalances should be corrected before illness occurs, and consequently is not easily integrated into any single branch of medicine, its claims are particularly associated with psychiatry, in the field of orthomolecular psychiatry, and oncology, where Linus Pauling reported that Vitamin C could slow the progression of, and even reverse, cancer. As time went on Pauling came to believe that there was a deliberate and concerted effort to denigrate, distort and dissemble his efforts. Ewan Cameron the Scottish oncologist, who collaborated with Pauling, reluctantly came to agree as he believed to perceive mounting evidence to support Pauling's allegations of bad faith.
Proponents of orthomolecular medicine claim that scientists associated with orthomolecular medicine had identified specific biochemical anomalies that account for many cases of bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and some similar manifestations, such as, in one case, an previously undescribed copper toxicity disorder.
Based on investigational scientific studies, single-blind and double-blind randomized controlled trials, clinical experience, and case histories, claims have been made that therapeutic nutrition can prevent treat, and sometimes cure acne, bee stings, burns, cancer, the common cold, drug addiction, drug overdose, heart diseases, acute hepatitis, herpes, influenza, mononucleosis, mushroom poisoning, neuropathy & polyneuritis (including multiple sclerosis), osteoporosis, polio, alcoholism, allergies, arthritis, autism, epilepsy, hypertension, hypoglycemia, migraine, clinical depression, learning disabilities, retardation, mental and metabolic disorders, skin problems, and hyperactivity," Raynaud's disease, heavy metal toxicity, radiation sickness, * Pyroluria, schizophrenia, shock, snakebite, spider bite, tetanus toxin and viral pneumonia.
Most orthomolecular practitioners do not claim to be able to treat all diseases. As Abram Hoffer wrote in 1989: "Nor is orthomolecular treatment a replacement for standard treatment. A proportion of patients will require orthodox treatment, a proportion will do much better on orthomolecular treatment, and the rest will need a skillful blend of both." For example, Hoffer admits that in his experience, acute and not chronic schizophrenia responds to niacin.
Orthomolecular medicine is predicated on the premise that it is preferable to recognize and correct any possible anomalies in metabolism at an early stage, before they cause disease. Orthomolecular medicine posits that many typical diets are insufficient for long term health; thus, orthomolecular medical diagnoses and treatment often focus on the use of nutrients such as vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids, ω-6 fatty acids, medium chain triglycerides, dietary fiber, and short and long chain fatty acids, although a wide range of other substances are used, such as lipotropes, systemic and digestive enzymes, other digestive factors, and prohormones. Abram Hoffer wrote a foreword to one edition of Weston Price's 1930 description of his travels and observations of the health and diet among "primitive" peoples who did not consume processed foods, and were spared the ravages of "degenerative" diseases.
Orthomolecular nutrition and therapy attempts to provide optimal amounts of micronutrients. This is done after a diagnoses of the individual, which may involve a blood test, and a detailed personal history. Based on any deficiencies evident in the blood, an understanding of the patient's diet for the last six months or more, and the practitioners understanding of the symptoms exhibited, a prescription of nutrients, including megadoses of certain of them, will be given. Lifestyle changes, and diet changes, if these are indicated, will also be recommended. Modern orthomolecular practitioners also use a wide range of laboratory analyses, including those for amino acids, organic acids, vitamins and minerals, functional vitamin status, hormones, immunology, microbiology, digestive and gastrointestinal function. However, many of these tests are not employed by mainstream medicine for common diagnostic use.
In the early years of orthomolecular medicine, supplementation usually meant high-dose, single-agent nutrient therapy. Today, orthomolecular practitioners use many substances: amino acids, enzymes, hormones, digestive factors, vitamins, minerals, or derivate substances in an effort to supply what they see as optimum dosages of these substances.
Frequently supplementation with relatively large doses of vitamins is given, and the name megavitamin therapy is popularly associated with the area. Megavitamin therapy is the administration of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). The nominal ratio of dose to RDA to qualify for the term 'megavitamin therapy' has been a matter of minor semantic debate.
Administration of short-chain fatty acids in orthomolecular practice is usually done by increasing the level of dietary fiber. The fatty acids are produced by fermentation of the fiber in the colon, then absorbed into the body. Attempts are also made to aid this process by a combination of prebiotics and mucopolysaccharides. Long chain fatty acids, such as the omega-3 fatty acids alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), may also be given directly, in food or in capsules.
Orthomolecular medicine is practiced by few conventional medical practitioners. Orthomolecular treatments are instead more common in complementary and alternative medicine fields, increasingly being integrated into over the counter retail products, naturopathic medical textbooks and mainstream pharmaceuticals.
A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2002. The survey reported uses in the previous twelve months that include orthomolecular related uses: Nonvitamin, nonmineral, natural products 18.9%, Diet-based therapies 3.5%, Megavitamin therapy 2.8%. The survey did not include other popular related categories such as juicing, supplemental antioxidants, essential fatty acids, amino acids, enzymes and others.
Another recent CAM survey reported that 12% of liver disease patients used the antioxidant silymarin, more than 6% used megavitamins among others, and that "in all, 74% of patients reported using CAM in addition to the medications prescribed by their physician, but 26% did not inform their physician of their CAM use." The use of high doses of vitamins is also common in people who have been diagnosed with cancer, although usage depends of the type of cancer and ranges from 26% to 35% among prostate cancer survivors up to 75% to 87% in breast cancer survivors.
Orthomolecular medicine advocates claim that the methods of orthomolecular medicine overlap with those of both natural medicine and mainstream medicine. The International Society for Orthomolecular Medicine has conventionally-trained doctors among its members and authors, and the notable founders of orthomolecular medicine have all had professional degrees. The leading orthomolecular medicine website, Orthomolecular Medicine Online, run by the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, discusses differences between orthomolecular medicine and mainstream medicine,
On the other hand, the conventional view among mainstream medical physicians is that most orthomolecular therapies are insufficiently proven for clinical use, that the scientific foundations are weak, and that the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to disputed interpretation. The lack of serious testing of orthomolecular medicine has led to its practices being classed with other less plausible forms of alternative medicine and regarded as unscientific. This form of alternative medicine has therefore been described as food faddism and even quackery, with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease". However, orthomolecular medicine is distinct from many other forms of alternative medicine, such as homeopathy, since its ideas are biologically-based and consistent with scientific laws, it does not involve magical thinking, and it can generate testable hypotheses.
Amongst the differences, mainstream medicine attaches great importance to evidence-based medicine, particularly to rigorous double-blind randomized controlled trials that test if a treatment is genuinely effective and exclude the placebo effect. Orthomolecular medicine proponents, on the other hand, believe that such studies overemphasize uniformity, under-emphasize variability between patients, and reduce choice and health freedom.
Mainstream medicine also avoids the use of new treatments whose effects are unknown, instead favoring 'clinically proven' drugs tested using mainstream medical standards. Even with this standard of caution, it has been estimated that up to 20% of drugs may subsequently have unrecognized, serious adverse reactions, requiring the later addition of the "black box warning", or withdrawal from market.
The skepticism about orthomolecular medicine comes in part because some of its proponents make claims more broad than those supported by scientific research, particularly claims that may contradict the results of clinical trials, and rely instead on less reliable observational studies, clinical and anecdotal experience, single blinded controlled tests, and case histories. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that, despite the extensive testing of pharmaceuticals, some medications are withdrawn after approval, due to serious adverse events, and the FDA regulatory methodology and relationship with the pharmaceutical industry has been criticized.
Views on safety and efficacy
Many mainstream medical institutions dismiss orthomolecular medicine entirely. The American Medical Association describes as "myths" the ideas that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are widespread, that the causes of most diseases are poor diets, or that most diseases can be prevented by nutritional supplements. Similarly, the American Cancer Society comments that the current scientific evidence does not "support use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the conditions for which it is promoted". They stated some supplements have exhibited benefits for certain conditions, while a few have been confirmed to be harmful, and that the consumption of nutritious foods is the best recognized method to obtain vitamins, minerals, and nutrients crucial for good health. In another example, an adviser on alternative medicine to the National Institutes of Health, stated that "Scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for any disease" and a recent medical textbook also states that there is "no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease."
Proponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that vitamins and nutrients are now used in conventional medicine as treatments for disease, such as megadose niacin and fish oil for dyslipidemias, 6000-25,000 iu vitamin E per day for the lipid disorder, abetalipoproteinemia, and megavitamin therapies for over a dozen amino acid metabolism disorders. Current medical research on alternative medicine attempts to assess the evidence either for or against the variety of nutritional therapies currently offered, with a recent review in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluding that while some might be beneficial, others might be harmful or interfere with conventional therapy.
Dietary supplements, such as those used in orthomolecular medicine, are less regulated than pharmaceuticals in the United States. Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis in JAMA suggested that supplementation with combinations of beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E may increase mortality, although with respect to beta-carotene this conclusion may be due to the known harmful effect in smokers. An essential regulatory difference is that pharmaceuticals must be proven safe and effective to the satisfaction of the FDA before they can be marketed, whereas supplements must be proven unsafe before regulatory action can be taken. A number of orthomolecular US supplements are available in pharmaceutical versions that are sometimes quite similar in strength and general content, or in other countries are pharmaceuticals. The US regulations also have provisions to recognize a general level of safety for established nutrients that can forgo new drug safety tests. Proponents of nutritional supplement use have argued that the lower level of regulation results in cost savings for American consumers, pointing to higher supplement prices in Europe, where some supplements are more tightly regulated or even unavailable.
Relation to mainstream medicine
Aspects of orthomolecular therapy remain controversial among mainstream medical organizations and physicians, who consider many aspects to be lacking sufficient RCT-based evidence. In contrast, orthomolecular proponents argue that many mainstream nutritional studies, both recent and historical, provide investigational and clinical support for their treatments and recommendations. They also argue that orthomolecular therapies are intrinsically less likely to cause dangerous side-effects or harm, since they utilize only chemicals that are normally present in the body. Supporters claim that some aspects of orthomolecular medicine, and in particular the optimal nutrition subset, have support in mainstream scientific research in a variety of areas that do not claim to support orthomolecular doctrine, and in at least some cases, explicitly reject claims of orthomolecular proponents that nutritional supplements are desirable.
Orthomolecular proponents, such as Robert Cathcart, who predicts that 120+ grams per day intravenous vitamin C should cure severe acute respiratory syndrome and has used up to 250 grams IV vitamin C per day, have been criticized for not having any conventional medical trials of such intravenous vitamin C treatments.
The orthomolecular field remains controversial among mainstream medical organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, the American Academy of Pediatrics, CHAMPUS, and the Canadian Paediatric Society. A number of individuals and organizations contest the claims, benefits, degree of evidence and toxicity. Based on testing with dosages well below orthomolecular recommendations, Linus Pauling has been criticized for making overbroad claims for the efficacy of vitamin C but Paulings' claims have received some support from tests closer to the orthomolecular recommendations during the last few years.
The relationship of mainstream medicine to orthomolecular proponents has often been adversarial; orthomolecular proponents, including Dr. Richard Kunin, argue that mainstream medical claimants confuse orthomolecular medicine with other, less science based modalities. The American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a "cult" in 1976, in response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders.
Conventional health professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutrients without conventional supervision, which they worry might be damaging to health. Rare risks of non-orthomolecular "mega" dosages of vitamin relatives, which frequently involved pharmaceutical analogues such as synthetic menadione, unsupervised misuse, deliberate abuse and earlier medical treatments, may include increased risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, thrombophlebitis, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, neurological effects, liver toxicity, congenital abnormalities, spontaneous abortion, gouty arthritis, jaundice, kidney stones, and diarrhea. Megavitamin proponents point to an almost zero level of deaths caused by vitamins, even with large overdoses, compared to the significant numbers from pharmaceuticals, including a number of over-the-counter items.
Use of vitamin E in orthomolecular medicine
Vitamin E contains eight related chemicals, which are classed as either tocopherols or tocotrienols. These chemicals also exist as several stereoisomers. In supplements these are usually present in stabilized ester forms, which are converted into the active form in the intestines. Research has focussed on alpha-tocopherol, since this is the form preferentially taken up by the body and the most abundant form in tissues. Alpha-tocopherol is also regarded in orthomolecular medicine as the form with greatest nutritional significance. In supplements this is either a mixture of stereoisomers (all-rac-alpha-tocopherol), or the biological stereoisomer RRR-alpha-tocopherol.
Initial hopes for the usefulness of vitamin E in orthomolecular medicine were based on epidemiological studies. These suggested that people who consumed more vitamin E had lower risks of chronic disease, such as coronary heart disease, and led to the idea that vitamin E supplementation could be beneficial. However, these observational studies could not distinguish between whether the higher levels of vitamin E improved health themselves, or whether confounding variables were responsible - such as whether or not such people ate a more healthy diet or took more exercise. To distinguish between these possibilities, many randomized controlled trials were performed. Meta-analysis of these controlled clinical trials have not shown any clear benefit from any form of alpha-tocopherol supplementation for preventing chronic disease.
A meta-analysis published in 2005 found that more than 400 units alpha tocopherol per day was associated with an increase in all-cause mortality. Furthermore, a significant relationship was seen between dose and all-cause mortality, with the risk of death increasing in line with the dose. This meta-analysis was criticized on a number of grounds, including that this increase in mortality could have been caused by alpha-tocopherol and beta carotene increasing the risk of lung cancer in heavy smokers. A similar increase in mortality was seen in a 2007 meta-analysis Here, no health risk was seen when all the randomized controlled studies were examined together, but an increase in mortality was detected when the high-quality and low-bias risk trials were examined separately. However, as the majority of these low-bias trials dealt with either elderly people, or people already suffering disease, these results may not apply to the general population. This meta-analysis was later repeated and extended by the same authors, with the new analysis published by the Cochrane Collaboration; this also concluded that some vitamin E supplements could be harmful.
Orthomolecular recommendations for vitamin E supplementation typically are based on a mixture of tocopheols and tocotrienols. Forms of "vitamin E", which contain mixed R,R,R tocopherols and are also recommended by some orthomolecular practitioners. These other forms of vitamin E have not been examined in as much detail as alpha-tocopherol and may have effects on health that are not produced by the alpha-tocopherol form alone.
Time and therapeutic priority
Conventional physicians express concern that megavitamin and orthomolecular therapies used solely as alternative treatments by other practitioners, if not successful, may create dangerous delays in obtaining conventional treatments, such as radiation and chemotherapy for cancer. For example, in a highly publicized Canadian controversy, the chemotherapy of a 13-year-old cancer patient, Tyrell Dueck, encountered a delay from legal actions, due to his parents' religious beliefs and interest in alternative treatments such as diet, herbs and vitamins. Orthomolecular medical practitioners and orthomolecular oriented naturopaths have long expressed similar concerns about conventional medicine, particularly with gut related and chronic diseases as well as viral diseases. It is usually possible, however, to combine orthomolecular and conventional treatments.
Use in AIDS
Several orthomolecular related AIDS approaches such as multivitamins, selenium and amino acids are used with reported improvements in patients. High dose vitamin C treatments have long been used clinically by some orthomolecular practitioners to treat AIDS patients. However, in these situations, medical criticism arises when orthomolecular approaches are advocated as substitutes for, rather than complements to, current medical treatments such as antiretroviral drugs.
An analysis of fifteen clinical trials of micronutrient therapies by the Cochrane Collaboration in 2005 found no conclusive evidence that such micronutrient approaches either reduce symptoms or mortality in HIV-infected adults who are not malnourished, but found evidence that giving vitamin A to infants with HIV is beneficial. The protective effect of vitamin A in children was also seen in a further trial, and it has been hypothesized that this effect might be due to vitamin A modulating the gut immune system. Interestingly, no protection from vitamin A against infection was seen in healthy children.
Economic interests and politics
Some orthomolecular proponents claim that their findings are actively suppressed by mainstream medicine and the pharmaceutical industry. Abram Hoffer wrote that "there is no conspiracy led and directed by a single person or by a single organization ... [h]owever, there is a conspiracy led and directed by a large number of professionals and their associations who have a common aim to protect their hard-earned orthodoxy, no matter what the cost to their opponent colleagues or to their patients". Mainstream medicine regards such claims of a conspiracy as unsubstantiated, with a review in Journal of Clinical Oncology stating that the idea there is a conspiracy amongst physicians against unconventional and unproven treatments is a common theme in forms of alternative medicine such as megavitamin therapy.
The actions of Matthias Rath in South Africa have come under particular scrutiny. Rath worked with Linus Pauling and served as Director of Cardiovascular Research at the Linus Pauling Institute until 1992. He has published several papers on orthomolecular medicine, most notably a review co-authored with Pauling, with Abram Hoffer listing Rath as a notable contributor to the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. However, the relationship between Rath and Pauling later broke down over a lawsuit on intellectual property rights. Rath now promotes vitamins as a treatment for HIV infection, describing treatment with antiretroviral drugs as part of a global conspiracy serving the financial interests of the pharmaceutical industry. In a lawsuit that found against Rath, the South African Medical Association blamed his vitamin products for several deaths, the World Health Organization and two health agencies of the United Nations also described Rath's advertisements as "wrong and misleading" and "an irresponsible attack on ARV (antiretroviral) therapy."
The Linus Pauling Institute's funding comes mostly from National Institutes of Health. Several orthomolecular therapies have been officially sanctioned within Europe and Japan.
Notable supporters of orthomolecular medicine
Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine
The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, founded in 1967 as the Journal of Schizophrenia, is the main publication of those involved in Orthomolecular Medicine. Abram Hoffer has written that "We had to create our own journals because it was impossible to obtain entry into the official journals of psychiatry and medicine. Before 1967 I had not found it difficult to publish reports in these journals, and by then I had about 150 articles and several books in the establishment press."
See also
- Alternative medicine
- Health freedom movement
- Life extension
- List of life extension related topics
- Megavitamin therapy
- Nutritional genomics
- Orthomolecular psychiatry
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- ^ Helzlsouer KJ, Huang HY, Alberg AJ, Hoffman S, Burke A, Norkus EP, Morris JS, Comstock GW. (2000). "Association between alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, selenium, and subsequent prostate cancer.". J Natl Cancer Inst. 92 (24): 2018–23. PMID 11121464. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11121464.
- ^ MA Somerville (2004) The Ethical Canary: Science, Society and the Human Spirit, pp 175-179, McGill-Queen's University Press; 1 ed, ISBN 0773527842
- ^ Sask. court rules boy with cancer can't pick treatment CBC, Friday, November 10, 2000, Accessed 07 April 2008
- ^ Hoffer A, "The Politics of Medical Research" J Orthomol Med, vol 8, no 1, 1993
- ^ Klenner, FR. Observations On the Dose and Administration of Ascorbic Acid When Employed Beyond the Range Of A Vitamin. Human Pathology Journal of Applied Nutrition Vol. 23, No's 3 & 4, Winter 1971.
