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MJO as a fluctuation of the monsoon
Over the wettest parts of the tropics, the climate tends to be monsoonal. This means two things:
1. There is a wet season and a dry season,
2. The wind blows in different directions in the two seasons. Westerly (from the west to the east) in the rainy season, and easterly (from the east to the west) in the dry season.
In monsoonal climates, most of the rain that falls in the entire year falls in the wet season; the dry season tends to be almost completely dry. Temperature, on the other hand, doesn’t differ all that much between the seasons. This is the opposite of what happens in some midlatitude climates. For example, in New York City, the temperature is tremendously different in summer and winter, but the amount of precipitation is pretty similar in the two seasons (though some of it is snow in the winter). Another difference is when it is hottest or coldest. In monsoon climates, the rainy season comes at what would be the peak of summer, when the sun is high and you would think it would be hottest; but all the clouds and rain cool things down. The hottest time is actually the late dry season, just before the monsoon, which would be “spring” at higher latitudes.
We think of the monsoons as occurring over land. India in particular is the most famous monsoon region. The Indian monsoon is not just India’s, but extends into southeast Asia as well. Northern Australia and northern South America also have monsoons, as does West Africa, and (arguably) southwestern north America. But the land monsoons are not the whole story. Actually the climate is monsoonal over large regions of tropical ocean also. The tropical Indian ocean experiences the monsoon just as much as India itself does, and so does the tropical western Pacific (say, from Asia to the date line, within 10 or 20 degrees of the equator). By this we mean that over these parts of the oceans, there is a season when it rains a lot and a season when it doesn’t, and the wind shifts from easterly in the dry season to westerly in the rainy season.
Just like summers and winters at higher latitudes, monsoon seasons aren’t exactly the same from one year to the next. Some wet seasons are wetter and some drier than others. Some start earlier, or later; or end earlier or later. Once the rains do start, they may keep going for a long time, but on the other hand they may stop and start. Sometimes there are “breaks” in the middle of monsoon season, during which it may rain little or not at all.
While rainy periods and breaks don’t come and go with complete regularity, there is some rhythm to them. The weather tends to switch from rainy to dry a few times over the course of a rainy season. This is what we mean by “intraseasonal” variability. The period of “intraseasonal oscillations” – the time for one complete cycle to complete itself - is sometimes quoted as 40-50 or 30-60 days, but it’s just as well to think of it as “a few times in a season”. These intraseasonal oscillations affect the land monsoon regions, but are actually strongest over the oceans.
What Roland Madden and Paul Julian discovered in the early 1970s is not just that these active and break periods occur over the oceans (to people living on the islands or adjacent continents this surely was known already) but that there are connections between all the active and break cycles occurring in different places. The activeness or breakness – the “phase”, in jargon – occupies a large chunk of real estate at any given time, but moves at a leisurely pace from west to east. (In northern hemisphere summer, the Indian and southeast Asian monsoon season, it can also move from south to north.) This is the MJO – the eastward-propagating, intraseasonal variability of the monsoons, especially (but not only) over the oceans. | <urn:uuid:c17206be-2625-43df-8759-ae8736a8d59f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://maddenjulianconversation.blogspot.com/2011/09/what-is-mjo-part-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964951 | 886 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Draining boats after use on Texas lakes is more than just a good idea – effective today, it’s state law.
The new regulation is part of Texas’ ongoing effort to stop the spread of zebra mussels. The invasive creatures have been slowed, but not stopped, in their progress into Texas waters.
Zebra mussels entered the United States through the Great Lakes in 1988. They have been spreading across the continent mainly though the transfer of waters containing developing mussels, which are invisible to the naked eye. The mussels were first identified in Texas in 2009. | <urn:uuid:aeec2c24-636c-4342-8f83-d1ba8a5f37c2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ketr.org/term/lake-ray-hubbard | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962853 | 119 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The Kashmir dispute dates from 1947. The partition of the Indian sub-continent along religious lines led to the formation of India and Pakistan. However, there remained the problem of over 650 states, run by princes, existing within the two newly independent countries.
In theory, these princely states had the option of deciding which country to join, or of remaining independent. In practice, the restive population of each province proved decisive.
The people had been fighting for freedom from British rule, and with their struggle about to bear fruit they were not willing to let the princes fill the vacuum.
Although many princes wanted to be "independent" (which would have meant hereditary monarchies and no hope for democracy) they had to succumb to their people's protests which turned violent in many provinces.
Because of its location, Kashmir could choose to join either India or Pakistan. Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Kashmir, was Hindu while most of his subjects were Muslim. Unable to decide which nation Kashmir should join, Hari Singh chose to remain neutral.
But his hopes of remaining independent were dashed in October 1947, as Pakistan sent in Muslim tribesmen who were knocking at the gates of the capital Srinagar.
Hari Singh appealed to the Indian government for military assistance and fled to India. He signed the Instrument of Accession, ceding Kashmir to India on October 26.
Indian and Pakistani forces thus fought their first war over Kashmir in 1947-48. India referred the dispute to the United Nations on 1 January. In a resolution dated August 13, 1948, the UN asked Pakistan to remove its troops, after which India was also to withdraw the bulk of its forces.
Once this happened, a "free and fair" plebiscite was to be held to allow the Kashmiri people to decide their future.
India, having taken the issue to the UN, was confident of winning a plebiscite, since the most influential Kashmiri mass leader, Sheikh Abdullah, was firmly on its side. An emergency government was formed on October 30, 1948 with Sheikh Abdullah as the Prime Minister.
Pakistan ignored the UN mandate and continued fighting, holding on to the portion of Kashmir under its control. On January 1, 1949, a ceasefire was agreed, with 65 per cent of the territory under Indian control and the remainder with Pakistan.
The ceasefire was intended to be temporary but the Line of Control remains the de facto border between the two countries.
In 1957, Kashmir was formally incorporated into the Indian Union. It was granted a special status under Article 370 of India's constitution, which ensures, among other things, that non-Kashmiri Indians cannot buy property there.
Fighting broke out again in 1965, but a ceasefire was established that September. Indian Prime Minister, Lal Bhadur Shastri, and Pakistani President, M Ayub Khan, signed the Tashkent agreement on January 1, 1966.
They resolved to try to end the dispute, but the death of Mr Shastri and the rise of Gen Yahya Khan in Pakistan resulted in stalemate.
In 1971a third war, resulting in the formation of the independent nation of Bangladesh (formerly known as East Pakistan). A war had broken out in East Pakistan in March 1971, and soon India was faced with a million refugees.
India declared war on December 3, 1971 after Pakistani Air Force planes struck Indian airfields in the Western sector.
Two weeks later, the Indian army marched into Dhaka and the Pakistanis surrendered. In the Western sector the Indians managed to blockade the port city of Karachi and were 50 km into Pakistani territory when a ceasefire was reached.
In 1972 Indira Gandhi, the Indian prime minister, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, her Pakistani opposite number (and father of Benazir Bhutto, a later Pakistani premier), signed the Simla Agreement, which reiterated the promises made in Tashkent.
The two sides once again agreed to resolve the issue peacefully, as domestic issues dominated.
Both India and Pakistan had other important domestic problems which kept Kashmir on the back-burner. In 1975 Indira Gandhi declared a state of national emergency, but she was defeated in the 1978 general elections.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was overthrown and hanged in 1977; Pakistan reverted to military dictatorship under Gen Zia ul Haq.
The balance of influence had decisively tilted in Pakistan's favour by the late 1980s, with people's sympathy no longer with the Indian union as it had been in 1947-48 and 1965.
Mrs Gandhi's attempts to install puppet governments in state capitals, manipulating the democratic process in the state legislatures, deeply angered the Kashmiris.
The status quo was largely maintained until 1989 when pro-independence and pro-Pakistan guerrillas struck in the Indian Kashmir valley. They established a reign of terror and drove out almost all the Hindus from the valley before the Indian army moved in to flush them out. Meanwhile Indian and Pakistani troops regularly exchanged fire at the border.
Whereas in 1948 India took the Kashmir issue to the UN and was all for a plebiscite, by the 1990s it hid behind the Simla agreement and thwarted any attempts at UN or third-party mediation.