- ^ Klenner FR. Virus Pneumonia and Its Treatment With Vitamin C. Southern Med Surg, v110, no 2, p36, 1948.
- ^ Klenner FR. The Treatment of Poliomyelitis and Other Virus Diseases with Vitamin C, Southern Med Surg, v111, no 7, p209, 1949.
- ^ Klenner FR. The Use of Vitamin C as an Antibiotic. J Appl Nutr, vol 6, p274, 1953
- ^ Abrams B, Duncan D, Hertz-Picciotto I (August 1993). "A prospective study of dietary intake and acquired immune deficiency syndrome in HIV-seropositive homosexual men". J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6 (8): 949–58. PMID 8100273.
- ^ Patrick L (December 1999). "Nutrients and HIV: part one -- beta carotene and selenium" (PDF). Altern Med Rev 4 (6): 403–13. PMID 10608913. http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/4/6/403.pdf. Retrieved on 25 August 2008.
- ^ Lichtenstein BS (1995). "Nutrition and HIV". STEP Perspect 7 (1): 2–5. PMID 11362399.
- ^ RF Cathcart, Vitamin C in the Treatment of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Medical Hypotheses 14:423-433, 1984
- ^ Priestly JC. Highly Beneficial Results in the Treatment of AIDS, J Orthomolecular Med, 1991, Vol. 6, No.3 & 4, p174
- ^ a b Sarah Boseley Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa The Guardian May 14 2005
*Smith TC, Novella SP (August 2007). "HIV denial in the Internet era". PLoS Med. 4 (8): e256. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256. PMID 17713982. PMC: 1949841. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1949841.
*Apartheid a pharmaceutical plot - Rath Independent Online May 10 2007
- ^ Irlam JH, Visser ME, Rollins N, Siegfried N (2005). "Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003650. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003650.pub2. PMID 16235333.
- ^ Semba RD, Ndugwa C, Perry RT, et al (January 2005). "Effect of periodic vitamin A supplementation on mortality and morbidity of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in Uganda: A controlled clinical trial". Nutrition 21 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2004.10.004. PMID 15661475.
- ^ Mora JR, Iwata M, von Andrian UH (September 2008). "Vitamin effects on the immune system: vitamins A and D take centre stage". Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8: 685-698. doi:10.1038/nri2378. PMID 18690246.
- ^ Grotto I, Mimouni M, Gdalevich M, Mimouni D (March 2003). "Vitamin A supplementation and childhood morbidity from diarrhea and respiratory infections: a meta-analysis". J. Pediatr. 142 (3): 297–304. doi:10.1067/mpd.2003.116. PMID 12640379. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022347602403666.
- ^ Hoffer A. (1987) Is There a Conspiracy? Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine Volume 2 - 3rd Quarter p158
- ^ Razzouk, N.; Seitz, V. (2003), "Marketing to the Heart: a Practical Approach to Dealing with Health Care Quackery", Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs 20 (4): 469–478, doi:10.1081/CRP-120026128, http://www.informaworld.com/index/713622947.pdf
- ^ Weitzman S (1998). "Alternative nutritional cancer therapies". Int. J. Cancer Suppl. 11: 69–72. PMID 9876483.
- ^ Gertz MA, Bauer BA (May 2003). "Caring (really) for patients who use alternative therapies for cancer". J. Clin. Oncol. 21 (9 Suppl): 125s–128s. doi:10.1200/JCO.2003.01.195. PMID 12743218.
- ^ Linus Pauling and Matthias Rath An Orthomolecular Theory of Human Health and Disease Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine Volume 6, p135
- ^ Abram Hoffer The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine: history The Journal of Orthomolecular medicine, Accessed 25 August 2008
- ^ A. Hoffer Linus Pauling 1901 - 1994 Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine Vol. 9, No.3, 1994
- ^ Watson J (January 2006). "Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists'". Nat. Med. 12 (1): 6. doi:10.1038/nm0106-6a. PMID 16397537.
- ^ TAC hails ruling on Rath Independent Online June 13 2008
- ^ John Reed HIV Fight Focuses on Ads Los Angeles Times July 25, 2005
- ^ Frei, Balz, LPI Research Newsletter - Spring 2006, Linus Pauling Institute, June ,2006. available online
- ^ OMACOR deal signed with new Euro partners, HYDRO, 11 Dec 2001
- ^ fibrinolytic activity of nattokinase, Miyazaki Medical College, Japan
- ^ Coenzyme Q10, prescribed for CHF in Japan since 1974, AAFP
- ^ Kaitin, KI, Brown, J. 1995. A Drug Lag Update. Drug Information Journal 29:361–73
- ^ Hoffer, Abram, History, Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. available online
Further reading
- Williams Roger J, Kalita Dwight K (1979). Physician's Handbook on Orthomolecular Medicine. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0-87983-199-5.
- Huemer Richard P (ed) (1986). The Roots of Molecular Medicine: A Tribute to Linus Pauling. W. H. Freeman. pp. 290pp. ISBN 0-7167-1761-1.
- Pauling Linus (1986). How to Live Longer and Feel Better. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-380-70289-4.
- Hoffer Abram (1998). Putting It All Together: The New Orthomolecular Nutrition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-87983-633-4.
- Werbach Melvyn R, Moss Jeffrey (1999). Textbook of Nutritional Medicine. Third Line Press. ISBN 0-9618550-9-6.
- Hoffer Abram, with Pauling Linus (2004). Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. CCNM Press. ISBN 1-897025-11-4.
- Moss David (2000). Antioxidants Against Cancer. Equinox Press. ISBN 1-88102528-4.
- Alexander J (2001). Laboratory evaluations in molecular medicine (First ed.). Norcross, Georgia: Institute for Advances in Molecular Medicine. ISBN 0-96739491-0. (self-published)
- Pizzorno Joseph E Jr, Murray Michael T (November 2005). Textbook of Natural Medicine (Third ed ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 2368. ISBN 0-443-07300-7.
- Barrett Stephen (1980). The Health Robbers (Second ed ed.). Stickley. pp. 52.
- Cassileth Barrie R (1998). Alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04566-8.
- Bender David A (2003). Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins (Second ed ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 230. ISBN 0521803888.
- Gratzer Walter (2005). Terrors of the table. Oxford University Press. pp. 210. ISBN 0192806610.
External links
- Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine
- Orthomolecular Medicine Online
- Official website for the International Society of Orthomolecular Medicine
- Linus Pauling Institute website
- Orthomolecular Vitamin Information Centre
- DoctorYourself.com - Personal site of Andrew Saul PhD, Contributing Editor for the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine.
- Index orthomolecular research pages, Orthomolecular Education Foundation SOE (Netherlands)
- Biologically Based Practices: An Overview, National Institute of Health National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
- Food, Health and Well-Being in British Columbia. BC Provincial Health Officer's Annual Report 2005.
- Should We "Thank God" for Julian Whitaker?, American Council on Science and Health, 1999
- Recommendations of the NCAHF Task Force on Supplement Abuse (1987)
AHANAOA A. C.
Lic. Nut. Miguel Leopoldo Alvarado | <urn:uuid:8623886a-4d84-4fcd-ab21-2f492e2560ad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.orthomolecular.biz/2008/12/orthomolecular-medicine-orthomolecular.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.83162 | 16,255 | 3.453125 | 3 |
The Office of Naval Research (ONR) announced this week that it has developed a new material for warhead casings that will increase the lethal effect and likelihood of a hit on an enemy target.
This material — high-density reactive material (HDRM) — would, according to an ONR press release (via Science Daily), replace steel without compromising strength or design. HDRM integrates explosives with the warhead casing and allows for chemical release after impact, increasing its lethal effect.
“Recent testing and demonstrations have consistently shown that the new casings can be integrated into naval missiles and are durable enough to withstand both high acceleration of missile launch and the forces exposed to during the detonation event,” said Dr. Clifford Bedford, ONR’s energy conversion program officer, in the press release announcement August 10. “The HDRM fragments can penetrate a target’s skin, followed by a rapid and sustained combustion/explosion.”
The press release states that HDRM has the strength of aluminum alloys but the density of steel, which is important for existing weapons to maintain accuracy of a hit. | <urn:uuid:b8a58edb-ab5a-403c-8708-31d1f8279b86> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.businessinsider.com/navy-announces-new-material-to-make-warheads-even-deadlier-2011-8 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927432 | 231 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Born October 18, 1841 in Bath, New York, William Rumsey was the son of Judge David Rumsey, a distinguished lawyer and jurist. He graduated from Williams College, even though he left in his senior year to enter the Army. In 1865 he was discharged from the Army, having attained the rank of Colonel. Rumsey began to study law in 1868 and was admitted to the Bar two years later.
In 1880, Justice Rumsey was appointed in his father's place to the Supreme Court bench in the 7th District. He was elected to that bench in 1890. Governor Levi P. Morton then appointed him associate justice of the Appellate Division Fourth Department in 1893. In 1895, however, Governor Morton needed to fill a vacancy on the Appellate Division First Department bench due to the ill health of the original designee. Acting on knowlegde that the Appellate Division is one court divided into four departments its Justices can be transferred from one Department to another, he then designated Justice Rumsey to a five-year term in the First Department.
In March of 1901, then-Governor Odell appointed Justice Rumsey to the Fourth Department for a five-year term after serving at the First Department for 5 years. Six months later, though, he resigned his seat on the Supreme Court bench to go into private practice with his son-in-law John S. Sheppard.
Justice Rumsey was appointed by Governor Hill as a member of the committee to revise the Code of Evidence for New York, which still to this day (July 2009) has not been codified. At the same time, Rumsey co-authored the book "Rumsey's Practice" with his son-in-law.
Justice Rumsey was married to Ella Moore Rumsey and had a son David and two daughters, Blanche Rumsey Evans and Mrs. John S. Sheppard. He passed away in 1903 at the age of 62.
The Brown Book, A Biographical Record of Public Officials of the City of New York for 1898-9, Martin B. Brown Company, New York, 1899. | <urn:uuid:072282a5-849b-4ba2-b3c4-f5ba38881ea0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.courts.state.ny.us/history/legal-history-new-york/luminaries-appellate/rumsey-william.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982711 | 434 | 2.609375 | 3 |
ADvent Calendar Day 21
The juxtaposition of ‘harmless’ and ‘arsenic’ is quite amusing, but the manufacturer’s assertions about the product’s safety were more believable than they might now appear. In the 1890s, the fashion for arsenic as a cosmetic led vendors to cash in on the poison’s reputation for creating a pale, wrinkle-free complexion. While people did use arsenic for this purpose (sometimes with disastrous results) the quantity in commercial pills like these was minuscule.
During the 1890s several British retail chemists were summoned to court for selling arsenic beauty soaps – but not because they were putting the public in danger. Find out the real reason in The Quack Doctor: Historical Remedies For All Your Ills. There’s still time to order it (the book, that is, not the arsenic soap) as a Christmas gift! | <urn:uuid:a7ed8c9d-6e54-42ab-a8a8-c05a1634570e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thequackdoctor.com/index.php/to-whiten-hands-and-skin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967091 | 190 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Welcome to the companion Web site to "Garden of Eden,"
originally broadcast on November 28, 2000.
The film takes a look at the extraordinary natural history
of the Seychelles, an ancient archipelago of about 100 islands scattered
between India and Madagascar. Here's what you'll find online:
Plus Resources and a Teacher's Guide.
- Seychelles Through Time
Two hundred million years ago the Seychelles lay at the heart of the supercontinent Gondwana. Today the archipelago lies all alone 1,000 miles out in the Indian Ocean. How did this happen? Find out through this eye-catching animation depicting the breakup of Gondwana.
- Saving the Magpie Robin
How do you go about conserving a species that has dwindled to just 16 individuals, as the Seychelles magpie robin did in 1970? Nirmal Jirvan Shah, head of BirdLife Seychelles, describes how his team coaxed this unassuming little bird back from the brink.
- Why Do Islands Breed Giants?
The Seychelles boasts a giant tortoise and a frog the size of an ant. What causes gigantism and dwarfism among many species arriving on oceanic islands such as the Seychelles? Island biogeographers are only beginning to suggest answers.
- Build an Island (Hot Science)
In 1842 Charles Darwin published his theory regarding how a type of island
known as a coral atoll forms. This step-by-step demonstration outlines
Darwin's theory, which geologists today widely accept.
Text Garden of Eden Home |
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visit the redesigned | <urn:uuid:14666fdd-c727-409e-8cdf-1ad3929dd887> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/eden/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.863955 | 460 | 3.515625 | 4 |
No-Sweat Science®: Space & Flight Experimentsby Louis V. Loeschnig, Jack Gallagher
Future astronauts, pilots, would-be space scientists, and explorers will find plenty of activities here to feed their dreams. Every page gives kids a new chance to experiment, question, and think. They’ll learn about the basic laws of flight, and also about gravity and centripetal/centrifugal force. In addition, youngsters can get busy designing an airplane wing; constructing a simple helicopter-like toy; and making a variety of planes and gliders to see how they really work. Aerodynamics, astronomy, engineering, math, and art: this book has it all!
and post it to your social network
Most Helpful Customer Reviews
See all customer reviews > | <urn:uuid:d68a24f2-d16e-4349-975c-3eccc97c887b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/no-sweat-science-louis-v-loeschnig/1117926785?ean=9781402723346 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889861 | 164 | 3.15625 | 3 |
In addition to memorizing scripture it is also fruitful to memorize prayers, especially ancient prayers that have played a significant role in the church. The prayer of St. Ephrem is such a prayer. Likely composed in St. Ephrem’s name around 373, the prayer of St. Ephrem is a penitential prayer and is used as a the essential prayer of Lent by the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is a beautiful prayer that in a few sentences helps name the sins that so many of us wrestle with day in and day out. Memorize this prayer and call it to mind to re-collect yourself in the way of Christ.
Prayer of Saint Ephrem
O Lord and Master of my life, give me not the spirit of sloth, despair, lust for power and idle talk.
But grant unto me, Thy servant, a spirit of chastity (integrity), humility, patience and love.
Yea, O Lord and King, grant me to see mine own faults and not to judge my brother. For blessed art Thou unto the ages of ages. Amen. | <urn:uuid:93d53d55-40d1-42c7-87ad-814d8bd73c4e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.patheos.com/blogs/soulwod/2012/09/memorize-monday-prayer-of-saint-ephrem-the-syrian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938209 | 228 | 2.53125 | 3 |
An exhibit at the Corinth Civil War Interpretive
Center displays the work of a soldier building a fortification. Extensive
fortifications were constructed around
in 1862, first by the
and later by
troops. The offensive entrenchments employed by
under Major General W. Henry Halleck marked one of the first times these techniques were used on such a grand scale. | <urn:uuid:549a6318-91fb-4cf6-8282-d8364044d971> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-pickshovelcivilwar.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938791 | 78 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Vacuum Your Fish Pond or Aquarium
A gravel vacuum/cleaner/siphon is used to remove loose debris from the bottom of the gravel bed without destroying the good bacteria that grows there. It is also used to siphon water out of the aquarium during routine water changes.
A vacuum does not remove the gravel from your aquarium. In fact, removing the gravel from your aquarium will destroy any good bacteria that has been established in the gravel bed.
A gravel vacuum should be used to remove fish waste and debris on a regular basis. It depends on the number of fish in the tank, but you should vacuum your gravel at least once every two weeks.
Vacuuming your gravel every two weeks is also a great way of making sure you make the partial water changes that are so important to maintaining good water chemistry.
There are two types of gravel vacuums generally available.
- The simplest is a tube attached to a short plastic hose. We recommend this style of gravel vacuum for smaller tanks and for situations where large water changes are not required. This style uses the siphoning action to draw debris and water out of the tank. You will need a bucket (we recommend a 5 or ten gallon) to hold the dirty water. Start with a new bucket and use it only for your aquarium. Any residue from normal household chemicals can be toxic to your aquarium water.
- Some gravel vacuums attach to a faucet and use the water pressure from the faucet to create the siphon. These devices use a long plastic tube (extensions are available) to carry the dirty water directly to a sink. This type of gravel vacuum is best for large tanks requiring large amounts of water to be changed or in circumstances where carrying water back and forth from the sink is not appropriate. | <urn:uuid:5b785591-45df-422f-95bf-793774f157eb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mypetsmart.com/petcare/articles/vacuum-your-fish-pond-or-aquarium.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922284 | 368 | 2.765625 | 3 |
First name origin & meaning:
First name variations: Taelon, Taelyn, Talen, Talon
Last name origins & meanings:
- English and Irish (of Norman origin), and French: from a
Germanic personal name derived from tal ‘destroy’, either as a
short form of a compound name with this first element (compare
Talbot) or as an independent byname.
- English and Irish (of
Norman origin), and French: metonymic nickname for a swift runner or
for someone with a deformed heel, from Old French talon ‘heel’
(a diminutive of tal, Latin talus).
(Tallón): either a Spanish variant of Catalan
Talló (see Tallo) or a habitational name from any of
the places in A Coruña, Ourense, and Pontevedra provinces called
- A native of the Champagne region of France, Jean Talon was
intendant for New France in 1665–68, and again in 1669–72.
Comments for Tallon | <urn:uuid:b0577cee-a14e-4840-8ee5-ea1f86f98d72> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://baby-names.familyeducation.com/name-meaning/tallon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.819473 | 234 | 2.78125 | 3 |
23 April 2013 The United Nations today is highlighting the diversity of books and the protection of plots and protagonists and other content, while also raising awareness of literacy programmes and careers in publishing, book shops, libraries and schools as it marks World Book and Copyright Day.
“The diversity of books and editorial content is a source of enrichment that we must support through appropriate public policies and protection from uniformity,” the Director General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Irina Bokova, said in her message for the Day..
She added that “this bibliodiversity is our common wealth, making books much more than a physical object, for they are our most beautiful invention for sharing ideas beyond the boundaries of space and time.”
World Book and Copyright Day is marked annually on 23 April, a symbolic date for world literature. On this day in 1611, Miguel de Cervantes, William Shakespeare and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega died.
It is also the date of birth or death of other prominent authors such as Maurice Druon, Haldor K.Laxness, Vladimir Nabokov, Josep Pla and Manuel Mejía Vallejo.
“This day provides an opportunity to reflect together on ways to better disseminate the culture of the written word and to allow all individuals, men, women and children to access it, through literacy programmes and support for careers in publishing, book shops, libraries and schools,” Ms. Bokova said in her message.
The day, she said, also provides an opportunity to reflect on the changing nature of printing, as more publishing uses digital platforms, and the protection of intellectual property.
According to UNESCO, the agency is committed to the spirit of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions as are all its partners, including the International Publishers Association, the International Booksellers' Federation and the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions.
As part of UNESCO’s effort to support literacy, this year, Bangkok has been designated as a World Book Capital. The Paris-based agency said it chose the Thai capital “in recognition of its programme to promote reading among young people and underprivileged sections of the population.”
Bangkok’s theme for its year is “Bangkok, Read for Life,” a phrase chosen to reflect on the efforts by the local and national governments “to inspire Thai citizens to use reading to improve their quality of life and build a resilient and peaceful society.”
News Tracker: past stories on this issue | <urn:uuid:62bfe29e-4261-4e3a-b7b6-1cdf554274c5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=44727 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922525 | 540 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Use tending in a sentence
- Scattered here and there over the rocks, like conies, are peasants, tending a few lean cattle, and digging grasses from the crevices.
- The housekeeper had been nurse to Diodoros, and had been longing to help in tending him.
- Sexual selection will also be largely dominated by natural selection tending towards the general welfare of the species.
This page helps answer: how do I use the word tending in a sentence? How do you use tending in a sentence? Can you give me a sentence for the word tending? It may also be related to education, homework help lesson plans, English help, continuing education, college, tuition, coaching tutoring, learn, and
Example sentences with the word tending, a sentence example for tending, and tending in sample sentence. | <urn:uuid:3c3f21af-9392-401b-935d-b8801e41ad7e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://in-a-sentence.com/Use/te/tending.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965932 | 173 | 2.515625 | 3 |
14 September 2006
GSA Release No. 06-38
Getting Real: Drought as the "New Normal"
Boulder, Colo. - Droughts are slow, tortuous emergencies that seem to sneak up on us. It doesn't have to be that way, say a climatologist and a political scientist who point to a better way.
It's perfectly possible to plan for droughts and minimize the losses they cause. In fact Australia has set in place policies that blaze a trail for the US follow to some extent, says Linda Botterill, a political scientist at the Australian National University in Canberra.
Botterill is presenting drought policy lessons learned in Australia at the Geological Society of America conference entitled Managing Drought and Water Scarcity in Vulnerable Environments: Creating a Roadmap for Change in the United States. The meeting takes place 18-20 September at the Radisson Hotel and Conference Center in Longmont, Colorado.
"In policy terms drought is no longer considered a disaster," said Botterill, of the fundamental change in perspective when Australia adopted a national drought policy in 1989. The shift made perfect sense because of Australia's climate, in which drought is always an issue.
"We have one of the most variable climates on Earth," said Botterill. "We really don't have a 'normal' climate." Therefore it's absurd to treat every drought as an emergency, she said. "It should be managed as any other risk. Farmers need to factor in that they are not always going to get needed rainfall."
Like Australia, the most normal thing about climate in the Central and Western U.S. is that it has no norm. Unlike Australia, however, the U.S. still reacts to droughts as if they are unexpected emergencies — which they aren't, says climatologist and drought policy specialist Donald Wilhite of the National Drought Mitigation Center at the University of Nebraska in Lincoln.
"Drought is always out there," said Wilhite, who was part of a team that built the U.S. Drought Monitor website (see: www.drought.unl.edu/dm/monitor.html). "It's always affecting some part of the country."
What's more, reacting to droughts is more expensive than planning for them, says Wilhite, who will speak at the meeting on what's needed for the U.S. to shift from drought crisis mode to a more proactive risk management mode. Wilhite is also serving as the technical program chair of the conference.
Climate change and increasing population are not expected to make droughts any easier in the U.S., according to Wilhite. So there is no time to lose in creating a national drought policy.
"On average, drought losses are in the neighborhood of $6 to 8 billion per year," Wilhite said. "They're right on par with hurricanes and floods." In severe drought years like 2002 and 2006, the losses run much higher.
"We're trying to bring together all the players to work on the early warning side," Wilhite said. That means states, federal agencies, tribal governments, and municipalities pouring information into one place. Data collected and monitored will include soil moisture, rainfall, snow pack, stream flows, and groundwater levels.
Two bills are pending in the House and Senate to authorize funding for the program for the next several years. Called the National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS), the program is currently being implemented by NOAA.
The GSA meeting is not the first time Botterill and Wilhite have addressed this subject side-by-side. They've also co-edited a book entitled From Disaster Response to Risk Management: Australia's National Drought Policy (2005).
WHEN & WHERE
Managing Drought and Water Scarcity in Vulnerable Environments: Creating a Roadmap for Change
Radisson Hotel and Conference Center, Longmont, Colorado
18-20 September 2006
[ web site ]
Australian National Drought Policy: Lessons Learned and Relevance to U.S. Drought Management and Policy
Monday, 18 September, 11:30 a.m. MDT, North & South Summit
[ view abstract ]
Shifting the Paradigm from Crisis to Risk Management
Monday, 18 September, 8 a.m. MDT, North & South Summit
[ view abstract ]
Images available: http://drought.unl.edu
Donald A. Wilhite
National Drought Mitigation Center
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
Phone: 1+ 402-472-4270 (direct) or 402-472-6707 (NDMC secretary)
Research School of Social Sciences
The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Phone: +61 2 6125 7664 (office) or +61 419 514 578 (mobile)
Contact Ann Cairns, GSA Director of Communications, at 303-357-1056 or 303-818-6334 for additional information and to arrange telephone interviews during the meeting. | <urn:uuid:36a0c750-0cdb-42a8-9fb2-650e8ad18725> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geosociety.org/news/pr/06-38.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927073 | 1,052 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Before postage stamps arrived on the scene in 1840, whoever received the mail had to pay for the postage. Think what a nightmare this would be today with all of the junk mail that you receive, especially the political junk mail. You would be required to pay the postage on all of the junk mail that you receive. Not a pleasant thought indeed.
The first postage stamp was issued on May 6, 1840 un England and was printed in black ink. The stamp sported a portrait of Queen Victoria, and included the value of the stamp. This stamp was known as the Penny Black. Thus a revolution began--the age of postage stamps. The stamp did not include the name of the issuing country as most stamps do today. In fact England is perhaps the only country that doesnít include its name on its stamps.
The idea of prepaid postage quickly caught on along with the idea of postage stamps themselves. Prepayment speeded up mail delivery, something almost anyone would like to see happen. The letter carrier no longer had to hand deliver each item and hope to collect payment for the delivery. Prepaid postage also provided money upfront as well as money for stamps that were never used.
Stamp designs in the early years were very drab by todayís standards, The stamps were printed in one color with the design portraying the countryís leader or another well-known personage. After postage became established and accepted by the public, more countries adopted the concept. Beyond their basic use for postage, stamps were soon issued for more specific types of postal services, such as newspaper delivery by mail, special delivery, airmail, and others that no longer exist.
Not long after the Penny Black was introduced, saving these unusual pieces of paper started to become popular. Collecting stamps in this time frame really didnít resemble modern stamp collecting. However, the collectors of that era had just as much drive to collect stamps as most collectors do today.
The first postage catalog was published in December 1861. The catalog reportedly consisted of ten printed pages. It was more like a price list instead of the modern stamp catalog of today that offers much more information today. Today the Scott Publishing company publishes a six volume series numbering well into the thousands of pages. Of course there are other stamp catalogs besides the Scott version. It all depends on what type of information you are looking for. | <urn:uuid:120c912a-1b33-48e2-9480-716a158f3b7b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art178561.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985665 | 476 | 3.71875 | 4 |
May 16, 1999
Home on the Range
Poem: "Home on the Range," folksong.
It's the birthday in 1804, Billerica, Massachusetts of the teacher and publisher, ELIZABETH PALMER PEABODY, who opened her own school and began teaching when she was just 16. Two years later she opened another in Boston, and made her name by bringing the whole notion of early childhood education to America. In 1860 she began opening kindergartens, and wrote and edited a magazine called the Kindergarten Messenger.
It was on this day in 1868 that PRESIDENT ANDREW JOHNSON escaped impeachment by a single vote. Johnson took office when Lincoln was killed in April, 1865. After the Civil War, he battled with Republicans over reconstruction policy, and the whole thing came to a head when Johnson fired his Secretary of War, the Republican Edwin Stanton, allegedly breaking a law which required the president to get Congressional approval for such a dismissal. The House voted eleven articles of impeachment against him, the first time in the nation's history. The Senate tried Johnson in the spring of 1868 and on May 16 acquitted him by a single vote.
It's the birthday in the Bronx, 1912, of writer and broadcaster STUDS TERKEL, known for his many books of oral historyinterviews with everyday people about their experiences, such as Hard Times; The Good War (which won a Pulitzer); and probably his best-known book, the 1974 Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do. He got his start doing radio interviews in the 1930s on WGN in Chicago, and moved to WFMT in the 1940s. Right now he's a scholar-in-residence at the Chicago Historical Society.
Be well, do good work, and keep in touch.® | <urn:uuid:59d77e44-a530-4133-a7c2-53d69756986f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/index.php?date=1999/05/16 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977395 | 382 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Fighting the War and the Peace: Battlefield Ethics, Peace Talks, Treaties, and Pacifism in the Jewish Tradition
Michael J. Broyde
III. Battlefield Ethics
A. Type of war
The initial question that needs to be addressed when discussing battlefield ethics, is whether the rules for these situations differ from all other applications of Jewish ethics or is "battlefield ethics" merely a general application of the rules of Jewish ethics to the battlefield situation. This question is essentially a rephrasing of the question "what is the moral license according to the Jewish tradition that permits war to be waged." As explained above, Jewish tradition categories "armed conflict" into three different categories; obligatory war, permissible war and societal applications of the "pursuer" rationale.31 Each of these situations comes with different licenses. The easiest one to address is the final one: the pursuer rationale: Battlefield ethics based on the pursuer model are simply a generic application of the general field of Jewish ethics relating to stopping one who is an evildoer from killing an innocent person. While it is beyond the scope of this article to completely explain that detailed field of Jewish ethics, the touchstone rules of self-defense according to Jewish law are fourfold: Even when self defense is mandatory or permissible and one may kill a person or group of people who are seeking to kill one who is innocent, one may not:
1] Kill an innocent32 third party to save a life;
2] Compel a person to risk his life to save the life of another;
3] Kill the pursuer after his evil act is over as a form of punishment.
4] Use more force than minimally needed.33
Thus, the rules of this type of "armed conflict" would resemble an activity by a police force rather than an activity by an army. Only the most genteel of modern armies can function in accordance with these rules.
On the other hand, both the situation of obligatory war and authorized war are not merely global extrapolation of the principles of "self-defense" or "pursuer." There are ethical liberalities (and strictures) associated with the battlefield situation which have unique ethical and legal rules unrelated to other fields of Jewish law or ethics.34 They permit the killing of fellow human being in situations where that action -- but for the permissibility of war -- would be murder. In order to understand what precisely is the "license to kill", it is necessary to explain the preliminary steps needed according to Jewish law to actually fight a battle after war has been properly declared. It is through an understanding of these requirements that one grasps the limits on the license to kill one's opponents in military action according to Jewish law. Indeed, nearly all of the preliminary requirements to a permissible war are designed to remove non-combatants, civilians and others who do not wish to fight from the battlefield.
B. Seeking Peace Prior to Starting War
Two basic texts form Jewish law's understanding of the duties society must undertake before a battle may be fought. The Bible (Deuternomy 20:10) states:
When you approach a city to do battle with it you should call to it in peace. And if they respond in peace and they open the city to you, and all the people in the city shall pay taxes to you and be subservient. And if they do not make peace with you, you shall wage war with them and you may besiege them.
Thus the Bible clearly sets out the obligation to seek peace as a prelude to any military activity; absent the seeking of peace, the use of force in a war violates Jewish law. Although unstated in the text, it is apparent that while one need not engage in negotiations over the legitimacy of one's goals, one must explain what one is seeking through this military action and what military goals are (and are not) sought.35 Before this seeking of peace, battle is prohibited. Rabbi Jesse Hagalili is quoted as stating "How meritorious is peace? Even in a time of war one must initiate all activities with a request for peace"36 This procedural requirement is quite significant: it prevents the escalation of hostilities and allows both sides to rationally plan the cost of war and the virtues of peace.
Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (Rashi), in his commentary on the Bible, indicates that the obligation to seek peace prior to firing the first shot is limited to Authorized wars. However, in Obligatory or Compulsory wars there is no obligation to seek a peaceful solution. Indeed, such a position can be found in the Sifri, one of oldest of the midrashic source books of Jewish law.37 Maimonides, in his classic code of Jewish law disagrees. He states:
One does not wage war with anyone in the world until one seeks peace with him. Thus is true both of authorized and obligatory wars, as it says [in the Bible] "when you approach a city to wage war, you must first call out for peace." If they respond positively and accept the seven Noachide commandments, one may not kill any of them and they shall pay tribute ...
Thus according to Maimonides the obligation to seek peace applies to all circumstances where war is to be waged. Such an approach is also agreed to in principle by Nachmanides.38
It is clear, however, according to both schools of thought, that in Authorized wars one must initially seek a negotiated settlement of the cause of the war (although, it is crucial to add, Jewish law does not require that each side compromise its claim, so as to reach a peaceful solution).39 Ancillary to this obligation is the need that the goal of the war be communicated to one's opponents. One must detail to one enemies the basic goals of the war, and what one seeks as a victory in this conflict.40 This allows one's opponents to evaluate the costs of the war and to seek a rationale peace. Peace must be genuinely sought before war may begin.
There is a fundamental secondary dispute present in this obligation. Maimonides requires that the peaceful surrender terms offered must include an acknowledgement of and agreement to follow the seven laws of Noah, which (Jewish law asserts) govern all members of the world and form the basic groundwork for moral behavior;41 part and parcel of the peace must be the imposition of ethical values on the defeated society. Nachmanides does not list that requirement as being necessary for the "peaceful" cessation of hostilities.42 He indicates that it is the military goals alone which determine whether peace terms are acceptable. According to Nachmanides, Jewish law would compel the "victor" to accept peace terms which include all of the victors' demands except the imposition of ethical values in the defeated society; Maimonides would reject that rule and permit war in those circumstances purely to impose ethical value in a non-ethical society.43
C. The Civilian, the Siege44 and Standard of Conduct
The obligation to seek peace as explained above applies to battle between armies where no civilian population is involved. Jewish law requires an additional series of overtures for peace and surrender in situations where the military activity involves attacking cities populated by civilians. Maimonides states:
Joshua, before he entered the land of Israel sent three letters to its inhabitants. The first one said that those that wish to flee [the oncoming army] should flee. The second one said that those that wish to make peace should make peace. The third letter said that those that want to fight a war should prepare to fight a war.45
Nor was the general obligation to warn the civilian population enough to fulfill the obligation: Maimonides codifies a number of specific rules of military ethics, all based on Talmudic sources.
When one surrounds a city to lay siege to it, it is prohibited to surround it from four sides; only three sides are permissible. One must leave a place for inhabitants to flee for all those who wish to abscond to save their life.
Nachmanides elaborates on this obligation in a way which clearly explains the moral obligation by stating:
God commanded us that when we lay siege to a city that we leave one of the sides without a siege so as to give them a place to flee to. It is from this commandment that we learn to deal with compassion even with our enemies even at time of war; in addition by giving our enemies a place to flee to, they will not charge at us with as much force.46
Nachmanides believes that this obligation is so basic as to require that it be one of the 613 basic biblical commandments in Jewish law. However, Nachmanides clearly limits this ethical obligation to authorized and not obligatory wars and this is agreed to by most other authorities.47
Essentially Jewish law completely rejects the notion of a "siege" as that term is understood by military tacticians and modern articulators of international law. Modern international law generally assumes that in a situation where "the commander of a besieged place expel[s] the non-combatants, in order to lessen the number of those who consume his stock of provisions, it is lawful, though an extreme measure to drive them back so as to hasten the surrender".48 Secular law and morals allows the using of the civilians as pawns in the siege. The Jewish tradition prohibited that and mandated that non-combatants who wished to flee must be allowed to flee the scene of the battle. (I would add, however, that I do not understand Maimonides' words literally. It is not surrounding the city on all four sides that is prohibited -- rather, it is the preventing of the outflow of civilians or soldiers who are seeking to flee. Of course, Jewish law would allow one to stop the inflow of supplies to a besieged city through this fourth side.49)
This approach solves another difficult problem according to Jewish law: the role of the "innocent" civilian in combat. Since the Jewish tradition accepts that civilians (and soldiers who are surrendering) are always entitled to flee from the scene of the battle, it would logically follow that all who remain voluntarily are classified as combatants, since the opportunity to leave is continuously present. Particularly in combination with Joshua's practice of sending letters of warning in advance of combat, this legal approach limits greatly the role of the doctrine of "innocent civilian" in the Jewish tradition. Essentially, the Jewish tradition feels that innocent civilians should do their very best to remove themselves from the battlefield and those who remain are not so innocent. If one voluntarily stays in a city that is under siege, one has the status of a combatant.50
The unintentional and undesirable killing of involuntarily remaining innocent civilians seems to this author to be the one "killing" activity which is permissible in Jewish law in war situations which would not be permissible in the pursuer/self-defense situations. Just like Jewish law permits one to send one's own soldiers out to combat (without their consent) to be perhaps killed, Jewish law would allow the unintentional killing of innocent civilians as a necessary (but undesired byproduct) of the moral license of war.51
The Jewish tradition mandated a number of other rules so as to prevent certain types of tactics that violated the norms of ethical behavior even in war. Maimonides recounts that it is prohibited to remove fruit trees so as to induce suffering, famine, and unnecessary waste in the camp of the enemy and this is accepted as normative in Jewish law.52 Maimonides, in his book of commandments, (Negative Commandment #57) explicitly links this to the deliberate intention to expose the enemy to undue suffering. Nachmanides adds that the removal of all trees is permissible if needed for the building of fortification: it is only when done to deliberately induce suffering that it is prohibited. Nachmanides too, however, understands the Jewish tradition as requiring one to have mercy on one's enemy as one would have mercy on one's own and not to engage in unduly cruel activity.53 Even the greatest of scourges -- rape of the female civilian population of the enemy -- was regulated under Jewish law.54
D. A Note on Nuclear War and Jewish Law
The use of nuclear weapons as a weapon of mass destruction is very problematic in Jewish law. In a situation of Mutually Assured Destruction if weapons are used, it is clear that the Jewish tradition would prohibit the actual use of such weapons if such weapons where to cause the large scale destruction of human life on the earth as it currently exists. The Talmud55 explicitly prohibits the waging of war in a situation where the casualty rate exceeds a sixth of the population. Lord Jakobovits, in an article written more than thirty years ago, summarized the Jewish law on this topic in his eloquent manner:
In view of this vital limitation of the law of self-defense, it would appear that a defensive war likely to endanger the survival of the attacking and the defending nations alike, if not indeed the entire human race, can never be justified. On this assumption, then, that the choice posed by a threatened nuclear attack would be either complete destruction or surrender, only the second may be morally vindicated.56
However, one caveat is needed: It is permissible to threaten to adopt a military strategy that it is in fact prohibited to use, in order to deter a war. While one injustice cannot ever justify another injustice, sometimes threatening to do a wrong can prevent the initial wrong from occurring. Just because one cannot pull the nuclear trigger does not mean one cannot own a nuclear gun.57 It is important to understand the logical syllogism which permits this conduct. It is prohibited -- because of the prohibition to lie -- to threaten to use a weapon that is prohibited to actually use. However, it can be clearly demonstrated that lying to save the life of an innocent person is permissible.58 Thus, this lie becomes legally justifiable to save one's own life too. An example proves this point: If a person desired to kill an innocent person and one cannot prevent that act by killing the potential murderer, one could threaten this person by saying "if you kill this innocent person, I will kill your children." While, of course, one could not carry out the threat in response to the murder, the threat itself would be a permissible deterrence because lying to avoid a murder is permissible. Thus, this demonstrates that threatening to do that which one cannot actually do is permissible to save a life. The possession of nuclear weapons is simply an amplification of this logical analysis.