Over the decades the plebiscite advocated by India's great statesman Jawaharlal Nehru became a dirty word in New Delhi. These developments have led many to believe that Delhi has squandered the Kashmiri people's trust and allegiance.
India and Pakistan both tested nuclear devices in May 1998, and then in April 1999 test-fired missiles in efforts to perfect delivery systems for their nuclear weapons. Pakistan tested its Ghauri II missile four days after India's testing of its long-range (1,250 km) Agni II.
Although Pakistan claims that its missiles are an indigenous effort, in July 1999 Indian customs agents seized components shipped from North Korea which they claim were destined for Pakistan's missile programme.
Pakistan's later intermediate-range Ghauri III missile has a range of about 3,000 km.
When the Indian Prime Minister, Atal Behari Vajpayee, set out to Lahore by bus on February 20, 1999, inaugurating the four times a week Delhi-Lahore-Delhi bus service, the world felt that such a genuine effort at friendly neighbourhood relations would lower the tension along the Line of Control in Kashmir.
But, all hopes of diplomacy disappeared once the cross-LOC firing in Kargil began during the mid-1990s. The death toll , including both soldiers and civilians, was more than 30,000.
In the first week of August 1998 Indian and Pakistani troops exchanged artillery fire, described by locals as heavier than that of the 1948 and 1965 wars put together. An estimated 50,000 rounds of ammunition were expended and a large number of soldiers and civilians killed.
In the summer of 1999 hostility in Kargil went far beyond the now familiar annual exhange of artillery fire.
When India began patrolling the Kargil heights that summer, it found to its horror that many key posts vacated in the winter were occupied by infiltrators. A patrol was ambushed in the first week of May 1999. India belatedly realised the magnitude of the occupation - which was around 10 km deep and spanned almost 100 km of the LOC - and sent MiG fighters into action on May 26.
India contended that the infiltrators were trained and armed by Pakistan, and based in "Azad Kashmir" with the full knowledge of the Pakistani government - and that Afghan and other foreign mercenaries accompanied them.
Pakistan insisted that those involved were freedom fighters from Kashmir and that it was giving only moral support.
India ordered the jets not to stray into Pakistani territory; but those that did were shot down.
The conflict ended only after Bill Clinton, the US President, and Nawaz Sharif, Pakistan's Prime minister, met in Washington on July 4, 1999.
Meanwhile, the Indian Army had made significant advances, capturing vital territory on July 4. Despite the apparent efforts to mediate, the US maintained that it was not interfering in what India still claims to be a bilateral issue.
Pakistan withdrew its forces later that month. However, skirmishing continued, and in August India shot down a Pakistani reconnaissance plane, killing 16.
The official number of Indian troops lost in Kargil was around 500, with almost double that number of "infiltrators" killed. Nevertheless, India did not declare war against Pakistan - instead, Mr Vajpayee ambigously announced a "war-like situation".
Yet this, by all accounts of soldiers and top Indian army officers involved, was a war in which India lost men engaged in hand-to-hand combat with Pakistani soldiers in the heights of Kargil - a war that could be compared with the one of 1948-49, which was limited to Kashmir, with the other border regions remaining peaceful.
Thus in 1999, in a war limited to one sector, India suffered casualities within its own territory. Despite much pressure from the military and the public, the government decided not to cross the LOC. Pakistan too suffered criticism at home for limiting its war to artillery fire across the LOC and shooting down Indian aircraft.
The fear of a full-scale war (with nuclear capability adding a deadly dimension), coupled with precarious economies and the knowledge of what international sanctions could do to them, may have prevailed in both countries. | <urn:uuid:2e68a30d-4e5d-4020-af97-f4bc4b8a1cb1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1399992/A-brief-history-of-the-Kashmir-conflict.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974504 | 1,928 | 4.28125 | 4 |
Cold-blooded Reptiles and Amphibians
Amphibians became the first vertebrates to live on land, and like their "cold-blooded" reptile relatives, depend on external energy sources (such as the sun) to maintain their body temperatures. This, combined with their slow metabolism, make reptile and amphibian lifestyles and abilities dramatically different from their mammalian counterparts.
Mammals (and birds) are endotherms, which means they generate heat internally, through a high metabolic rate, and usually maintain a fairly high and constant body temperature regardless of ambient temperature (within reasonable limits); this is often called being "warm-blooded."
Reptiles, in contrast, are ectotherms. They obtain heat from outside sources, like the sun, and regulate their temperature through behaviors such as basking or seeking shade. Their body temperature is roughly the same as the ambient temperature.
Turtle basking to raise its body temperature | <urn:uuid:f6e67b60-3448-4d9b-b271-f3056c70a699> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/reptilesamphibians/cold_blooded.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948569 | 192 | 4 | 4 |
Robertson Screwdriver: The Biggest Little Invention of the 20th Century So Far
Rybczynski's quest for the origins of this most common tool did not prove easy. Some tools, such as the frame saw, had obvious origins since they were developed in a logical response to a particularly vexing problem.
When the New York Times asked Canadian author Witold Rybczynski to write about the Millennium's "best tool," he had some difficulty choosing. His entertaining book One Good Turn describes how he carefully examined his toolbox for candidates. Many worthy tools, such as the try square, level, chalk line, tape measure, handsaw, plane, chisel, etc., were invented by the Romans or the Egyptians and so predated the Millennium. It was his wife who put him to thinking about the one tool that she always kept handy, the screwdriver.
Rybczynski's quest for the origins of this most common tool did not prove easy. Some tools, such as the frame saw, had obvious origins since they were developed in a logical response to a particularly vexing problem. Others such as the carpenter's brace appeared mysteriously from some brilliant individual's creative imagination. While the screwdriver can hardly be called poetic inspiration, the screw itself is a different matter. The screw is a helix, a very complicated shape that appears in visible nature only in climbing vines and in some seashells.
The screw was probably invented by that singular genius Archimedes, who also gave us, among other things, the compound pulley, the windlass and the water screw, a device for lifting water that has at its heart an elegant helical screw. About 300 years later, in the first century AD, Hero of Alexandria invented the vertical press, which was used to press olives and grapes. But it was another 1400 years before some bright light realized that the helix that could press olives could also serve as a kind of threaded nail.
Rybczynski found the first evidence of screws dating from the 15th century, when they were used in watches, guns and armour but it was another 300 years before they became common. Individual hand-made screws were just too difficult to make and were of poor quality. The first industrial process for making screws was developed in England in the 1760s but it was Cullen Whipple of Providence, RI, who invented the automated method of cutting screws in 1842.
From the beginning the slotted head, driven by the flat-bladed driver, was the standard. But slotted screws have several drawbacks. They easily "cam out" (slip) causing frustration, delay and even injury, and you cannot start them with one hand. From 1860 to 1890 industrious inventors filed a flurry of patents for new heads, but all proved difficult to manufacture.
|Peter L. Robertson was a salesman who spent his spare time conjuring inventions in his workshop.|
The solution was found by a 27-year old Canadian, Peter L. Robertson. He was a pitchman for a Philadelphia tool company, a traveling salesman who sold goods at trade fairs and on street corners throughout eastern Canada. He spent his spare time in his workshop. He invented Robertson's 20th century wrench-brace, a combination brace, wrench, vise, rivet maker and screwdriver. He patented an improved corkscrew, new cuff links and even a better mousetrap. In 1907 he patented his socket-head screw.
Robertson later said that he got the idea for his socket head while demonstrating a spring-loaded driver to an audience in Montreal. The blade slipped and injured his hand. The secret of Robertson's invention is the exact shape of the recess, which is squared, with chamfered edges, tapering sides and a pyramidal bottom.
Robertson found financial backers, talked the town of Milton, Ontario, into giving him a tax-free loan and established his own screw factory. His screw head really was a big improvement. The driver fit snuggly into the head and never cammed out. Robertson tried in vain to set up shop in England or the United States. American backers came forward but they insisted on control, which Robertson would not grant them.