The overemphasis of the seriousness of the minor prohibition to tell an untruth at the expense of letting a person die is an example of an ethical valuation which is completely contrary to the Jewish ethical norm. In general, the under emphasis of the biblical ethical mandate of "not standing by while one's neighbor's blood is shed" is the hallmark of those who adopt a system of pacifistic ethics and explains why such a ethical direction is contrary to Jewish law. If, one could save a life by telling a lie, such a lie would be mandatory in Jewish ethics.
The use of tactical (battlefield) nuclear weapons designed solely to be used on the field of battle59 would, in circumstances where the complete destruction of the combatants be permissible, (such as after the proper warning and peace seeking) would be acceptable.
In sum, there clearly is a license to wage certain kinds of war and kill certain people in the Jewish tradition. However, in order to exercise this license, one must first seek peace; this peace must be sought prior to declaring war, prior to waging a battle, and prior to laying a siege. While war permits killing, it only permits the intentional killings of combatants. Innocent people must be given every opportunity to remove themselves from the field of combat.
Page 3 of 7
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | Notes | <urn:uuid:39223d9b-c719-40ca-a701-0bbcf5b83688> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/war3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94778 | 3,263 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Overview of Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome
Tarsal tunnel syndrome is caused by the entrapment of the tibial nerve. The tibial nerve follows a curving route down the back of the leg to the ankle, where it turns and curls below the inside of the ankle.
There are four compartments in this region. In three of them, muscles are routed from the leg to the foot. In the fourth, the tibial nerve and the posterior tibial vein and artery are surrounded by muscles.
Along the top of these structures lies the laciniate ligament, which forms the roof of the four compartments. There is little room for expansion if any of these structures becomes enlarged or if a foreign object intrudes into the area. If anything impinges on the space occupied by the tibial nerve (i.e., the tarsal tunnel), entrapment occurs.
Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome Signs and Symptoms
When entrapment compresses the nerve, it causes pain, a burning sensation, and tingling on the sole of the foot. This pain usually worsens as the day progresses and can usually be relieved by rest, elevation, or massage. | <urn:uuid:1ee732d0-3520-455a-bf89-d2571b0e35ea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthcommunities.com/tarsal-tunnel-syndrome/overview-symptoms.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921048 | 246 | 2.921875 | 3 |
He has no name yet and looks like a cuddly stuffed animal. Yet the snow leopard cub born recently at New York’s Bronx Zoo is already a big star.
Snow leopards are an endangered species. Only about 7,000 survive in the wild. Helping new cubs is big step toward saving the species. Now that the cub is 5 months old, zoo officials consider him grown enough to be placed in a visitor viewing area.
The cub’s father, Leo, is from Pakistan. He arrived at the Bronx Zoo in 2005 after his mother and siblings were killed. Pakistan did not have the facilities to take care of him. He was sent to the Bronx Zoo because it is a leader in caring for snow leopards. His story was soon told in the children’s book Leo the Snow Leopard: The True Story of an Amazing Rescue.
Now both Leo and his cub are being held up as examples of how well the U.S. and Pakistan can get along. “Leo has served as a symbol of deep friendship and abiding good will between our two countries,” Pakistan’s ambassador to the United States said after the cub’s birth.
WELCOME TO THE CUB!
The cute cub appears to be adjusting well to his surroundings.
“We let the mother [named Maya] do all the work,” said Lacy Martin, a senior wild-animal keeper at the zoo. “She’s doing an excellent job, so there’s no reason to interfere. [The cub has] gotten much more brave and has a lot of spunk.”
This type of big cat doesn’t normally hang out in the Bronx. Snow leopards typically roam the isolated mountains of Central Asia—in countries like Bhutan and Pakistan and in parts of western China. A snow leopard is at home in cold, rocky areas. Padded foot soles act like natural snow boots for them. And snow leopards can leap 20 to 50 feet while chasing prey like mountain goats and deer.
That’s why the snow leopard display at the Bronx Zoo has a lot of rocks and trees. Zoo officials have made sure that the energetic cats have a lot of places to climb!
SAVING A SPECIES
These big cats are at risk of becoming extinct (having all members of the species die out). Their biggest threats are from hunters, who kill the leopards for their beautiful fur. Habitat loss is also a problem for snow leopards, whose snowy homes become smaller as warmer weather melts the ice and snow on the mountaintops where they live.
The Bronx Zoo has bred more than 70 snow leopards since 1903, making it a worldwide leader in saving the species. It has 10 of the 137 snow leopards in the Association of Zoos and Aquariums Snow Leopard Species Survival Plan. This program was set up to help keep the numbers of snow leopards growing.
“Leo—and his new cub—are living proof of the importance, power, and significance of saving wildlife,” said Peter Zahler of the Wildlife Conservation Society, which manages the Bronx Zoo. “Leo has helped bring people together from around the world in an effort to save this iconic animal.” | <urn:uuid:e95db765-3fa2-4c41-9844-1762f4aa4819> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sni.scholastic.com/top-news/2013/08/A-Cub-s-Big-Debut-at-the-Zoo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964233 | 692 | 3 | 3 |
Changes in European dairy policy will likely translate into significant on-farm management adjustments like more intensive grass-based production systems characterized by increased stocking rates.
Researchers in Ireland recently evaluated the impact of increased stocking densities on herd reproductive performance given this scenario. The results were published in the March 2012 Journal of Dairy Science.
They found that stocking rate and calving date (either around February 12 or around February 25) had no effect on pregnancy rates, immunological parameters, or health status, although a tendency was observed for more reproductive intervention as stocking rate increased.
The researchers conclude that although resulting in increased requirement for reproductive intervention, increased stocking rates are unlikely to have a harmful effect on pregnancy rates or health status of the Irish dairy herd. Furthermore, the presence of a strain of Holstein-Friesian by stocking rate interaction indicates that selection for a better conditioned New Zealand strain may be more appropriate for grass-based dairy systems with an increased stocking rate.
Source: Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council | <urn:uuid:5e9940d5-3468-4116-a3e5-2382ada96abe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dairyherd.com/dairy-resources/Stocking-rate-shows-little-influence-on-reproductive-performance-151059955.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949518 | 201 | 2.75 | 3 |
On April 26, 1607, Capt. John Smith landed at Cape Henry, Va., with the colonists who would establish the first permanent settlement in America.
In 1785 ornithologist and artist John James Audubon was born in Haiti.
In 1900 inventor Charles Richter, who devised the Richter scale of earthquake measurement, was born near Hamilton, Ohio.
In 1937 the Basque town of Guernica was destroyed by German planes in the Spanish Civil War.
In 1945 Bremen, Germany, fell to British forces in World War II.
In 1954 it was announced that 900,000 American children would receive the Salk antipolio vaccine.
In 1962 the first international satellite, a U.S.-British venture, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla.
In 1964 the African republics of Tanganyika and Zanzibar announced they had united to form Tanzania.
In 1973 the New York Times reported that acting FBI Director L. Patrick Gray had told friends he burned documents related to the Watergate scandal that were taken from White House adviser John Dean.
In 1981 Israeli air force jets struck targets in southern Lebanon, killing 15 people.
In 1984 President Reagan arrived in the People`s Republic of China for a five-day visit. On the same date, bandleader and pianist William ``Count``
Basie died age 79.
In 1986 the worst nuclear accident in history occurred at the Chernobyl plant in the Soviet Union, causing an explosion and fire that sent
radioactivity into the atmosphere. At least 31 Soviets died. | <urn:uuid:3378381d-4395-4d3d-978e-c1c71d64570c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1988-04-26/business/8803120023_1_spanish-civil-war-republics-john-dean | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966315 | 321 | 2.8125 | 3 |
It’s true that about half of all ear infections are caused by viruses, which don’t need—and won’t respond to—antibiotics, as the body usually clears up viral infections on its own. Still, children with viral or bacterial ear infections can all experience significant pain and distress. One of the most effective natural therapies for ear pain is made from garlic, olive oil, and herbs, such as mullein flower or St. John’s wort, which have natural anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties. This herbal ear oil mixture can be purchased at most health food stores, and you can also make your own version in a pinch: Crush garlic in several tablespoons of olive oil that’s room temperature, and then place 2 to 3 drops directly into the ear canal of the affected ear as often as needed for pain relief.
Massaging the neck lymph nodes with an essential oil can also help. Mix a drop of lavender with 1 to 2 tablespoons of olive oil and warm it up by rubbing your hands together. Massage from the front of the ear down the jaw and neck, and also massage from the back of the ear down the neck toward the chest. This can help improve the drainage of stagnant fluid (fluid that doesn’t move is more likely to attract bacteria) away from the ears, one of the main causes of the pain.
If the ear pain worsens significantly, lasts longer than 48 hours, or if it’s associated with fever or vomiting, seek medical attention; these ear infections are more likely to be bacterial, especially in children under 2, and may warrant antibiotic treatment.
Lawrence D. Rosen, M.D., is the founder of the Whole Child Center in Oradell, New Jersey, one of the first green, integrative primary care practices in the U.S.
Have a question for Dr. Rosen? E-mail him at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:ea5a8ca4-9013-40ae-8df1-486d257c8616> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kiwimagonline.com/2011/07/what-eases-ear-infections/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94892 | 408 | 2.609375 | 3 |
US temperature January map denotes eight different temperature zones of America ranging between below -10?F to 128?F. This US temperature January map clearly indicates that Alaska is the coolest area in the entire country where the average least cold states of the country in the month of January. The month of January is one of the driest months of America with an average precipitation of 2.05 inch. 328?F is the usual average temperature in the month of January.
Locations in the Map
NEIGHBOUR COUNTRIES: Mexico, Canada.
SEAS, OCEANS, RIVER, BAY: Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Ocean.
|USA Thematic Maps|
Last Updated Date: May 30, 2016 | <urn:uuid:99a8c78e-beb1-4cf3-8682-fee41e2cbfa5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mapsofworld.com/usa/thematic-maps/usa-temprature-january.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917567 | 151 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Bruce J. Dierenfield. Battle over School Prayer: How Engel v. Vitale Changed America. Landmark Law Cases and American Society Series. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007. 240 pp. $15.95 (paper), ISBN 978-0-7006-1526-1.
Reviewed by Janet Bordelon (New York University)
Published on H-Education (November, 2010)
Commissioned by Jonathan Anuik
Divided over Devotion: The History of the Struggle over Prayer in Schools and Where We Go from Here
Bruce J. Dierenfield’s Battle over School Prayer traces the origins and consequences of the heated battle over prayer in public schools. The book focuses on Engel v. Vitale (1962), the ruling that declared the New York Regents Prayer, and similar prayers in eleven states, to be “wholly inconsistent with the establishment clause” of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (p. 129). Setting this pivotal case in the larger historical context of church and state issues, Dierenfield traces the debate over religion in public schools from the colonial period to the present. In so doing, he provides his readers with a compelling historical narrative about the ongoing tensions surrounding the First Amendment and religious expression in public schools.
The first part of Dierenfield’s narrative investigates the legal and judicial tradition leading up to Engel. Fearing that formal ties between religion and government would inevitably corrupt religion, persecute minorities, and obstruct individual freedoms, the founding fathers adopted what Dierenfield describes as the “first secular government ... [which] recognized religious liberty but banned religious establishment” (p. 11). Within the constitutional principle of antiestablishment was a hope to constrain governmental and especially legislative power while not limiting churches or depriving government of the moral influence of Christianity. He writes that the founding fathers regarded religion as an “indispensable aid to moral behavior and republican self-government” (p. 10). Their outlooks were anticlerical and anti-ecclesiastical but not antireligion.
Since the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, the battleground for church and state issues was handled at the state level until 1940. All state constitutions had free exercise clauses and most had or eventually adopted some type of antiestablishment protection. Still, there was no mechanism for protecting religious liberty against state or local governments. Each state negotiated these issues on the basis of its religious traditions and constituencies, and often within each state. Therefore, wide variations of church-state policy existed. Amid this long and complicated process of disestablishment there existed an unspoken establishment of Protestantism that often acted as a force of cultural cohesion and social change. In fact, for much of the nineteenth century, the educational program of Protestant churches dominated the U.S. educational ideal. Following the American Civil War, the power and hegemony of the Protestant majority was exposed to serious challenge and erosion by the influx of immigrants. Dierenfield argues that during this period, keeping religion in public schools was often motivated by heightened expectations of Protestant intellectual independence by religionists seeking a conforming impulse for U.S. citizenship. Many schools used anti-Roman Catholic textbooks in the classroom, and teachers forced students to read the King James Bible.
The federal Constitution finally became applicable to issues of religion and education in 1940 in Cantwell v. Connecticut when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states were bound by the First Amendment. Dierenfield examines the three major Supreme Court cases dealing with religion and schools that preceded Engel, two of which were written by Hugo Black, the justice who authored the majority opinion for Engel. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), Black upheld a New Jersey law that provided public payment for the bus transportation of all children to attend all schools, whether public or private. In his majority opinion, Black invoked former President Thomas Jefferson’s metaphor regarding the need for a “high and impregnable wall of separation” between church and state (p. 49). In so doing, a legal precedent was set that neither the state nor federal government could pass laws that “aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another” (p. 48). Dierenfield claims that by resuscitating and essentially redefining the First Amendment’s establishment clause--and in the process morphing into the high Court’s “civil-libertarian conscience”--Black established a “revolutionary interpretation” of the First Amendment, one that “failed to recognize the extent of religious establishment that existed throughout U.S. history and overshadowed the equally important guarantee of the free exercise of religion” (p. 49).
Dierenfield surmises, “almost every religion case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in the past half-century has been affected by Black’s schizophrenic decision in Everson” (p. 48). Despite ruling in favor of busing private school students at public expense, Black’s use of Jefferson’s wall metaphor came “to have the same hold on the American imagination as Winston Churchill’s Iron Curtain reference” (p. 48). Dierenfield writes that Black’s pointed definition of religious establishment set the stage for the U.S. Supreme Court to employ a dominant separationist paradigm for a “host of questions concerning religion and public education” (p. 52).
It was only a matter of time before the constitutionality of devotional practices was brought to bear under Engel v. Vitale, in 1962. The ruling, which struck down school-led prayers, marked “the ultimate triumph of the doctrine known as separation of church and state” and helped to fuel an intense conservative opposition movement which grew in size and scope to include the majority of the religious Right against the evils of secular humanism. According to Dierenfield, Justice Black rejected the argument that a nondenominational prayer was constitutional, even if it did not involve any direct governmental compulsion. To him, the establishment clause, like the free exercise clause, did not require such compulsion for a practice to be in violation of the First Amendment. Black wrote that it “is no part of the business of government to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite as part of a religious program carried on by government.” Such a union of religion and government “tends to destroy government and denigrate religion” (p. 130). Dierenfield posits that the impact of this decision inaugurated a radical new jurisprudence where schools “that had been founded to instill religious truths were now ... to be inoculated from religious instruction and worship altogether” (p. 4).
From here, Dierenfield offers a careful analysis of the strong reactions that the Court’s decision provoked. He observes that even though many denominational and national council religious leaders firmly supported the Court decision, there was a strong oppositional grassroots movement that found a voice through ministers like Billy Graham. This emergent uncompromising Protestant fundamentalism would, within a few years, find more dependable leadership among public pastors who loathed the high Court’s separation of church and state policy. Locking on to the Roe v. Wade decision of 1973, Jerry Falwell and other fundamentalist leaders tapped into the anger of these disenfranchised religionists. The result was a coalescing of the religious Right and its new social agenda. As the public has trudged its way through nearly fifty years of debate over prayer in public schools, self-appointed political protectors of public morality have advanced legislation to incorporate prayer back into the classroom, in various forms.
Dierenfield’s narrative is titillating and fascinating, one that contributes new insight into old battles. Dierenfield brings to life the human drama still surrounding a very heated issue and illustrates the sentiments and concerns behind the opponents whose movement burgeoned into a vendetta against pornography, abortion, divorce, drugs, and sex education. Probably for the first time ever, through personal interviews, the reader begins to appreciate the sacrifices made by those who pioneered the way in seeking freedom for their children from religious coercion. Unfortunately, the narrative glosses over many important historical and legal details. For instance, Black’s jurisprudence is much more complex than Dierenfield supposes; indeed, Dierenfield’s legal analysis of Black’s decision in Everson--which he labels as schizophrenic--is overly simplistic, leading him to categorize all subsequent case law using the separation principle, as if it were an end in its own right. But as Martha Nussbaum suggests in Liberty of Conscience (2008), “the rhetoric of separation, applied without a deeper theoretical analysis, wrongly suggests that the goal of the Establishment Clause is to purify the public square of all reference to religion, in effect establishing secularism as a theory of government ... [in turn] do[ing] a lot of harm to reasoned public debate.” Black’s actual argument in Everson did not use the separation principle; his justification in Everson, which he consistently applied in later cases, was what Nussbaum described as the “equality/neutrality” principle. The equality principle, as Nussbaum understands it, means “equal respect ... it is the idea that people are of equal worth as citizens, and are therefore to be treated as equals by laws and institutions.” Ensuring equality, therefore, requires, “not just interference ... [but also a] symbolic politics that acknowledges equality and does not create ranks and orders of citizens.” When reading the legislative history, Nussbaum contends that this idea “runs like a thread throughout the cases, on the whole, explaining them well ... and [proves useful for] framing public debate about the issues.”
To be fair, the idea of separation did serve as a major justification for several future cases under the Warren and Burger Courts, but decisions under the more conservative Rehnquist Court and even more so under Chief Justice Roberts have moved away from employing this strict separationist paradigm. Dierenfield fails to mention more recent cases like Selman v. Simmons-Harris (2002), which upheld the constitutionality of school vouchers. He focuses on a series of cases striking down state actions that mix religion and education. These include Abington School District v. Schempp (1963), which found that daily Bible reading and recitation of the Lord’s Prayer were unconstitutional, and Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), which he claims set forth the primary doctrinal framework used by the Court for analyzing establishment clause issues.
Knowing this, is it then fair to conclude, as Dierenfield does, that the Engel decision marked the “end of Protestant domination of public education and the ultimate triumph of the doctrine known as separation of church and state” (p. 19)? Even if this trend did exist for a time, constitutional scholars like Phillip Hamburger (Separation of Church and State ) and Daniel L. Dreisback (Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation between Church and State ) have called into question the notion that the authors of the First Amendment intended the establishment clause to separate church and state in the way the Court dictated in the Warren Court. Moreover, Jefferson’s wall metaphor only accords with an individualistic, democratic, and private style of religion. Within this understanding, religious liberty is restricted to individuals, as the absence of external constraint, which effectively denies the importance of communal dimensions or social categories of religion. As Adam Selegman insightfully suggests, citizens’ current conception of separation of church and state implies distinct Protestant notions of religious and secular dimensions of life that are mistakenly thought of as universal and value-free principles. Accepting these principles forces citizens to choose between a liberal or secular version of selfhood and society that is “not shared across the globe and across human civilizations, or an explicitly Protestant vision of human existence in the world, which is certainly not shared.” By retaining these static categories, the United States has “replaced tolerance of group difference with the legal formula of individual rights ... and rights do not [necessarily] provide recognition.”
Winifred Sullivan observes, “We now live in a new moment, a time of undifferentiating--in which postmodern consciousness is reluctant to see sharp divisions such as those historically described as the sacred and profane.” In such a situation of flux and ambiguity, traditional categories will no longer suffice, especially since religion has become perhaps too amorphous to be properly defined for purposes of law. Indeed, to provide for religious freedom, the courts, unfortunately, must define religion, and, invariably, when they do so, they define it in ways that are still only perhaps compatible with Protestant ideas about individualism. Those seeking religious liberty outside the Protestant framework must inevitably adapt to it, and the idea of freedom actually enforces a sort of intolerance. In seeking a new understanding of the enculturation of everything in life, perhaps it is time for a reconsideration of the isolation of church and state as entities within impermeable boundaries and the formation of a new paradigm for understanding the relationship of religion to politics and society. In searching for this new paradigm, we, as historians, must appreciate fully the intricacies and complexities of prior attempts at negotiating what has proven to be an extremely delicate societal issue. Dierenfield’s comprehensive and rich narrative adds much to a reader’s understanding of this powerful story; in so doing, hopefully, it compels scholars to reassess their assumptions and strive to listen and understand each other in charting a brighter course.
. The separationist and accommodationist paradigms employed by the Court derive from the difficulty of maintaining separation under the seemingly contradictory First Amendment principles of no aid and nondiscrimination.
. Martha Nussbaum, Liberty of Conscience: In Defense of America’s Religious Equality (Philadelphia: Basic Books, 2008), 265, 283. The separate principle meant that the federal government could give no aid to faith-based schools, but Black, using the principle of equality, held that the state of New Jersey could not be forbidden from “extending its general law benefits to all citizens without regard to their religious belief.” Ibid., 50.
. Ibid., 283, 227, 229.
. Adam Seligman, “Secularism, Liberalism, and the Problem of Tolerance,” Religion, State and Society: Jefferson’s Wall of Separation in Comparative Perspective, eds. Robert Falton and Rouhollah K. Ramazani (New York: Palgrave, Macmillan, 2009), 102
. Winifred Sullivan, The Impossibility of Religious Freedom (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 151.
. Ibid., p. 227.
. Ibid., p. 229.
If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the network, at: https://networks.h-net.org/h-education.
Janet Bordelon. Review of Dierenfield, Bruce J., Battle over School Prayer: How Engel v. Vitale Changed America.
H-Education, H-Net Reviews.
|This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.| | <urn:uuid:bcf17ab6-88f9-46b9-9eee-a970e3ab2532> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=30047 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939207 | 3,189 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The Center for the Study of Hepatitis C is actively involved in both clinical and basic science research. By attempting to understand how the virus replicates and causes the death and destruction of the normal liver, the Center hopes to be able to identify new treatments for those infected with the hepatitis C virus. Innovative research at the basic level and in the clinical setting provides the foundation of the Center's therapeutic excellence.
Clinical research studies are underway to address the following questions concerning the pathogenesis of hepatitis C:
- What is the major cause of liver cell death in hepatitis C? Is it a direct result of the virus or is it caused by the immune system as it is trying to clear cells infected by HCV?
- How do the current medications that are used against hepatitis C work to get rid of the virus?
- How quickly does the viral load decrease in individuals who are treated with medications to control hepatitis C?
- How does infection with HIV affect the clearance of HCV after starting anti-hepatitis medication?
- What special considerations apply to the pediatric hepatitis C population?
Scientists in the Center are actively involved in studying the natural history, structure and biology of the hepatitis C virus and its interaction with cells of the liver and the immune system. Research questions include:
- How does HCV enter cells?
- What cell types support HCV replication? Are there non-hepatic reservoirs?
- How do viral and cellular factors work together to produce progeny virus?
- What kinds of innate or adaptive immune responses are required to eliminate or control the infection?
- Can such information be used to develop prophylactic or therapeutic vaccines?
- What viral and host determinants control the outcome of infection?
The Center is actively developing several new technologies necessary for the advancement of HCV research including:
- Efficient replication systems for hepatitis C virus in cell culture
- Assays for drug screening and evaluation
- Identification of new drug targets
- Small animal models of hepatitis C infection
- Genomics, including gene profiling and proteomics
The Center focuses on improving current treatment and developing new therapies for HCV through large multicenter as well as small-scale clinical trials. In addition, a serum-and-tissue bank has been established at the Center to provide an important repository for current and future studies of HCV. A computerized database has also been created to collect patient information. This database was designed to maintain patient confidentiality while allowing prospective and retrospective analysis of information. | <urn:uuid:b00093b0-5df1-4198-ba6c-b434a61d9d56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hepccenter.org/hepcresearch | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927959 | 512 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Over 200,000 American men are diagnosed with prostate cancer each year. The New England Journal of Medicine has just released a new study showing the long-term benefits of two different common methods of prostate cancer treatment, watchful waiting and surgical prostate removal (most commonly done now through a procedure called a robotic prostatectomy).
Watchful waiting is a technique used by doctors where prostate cancer indicators, such as PSA levels, are used to monitor a patient's risk of developing an aggressive form of the disease. In many cases prostate cancer is slow growing, and treatment may not be necessary as the cancer will never progress to a life-threatening point. Robotic prostate surgery takes a different approach to treatment, removing the prostate entirely from the body to eliminate all traces of the cancer.
The study released by the NEJM shows that there is a large survival benefit for those who choose prostate removal as a treatment option; with a 38% lower risk of death versus watchful waiting. This is very important news for individuals who are deciding on an appropriate treatment method. With advancements in prostate surgery due to newer robotic methods, patients often don't experience many of the side-effects associated with traditional prostate removal surgery, such as incontinence and loss of sexual function. | <urn:uuid:eeade4f7-fe90-485f-80df-c653a5039a5a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smart-surgery.com/patient_information/videos/prostate-cancer-survival-benefits-robotic-surgery-over-watchful-waiting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957962 | 252 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Their droppings can kill vegetation. They strip trees of their branches, eat lots of fish and can turn wooded areas into barren nesting grounds.
That's why scientists have been trying to keep the population of cormorants on Lake Champlain down.
The Lake Champlain Basin Program recently released a report on the status of the program.
They've focused their efforts on the Four Brothers islands, near Willsboro on the New York side of the lake.
Scientists have been oiling eggs to prevent hatching. They also selectively shoot birds, including some that come from other areas.
The report indicates that oiling hasn't been as effective as originally hoped, but scientists want to continue in an attempt to discourage the birds from nesting in the islands.
Over the years scientists estimate they've eliminated 10,000 cormorants from Lake Champlain, but they say underestimated the effects of immigration. | <urn:uuid:b1388676-e805-4700-9097-f3bfcf45593b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://m.wptz.com/news/The-fight-against-cormorants-continues-on-Lake-Champlain/16978088 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969271 | 185 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Fruit and vegetable consumption could be as good for your mental as your physical health, new research suggests.
The research, conducted by the University of Warwick's Medical School using data from the Health Survey for England, and published by BMJ Open focused on mental wellbeing and found that high and low mental wellbeing were consistently associated with an individual's fruit and vegetable consumption.
33.5% of respondents with high mental wellbeing ate five or more portions of fruit and vegetables a day, compared with only 6.8% who ate less than one portion. Commenting on the findings Dr Saverio Stranges, the research paper's lead author, said: "The data suggest that higher an individual's fruit and vegetable intake the lower the chance of their having low mental wellbeing".
31.4% of those with high mental wellbeing ate three-four portions and 28.4% ate one-two.
Other health-related behaviours were found to be associated with mental wellbeing, but along with smoking only fruit and vegetable consumption was consistently associated in both men and women. Alcohol intake and obesity were not associated with high mental wellbeing.
Commenting on the findings Dr Saverio Stranges, the research paper's lead author, said: "Along with smoking, fruit and vegetable consumption was the health-related behaviour most consistently associated with both low and high mental wellbeing. These novel findings suggest that fruit and vegetable intake may play a potential role as a driver, not just of physical, but also of mental wellbeing in the general population".
Low mental wellbeing is strongly linked to mental illness and mental health problems, but high mental wellbeing is more than the absence of symptoms or illness; it is a state in which people feel good and function well. Optimism, happiness, self-esteem, resilience and good relationships with others are all part of this state. Mental wellbeing is important not just to protect people from mental illness but because it protects people against common and serious physical diseases.
Discussing the implications of the research, co-author Professor Sarah Stewart-Brown says that: "Mental illness is hugely costly to both the individual and society, and mental wellbeing underpins many physical diseases, unhealthy lifestyles and social inequalities in health. It has become very important that we begin to research the factors that enable people to maintain a sense of wellbeing.
"Our findings add to the mounting evidence that fruit and vegetable intake could be one such factor and mean that people are likely to be able to enhance their mental wellbeing at the same time as preventing heart disease and cancer".
Mental wellbeing was assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS), in which the top 15% of participants categorised as having High mental wellbeing, the bottom 15% Low and the middle 16-84% as Middle.
The research involved 14,000 participants in England aged 16 or over, with 56% of those being female and 44% male, as part of the Health Survey for England - which saw detailed information collected on mental and physical health, health related behaviours, demographics and socio-economic characteristics.
The paper, Major health-related behaviours and mental well-being in the general population: the Health Survey for England, is available here: http://bmjopen.
To contact Dr Stranges or Professor Stewart-Brown, please contact Kelly Parkes-Harrison, senior press and communications manager at University of Warwick. | <urn:uuid:4011c23b-5fce-4c5a-b7b9-02740c049a64> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-09/uow-efa092314.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968107 | 689 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The liver is the largest organ in the body. It plays an primary role in the processing of substances (both foodstuffs and toxins) absorbed through the gut. Disorders of the liver consequently have a major impact on the wellbeing of the entire body. They include cancers, viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D), alcohol related damage (cirrhosis) and auto-immune conditions.
The liver is directly connected to the gall bladder and pancreas via the biliary tree and so clinical units dealing with liver disorders often deal with these systems as well. They may therefore be known as HPB units - H for Hepato (another word for liver), Pacreatic and Biliary.
Private treatment for liver disease may vary widely depending on the liver condition but may include surgery, chemo/radiotherapy and private liver transplants. | <urn:uuid:aa51b61c-47fc-49fd-aed0-66c9181c2a9a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.surgerydoor.co.uk/treatments/liver-treatment-and-transplants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940492 | 176 | 3.046875 | 3 |
By Jorge M. Danta
The former Rosenbaum Bank building located at 603-05 S. 3rd Street possesses great significance in the social, commercial and banking history of the City of Philadelphia. It is also a noteworthy example of the Beaux Arts style and the work of accomplished architects Louis Magaziner and William Woodburn Potter through their partnership in the firm of Magaziner & Potter.
The Rosenbaum Bank was a pivotal financial institution to the Jewish community in early twentieth century Philadelphia. The Rosenbaum Bank served the immigrant Jewish Community at a time of massive Jewish immigration from Europe.
The Jewish presence in Philadelphia can be traced with certainty to the 1760s. However, it is likely that people of the Hebrew faith settled in Philadelphia at a much earlier date. The first minyan1 was reported in 1747. It is not until 1782 that the Jewish community erected its first synagogue; known to this day as Mikveh Israel. This early community was mostly comprised of German and Spaniard Jews, but not exclusively. The Jews of German descent tended to be the more established and educated members of the community. Great numbers of Jewish immigrants began to arrive in the United Stated in the last decades of the 19th century. These immigrants came to America as a way to escape the horrors of the pogroms2 in the Russian Empire and Eastern Europe. The pogroms, however, was not the only reason for Jewish immigration. They establish strong communities in America to fulfill dreams of religious freedom and economic prosperity like many groups before them. New York City, and specifically the Lower East Side, became the center of Jewish life in America, but other cities on the North Eastern seaboard received a notable share of the immigrants. It is estimated that only half of all Jewish immigrants that arrived during the great migration between 1880 and 1914 arrived through Ellis Island in New York City. The rest of those immigrants arrived through the ports of Baltimore, Philadelphia, Boston and to a lesser extent New Orleans and Galveston. A substantial percentage of these immigrants settled in Philadelphia. Immigrants arriving in the port of Philadelphia landed at the Washington Avenue Wharf in South Philadelphia. The area around the wharfs in South Philadelphia became the center of Jewish life in the city. The new immigrants not only settled there but peddled the streets of ethnic neighborhoods and opened small businesses to cater to their burgeoning community. It is in the heart of this ethnic enclave where Morris Rosenbaum opened his bank to serve this community.
The “Jewish ghetto”3 reached over 100,000 residents in 1900 and by 1920 that figure had risen to 175,000 residents.
The banks that were owned and operated by Jews in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century were non-traditional banks. The banks took deposits from patrons, but they were mostly involved in the sale of transatlantic ship tickets. They were in many ways glorified transatlantic ship ticket agencies. Immigrant Banks were, in nearly all cases, non-traditional banking houses and their patrons were exclusively newly arrived immigrants. The United States government formed a special Commission in 1907 to study the effects of the recent wave of immigrants into the country. This Commission is known as the Dillingham Commission or the Immigration Commission4 (I.C.). The Reports of the I.C. from 1911 described the Immigrant Banks as follows:
“These banks bear little resemblance to regular banking institutions. They are without real capital, have little or no legal responsibilities, and for the most part are entirely without legal control. Immigrant bankers, as a rule, are also steamship-ticket agents, and usually conduct some other business as well.”
It should be noted that Immigrant Banks were not common in all immigrant populations and across ethnic groups. These institutions specifically catered to Eastern and Southern European immigrants. The I.C of 1911 found that Western European immigrants did not patronized such institutions and instead used traditional banking houses or established institutions to conduct their business. The 1911 report also investigated Chinese immigrants and found that no such institutions existed on the Eastern seaboard for this demographic. The Chinese, just like Western Europeans, used traditional institutions that had branches in the Orient or the vast British Colonial financial network to conduct their business.
The great majority of the Jewish population on Eastern seaboard or Midwestern cities at this time had recently arrived. These communities were poor and had little in savings. This population not only faced the challenge of language and cultural assimilation but of noted anti-Semitism in all aspects of American society at that time. The Immigrant Banks performed many services for their patrons, which no other institution could provide, least of all a regular banking house. These services included the writing of letters, receipt of personal mail, public notary services, real estate, general advice, employment procurement and financial counseling. These institutions were not formal banks and any transfer of funds abroad had to be conducted through established institutions. These institutions were not just the middle man, but in many ways the embodiment of a godfather for their local immigrant community.
The Immigrant Banks received deposits from immigrants, which were held by the institutions for safekeeping. These deposits were without any interest-bearing benefits in most cases; deposits were also held for the purchase of transatlantic tickets for relatives still living in Europe. The banker acted as the transatlantic liner agent for those immigrants already living in the United States. The Rosenbaum Bank was not an exception. The bank was situated in the Jewish enclave of South Philadelphia to cater to the thousands of newly arrived immigrants who wished to bring their relatives still living in Europe. The Bank served as the agent for the immigrant, who in most cases only spoke Yiddish.The Rosenbaum Bank ledgers are filled with transactions that attest to their heavy involvement in the sale of steerage tickets for Jews wishing to immigrate to the United States.
Immigrant Banks were widespread throughout all metropolitan areas with large concentrations of Eastern or Southern European immigrant populations. The majority of these institutions were concentrated on the Eastern seaboard and in the Midwest. It is estimated that in 1911 there were a total of 2,625 such banks throughout the United States. New York had the greatest number with a total of 1,000 banks, followed by Pennsylvania with a total of 410 banks. These banks were not exclusively Jewish-owned or for a Jewish clientele. In fact, the largest number of these institutions catered to Italian immigrants. The Jewish institutions were a distant second. The ratio between Italian and Jewish Immigrant Banks was nearly two-to-one. The third spot belonged to non-Jewish Poles. These banks played a sizeable and important role in the transfer of monies between the United States and Europe in the early decades of the twentieth century. It is estimated that in 1907 a total of $275,000,000 was transferred abroad and nearly one half of that amount passed through Immigrant Banks. These institutions were insular but their role and scope were far from it.