Meanwhile American Henry F. Phillips of Portland, Oregon, also a traveling salesman, patented his cruciform screw, which during World War II became the international standard. The Robertson is now widely used only in Canada even though an independent study by the magazine Consumer Reports declared it far superior to the Phillips, which is notorious for slippage and stripped sockets. While Rybczynski declared the screwdriver and screw the tool of the Millennium, perhaps Robertson was justified in calling his invention "the biggest little invention of the 20th century so far." | <urn:uuid:20432b55-a0cc-4f49-a946-06b329696fc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/robertson-screwdriver-the-biggest-little-invention-of-the-20th-century-so-far-feature/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984402 | 971 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Potomac School students take photos of Earth's curvature with help from iPad
At the Potomac School in McLean this past school year, 13 seventh- and eighth-graders signed up for a biweekly science elective that proposed this challenge: Take a photo of the curvature of the Earth and spend just $200 to do it.
Science teacher Bill Wiley knew the kids could research online what tools they would need, including a weather balloon and a styrofoam cooler. But that was the easy part. They still had to figure out how to put it together. "I figured there was about a 60 percent chance they would pull it off," Wiley said.
In the end, the group got incredible pictures. And the experience of launching and tracking the device was like a scene right out of Hollywood, Wiley said, as the kids tracked the device in real-time using a student's iPad.
"It was like one of those scenes you see on TV where they do these things [with technology], and you go, 'That can't be real,' " Wiley said.
The students met every other week throughout the year. They started with a digital camera, which they programmed to shoot photos and video several times a minute. They bought a cellphone that had a GPS function and loaded software that regularly relayed the phone's location to the Internet through a program called InstaMapper. Both phone and camera went in the cooler, along with hand warmers to keep the electronics warm in the stratosphere, where it would be 70 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. Finally, the kids had to figure out what angle to hang the cooler so that the camera would get shots of the Earth's edge, not just a bunch of clouds. "It pushed all their math ability," Wiley said.
On the day of the launch, June 5, four students drove with Wiley to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, to launch the balloon and its payload. Wiley had asked the kids to bring their laptops so they could use WiFi signals to get online and track the camera's movements on InstaMapper. But seventh-grader Will Prout brought his father's iPad, which was able to connect to the Internet through a regular cellphone network. That meant they could follow the signal while driving around.
"I didn't expect we would use the iPad that much, but it really saved us," said Will, 13.
After the balloon rose above the clouds, the cellphone signal faded, so the group toured the Gettysburg battlefield. In the thinner atmosphere high above the Earth, the lack of pressure would cause the balloon to expand from six to 15 feet in diameter and eventually pop. Then the cooler, cellphone and camera would fall down to Earth with a small parachute.
The kids constantly checked the iPad to see if a signal had reappeared, marking the cooler's reentry. It finally showed up, three hours later, but on the other side of the Chesapeake Bay! The weather models that the kids had used to predict the descent hadn't worked so well -- they thought it would land north of Baltimore.
The group headed to Delaware, driving toward the cooler's location on InstaMapper. They drove on rural roads, closing in on the cellphone's GPS signal, until they finally spotted the bright orange parachute in the middle of a strawberry field. A few anxious moments later, they turned on the camera and looked through the pictures.
-- Margaret Webb Pressler | <urn:uuid:1dd723a8-a03f-4680-9c96-cfe950acf1ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2010/07/12/ST2010071205351.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976354 | 702 | 3.21875 | 3 |
People across the world are mourning the death of Nelson Mandela, the anti-apartheid leader who became the first black president in South Africa after spending 27 years in a jail. He was 95.
Here's what Michigan elected officials and politicians said on Mandela's passing and legacy. Mandela and Michigan were linked in the civil rights struggle. Michigan State University was the first public university to divest from South Africa. Michigan was also one of the first states to issue a proclamation that Mandela was not a terrorist, as the U.S. government had labeled him.
U.S. Rep. John Conyers, D-Detroit, went to South Africa to see Mandela be installed as President.
“I still remember the humble man that visited Detroit, just months following his release from prison, to organize for his political movement in South Africa and speak with Rosa Parks. And I will always treasure the memories I have, just four short years later, of the voyage I made with President Clinton and Harry Belafonte to attend Nelson Mandela’s installation as President of South Africa. While we mourn his passage, we know that Madiba’s legacy of fighting for freedom and independence will live on.”
Gov. Rick Snyder said in a statement:
“The people of Michigan join the global community in mourning the loss of President Mandela, who will be remembered as one of the world’s great leaders. We offer our humble appreciation for the work of this remarkable man, whose legacy as a statesman, reformer and peacemaker has left a better world for us and our children.”
U.S. Rep. John Dingell, D-Dearborn, the longest serving member of Congress, said:
Mandela "stood defiant in the face of inequality, put his life and livelihood on the line for a cause he knew was true and just, and left his nation and this world a better place. To have that lasting effect is among the greatest tests of heroism, and I’m confident in saying that Mandela will forever stand as a hero, not only to South Africans, but to all who believe in the power of one person effecting global change for a greater good."
U.S. Rep. Fred Upton met Mandela during a session of Congress. He said Thursday:
“His words and actions will continue to inspire, strengthen and bring hope to future generations. He was a transformational figure on the world stage, but also a public servant of great humility. We would be well-served by having more leaders follow his example."
U.S. Rep Dan Kildee said in a statement:
“While today we mourn the loss of such a revolutionary leader, I take solace in knowing that Nelson Mandela’s life work has undoubtedly made the world a more peaceful, just place.”
Michigan Republican Party Chairman Bobby Schostak said in a statement:
"His heart was his compass as he tirelessly fought for decades on end with great personal sacrifice. His courage was truly extraordinary, and for that he will be remembered for the ages by all of mankind. May his memory be a blessing for all those who lead humanity, and may he rest in peace.”
We will add more statements as we get them. | <urn:uuid:338ced1b-4f72-426c-af20-165d43c73c5b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mlive.com/news/index.ssf/2013/12/michigan_leaders_and_politicia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974415 | 670 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Few ideas are simple in medicine but none is simpler than the polypill. A combination of five medicines in a single capsule, taken once a day, would be easy to remember, easy to take and, on the strength of the trial reported in today's Lancet, effective.
Could such a simple idea really save hundreds of thousands of lives? Yes. For a simple reason. Although the five medicines that make up the polypill – aspirin, statin and three blood-pressure drugs – are already taken by millions of people in Britain and around the world, there are millions more who ought to be taking them but aren't.
These are the people who are at high risk of heart disease but don't know that they are because they don't have any of the recognised risk factors – being overweight, a smoker, having high blood pressure, high cholesterol or a family history of heart disease.
They lack any of the risk factors but they account for one third of all heart attacks – 80,000 a year in Britain. Yet they are being entirely missed by the current approach which focuses treatment on those identified as being at high risk.
The solution, proposed six years ago by two British specialists in the BMJ, is simple: treat everyone. Give all those over a certain age the polypill whose five constituent medicines are tried and tested and have few side effects. The proposal has been likened to a vaccine for the middle-aged with this difference: unlike a vaccine which might benefit one in 1,000 of those who receive it, the polypill would benefit one in three of those who take it.
But it faces three challenges. First, more evidence is required that it can save lives and funding must be found for the necessary trials to grant it a product licence. The lack of interest from the major companies involved in drug research is an indictment of the profit-based pharmaceutical industry.
Second, it must overcome criticism from some doctors that such a pill could be used as a licence for people to lead unhealthy lifestyles. The fear is that providing cardiovascular protection to everyone in a pill would remove the incentive to stop smoking, go to the gym and eat a healthy diet.
Third, its proponents need to answer critics who say they are encouraging the medicalisation of everyday life. As more and more of us pop pills, there is a question of what effect mass medication would have on our collective psyche. The polypill will save lives – but at what cost? | <urn:uuid:38279c08-7318-4bf3-bb16-b44d1450e95a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/jeremy-laurance-can-such-a-simple-idea-save-thousands-of-lives-1658028.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970387 | 495 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The Center In Mexico: Cancun Climate Change Conference
World leaders who gathered in Cancún, Mexico, to address the global climate crisis in December 2010 met against an ominous, though still hopeful, backdrop. The year was shaping up to be one of the hottest on record. In Russia, heat and drought destroyed a fifth of the nation's wheat. Greenland shed its largest chunk of ice in nearly half a century. And flooding in Pakistan displaced 15 million to 20 million people. Meanwhile, scientists maintained that global greenhouse gas emissions must peak within the next five to 10 years — and decline steeply thereafter — if the world is to have a chance of avoiding catastrophic climate change. The Center for Biological Diversity was in on the action at the Cancún conference to reinforce that necessity.