The Rosenbaum Bank was not unique in Philadelphia at this time nor was it the only institution catering to the Jewish immigrant population. It was, however, one of the best known. It is not know when the Rosenbaum Bank was founded. The bank occupied its location on South 3rd Street as early as 1890. The earliest known record of the bank dates from 1894. The extant Beaux Arts building does not date from this period. The building dates from 1907. Morris Rosenbaum purchased the building at 603 S. 3rd Street in 1900. The bank had strong competition from three other Jewish banks that specialized in the steerage ticket market for Jewish immigrants. The Lipshutz Bank, the Blitztein Bank and the Rosenbluth Bank were three Philadelphia Jewish Banks that also served the immigrant Jewish community. The Blitztein Bank was located at the corner of 4th Street and Lombard Street, also in the Jewish Ghetto. This bank catered mostly to the Russian Jewish community. The Rosenbaum Bank catered to German and Austro-Hungarian Jews. Little is known about the Lipshutz Bank. The Rosenbluth Bank survived and evolved into a travel agency that is still in business today.
The Rosenbaum Bank operated until the financial crash of 1929. The Rosenbaum Bank as well as its two other defunct competitors ceased operations at this time. The two other banks disappeared as institutions and their buildings have also disappeared from the cityscape. The Rosenbaum Bank building not only physically survives, but it survives intact. The building is the only surviving building associated with the important and pivotal financial institutions that catered to the Jewish community of Philadelphia at the turn of the twentieth century. The Rosenbaum Bank was instrumental in facilitating the massive Jewish immigration to the United States at the turn of the twentieth century through its primary function as a tickets agent for Transatlantic Liners. The building stands as a testament of the Jewish Immigrant community that centered around South Philadelphia and to the process of European immigration in the early twentieth century.
1 Minyan: A quorum of ten Jewish males required by the Talmud, in order to conduct a public reading of the Torah or to assemble for public prayer as well as other religious practices.
2 Pogroms: A wave of violent anti-Jewish riots that spread throughout the Russian Empire after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, which was blamed on the Jews. There were two major waves of pogroms 1881-1884 and 1903-1906.
3 Ghetto: A confined area of a city where Jews were forced to live. The word originates in late Medieval Venice and the root of the word means foundry, which refers to the foundries that were located in the same island of the Venetian lagoon were Jews were forced to live.
4 Dillingham Commission: A special congressional committee formed in February 1907 by the United States Congress to study the origins and consequences of recent immigration into the United States. The chairman of the Commission was Senator William P. Dillingham of Vermont. The Commission takes its name after him. The studies presented by this Commission led to sweeping changes to immigration laws in the 1920s.
5 Yiddish: A dialect of Germanic origins that spread to Jewish communities in Central and Eastern Europe throughout the late middle ages. The earliest written record of the language dates from the late Thirteenth-century. Yiddish was the primary language for Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern Europe, specifically in rural communities. | <urn:uuid:d109bdfb-6690-4097-b0c9-ef3d071c7539> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.qvna.org/qvna/rosenbaum-bank-building/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97865 | 2,132 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Lead poisoning in the water of Flint, Michigan, has sparked a national outcry over perceived government inability to properly test the local supply.
Those in disbelief over the events in Flint will find little comfort in a new set of revelations published by the Guardian on Friday afternoon. Government documents show that negligence in the handling of the water supply goes far beyond the Michigan city.
The British paper published documents on Friday afternoon that indicate widespread practices that make lead poisoning appear lower in test samples. A whistleblower, who has worked with the process, said that the same methods are used in “every major U.S. city east of the Mississippi.” That’s despite the fact that they have been deemed “misleading” by the Environmental Protection Agency.
“By word of mouth, this has become the thing to do in the water industry. The logical conclusion is that millions of people’s drinking water is potentially unsafe.”
Some of these testing methods — all outside of EPA regulation — included telling citizens to flush our their pipes before checking lead levels in their water and removing the faucet’s aerator before testing. Virginia tech academic Yanna Lambrinidou, who has worked closely with the EPA on lead and copper testing methods since 1991, told the news site that she believes Flint’s lead poisoning problem is part of a larger issue with a lack of attention to protocol.
“There is no way that Flint is a one-off. There are many ways to game the system. In Flint, they went to test neighborhoods where they knew didn’t have a problem. You can also flush the water to get rid of the lead. If you flush it before sampling, the problem will go away… The EPA has completely turned its gaze away from this. There is no robust oversight here, the only oversight is from the people getting hurt. Families who get hurt, such as in Flint, are the overseers. It’s an horrendous situation. The system is absolutely failing.”
In Michigan, it appears that the practice of advising locals to run their tap water before testing it for lead was common. Detroit, Grand Rapids, Andover, Muskegon, Holland, and Jackson all received instruction to flush tap water before testing it.
In Philadelphia, as recently as last November, authorities told citizens to do the same, as well as remove the aerator from the tap. A senior Philadelphia Water official wrote to Lambrinidou, saying that they were “confused” about what to tell citizens due to a dearth of information.
“We are trying to stay up on the latest science as best we can. We get confused by it and wish that a national forum of experts could get together and agree. But it’s often left to us to try and make sense out of everything that is published and talked about.”
Also named in the article were the water companies behind Rhode Island and Washington, D.C.’s regulation. In the latter, the director of ground water and drinking water at the EPA wrote that only flushing in houses that were tested — as opposed to telling everyone to do so for safety — seemed to “go against the intent of the monitoring protocol.” Paul Schwartz, national policy coordinator of Water Alliance, warned that the issue in Flint is unlikely to be contained there.
“The industry’s own reports show that if large water utilities followed the EPA standard for sampling, they would routinely exceed the lead limit. The EPA has been in a very cosy relationship with the state regulators and the water utilities. They’ve allowed themselves to be captured and they haven’t followed the science… What we have is a recipe for a public health disaster that is much larger than what we’ve seen so far. It will take us years to get out of this situation.”
Mounting criticism over the Flint, MI, water crisis received another push on Friday when it was revealed that state governor Rick Snyder was informed of the lead testing deficiency nearly a year ago.
[Image via Sarah Rice/Getty Images] | <urn:uuid:eed02fad-2d1b-4f92-b72f-d251b606acea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.inquisitr.com/2730275/flint-mi-water-lead-testing-distortion-present-in-every-major-u-s-city-east-of-the-mississippi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971377 | 853 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Heller 1/72 Super Constellation
Without a doubt, the Lockheed Constellation is the best-looking multi-engine piston-powered airplane ever built. There isn’t a straight line in the design other than the leading edges of the flying surfaces. The fuselage is a series of compound curves that have never been surpassed for aesthetic beauty, even if the truth is that the interior is much less “passenger friendly” than the “aluminum time tubes” created by Douglas and Boeing.
Designed in 1937 in response to a request by Howard Hughes for a 40-passenger airliner with a trans-Atlantic range and a speed above 300 mph, the Constellation revolutionized airliner design when it appeared in 1942. Hughes himself flew the prototype on a record-setting transcontinental flight that clearly demonstrated what postwar commercial air travel was going to be like.
1949, Lockheed saw that the airframe was capable of an increase in useful load.
In order to speed development, the first Constellation was purchased from Howard
Hughes in May 1950 for $100,000 and modified as the Super Constellation
prototype, with the fuselage stretched eighteen feet by inserting constant
diameter fuselage plugs fore and aft of the wing. The prototype was still
powered by the Pratt and Whitney R2800 engines installed in 1945 when it made
its first flight on October 13, 1950. After 22 hours of flight testing, R3350
engines were installed, while the vertical stabilizers were enlarged by eighteen
inches to provide directional stability.
The first production L-1049 flew July 14, 1951. The Super Constellation incorporated over 550 design changes over the L-049 and L-749 versions. The third production aircraft, N6203C, entered service with Eastern Airlines December 17, 1951, the 48th anniversary of powered flight. Until 1953, all turbo-compound R-3350s were earmarked for military use; thus the L-1049 flew with 2,700 hp CA1 engines, and was quite underpowered.
Between 1951 and 1958, 579 Super Constellations were built. 259 were flown commercially, while 320 went to the USAF and USN. The Navy was the largest operator of Super Constellations with a total of 204 transport and early warning radar aircraft. The Air Force early-warning aircraft were used operationally until at least 1977, when the last USAF Reserve squadron was retired at McClellan AFB in Sacramento, California.
My Connection With “Columbine III”
While he was NATO Commander, General Eisenhower flew a C-121A (L-749) named Columbine. This was replaced in 1952 by a C-121B (L-1049) named “Columbine II.” After becoming President, Columbine III became Air Force One, and was used by both Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy until the fall of 1961 when the airplane was replaced by a Boeing 707.
In 1958, I had the rare opportunity to meet a United States President, cement my permanent antipathy for a popular athletic pastime, and fall in love with the Constellation when I met “Columbine III.”
The athletic pastime was golf. My mother had convinced her doctor to get me a job as a caddy at the Cherry Hills Country Club, the premiere golf course in greater Denver, Colorado. To this day, I have never “gotten” the game or the players.
At the time, Denver was “The Western White House due to the fact that President Eisenhower’s wife, Mamie Doud Eisenhower, came from a family who were among the original founders of Denver. Over hie eight years in office, President Eisenhower was a regular visitor at the Cherry Hills Country Club. Various caddies would be chosen to work for the presidential party. In the late summer, after I had been there awhile and demonstrated I could carry the clubs without collapsing and knew to stay silent while the golfers were teeing off, I was for some reason chosen to be among the caddies for the President’s second visit that summer.
Eisenhower had a public image as a “duffer” when it came to golf, but I have to say that my observation was that the man who successfully invaded Occupied Europe approached the game with the same level of seriousness he brought to winning the Battle of Normandy. He wasn’t a “scratch” golfer, but those competing with him had to be on their toes. The Secret Service agent I was assigned to in the foursome that followed the Presidential Foursome (there was another Secret Service foursome ahead) really was a scratch golfer, which may have had something to do with his being on the detail. I might not have known much about the game, but it’s not hard to spot someone who is Damn Good. Especially when The Boss banters with him about how good he is.
At the end of 18 holes, President Eisenhower came around and shook our hands, and tipped each of us with a crisp new $5 bill, a veritable fortune to a 14 year old in those days. I’d like to say I had enough knowledge of history to know to save that bill, but no - it was spent quickly the next day at Bonnie Brae Hobbies and Phil Moskowitz got the whole thing.
We got something else that day: an invitation to see the President’s airplane. Being the only serious Airplane Person among the caddies, I thought this was far superior to the monetary tip, and my dad and I went out to Lowry AFB that Saturday following, for the tour of “Columbine III.”
That was the first time I ever saw a Constellation in person, and I date my love affair with this beautiful, sexy, airplane to that moment I first saw its glittering silver shape in the early morning high desert sunlight.
We were allowed to go inside the forward cabin, which was where the White House Press Corps and other lower ranking folks rode. It was still pretty fancy to me, but I wondered how much more grand was what would be found on the other side of the locked door just ahead of the wing.
We went back outside in time to see the Presidential limousine pull up. President and Mrs. Eisenhower and his top aides quickly entered the rear door and the airplane soon started up - the first time I heard four big radials in action. When it took off, it banked out of the pattern and caught the sunlight, which flashed over the polished airframe and left a memorable impression on this aeronut. It’s hard to remember a time in America where both Republicans and Democrats were republicans and the presidential barge wasn’t imperial property, but rather something even a citizen could inspect close up.
The Heller Constellations first appeared in the mid-late 1970s, with the Super Constellation kit appearing in both a civil version that has been released over the years in the livery of different airlines, and in its early warning radar picket version in both USAF and USN markings.
The kits are typical for their period, with less than precise fit, and less than precise accuracy of parts, as well as raised-line detail.
The particular kit I built this model from is the Airfix release with markings for a QANTAS and an Air Eire Constellation.
Draw Decals provides a number of interesting ALPS-printed decals, and does “Columbine III” as it was originally done in Fine Scale Modeler by Paul Boyer several years ago.
I knew going in that this kit was going to be vastly different from what I would do as a standard airliner. I didn’t worry about internal detail, and assembled the fuselage with a load of fish weights in the nose to insure nose-sitting. I then assembled the wings and tail and attached them. All this was easy, with the fit revealing just how much work lay ahead.
With the basic airframe assembled, the real work now began.
I covered over all the windows with cyanoacrylate glue, which I also applied liberally to all the joints and seams. The model was set aside to allow all this to cure overnight, and then I hauled out the sanding sticks and the MicroMesh.
The model was sanded down thoroughly with several grades of sanding sticks. Once I had things as smooth as I could get - which included several second applications of C-A to areas of seams and windows and such - I then applied Mr. Surfacer 500 to all these seams and joints. When all that was sanded down, I went over the model with varying grades of MicroMesh pads.
When everything was as smooth as I could get it, I rescribed the panel lines, and then applied a thin coat of Tamiya Flat Aluminum. This revealed that several seams still existed, which were re-attacked with cyanoacrylate and then Mr. Surfacer. I then sanded off all the paint with fine wet ‘n’ dry, then went over the model again with several fine grades of MicroMesh.
Finally, everything was smooth. I attached the landing gear so the airframe would sit clear of any surface while the paint was drying.
|COLORS & MARKINGS|
I first painted the de-icing boots with Tamiya Semi-Gloss Black and then masked these off. I then painted the center sections of the wings with Tamiya Flat Aluminum, which was then masked off.
I gave the model an overall coat of Talon “Platinum,” then masked off various areas and painted these with Talon “Aluminum” and “Dark Aluminum.” When all this was done, I used some cotton rags to apply light coats of SNJ Polishing Powder overall to give a lightly “polished” look. Doing “polished aluminum” in 1/72 scale with “polished aluminum” paint results in a garish toy-like look. What I was going for was the look I could see in several color photos found on the internet of “Columbine III” during her period of Presidential service.
The Draw Decals are very thin and need to be handled very carefully. That said, handling with care resulted in them going on without problem. Their semi-gloss finish allowed me to get away without applying any covering varnish.
I made various antennas from thin plastic sheet and applied them as I saw them in photos of the original airplane. I then attached the wheels and the props.
This turned into a fun project and a trip down memory lane. Doing a Connie in an overall single color allows one to see all the beauty of the shape. It also allows any viewer of the model to see any flaws. I put several days into getting the overall surface cleaned up, after about an hour or so assembling the basic airframe. There are some aftermarket sets for this kit to get better engine nacelles, and if you can find any of the great old Liveries Unlimited decal sheets for Connies, you can do a very good looking airliner.
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Back to the Review Index Page | <urn:uuid:059c4860-d0a0-490b-a70d-5348c67afec4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://modelingmadness.com/review/korean/cleaver/tmcconnie.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973042 | 2,366 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Forty years ago today, NASA succeeded in landing the Apollo 11 space craft landed on the moon.
Or did it?
Moon-landing conspiracy theories are almost as old as the moon landing itself. So goes the thinking: America, losing the space race to the Soviets but under the belief that beating them to the moon was key to winning the Cold War, faked the whole thing.
The straight-faced 2001 Fox special called "Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?", which you can watch in part here, revived interest in the theorizing.
Looking ahead to the anniversary, a British newspaper analyzed the bullet points most commonly brought up by theorists -- Why are there no stars in the moon photos? Why is the American flag apparently waving? Why is there no blast crater beneath the landing module? How did the astronauts survive radiation from the Van Allen belt?
NASA is quick to point out the improbability of anyone on Earth accurately faking moon rocks and address some of the photo issues. But of course NASA would say that, wouldn't they?
Still, buying into the moon-landing conspiracy talk means believing the United States government executed and perpetuated an unimaginably elaborate hoax that hundreds of thousands of people would have to be coerced or motivated not to blow the whistle on. Think the government's that competent, huh? Or maybe we're just supposed to THINK the government is dumb and inefficient so it can pull the strings behind the Kennedy assassination, UFOs, 9/11, the Jonas Brothers, etc., while the sheep remain blissfully tuned out.
That seems like the bigger leap of faith. Or does it? | <urn:uuid:45716e9a-0c4e-4d20-9519-e5cce8c2eff9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mlive.com/news/grand-rapids/index.ssf/2009/07/did_apollo_11_land_on_the_moon.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959357 | 334 | 2.828125 | 3 |
One of my biggest goals this year for my second grade students was to encourage them to feel comfortable going to confession and communion for the first time. Even seasoned veterans have a hard time remembering what to do during the Sacrament of Reconciliation. I wanted to come up with a a fun First Reconciliation activity that would really get them prepared.
So, to prepare for Penace . . . we practiced!
I simplified the Sacrament of Reconciliation into four steps:
- Examination of Conscience
(Bonus resource: If you want to teach the step-by-step process for going to confession, check out this “How to Go to Confession” video here.”) I explained each step and the prayers that go along with it pointing them to places where they could find the prayers now and where they will be able to find them when they go to their actual First Reconciliation.
Examination of Conscience Box Activity
- Cardboard Box (a bag will do)
- Wrapping Paper (optional)
To introduce the idea of “examination of conscience” I created an “examination of conscience box.”
I took a small cardboard box that I had lying around the office and cut a square hole in the side. On the top, I wrote in Sharpie marker “Examination of Conscience Box.” (I’m not a very artsy person. I’m sure you can create a much better looking box! If I could do it again, I would use wrapping paper to make it stand out.) In the box I placed fifteen slips of paper with commons second grade sins. (Download this printable here.)
Practicing for First Reconciliation
First, I ran through the Reconciliation process in detail again. I explained the prayers and gave them cheat sheets to use (from the back of their textbooks). I told them not to worry–that I make mistakes on the prayers when I go to confession too. I called up each student one-by-one to come to the front of the room.
- They put their hands in the Examination of Conscience box and pulled out a sin.
- I played the part of the priest and they practiced being the penitent. We made the sign of the cross.
- They said, “Bless me Father for I have sinned, it has been ___ since my last confession.” (Funny thing though: I didn’t know what second graders were supposed to say during their First Reconciliation since they had never been to confession before!)
- They said their sins (reading from the slip of paper).
- I gave them a (pretend) penance.
- They read the Act of Contrition.
- I read the Prayer of Absolution.
. . . and they were done! Practice makes perfect!
After their First Reconciliations they said they felt very prepared. There were no surprises and things went well!