Unfortunately — and alarmingly — the talks fell far short of providing the concrete and immediate pollution reductions needed to address the growing climate crisis, as the Center’s press release analysis shows. Although, on the positive side, they were marked by a broad affirmation of support for the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change process, the talks left us with a lot of work ahead to build a movement strong enough to push the world toward significant progress in the fight against catastrophic climate change. And we have much to do to push the United States, in particular, toward taking a leadership role rather than obstructing progress on the most important issue humanity has yet to face.
At the conference, staffers from the Center’s Climate Law Institute were among those in Cancún urging world leaders to take significant action on this unprecedented global crisis. The Center released our key points for the talks, The Closing Window for Action to Avoid Dangerous Climate Change, which urged leaders to dramatically decrease carbon dioxide emissions and set 2015 as the latest year for carbon emissions to peak before a steady decline. The Center and 350.org also rereleased a detailed report called Not Just a Number: Achieving a CO2 Concentration of 350 ppm or Less to Avoid Catastrophic Climate Impacts.
In Cancún, the Center organized a session with 350.org called “Science-based Long-term Targets: Why They're Needed, How They Can Be Achieved.” We talked to a multitude of people from around the globe at our exhibit space celebrating the United Nation’s International Year of Biodiversity, featuring our project “350 Reasons We Need to Get to 350: 350 Species Threatened by Global Warming,” with a special focus on species found in Mexico. We took every opportunity to influence the negotiations and their outcomes — and sent back a number of video reports from the front lines of the struggle to curb global warming. | <urn:uuid:d5351755-0874-4125-b158-6714856ab758> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/climate_law_institute/350_or_bust/cancun/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940276 | 557 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Brazil has the largest population in South America and is the fifth most populous country in the world. The people are diverse in origin, and Brazil often boasts that the new "race" of Brazilians is a successful amalgam of African, European, and indigenous strains, a claim that is truer in the social than the political or economic realm. Not quite half the population is of European descent, while more than 40% are of mixed African and European ancestry. Portuguese is the official language and nearly universal; English is widely taught as a second language. Most of the estimated 350,000 to 550,000 indigenous peoples (chiefly of Tupí or Guaraní linguistic stock) are found in the rain forests of the Amazon River basin; 12% of Brazil's land has been set aside as indigenous areas. About 75% of the population is at least nominally Roman Catholic; there is a growing Protestant minority. | <urn:uuid:5e881039-4678-4c61-862f-b7eaa7bc56e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/world/brazil-people.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964743 | 183 | 3 | 3 |
Posted by jennifer on Thursday, September 25, 2008 at 9:05am.
A repairman purchased several furnace -blower motors for a total cost of $210. If is cost per motor had been $5 less, he could have purchased one additional motor. How many motors did he buy at the regular rate?
- MATH - Damon, Thursday, September 25, 2008 at 9:30am
regular rate = r
discount rate = (r-5)
number bought = n
number that would have been bought = (n+1)
210 = r n
210 = (r-5)(n+1) = r n + r - 5 n -5
from the first equation r = 210/n
then the second
215 = (210/n)n +210/n -5 n
5 = 210/n -5 n
5 n = 210 -5 n^2
n^2 + n - 42 = 0
n = 8
- sorry factored wrong - Damon, Thursday, September 25, 2008 at 9:35am
(n+7)(n-6) = 0
n = 6
- MATH - Damon, Thursday, September 25, 2008 at 9:36am
r = 210/n = 35
r-5 = 30
n+1 = 7
30 * 7 = 210 check
- MATH - jennifer, Thursday, September 25, 2008 at 9:39am
thank you very much
- MATH - Nathen, Wednesday, February 16, 2011 at 12:07am
HELP!!!!!I need a better explination.
Answer This Question
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Definitions for MORNmɔrn
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word MORN
morning, morn, morning time, forenoon(noun)
the time period between dawn and noon
"I spent the morning running errands"
Origin: mōrn, morwen, from morgen, from murginaz (compare West Frisian moarn, Dutch morgen, Norwegian morgon), from pre-Germanic , , from mr̥Hko (compare Welsh bore ‘morning’, Lithuanian mérkti ‘to blink, twinkle’, Skt ‘ray of light’), from ‘to shimmer, glisten’ (compare Greek μέρα ‘morning’).
the first part of the day; the morning; -- used chiefly in poetry
Origin: [OE. morwen, morgen, AS. morgen; akin to D. morgen, OS. morgan, G. morgen, Icel. morginn, morgunn, Sw. morgon, Dan. morgen, Goth. margins. Cf. Morrow, Morning.]
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
morn, n. the first part of the day: morning.—The morn (Scot.), to-morrow; The morn's morning, to-morrow morning. [M. E. morwen—A.S. morgen; Ger. morgen.]
The numerical value of MORN in Chaldean Numerology is: 9
The numerical value of MORN in Pythagorean Numerology is: 6
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
There never was night that had no morn.
Why destroy this Morn, by a Past that is dead & Gone and a Future not yet Born!-RVM
There rise her timeless capitals of empires daily born, whose plinths are laid at midnight and whose streets are packed at morn; and here come tired youths and maids that feign to love or sin in tones like rusty razor blades to tunes like smitten tin.
No sun - no moon! No morn - no noon -
No dawn - no dusk - no proper time of day.
No warmth, no cheerfulness, no healthful ease,
No comfortable feel in any member -
No shade, no shine, no butterflies, no bees,
No fruits, no flowers, no leaves, no birds,
Images & Illustrations of MORN
Find a translation for the MORN definition in other languages:
Select another language: | <urn:uuid:784239eb-b120-4afa-be07-109299a2acd9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/MORN | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.7506 | 546 | 2.890625 | 3 |
A disorder in which there is an increased, inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone, the incidence of which is about 7 in 10,000. It is sort of opposite to diabetes insipidous.
This results in disorders of fluid and electrolyte balance, with the inability to dilute urine, lowered plasma sodium levels (hyponatremia) and fluid retention in the body.
The most common cause is a tumour that secretes ADH, most common of which are "oat cell" tumours in lung cancer.
Treatment is via fluid restrictions to daily insensible losses and finding and treating the underlying cause.
VA shunt obstruction
cavernous sinus thrombosis
Decreased left atrial pressure
Promote antidiuretic hormone release
Inhibit prostaglandin synthesis
Potentiate ADH action
- Increased water permeability of nephron | <urn:uuid:f9fdc01f-667a-431c-8a54-0a28906e5700> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://everything2.com/title/Syndrome+of+Inappropriate+Antidiuretic+Hormone+secretion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.847819 | 186 | 2.71875 | 3 |
In honor of today, Endangered Species Day, I put together a photo essay on North America’s most endangered animals. To get a list of 10, I started by searching through the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, which is probably the most reliable source of data on this topic. With hundreds of endangered animals, I had to limit my search to species that were Critically Endangered or Extinct in the Wild. Merely “Endangered” wasn’t enough. And so I had to leave out one of the cutest, and most familiar, endangered animals of North America: the black-footed ferret.
There were once tens of thousands of black-footed ferrets living on Western prairies. But disease, habitat destruction and efforts to eliminate their main prey, the pesky prairie dog, drove them nearly to extinction. By 1986, the only black-footed ferret survivors lived in captivity. But reintroduction efforts, which began in 1991, have been successful at about half of the 19 sites where they have been tried, and the wild population now numbers around 750 animals. The ultimate goal is to have about 1,500 ferrets and at least 10 populations with 30 or more breeding adults.
When I looking into the subject of endangered animals, I thought that whatever I wrote was going to be incredibly depressing. But instead, I found so many reasons to be hopeful. Identifying the fact that a species is dwindling in numbers isn’t the end. That recognition often prompts scientists, conservationists, government officials and the public to take action. And so we have people scouring Panama for new species of frogs, hoping to save them before a deadly fungus reaches their home, and others rearing all kinds of critters in captivity—from tree snails to condors—in an effort to preserve them from extinction.
What would you do to help save a species from disappearing forever? | <urn:uuid:e7cb87f4-932e-4e46-8633-2e2bd6b1aa32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/black-footed-ferrets-and-other-endangered-critters-177077430/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962455 | 394 | 3.140625 | 3 |
English-Language Training Resources
These resources are available for free to educators and English-language learners.
For English-Language Learners
U.S.A. Learns is a web-based education tool used to support immigrants who want to learn or improve their English skills as they become part of American society.
The web site consists of three unique programs:
- First English Course: a 20-unit, video-based beginner-level course
- Second English Course: a 20-unit, video-based intermediate-level course (English for All videos)
- Practice English and Reading: 44 intermediate-level stories and activities
U.S.A Learns offers contextualized practice activities in listening, reading, writing, speaking and life skills necessary for success at work and in the community.
Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL)
The OWL web site provides grammar, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure, sentence style and paraphrasing exercises. OWL handouts for ESOL students cover diverse topics such as articles, count and non-count nouns, and prepositions,
Literacy Assistance Center (LAC)
The LAC provides links that can enhance and support the work of the ESOL practitioner. | <urn:uuid:98118281-702d-4b38-ab71-5f6eeaf85d52> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newamericans.ny.gov/learn_english/english_language_resources.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.875709 | 254 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Some remarkable footage of a flying fish has been captured by a TV crew filming off the southern tip of Japan.
It is claimed to be one of the longest recorded flights of this acrobatic animal.
The fish was completely airborne for 45 seconds. This beats one previous, impressive report from an American researcher in the 1920s of 42 seconds.
The animal is seen travelling parallel to a ferry, which itself is motoring at about 30km/hour (20mph).
The fish was able to continue flying by occasionally beating the surface of the water with its tail fin. The footage was shot by an NHK crew as it travelled to Yakushima Island.
According to Junji Yonezawa, at the Center for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries on Outlying Islands, the animal's flight-time of 45 seconds must be close to its physical limit, as brachial respiration is impossible while moving through the air.
There are some 40 species of "flying fish" in the family known as Exocoetidae. The animals are found worldwide in warmer waters.
Their flight ability comes from a glide rather than a powered flapping.
This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so. | <urn:uuid:9690fd6a-46d2-412b-81ce-9d56e804a8bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7410421.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96114 | 307 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The latest news from academia, regulators
research labs and other things of interest
Posted: Jun 09, 2011
Scientists build first wafer-scale graphene integrated circuit
(Nanowerk News) In a just-published work in the magazine Science ("Wafer-Scale Graphene Integrated Circuit"), IBM researchers announced the first integrated circuit fabricated from wafer-size graphene, and demonstrated a broadband frequency mixer operating at frequencies up to 10 gigahertz (10 billion cycles/second). This result opens up possibilities of achieving practical graphene technology with more high-performance, radio-frequency communication devices and is also a major milestone for the Carbon Electronics for RF Applications (CERA) program, funded by DARPA.
Graphene, the thinnest electronic material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms packed in a honeycomb structure, possesses outstanding electrical, optical, mechanical and thermal properties that make it an ideal for a number of applications including high-frequency, flexible, and transparent electronics.
Despite significant scientific progress in the understanding of this novel material and the demonstration of high-performance graphene-based devices, the challenge of integrating graphene transistors with other components on a single chip had not been realized until now, mostly due to poor adhesion of graphene with metals and oxides and the lack of reliable fabrication schemes to yield reproducible devices and circuits.
Optical image of a completed graphene integrated circuit (IC) including contact pads. The probes for testing the circuit (P1-P4) are also shown. The scale bar is 100 µm.
This new integrated circuit, consisting of a graphene transistor and a pair of inductors compactly integrated on a silicon carbide (SiC) wafer, overcomes these design hurdles by developing wafer-scale fabrication procedures that maintain the quality of graphene and, at the same time, allow for its integration to other components in a complex circuitry.
How it Works
In this demonstration, graphene is synthesized by thermal annealing of SiC wafers to form uniform graphene layers on the surface of SiC. The fabrication of graphene circuits involves four layers of metal and two layers of oxide to form top-gated graphene transistor, on-chip inductors and interconnects.
The circuit operates as a broadband frequency mixer, which produces output signals with mixed frequencies (sum and difference) of the input signals. Mixers are fundamental components of many electronic communication systems. Frequency mixing up to 10 GHz and excellent thermal stability up to 125°C has been demonstrated with the graphene integrated circuit.
The fabrication scheme developed can also be applied to other types of graphene materials, including chemical vapor deposited (CVD) graphene films synthesized on metal films, and are also compatible with optical lithography for reduced cost and throughput.
Previously, the team has demonstrated standalone graphene transistors with a cut-off frequency as high as 100 GHz and 155 GHz for epitaxial and CVD graphene, for a gate length of 240 and 40 nm, respectively.
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on reddit or StumbleUpon. Thanks!
Check out these other trending stories on Nanowerk: | <urn:uuid:fc465ee6-97a5-49b9-90c1-d646e933b1ea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=21695.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919673 | 645 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Liberia is a small country situated on the coast of West Africa with just over 3 million inhabitants. Fourteen years of civil war have taken an enormous toll on the population; an estimated 85% of the population lives below the poverty line.
Even prior to the devastation of the most recent conflict, 35% of the population were undernourished; 25% of the population had access to safe water and some 78% of the population were illiterate.
One year after the fall of the government of Charles Taylor, Liberia is a country that is so poor and chaotic that it has fallen off the UN Human Development Index.
It is a country, which remains in a state of development limbo. The key to allowing major development work to take place is the issue of security.
UN troops have spent the last year disarming former fighters, many of whom were children. Now that the weapons are off the street the challenge is to try to reintegrate an entire generation of young men, women and children that grew up in a country torn apart war, into a fragile and volatile society, which has been devastated by years of conflict and where unemployment currently stands at a stunning 80%.
Conflict is not uncommon in Africa but Liberia's history is an example of the depths to which people can be driven. It is hard to keep up with the different tyrants that have oppressed this country and all for personal gain.
The Irish Army are at the forefront of a 15,000 strong force of UNMIL peacekeepers that have brought stability to the country. The Irish Battalion are the Rapid Reaction Force and regularly patrol the country in force to remind both ordinary people and would be rebels that violence will not be tolerated.
Meanwhile, UNMIL have supervised the disarmament of over 60,000 combatants. This process has not been without its detractors with international agencies highly critical of paying child soldiers for guns. A practice, which they believe, condones the use of children as soldiers.
However, some point out that this is the reality of life in Liberia. Children as young as eight years old are hardened killers.
Soldiers are there to provide the security so that humanitarian organisations may do their work. The distinction is important. If there is a blurring of the lines, aid workers can be seen as military targets and are thus unable to function. | <urn:uuid:44316298-3ac9-4a5e-84c6-4ecdfccbc8fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rte.ie/tv/farawayupclose/2006_liberia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970429 | 474 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Scientific name: Allium species
What: bulbs and young stems/leaves
How: raw or cooked as seasoning
Where: open, sunny areas
When: all year, more common in cool weather.
Nutritional Values: Vitamin C plus small amounts of other vitamins, minerals, some carbohydrates.
Other Uses: juice acts as a weak insect repellent
Dangers: Toxic "Crows Poison" plants look just like wild onion but only wild onion smells like onion. If it smells like onion it is safe to eat, if it just smells like grass it is toxic Crow's Poison (Nothoscordum bivalve).
A bunch of wild onions.
A single wild onion plant.
Wild onion flowers and seeds.
Close-up of Wild Onion flowers and seeds.
Wild onions form large beds of plants which drive out other plants. They are most common in cooler weather. The whole plant can be used same as chives, from the bulb to the tips of the green stems.
Larger wild onion stems can become too tough to eat unless they are boiled or stewed for a long time, but they tough ones can be easily determined when harvesting. If they are tough to cut/break then they'll be tough during eating unless cooked a long time.