Bonus: How to Go to Confession Video
I created a short video tutorial for kids on how to go to confession. It is available for premium members of The Religion Teacher, but you can access it here by entering your email. Watch the “How to Go to Confession” video here. | <urn:uuid:30749e78-350f-42f9-aed2-de4114c46bf5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thereligionteacher.com/first-reconciliation-activity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966839 | 684 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Dr. Richard A. Oppenlander,
Our global demand to eat animals, without proper economic regard or reflection of resource use, has caused food production systems to become the largest contributing factor to our unsustainable Ecological Footprint. The raising, slaughtering, and consumption of animals—livestock, wild caught fish, and aquaculture—is the primary cause of Global Depletion.
June 19, 2012, it was announced that Drs. William Rees and Mathis
Wackernagel will receive the Blue Planet Prize, one of the world’s most
prestigious environmental awards, for their work in creating the Ecological
Footprint—a tracking or measurement of the impact we have on our planet.
Since 2003, Rees, Wackernagel and their Global Footprint Network have used a
data-determined metric as a monitoring device tracking how sustainable (or
unsustainable) we are living. Their group and global partners now span six
continents and apply the impact of the Footprint to many projects.
As of 2012, they report that humans are in overshoot mode because we are using the equivalent of more than 1.5 planets to provide the resources taken, and to absorb our GHG emissions. One of their goals is to “increase international media outreach to broaden our message.” The work of this group is remarkable, and can serve as an important tool as we assess and then correct the detrimental effects we impose on our planet. They are to be truly commended.
But knowing that we are in an overshoot, unsustainable mode and actually taking the right steps to correct this are two separate issues. It is how we can best use this tool that becomes the question. The Global Footprint Network make it perfectly clear that they are “not anti-trade, anti-technology, or anti-GDP.” They are informational based only and “make no judgment about the value of technologies” or “the benefits, disadvantages or fairness of trade.”
As such, it is left up to our nations’ leaders, policy makers, business leaders, and individuals to first become aware of the information provided by the Ecological Footprint and then to create change—if sustainability is their goal. The Global Footprint Network has come to the same conclusions as many other organizations in that “climate change, deforestation, overgrazing, fisheries collapse, food insecurity and the rapid extinction of species are all part of a single, over-arching problem: humanity is simply demanding more from the Earth than it can provide.” However, as with other organizations, the Global Footprint Network stumbles with providing specific reasons and then a viable direction as to resolution—we need a clear pathway toward sustainability, not simply hearing recited observations that we are not there. Fundamental change is in order and it begins with conveying realities.
I can help with the clarification. This would be my approach: Our global demand to eat animals, without proper economic regard or reflection of resource use, has caused food production systems to become the largest contributing factor to our unsustainable Ecological Footprint. The raising, slaughtering, and consumption of animals—livestock, wild caught fish, and aquaculture—is the primary cause of Global Depletion. It is not a factory farm or “agribusiness” problem. It’s an eating animals problem. Our demand to eat animals is responsible for 30-51% of all anthropogenic ghg emissions and climate change, 80% of the deforestation of tropical rainforests, 100% of the overgrazing, 100% of the fisheries collapse, 100% of the food insecurity issues (with factors we can control), and at least 50% of the rapid extinction of terrestrial and oceanic species. This is what needs to be said.
So Drs. Rees and Wackernagel are quite right in stating that “climate change, deforestation, overgrazing, fisheries collapse, food insecurity and the rapid extinction of species are all part of a single, over-arching problem: humanity is simply demanding more from the Earth than it can provide.” They, and the world however, need to identify the reasons, spell out the fact that although there are other contributing factors, our food choices as they involve animals and animal products are the largest single issue. We need to use this valuable information to create change, not simply point our finger at a generality that a problem exists. Although specifying the major cause of our ecological overshoot appears to be difficult for everyone to do, it is actually the easiest to identify and correct—simply begin eating all plant-based foods. No animals. Now.
I encourage everyone to take the information Rees and Wackernagel have so skillfully assembled, assign the major causative factor for overshoot, make the change to a fully plant based diet and then inspire others to follow suit. We have the information. Let’s do something with it. | <urn:uuid:54fa075b-169c-4014-abd6-57320fec352d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.all-creatures.org/articles/env-blue-planet-prize-2012.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937035 | 1,038 | 3.25 | 3 |
Lesson 1 (from Chapter 1, Seascape with Figures)
As the novel begins, James Bond is vacationing at the seaside in France. The beach is colorful and crowded, almost a carnival, with music playing and bathers as far as the eye can see. Bond sits in a shelter, watching the scene at the seashore. He remembers his own childhood and the joys of playing on the beach during summer vacation.
The aim of this chapter is to examine the character of Bond
1) Class discussion. What do the students think Bond looks like? What is Bond's character background? What does this chapter say about Bond's character and how does it express it? What do the students think are Bond's motivations for being a secret service agent? What influence has Bond's character had on popular culture? How different is Bond's character in the book to Bond's character in the films?
2) Divide the students into two groups...
This section contains 6,317 words
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How to Become a Surgeon
Have students create a list of tasks a person needs to do in order to become a surgeon in their local area.
The Navajo People
With research done online, have students come up with a brief explanation of what the Navajo culture is like, including customs, etc.
The Scalpel and the Silver Bear Movie
Have students cast the book with modern day actors, as though the book were going to become a movie.
A Movie Poster
Have students design a movie poster for the book "The Scalpel and the Silver Bear."
A Way to Get Out of Dissection
Have students create a letter to the medical board, describing reasons why Alvord should not have to dissect a human cadaver and ways that she could still get the education she needs.
A New Cover for the Book
Have students design and create a new...
This section contains 496 words
(approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page) | <urn:uuid:e6cb17aa-b297-47e3-a850-11ecb5829de6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/the-scalpel-and-the-silver-bear/funactivities.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943178 | 198 | 3.5 | 4 |
|Nebraska Water Science Center|
A study of the quality of ground water beneath irrigated cropland was completed for the northern and southern High Plains aquifer. Ground-water samples were collected from 30 water-table monitoring wells in the northern agricultural land-use (NAL) study area in Nebraska in 2004 and 29 water-table monitoring wells in the southern agricultural land-use (SAL) study area in Texas in 2003. The two study areas represented different agricultural and hydrogeologic settings. The primary crops grown in the NAL study area were corn and soybeans, and the primary crop in the SAL study area was cotton. Overall, pesticide and fertilizer application rates were larger in the NAL study area. Also, precipitation and recharge rates were greater in the NAL study area, and depths to water and evapotranspiration rates were greater in the SAL study area.
Ground-water quality beneath irrigated cropland was different in the two study areas. Nitrate concentrations were larger and pesticide detections were more frequent in the NAL study area. Nitrate concentrations in NAL samples ranged from 1.96 to 106 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as nitrogen, with a median concentration of 10.6 mg/L. Water in 73 percent of NAL samples had at least one pesticide or pesticide degradate detected. Most of the pesticide compounds detected (atrazine, alachlor, metolachlor, simazine, and degradates of those pesticides) are applied to corn and soybean fields. Nitrate concentrations in SAL samples ranged from 0.96 to 21.6 mg/L, with a median of 4.12 mg/L. Water in 24 percent of SAL samples had at least one pesticide or pesticide degradate detected. The pesticide compounds detected were deethylatrazine (a degradate of atrazine and propazine), propazine, fluometuron, and tebuthiuron. Most of the pesticides detected are applied to cotton fields.Dissolved-solids concentrations were larger in the SAL area and were positively correlated with both nitrate and chloride concentrations, suggesting a combination of human and natural sources. Dissolved-solids concentrations in NAL samples ranged from 272 to 2,160 mg/L, with a median of 442 mg/L, and dissolved solids in SAL samples ranged from 416 to 3,580 mg/L, with a median of 814 mg/L.
Stanton, J.S., and Fahlquist, Lynne, 2006, Ground-water quality beneath irrigated cropland of the northern and southern High Plains aquifer, Nebraska and Texas, 95 p.
Entire document is available in PDF format: SIR2006-5196
Document available in smaller PDF files:
Front cover (2.24 MB)
Report p. 1-39 (3.27 MB)
Appendix 1 (543 KB)
Appendix 2 (767 KB)
Appendix 3 (228 KB)
Appendix 4 (365 KB)
Back cover (2.22 MB)
(Requires Acrobat Reader)
Send questions or comments about this report to the author, Jennifer Stanton, (401) 385-9524.
For more information about USGS activities in Nebraska, visit the USGS Nebraska Water Science Center home page.
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|U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey
Persistent URL: http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/sir20065196
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Last modified: Tuesday, January 23 2007, 03:24:04 PM | <urn:uuid:901297a9-84c0-4f4a-b9e5-9c0d1cf4be58> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5196/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914956 | 772 | 3.09375 | 3 |
- Posted April 22, 2014 by
This iReport is part of an assignment:
Salute to troops
"HOME SOIL" was created in recognition of those and their families who stood for justice, truth and freedom. The mural is a tribute to and for those still standing, the fallen, those maimed and the prisoners of war (POW. "HOME SOIL" has been created so that the world and this nation will be forever mindful of those separated from their loved ones, homes and native soil.
Let us all remember "9-11" and that innocent lives are taken with every war. Rather the war be foreign - "In the name of peace, Democracy, Or Human Rights" or Domestic - "For Socialism, Against Violent Crime, Or Drugs." The result is the same, innocent prisoners of war are entombed in places forever.
A Cry For Help! | <urn:uuid:c10ebdba-d079-47d5-89bb-f42270228ae0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1123659?ref=feeds/latest | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923814 | 183 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The following article published by Popular Science is not a THE reason to cease using or consider using Wikipedia. It is a real world example of how Wikipedia works (or does not work) depending on your viewpoint. It includes comments from the head of communication at Wikipedia/Wikimedia.
A thorough understanding of how Wikipedia operates both in theory and in practice is both essential for those who use it.
Although many of us in the library and info industry are aware of Wikipedia’s positives and negatives, not everyone who uses it does. We have an important role to play in making sure that those who don’t have this knowledge, but use Wikipedia as THE SOURCE for all facts (and often go no further), gain the same insights and understanding we have. Librarians can and should be the leaders in digital literacy training. Of course, since the Internet and online information retrieval moves so quickly, frequent digital literacy updates and retraining are a must.
Now, to the article.
From the Opening of the Pop Sci Article:
“All I am is a contributor. I have no title, I’m just a Joe Blow,” says Ken Mampel, a currently unemployed 56-year-old living in Ormond Beach, Florida. He’s also largely responsible for the Wikipedia article about Hurricane Sandy. If it isn’t already, that article will eventually become the single most-viewed document about the hurricane. On the entire internet.
In an unpaid but frenzied fit of news consumption, editing, correction, aggregation, and citation, Mampel has established himself as by far the most active contributor to the Wikipedia page on Hurricane Sandy, with more than twice the number of edits as the next-most-active contributor at the time this article was written.
And Mampel made sure that the Hurricane Sandy article, for four days after the hurricane made landfall in New Jersey, had no mention of “global warming” or “climate change” whatsoever.
Much Much More in the Complete Article | <urn:uuid:00b19d5f-cca0-43ec-9a4b-a6422bc6cfc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.infodocket.com/2012/11/03/meet-the-climate-change-denier-who-became-the-voice-of-hurricane-sandy-on-wikipedia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942457 | 421 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Provides up-to-date information on the entire spectrum of carbon fiber composites.
Emphasizes processing as the foundation of composite materials development. Addresses the processing, properties and applications of each type of material
In Carbon Fiber Composites, the reader is introduced to a wide range of carbon fiber composites, including polymer-matrix, metal matrix, carbon-matrix, ceramic-matrix and hybrid composites. The subject is examined in a tutorial fashion, so that no prior knowledge of the field is required. In contrast to other books on composites, this book emphasizes materials rather than mechanics, as the prominence of composite materials has resulted from their increased presence in applications other than structure. | <urn:uuid:19063393-294c-4dcb-b106-73e0182698de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://store.elsevier.com/product.jsp?isbn=9780750691697 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.887877 | 143 | 2.5625 | 3 |
If the walls of the old Presbyterian church at 801 Main St. in Oxford could talk, what sort of story would they tell?
Minister Becky Davis thinks they might whisper of fugitive slaves finding shelter beneath the sacred building’s wooden floors.
Members of Davis' flock at Dodson Memorial Presbyterian believe their church served as a stop on the Underground Railroad in the 1860s. Recent renovations to the church floor revealed evidence that could either support or repudiate that belief. Whether it’s true or not, though, it’s a legend that, like all good stories, draws those who share it closer together.
Dodson Memorial, originally called Oxford Presbyterian, was built in 1857 by slaves belonging to Choccolocco Valley’s first settlers. When Munford resident John Berry began renovating the church floors in May, he was supposed to remove and seal several of the floor furnace registers. Beneath the register at the front of the sanctuary, Berry found something he couldn’t explain: a space dug out of the foundation. The hole is a small, rough cellar, about 10 feet long and just wide and deep enough for two people to stand shoulder to shoulder.
When Berry climbed down into the dark room, he found a half-rotten wooden ladder discarded in what looked like a trench or tunnel. The tunnel extended from the cellar’s corner toward the church’s brick foundation.
After he mentioned what he found to churchgoers, they told him the story they’ve swapped with each other for years: During the 1860s, Dodson Memorial Presbyterian was a part of the Underground Railroad.
Not a real railway, the Underground Railroad was a secret network of abolitionists and safe houses that fugitive slaves relied on to escape to freedom. The network stretched from deep in the South, as far as New Orleans and Mexico, to slavery-free northern states and Canada.
Berry believes the story. “It didn’t make sense to me that they’d have that hole dug out like that,” he said. “Finding the ladder was even more convincing. It was there for a reason.”
Linda Crow, a member of Dodson’s congregation since the 1980s, wants to believe it, too. She just wishes there was more evidence to support the story. Crow compiled a history of the church for its 150th anniversary in 2007.
She based her history on the church’s session minutes, newspaper articles and several previous histories including the biography of John McIver Forbes, a wealthy slave owner who helped build the church, and the private records of John L. Dodson, for whom it was named.
But the only source that mentions the church and the Underground Railroad is an out-of-print publication by the Alabama Bureau of Tourism called “Alabama’s Black Heritage.”
Crow said she wasn’t aware of that part of Dodson’s history until the late 1990s, when the tourism bureau’s publication was circulating. But other members who grew up in the congregation remember hearing the story as children.
Davis also wants to believe her church was a stop on the Underground Railroad. She said it would “add to the legacy of one of Calhoun County’s oldest places of worship.” It might also offer some redemption to a church built by slave labor.
A tantalizing story
Paul Beezley, an assistant professor of history at Jacksonville State University, thinks Dodson’s story could be true for two reasons.
First, the Underground Railroad did extend into the Deep South, even as far as New Orleans, and this part of Alabama, he said, was an important corridor for travel back in the 19th century.
Second, the Presbyterian Church accepted that all men were created equal in God's eyes. In 1861 the church decreed no slave owner could be a member in good standing of any Presbyterian church, then the largest denomination.
Southern Presbyterians rejected this decree and broke away, justifying slavery by stating inequality on earth was part of God’s plan. The split would not be mended until 1983. Still, Beezley said “some whites recognized the basic humanity of blacks (because) Christianity encouraged this and predisposed them to help.”
John Giggie, an associate professor of American and Southern history at the University of Alabama, also thinks Dodson Memorial’s connection to the Underground Railroad could be real.
“It was rare, though not unheard of, for Southern Presbyterian churches to question slavery,” he said. “There were other instances of such churches expending their resources to help slaves escape.”
But, Giggie added, it also wasn’t uncommon for churches to have root cellars where they would store canned goods and valuables. These cellars were often discovered and looted by Union troops during the Civil War.
“It’s a tantalizing story,” he said, and one with little evidence to back it up. With the rediscovery of the cellar and trench, “the congregation could be one step closer to confirming it was a stop on the Underground Railroad” — or it could just be proof the church had a cool place to store canned goods.
Dodson Memorial was Mike Winship’s first assignment as a Presbyterian minister. He lead the church from 1963 to 1967, during the height of the civil rights movement, and remembers meeting with ministers from other Anniston churches the day after the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham.
“We all met to try and figure out what we could say from the pulpit,” he recalled. “We knew we had to preach about it.”
Winship, who now lives in Butler, Pa., doesn’t remember hearing about Dodson’s Underground Railroad legend, though. It was the church’s 150th anniversary in 2007 when he first heard the story.
But whether or not it was a hideaway for slaves seeking freedom won’t change how Crow views her place of worship.
“If it’s not true, that doesn’t affect my view of the church at all,” she said. “It doesn’t change the positive impact Dodson Memorial has had on its community for so many years.”
Although she wishes the story could be proven: “This is not something you talk about if it isn’t true.”
A common bond
True or not, Bob Dunaway, a member of Dodson’s congregation for the last eight years, feels the story has become a part of the church.
He remembers some of the oldest church members telling him about it when he started attending. They’ve since passed, he said, but the story continues to be shared. Dunaway is now a member of Dodson’s governing body, and he believes it — even if he realizes “there’s just no way to know for sure.”
Dodson’s legend does seem to be an inseparable part of its current congregation’s history. Nancy Whitley remembers hearing about its history in the Underground Railroad from churchgoers who were old when she first began attending as an 8-year-old in 1958. During winter months, she said it was her father who removed the floor register and lit the church’s furnace — he wouldn’t have missed seeing the cellar.
Whitley thinks the story gives the congregation a “common bond.”
“No one wants to think that the original church members back in the 1800s tortured or beat their slaves,” she said. “I’d love to think that they tried to do something like this — tried to risk their lives for this cause.”
“The church is a sanctuary,” he said — a refuge for the repressed. “That’s what a sanctuary is supposed to be.” | <urn:uuid:3ab244ab-e5ba-4759-80cc-32f209241783> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.annistonstar.com/life/article_ccc06c88-f86d-11e3-aba5-001a4bcf887a.html?mode=image&photo= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974056 | 1,682 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Kansas as the Breadbasket
Farmers in Kansas had grown wheat long before the territory was opened in 1854. From early American Indian gardeners to settlers from the East, farmers experimented with varieties of soft and hard wheat, along with other crops.
They learned that summer wheat was more susceptible to drought than winter wheat, which took advantage of the winter moisture. The year 1874 proved especially challenging for farmers who faced both drought and locusts. Some decided to leave Kansas in search of better opportunities; many stayed and varied their crops and improved their farming techniques.
During the mid-19th century, the State Board of Agriculture and the Santa Fe Railway vigorously promoted settlement to people in the East and to countries in Europe. Germans who had fled to Russia a century before to escape military service and taxes were now experiencing the same pressures in their adopted country. On the Russian plains they had become skilled wheat growers. Thousands of these farmers agreed to bring their agricultural skills and move to the central part of the state in the mid-1870s.