The white flowers that they produce can also be eaten and give an interesting appearance to foods when the flowers are left raw. The flowers eventually turn into fairly hard, nut-like seeds that can also be eaten raw or cooked into dishes.
Wild onions can be dried for later use but be warned, if you dry them in a dehydrator your whole house will smell like onions for days.
There is a minimally toxic mimic of wild onion, which is called Crow's Poison (Nothoscordum bivalve). This plant look almost identical to a small wild onion but it lacks the onion/garlic smell when. Crushed Crow's Poison smell like grass whereas the wild onion smells like onion when crushed. The toxins in Crow's Poison are very weak and in a very low amount. You would have to eat a pound of the plant just to get a bad stomach.
Crow's Poison (SLIGHTLY TOXIC)
Closeup of Crow's Poison flower (SLIGHTLY TOXIC). | <urn:uuid:f925aabb-b7f5-4661-8dec-0ec5b6f26d70> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foragingtexas.com/2008/08/onion-wild.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928849 | 473 | 3.25 | 3 |
Last month, New York celebrated the bicentennial of one of its most iconic works of engineering and urban design — Manhattan’s grid. The 1811 street layout was officially known as the Commissioners’ Plan, but its execution is really owed to John Randel, Jr., the plan’s chief surveyor and engineer, who endured — and persevered through — endless legal and physical challenges to imprinting his vision on what was, north of the burgeoning city, a wild, hilly, watery island.
Randel’s difficult (and often amusing) travails have been widely recounted elsewhere: he was, among other things, pelted with vegetables and even arrested for trespass in the course of carrying out the Commissioners’ scheme, which involved seizing property and, in the course of leveling hillsides, leaving some houses stranded on bluffs along his new avenues. The New York Times has a colorful story about him as part of a larger feature celebrating the grid — which, the paper proclaimed, had easily stood the test of time.
But what if Randel had encountered more propertyholders like Henry Brevoot? His obstinant refusal to part with his estate means that, to this day, you can’t walk the length of 11th Street uninterrupted — it doesn’t run between Broadway and Fourth Ave. Or what if the considerable engineering challenges his project faced — eight million cubic yards of dirt had to be moved from the future west side to fill in the valleys of the future east — simply couldn’t be overcome, either physically or financially?
There’s been plenty of aimless speculation over centuries as to what Manhattan would look like sans grid. Among the more tongue-in-cheek illustrations were Charles-Antoine Perrault and Alex Wallach’s views of what the island would look like if crisscrossed not by its grid, but by Paris’ medieval streets and strident boulevards. Cutting and pasting the Left Bank from one Google Earth grid to another didn’t exactly make for a perfect fit, but the idea that a gridless Manhattan may have developed in a similarly piecemeal, haphazard fashion — as it had, with farmers subdividing their land into individual, poorly meshing grids, until 1811 — makes sense.
But there was at least one serious master plan for Manhattan that predated the Commissioners’. Surviving in only a few rare maps (themselves mostly reproductions), it demonstrates that, had the Commissioners’ Plan not prevailed, New York could have been a considerably different place today.
In December 1797, the Franco-Prussian duo Joseph Mangin (later architect of New York’s City Hall) and Casimir Goerck contracted with the city to “survey and plan all its streets”. They must have had little communication with their employer after that, since, while the map the two produced was complete by 1799, it was only in 1803 that the city minutes recorded that their “Map of the City lately printed…contains many inaccuracies and designated streets which have not been agreed to by the Corporation [meaning the city] and which it should be improper to adopt, and which might tend to lead the proprietors of the Land adjacent to such streets so laid into error.”
The city council immediately voted to revoke the surveyors’ contract. It even asked the city’s official Street Commissioner paste to their map a label affirming that “none of the [new] streets…have been approved or open under [the city’s] authority”. Curiously, though, another version of the plan appeared in 1807, rendered in color by engraver William Bridges. The engraver added some flourishes — including a number of leafy residential squares — but otherwise left the Mangin-Goerck Plan more or less intact.
What was Mangin and Goerck’s vision for Manhattan, exactly? Their maps make it hard to tell. But many of the new streets they would have scratched onto the island’s then-wild surface were already being planned by landowners. In a way, then, their plan was more like a codification of the way the city would have developed by organic subdivision than an equally grandiose alternative to the uncompromisingly Cartesian rigidity of the Commissioners’ Plan.
Mangin and Goerck extended the incipient street plan covering the old Bayard West Farm Grid beyond present-day 14th Street— which, today, marks the absolute northern limit of streets that don’t conform with the Commissioners’ grid. They also wiped out these streets’ early adoption of numbers, rather than names (preferring titles — Art, Science, and Amity — more conceptual than pragmatic).
The streets laid out on the old De Lancey estate — once conceived as an upscale residential district but, after their Loyalist developers had fled the Revolution, beginning to take on the far less affected characteristics of the Lower East Side — pressed north to take up half of what’s the East Village today. The rest of that neighborhood seems to have been planned in the exact same style as the descendants of Petrus Stuyvesant — New York’s last Dutch governor and former owner of the property — intended.
On the west side, Mangin and Goerck’s plan seems to contemplate continuing Greenwich Village’s haphazard tangle of streets — which is to say there was not much of a plan at all. In fact, although, unlike the Commissioners’ Plan, Mangin and Goerck’s maps don’t depict the entire island, it’s fair to guess that the street plans of many of the old villages that once dotted rural Manhattan — Kip’s Bay, Glass House Farm, Manhattanville — may have been preserved. Today’s Midtown might consist of power addresses not on Fifth or Park Avenues, but on old Dutch lanes with names like Rapilje and Schroepel.
In short, a Mangin-Goerck Manhattan might have not been a very orderly place — but it might, the loss of Manhattanhenge notwithstanding, have been a more interesting one. Much has been made of the “democratic” nature of the Commissioners’ grid, which eliminated sightlines dominated by government buildings — a common planning practice at the time, and one which emphasized institutional hierarchies. But the grid has also been chastised for its monotony (by no less a celebrant of democracy than Tocqueville) and critiqued for its convenience to business interests: right angles proved the most efficient means to divvy up real estate. Randel’s warning that extending the grid beyond 155th Street would kick off a wave of “pernicious speculation” was a little more than a mischievous wink at the boom his existing, wildly ambitious idea would help spark.
Still, even the mathematically unyielding Commissioners’ Plan was eventually forced to make geographic, economic, and legal concessions to Manhattan’s preexisting order. The public spaces it did leave open — a giant marketplace that would have spanned the length of the East Village, a vast “parade” for drilling troops — were chopped down to minuscule equivalents, and form today’s Madison and Tompkins Squares. The winding old Bloomingdale Road was left in place, as an extension of Broadway. So were bits and pieces of older street plans, like the East Village’s Stuyvesant Street. It cuts what seems like a curious diagonal today, but would have been part of a larger grid had the Mangin-Goerck Plan taken hold.
Despite the censure they received from the city council, Mangin and Goerck were eventually honored for their efforts — their names were given to two of the city streets they’d surveyed. For over a century, Goerck and Mangin Streets ran through a Lower East Side oblivious of the roles its namesakes nearly played in shaping the city. In 1939, however, Goerck Street was renamed for Simon Baruch, a Confederate surgeon turned advocate of public baths. Not long after that, the street largely disappeared in a wave of redevelopment that supplanted much of Manhattan’s street plan — grid and non — with superblocks and tunnel approaches. Baruch Place gave way to the Bernard Baruch Houses — named for Simon’s financier son. Mangin Street survives to this day — though it’s a stub of its former self, adrift in the ocean of public housing projects near FDR Drive.
Similar reconfigurations have, in the course of time, taken place all over Manhattan. The Commissioners’ grid endures. But all things tend toward entropy: the more the city accommodates necessary or desired changes, the more it actually resembles Mangin-Goerck’s more chaotic, more haphazard New York.
Tags: Cartography, Manhattan, New York, Street Names, Then and Now, Urban Design
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Coalition offers cautious praise for Ontario's new habitat regulations
TORONTO — The Save Ontario Species coalition (S.O.S.) is happy for the Jefferson salamander and the wood turtle, not so much for the American badger. The three are among nine endangered species that have just received habitat protection under the Ontario government's Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Ten habitat regulations were scheduled to be in place by June 2009. Nine have been completed for the following species: American badger, barn owl, eastern prairie fringed-orchid, Engelmann's quillwort, few-flowered club-rush, Jefferson salamander, peregrine falcon, western silvery aster and wood turtle. The woodland caribou regulation has yet to be released.
S.O.S. is pleased with several of the habitat regulations, noting that those for the Jefferson salamander and the wood turtle set a particularly strong precedent by closely following the science-based recommendations of the recovery teams.
"We're happy to see that the habitat regulation for the Jefferson salamander takes an ecological approach and protects breeding, overwintering and migratory grounds," says Amber Cowie, greenway conservation coordinator for Ontario Nature. "We hope that this regulation gives the salamander a toe up in its fight to survive amid the development pressures that continually threaten its home."
The Jefferson salamander is a tiny amphibian with four front toes and five rear toes that lives under logs, in loose soil or in leaf litter. It is threatened with extinction in Ontario mainly because of habitat loss and degradation.
The wood turtle will also receive greater protection against habitat loss as well as poachers in the pet trade.
"This is a species that is declining across much of its range," says Dr. Anne Bell, Ontario Nature's senior director of conservation and education. "Given the impact of habitat loss and degradation on these turtles, it was critical to make sure that the habitat needed for nesting, feeding and hibernating was covered. The government has delivered a strong, science-based regulation for the wood turtle."
Under Ontario's Endangered Species Act, a habitat regulation does not restrict all land uses, but rather defines the area where the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) will regulate harmful activities. Activities that do not harm habitat can occur without change. Activities that harm the habitat can only proceed if the MNR issues a permit.
Many southern species such as the barn owl and badger have learned to eke out an existence in an already altered rural landscape. In many cases, habitat protection for these species means maintaining current land uses; for example, keeping working farms working and protecting against development.
The badger habitat regulation was an opportunity to break new ground in how habitat in working landscapes could be defined. Instead, the regulation sets a poor precedent by reducing habitat to actual badger residences, few of which are known.
"We recognize that habitat identification for the badger is not easy, but a more precautionary approach should have been applied here," says Rachel Plotkin, biodiversity policy analyst at the David Suzuki Foundation. "A five-metre buffer around known dens does little to protect this highly secretive and imperilled creature."
Estimates suggest that fewer than 200 badgers remain in southern Ontario.
- 30 -
For more information contact:
Anne Bell, Ontario Nature — (416) 444-8419 ext. 239
Amber Cowie, Ontario Nature — (416) 444-8419 ext. 273; 647-330-3576 (cell)
Rachel Plotkin, David Suzuki Foundation — (613) 594-9026; (613) 796-7999 (cell)
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In biology, homology is commonly defined as any similarity between structures of organisms in different taxa that derives from similar structures in their shared ancestry. Examples of homology occur at different levels of organization. Entire anatomical structures that are similar in different biological taxa (species, genera, and so on) would be termed homologous if their common ancestor also exhibits a similar anatomical structure. Closely correlated partial sequences in DNA or protein could be similarly labeled if common ancestry is considered to be the cause.
Such a definition of homology is a redefinition from the classical understanding of the term, which predated Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, having been coined by Richard Owen in the 1840s. Historically, homology was defined as similarity in structure and position, such as the pattern of bones in a bat's wing and those in a porpoise's flipper (Wells, 2000). Historically, and still today, the term analogy has signified functional similarity, such as the wings of a bird and those of a butterfly.
Darwin claimed homology in the classical sense as evidence of evolution by common descent (theory of descent with modification) under the assumption that new forms develop on the foundation of earlier stages. His evidence included the similar skeletal structures (utilizing same bones) of the forelimbs of humans, bats, birds, cats, and porpoises.
The discovery, however, of clear exceptions to Darwin's premise meant that structural similarity could no longer be used as evidence of a common ancestor. One such exception is the remarkable structural similarity between the eyes of humans and octopuses, two organisms whose remote common ancestor is not thought to have had such eyes (Ogura, Ikeo, and Gojobori, 2004). If shared ancestry must be established apart from structural similarity before structures can be called homologous, then using two structures' similarities as evidence of their evolutionary origin, including their common ancestry, would entail the use of circular reasoning.
The word homologous derives from the ancient Greek ομολογειν, “to agree.” The term homology is also used in a non-evolutionary sense in terms of homologous chromosomes, meaning a pair of non-identical chromosomes from a diploid organism that can pair (synapse) during meiosis, or regions of chromosomes with the same set of genes.
Homology in the classical sense, as similarity in structure and position of anatomical features between different organisms, was important evidence used by Darwin. However, it has now been redefined as structures that trace to common ancestors. Mayr (1982) states:
After 1859 there has been only one definition of homologous that makes biological sense… Attributes of two organisms are homologous when they are derived from an equivalent characteristics of the common ancestor.
Homology is different from analogy. For example, the wings of insects, the wings of bats, and the wings of birds are analogous but not homologous; this phenomenon is called "homoplasy." These similar structures evolved through different developmental pathways, in a process labeled as convergent evolution.
Wells (2000) notes that homology as now defined can no longer be used as evidence for evolution because of circular reasoning. Furthermore, he finds even retaining the pre-Darwinian definition of homology as structural similarity problematic because of such factors as the lack of correspondence between homology and development pathways, since there are examples of similar structures in adult forms where ancestry is assumed that actually are products of radically different development processes. Likewise, he notes that some assumed homologous structures trace to different genes.
The pattern of limb bones known as a pentadactyl limb is an example of homologous structures. This pattern is found in all classes of tetrapods (i.e. from amphibians to mammals). It can even be traced back to the fins of certain fossil fish from which the first amphibians are thought to have evolved. The limb has a single proximal bone (humerus), two distal bones (radius and ulna), a series of carpals (wrist bones), followed by five series of metacarpals (palm bones) and phalanges (digits). Throughout the tetrapods, the fundamental structures of pentadactyl limbs are the same, indicating that they originated from a common ancestor. But it is considered that in the course of evolution, these fundamental structures have been modified. They have become superficially different and unrelated structures in order to serve different functions in adaptation to different environments and modes of life. This phenomenon is clearly shown in the forelimbs of mammals. For example:
In insects,the basic structures of the mouthparts are the same, including a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a hypopharynx (floor of mouth), a pair of maxillae, and a labium. These structures are enlarged and modified; others are reduced and lost. The modifications enable the insects to exploit a variety of food materials:
(A) Primitive state—biting and chewing: E.g., grasshopper. Strong mandibles and maxillae for manipulating food.
(C) Sucking: E.g., butterfly. Labrum reduced; mandibles lost; maxillae long forming sucking tube.
(D) Piercing and sucking: E.g, female mosquito. Labrum and maxillae form tube; mandibles form piercing stylets; labrum grooved to hold other parts.
Insect mouthparts and antennae are considered homologues of insect legs. Parallel developments are seen in some arachnids: The anterior pair of legs may be modified as analogues of antennae, particularly in whip scorpions, which walk on six legs. These developments provide support for the theory that complex modifications often arise by duplication of components, with the duplicates modified in different directions.
In genetics, homology is measured by comparing protein or DNA sequences, and homologous genes share a high sequence identity or similarity, supporting the hypothesis that they share a common ancestor. Sequence homology may also indicate common function. Homologous chromosomes are non-identical chromosomes that can pair (synapse) during meiosis, and are believed to share common ancestry.
Homology among proteins and DNA is often concluded on the basis of sequence similarity, especially in bioinformatics. For example, in general, if two genes have an almost identical DNA sequence, it is likely that they are homologous. But sequence similarity may arise from different ancestors: Short sequences may be similar by chance, and sequences may be similar because both were selected to bind to a particular protein, such as a transcription factor. Such sequences are similar but not homologous. Sequence regions that are homologous are also called conserved.
The phrase "percent homology," is sometimes used but is incorrect. "Percent identity" or "percent similarity" should be used to quantify the similarity between the biomolecule sequences. For two naturally occurring sequences, percent identity is a factual measurement, whereas homology is a hypothesis supported by evidence. One can, however, refer to partial homology where a fraction of the sequences compared (are presumed to) share descent, while the rest does not.