Kansas surpassed other states in the production of winter wheat in 1876. On October 12, 1888, the Topeka Daily Capital claimed “In wheat, Kansas can beat the world.” Farming communities emerged in rural areas and mills, elevators, bread companies, and bakeries were established. Updates in technology helped farmers plant larger areas and improve their yields. During the early 20th century Kansas adopted a new nickname, the “Wheat State.” Our state continues to be known as the breadbasket of the world, the nation’s leading wheat producer.
Entry: Kansas as the Breadbasket
Author: Kansas Historical Society
Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history.
Date Created: February 2012
Date Modified: March 2012
The author of this article is solely responsible for its content. | <urn:uuid:d9c86b2a-9da1-4b5c-81aa-576ce3ed6c28> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/kansas-as-the-breadbasket/17616 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975622 | 395 | 3.765625 | 4 |
herb (ûrb, hûrb) [key], name for any plant that is used medicinally or as a spice and for the useful product of such a plant. Herbs as condiments and seasonings are still important in culinary art; the use of medicinal herbs, however, has waned since the advent of prescription and synthetic medicines, although plants remain a major source of drugs. The term herb is also applied to all herbaceous plants as distinguished from woody plants.
See R. E. Clarkson, Herbs, their Culture and Uses (1966); G. B. Foster, Herbs for Every Garden (rev. ed. 1973); A. and C. Krochmal, A Guide to the Medicinal Plants of the United States (1974).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:5d26bc9a-1be1-48b8-af64-0e716185e675> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/science/herb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925353 | 179 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Ask a Physicist Answers
As the nucleus gains mass by adding protons and neutrons does the size of the nucleus increase into the empty space of the atom or does the innermost orbital move away from the nucleus? Basically, is an atom of Ununoctium larger than an atom of Sodium?
There are a few different things at play here, but generally speaking: yes, a nucleus of ununoctium is larger than a nucleus of Sodium, and no, the electron orbitals of Ununoctium may not be larger than those in Sodium.
On a nuclear level, protons and neutrons do take up a finite amount of space. The size of the nucleus is partially determined by the number of protons and neutrons, but also by the binding energy of the nucleus (in other words, how energetically favorable the formation of that nucleus is).
Neon atomic orbitals
One measure of this is the energy of the first excited state in the nucleus: if the first excited state is very high in energy, it means the ground state is very well bound, and the nucleus is probably smaller than its nearby neighbors on the chart of the nuclides.
At the atomic (electron orbital) level, the more electrons an atom has, the more diffuse they have to be due to charge repulsion and the Pauli exclusion principle. However, the closure of a valence orbital can make a huge difference. Thus, an atom of cesium is larger than an atom of sodium, but an atom of chlorine is actually smaller than the sodium atom.
Two basic trends are apparent across the periodic table: atomic radius increases as you move down a column, and decreases as you move across a row. Sodium has a pretty big atomic radius because of that one valence electron; ununoctium, being in the same period as a noble gas, will likely have a closed valence shell (we don't know for sure yet!), meaning its atomic radius could very well be smaller than sodium's.
One useful thing to consider is that the size of the nucleus is orders of magnitude smaller than the size of the atom: 10-15 meters versus 10-10 meters. So even as the nucleus expands with increasing proton and neutron number, it has more than enough space to expand into without ever affecting the electrons!
Kelly Chipps (AKA nuclear.kelly)
Department of Physics
Colorado School of Mines
Kimberly Lane from Billings, MT | <urn:uuid:3540c877-40a6-4572-896d-d1124bcdb547> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.physicscentral.com/experiment/askaphysicist/physics-answer.cfm?uid=20121221012214 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941038 | 508 | 3.34375 | 3 |
What would you do if you were driving along the highway and you glanced into a field to see a giant array of fluorescent tubes lit wirelessly from the electromagnetic fields of power lines. Back in 2004, [Richard Box] set up this display after hearing about a friend playing “light saber” with fluorescent tubes under power lines. The tubes can be lit pretty easily by have a variation in voltage between the ends. By sticking one end in the ground and the other up in the air, he’s harnessing the strong magnetic field from the power lines. Though some thought the display was made to bring people’s attention to possible hazards of living near the lines, [Box] states that he did it just because it looked cool. | <urn:uuid:1cedfdfd-4049-4dc3-8709-ca6a8afa9005> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hackaday.com/2009/04/10/field-a-fluorescent-array-wirelessly-powered/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963811 | 152 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The Chihuahua al Pacífico (Chepe) railroad is the only railroad that
has been international in its vision since its
inception. This engineering marvel took almost 90
years and 90 million dollars to complete. The
Reader's Digest has called it "the most dramatic
train ride in the western hemisphere." The first
Mexican train to traverse the complete route was in
1961. The route is through 5 climatic zones from sea
level to 8,000 feet elevation.
Sierra Madre Occidental Mountain, Chihuahua
State, northwest Mexico
Closest major airport: : Gral.
Roberto Fierro Villalobos International
Airport aka Chihuahua Intl. (CUU)
Nearest town/city: Creel (pop.
6,500), a small town known as the “Gateway
to Copper Canyon.”
Other important cities/sites nearby:
Chihuahua City (capital), 150 miles away
The original route of the Kansas City Mexico Orient
Railway (forerunner of the Chepe) was 1600 miles
long. It ran from Wichita, Kansas, through Oklahoma
and Texas, crossing the border at Presidio, Texas
and Ojinaga, Chihuahua. It continued on to Chihuahua
City, then went west across the Sierra Madre
Occidental Mountain Range, ending up at Topolobampo
Bay on the Sea of Cortez, near Las Mochis, Sinaloa.
The purpose of the KCMO Railway was to shorten the
shipping route to the orient by 400 miles.
Since the Chepe was privatized in 1998, it is one of
only two passenger trains left in Mexico - the other
being the Tequila Express out of Guadalajara.
The Chepe tourist line presently is the 400 mile
route between Chihuahua City, Chihuahua, and Los
Mochis, Sinaloa. The Reader’s Digest calls it the
“the most dramatic train ride in the western
hemisphere.” To enjoy the most scenic part of this
route during daylight hours, S & S Tours always
begins our tours in Los Mochis.
The Chepe engineering challenges include 37 bridges
and 89 tunnels on the route. At one point the train
does a 180 degree turn inside the mountain, and at
another point loops over itself. The longest tunnel
in Mexico, over a mile long, is on this route. In
the mountain region, there is a drop of 7300 feet
elevation in 122 miles.
Two Americans were directly involved in the
conception of this railroad. Arthur Stilwell of
Kansas City, Kansas, was responsible for completing
1000 miles of the total 1600 miles of track built.
(Note: My name is Sue Stilwell. We are in the family
line of Arthur Stilwell, so this history is of great
personal interest to me.) Albert Owens, a
Pennsylvanian railroad engineer, surveyed the
western end of the line. Chepe Train
In 1998, the private rail franchise - Ferromex -
took over the railroad from the Mexican government.
The government had operated all the railroads since
1940. Ferromex has made a significant investment in
a total modernization program.
A thorough renovation of the train stations has
taken place in Los Mochis, El Fuerte, Bahuichivo (Cerocahui),
Posada Barrancas, Creel, and the old train station
with murals in Chihuahua City. The train track has
been repaired and brought up to industry standards.
This assures added security, comfort, and speed for
the passenger trains. Twelve remodeled,
air-conditioned Chepe passenger cars are on
first-class express service.
It is a pleasure to dine in the new dining cars
freshly decorated with the same elegant upholstery
and carpet of the passenger cars. An excellently
equipped kitchen serves delicious breakfasts,
lunches, and dinners daily. The deluxe lounge cars
offer all varieties of drinks and a place for close
camaraderie on the trip.
Ferromex is to be commended for undertaking the
extremely challenging task of offering first-class
train service for tourists on this extraordinary,
remote route. This places the railroad in a unique | <urn:uuid:2966086d-e6f0-41f6-8c9b-83f2c6cfafe8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://coppercanyon.bajaquest.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903901 | 946 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Secondary Mathematics Course Offerings
Secondary Mathematics course offerings will be found under the 4 letter code of MAED in the course listings.
547 – Special Topics in Mathematics for Teachers (1-6)
This course is designed to address topics in mathematics or mathematics education that are of particular interest to students and faculty. Each topic aims at giving teachers a better understanding of mathematics content and/or pedagogy to enhance their instructional practices.
550 – History of Mathematics (3)
An overview of the history of mathematics from the time of ancient Egyptians and Babylonians to modern day. Special emphasis is placed on the history of the development of mathematical topics pertinent to the middle school and high school curriculum.
560 – Geometry for Teachers (3)
The development of Euclidean and various non-Euclidean geometries from axiomatic systems. Topics may also include construction problems and geometrical transformations with the use of “Geometer’s Sketchpad” software. Emphasis is placed on developing an in-depth understanding of those topics in the middle and high school geometry curriculum.
570 – Algebra and Number Theory for Teachers (3)
A study of the ways in which the ideas of number theory and algebraic structures underlie the topics in the middle and high school mathematics curriculum. Topics include a theoretical study of number systems and selected concepts from groups, rings, fields, and vector spaces. Graphing calculators, computer algebra systems, and spreadsheets are used to explore algebraic and number theory concepts. | <urn:uuid:1aa2707a-bedd-4771-b9a0-1d5ddd00e328> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://publications.umw.edu/graduatecatalog/graduate-course-descriptions/education-courses/maed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901899 | 317 | 2.84375 | 3 |
1.Q: When should everbearing raspberries begin to produce flowers for their fall (second) crop? From what part of the cane do these flowers grow?
A: These flowers are produced on the tips of the primocanes. The terminal bud should change from a vegetative bud to a floral bud. In other words you should see flower buds in the terminals at this time if it is going to bloom. Only a few varieties do this, of which the Heritage is the most common. If you do not see some flowers now and toward the end of August, you may not have a fall bearing variety.
2. Q: We have a small plot of rasberries. Last year someone told us to put Hollytone on them, but they did not do well. Can you advise?
A: I am not familiar with Hollytone; however in Texas we use soil pH as our guide to fertilization. If the soil pH is above 7.0 to 7.5, all we ever use is nitrogen. Continued application of phosphorus can accentuate iron deficiency problems. If the soil ph is below 7.0, then our first application is a 15-5-10 or a 3-1-2 ratio fertilizer. Subsequent applications only include nitrogen. We like to split the application into at least 2 applications. Normally on berries we use one pound of fertilizer per 10 feet of row. So if your soil ph is 6.5, use 1/2 pound of 15-5-10 on the berries at budbreak per 10 feet of row and after fruit set use an additional 1/2 pound of nitrogen fertilizer. If your soil pH is above 7.5 use 1/2 pound of nitrogen fertilizer at budbreak and then another 1/2 pound after fruit set. If the plants fail to set fruit, one can leave off the final application of fertilizer if the plants are making satisfactory growth. A soil test should be performed every 2 - 3 years to make sure our general recommendations are in order.
| Parson's Archive Home | Aggie Horticulture | | <urn:uuid:03b85c0e-8476-4ed5-8240-21c93580b224> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/archives/parsons/fruit/raspberry.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922567 | 423 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The nematomorph hairworm Spinochordodes tellinii is a parasitic worm whose larvae develop in orthopteran insects (grasshoppers and crickets). This parasite is able to influence its host's behavior: once the parasite is grown, it causes its grasshopper host to jump into water, where the grasshopper will likely drown. The parasite then leaves its host; the adult worm lives and reproduces in water. S. tellinii does not influence its host to actively seek water over large distances, but only when it is already close to water.
The microscopic larvae are ingested by their insect hosts and develop inside them into worms that can be three to four times longer than the host.
The precise molecular mechanism underlying the modification of the host's behaviour is not yet known. A study in 2005 indicated that grasshoppers which contain the parasite express, or create, different proteins in their brains compared to uninfected grasshoppers. Some of these proteins have been linked to neurotransmitter activity, others to geotactic activity, or the body's response to changes in gravity. Further, it appeared that the parasite produces proteins from the Wnt family that act directly on the development of the central nervous system and are similar to proteins known from other insects, suggesting an instance of molecular mimicry.
- "Spinochordodes tellinii". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
- Shaoni Bhattacharya (August 31, 2005). "Parasites brainwash grasshoppers into death dive". New Scientist.
- F. Thomas, A. Schmidt-Rhaesa, G. Martin, C. Manu, P. Durand & F. Renaud (May 2002). "Do hairworms (Nematomorpha) manipulate the water seeking behaviour of their terrestrial hosts?". Journal of Evolutionary Biology (Blackwell Science Ltd.) 15 (3): 356–361. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00410.x.
- D. G. Biron, L. Marché, F. Ponton, H. D. Loxdale, N. Galéotti, L. Renault, C. Joly & F. Thomas (2005). "Behavioural manipulation in a grasshopper harbouring hairworm: a proteomics approach". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272 (1577): 2117–2126. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3213. PMC 1559948. PMID 16191624.
- Andreas Schmidt-Rhaesa, David G. Biron, Cécile Joly & Frédéric Thomas (2005). "Host–parasite relations and seasonal occurrence of Paragordius tricuspidatus and Spinochordodes tellinii (Nematomorpha) in Southern France". Zoologischer Anzeiger 244 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1016/j.jcz.2005.04.002.
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A first float test principally demonstrated the unique lightweight rigid structure conception and Control of Static Heaviness (COSH) system of this radical airlift vehicle and met a key Aeroscraft performance goal: operate without ballast, ground infrastructure or handling.
The Aeroscraft controls its buoyancy by pumping helium between lifting-gas cells and pressurized tanks inside the composite aeroshell. Compressing the helium makes the vehicle heavier than air for easier ground handling and cargo unloading. Releasing the helium displaces air inside the vehicle and makes it neutrally buoyant.
The buoyancy control system can vary the Pelican's "static heaviness" by 3,000-4,000lb, says Pasternak, enough to allow the prototype to take off vertically, yet be heavier than air for landing and unloading. All of the tests are taking place inside Aeros' airship hangar in Tustin, California, with the vehicle expected to reach a height of 10-15ft. Aeros wants to build a 450ft-long vehicle able to carry a 66-ton payload over a 3,000nm unrefueled range.
It uses one third of the fuel of airplanes. This type of vehicle could displace helicopters and some niches from trucks.
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Thinking value chain for youth in agriculture
Agriculture, the backbone of Africa's economy, is threatened by an ageing production population as young people turn away from farming, often thought to be difficult, time consuming, risky and not very profitable.
In Ghana for instance, majority of farmers are interested in empowering their children to take up professions other than farming as their future economic activity.
“No farmer is expecting the child to land on the farm because we don't make agric a very good profession for it to be very attractive to the farmers themselves to be able to introduce their children into the practice,” observed Emmanuel Arthur, Managing Director of Kuapa Kokoo Company Limited, a farmers' cooperative.
According to him, there is the urgent need to reflect on agricultural policies to ascertain business ideals and attractiveness to the youth, otherwise “we'll get to a point that we'll not be able to produce the food we eat, the cash crop that we export and the country could be in serious crises”.
Majority of the people engaged in agriculture are believed to be over 50 years old, hence calls for Africa to think critically about how to attract the youth to replace the aging farming population.
Suggestions include the integration of agriculture into school curricula, easy access to land, capital, technical knowledge and equipment for successful ventures.
Dr. Samuel Kojo Dapaah, a Special Advisor to Ghana's Minister of Food and Agriculture, believes the youth should be better off so long as their concerns with agricultural mechanization, transportation, water and other basic amenities are provided.
However, there is growing advocacy to rather encourage the youth to get higher up in the agricultural value chain.
Some African researchers involved in the GDN Global Research Project, 'Supporting Policy Research to Inform Agricultural Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia', have strongly pointed to the need to shift from actual production at the farm house to value addition ventures for the youth.
At a recent workshop to present five policy briefing papers to help shape debates on agricultural policies in sub-Saharan Africa, Prof. Chris Ackello-Ogutu at the University of Nairobi, stated that young people would be more interested in value addition than actual production.
He said whilst it is important for the youth to change their mindset and attitude towards agriculture, they should be pushed to the value chains.
“We need to push for policies and strategies that can engage the youth in value addition higher up in the value chain and there are opportunities for that; providing extension services at the lower level and investing in processing and packaging and in public relations in the provision of market information”, stated Prof. Ackello-Ogutu.
Other opportunities for the youth in agriculture have been identified in food retail, catering, input supply and research – but these jobs generally require higher levels of education and different skills.
The 2012 international conference on “Young People, Farming and Food” debated research findings and policy options for youth engagement in agriculture.
It was observed that the agrifood sector in Africa, in the coming years, will undergo significant transformation that will result in both challenges and opportunities for young people.
Experts at the forum noted that policy interest in linking young people to agriculture should not ignore important drivers, trends and developments that are impacting on both young people's aspirations and the structure of the agrifood sector.
Prof. Saa Dittoh, Head of Food Nutrition and Security at the University of Development Studies, Tamale says the marketing component of the agricultural value chain should be promoted.
According to the GDN policy paper on 'Long-term Challenges to Food Security and Rural Livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa', Africa's urban populations and incomes are growing and with that will come greater demand for marketed food.
“The youth are becoming very innovative, so looking at the value chain and where they can fit in and not necessarily just on the farm but find out what they can do with the produce, is going to be very important”, observed Prof. Dittoh.
In November 2012, hundreds of public and private sector players in agriculture will be participating in an international conference on agricultural value chains in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Though the event has no specific focus on youth, youth employment may be touched on by the session being organized by International Labour Organization (ILO).
Senior Technical Advisor for Market-Led Development at the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), Andrew W. Shepherd is uncertain “how policies could drive people into value chains as value chains depend, primarily, on satisfying consumer demand, but as demand increases for processed and semi-processed products there will be more employment opportunities”.
As the experts meet to develop a greater understanding of the factors necessary for value chains to thrive, it is expected that young people in Africa would share in the knowledge and experiences to venture the agricultural value chain for gainful employment and contribute to food security.
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In terms of structure and style, both Shakespearean (English) sonnets are arranged thusly:
- four divisions: three quatrains (each with a rhyme-scheme of its own)
- and a rhymed couplet at the end that is usually a commentary on the foregoing, an epigrammatic close
- Thus the typical rhyme-scheme for the English sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg.
In terms of theme:
- Sonnet 29: Alienation and Loneliness; Doubt and Ambiguity; Wealth
- Sonnet 73: Separation – Fear of separation through Death.
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