Many algorithms exist to cluster protein sequences into sequence families, which are sets of mutually homologous sequences.
There are two types of homology of sequences: Orthologous and paralogous.
Orthologs, or orthologous genes, are any genes in different species that are similar to each other and are attributed to have originated from a common ancestor, regardless of their functions. Thus, orthologs are separated by an evolutionary speciation event: If a gene exists in a species, and that species diverges into two species, then the divergent copies of this gene in the resulting species are orthologous. The term "ortholog" was coined in 1970.
A second definition of orthologous has arisen to describe any genes with very similar functions in different species. This differs from the original definition in that there is no statement about evolutionary relation, or similarity in sequence or structure.
Orthologous sequences provide useful information in taxonomic classification studies of organisms. The pattern of genetic divergence can be used to trace the relatedness of organisms. Two organisms that are very closely related are likely to display very similar DNA sequences between two orthologs. Conversely, an organism that is further removed evolutionarily from another organism is likely to display a greater divergence in the sequence of the orthologs being studied.
Homologous sequences are paralogous if they were separated by a gene duplication event; if a gene in an organism is duplicated to occupy two different positions in the same genome, then the two copies are paralogous.
A set of sequences that are paralogous are called paralogs of each other. Paralogs typically have the same or similar function, but sometimes do not. It is considered that due to lack of the original selective pressure upon one copy of the duplicated gene, this copy is free to mutate and acquire new functions.
Paralogous sequences provide useful insight to the way genomes evolve. The genes encoding myoglobin and hemoglobin are considered to be ancient paralogs. Similarly, the four known classes of hemoglobins (hemoglobin A, hemoglobin A2, hemoglobin S, and hemoglobin F) are considered to be paralogs of each other. While each of these genes serves the same basic function of oxygen transport, they differ slightly in function: fetal hemoglobin (hemoglobin F) has a higher affinity to oxygen than adult hemoglobin.
Paralogous genes often belong to the same species, but this is not necessary. For example, the hemoglobin gene of humans and the myoglobin gene of chimpanzees are considered paralogs. This is a common problem in bioinformatics; when genomes of different species have been sequenced and homologous genes have been found, one can not immediately conclude that these genes have the same or similar function, as they could be paralogs whose function has diverged.
Homologs resulting from horizontal gene transfer between two organisms are termed xenologs. Xenologs can have different functions, if the new environment is vastly different for the horizontally moving gene. In general, though, xenologs typically have similar function in both organisms (NCBI, 2004).
Homologous chromosomes are defined as non-identical chromosomes that can pair (synapse) during meiosis (King and Stansfield, 1997). Except for the sex chromosomes, homologous chromosomes share significant sequence similarity across their entire length, typically contain the same sequence of genes, and pair up to allow for proper disjunction during meiosis. The chromosomes can also undergo cross-over at this stage. There may be some variations between genes on homologs giving rise to alternate forms or alleles. Sex chromosomes have a shorter region of sequence similarity. Based on the sequence similarity and human knowledge of biology, it is believed that they are paralogous.
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Tuvalu, with a population of approximately 10,000 primarily Polynesian persons, occupies a land area of a little more than 10 square miles on 9 atolls in the central South Pacific. Independent since 1978, its Constitution provides for a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The Head of State is the British Queen, represented by the Governor General, who must be a Tuvaluan citizen. The judiciary is independent.
A 32-member police constabulary, the only security force, is responsible to and effectively controlled by civilian authority.
The primarily subsistence economy relies mainly on coconuts, taro, and fishing. With donor assistance, Tuvalu has developed a well-managed trust fund, which is supplemented by significant annual payments for use of its international telephone-dialing prefix. An agreement was completed in 1998 with a Canadian telecommunications company for use of the country's Internet address. However, anticipated revenues of up to $50 million have not materialized. Remittances from Tuvaluans working abroad as well as the sale of postage stamps and of fishing licenses to foreign vessels provide additional foreign exchange. The country's isolation and meager natural resources limit the prospects for economic development.
Society is egalitarian, democratic, and respectful of human rights. However, social behavior, as determined by custom and tradition, is considered as important as the law and is ensured by village elders. There were no specific reports of human rights abuses. However, in the traditional culture of the islands, women occupy a subordinate role, with limits on their job opportunities. Recently there has been a substantial effort to accord women equality in employment and decisionmaking.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1 -- Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:
a. Political and Other Extrajudicial Killing
There were no reports of political or other extrajudicial killings.
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances.
c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
The Constitution forbids torture and inhuman or degrading punishment, and there were no reported instances of such practices. Local hereditary elders exercise considerable traditional authority--including the seldom-invoked right to inflict corporal punishment for infringing customary rules, which can be at odds with the national law.
Prison facilities consist of several holding cells at the back of the police station. There have been no serious crimes within the memory of local officials. It is rare for a prisoner to spend as long as a week in a cell; more commonly, a person is incarcerated overnight because of drunkenness. While prison conditions are somewhat Spartan as regards to food and sanitation, complaints seem to be minimal or nonexistent.
Since there are no local human rights groups, the question of prison monitoring by them has not arisen. Visits by church groups and family members are permitted.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile, and the Government observes these prohibitions.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and it is free of governmental interference.
The judicial system consists of the higher courts: The Privy Council, the Court of Appeal, and the High Court; and the lower courts: The senior and resident magistrates, the island courts, and the land courts. The Chief Justice, who is also Chief Justice of Nauru, sits on the High Court about once a year.
The right to a fair public trial is ensured by law and observed in practice. The Constitution provides that accused persons must be informed of the nature of the offenses with which they are charged and be provided the time and facilities required to prepare a defense. The right to confront witnesses, present evidence, and appeal convictions is provided by law. Procedural safeguards are based on English common law. An independent people's lawyer is required by statute. The services of this public defender are available to all citizens without charge.
There were no reports of political prisoners.
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence
The Constitution prohibits such practices, government authorities generally respect such prohibitions, and violations are subject to effective legal sanction.
Section 2 -- Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The Constitution provides these rights, and the Government respects these provisions and academic freedom in practice.
The one radio station is under government control.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
The Constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and there are no significant restrictions in practice.
c. Freedom of Religion
The Constitution provides for this right, and the Government respects it in practice.
d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign Travel, Emigration, and Repatriation
Citizens are free to travel within the country and abroad. The Government does not restrict repatriation.
The Government cooperates with the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees. No person in recent memory has applied for refugee status, and the Government has not formulated a formal policy regarding refugees, asylees, or first asylum.
Section 3 -- Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government
The people freely and directly elect a 12-member unicameral Parliament whose normal term is 4 years. Each of Tuvalu's nine atolls is administered by a six-person council, also elected by universal suffrage to 4-year terms. The minimum voting age is 18 years.
The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, elected by secret ballot from among the Members of Parliament, and up to four other ministers, appointed and removed from office by the Governor General with the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister may appoint or dismiss the Governor General on behalf of the British monarch. The Prime Minister may be removed from office by a parliamentary vote of no confidence. A change in government occurred in April following the passage of a motion of no-confidence in the Government. Former Education Minister Ionatana heads the new Government. There are no formal political parties.
For cultural reasons, women are underrepresented in politics. At present there are no female Members of Parliament.
Section 4 -- Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
There have been no allegations of human rights violations by the Government and no known requests for investigations. While no known barriers block their establishment, there are no local nongovernmental organizations concerned with human rights.
Section 5 -- Discrimination Based on Race, Sex, Religion, Disability, Language, or Social Status
The Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, creed, sex, or national origin, and the Government generally respects these prohibitions. However, the traditional culture has limited women's job opportunities.
Violence against women is rare. If wife beating occurs, it is infrequent and has not become a source of societal concern.
Women increasingly hold positions in the health and education sectors and also are more active politically.
The Government is committed to children's human rights and welfare and provides commensurate funding for children's welfare within the context of its total available resources. Education is compulsory for children from 6 through 13 years of age. There are no reports of child abuse.
People with Disabilities
Although there are no mandated accessibility provisions for the disabled, there are no known reports of discrimination in employment, education, or provision of other state services.
Section 6 -- Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
Workers are free to organize unions and choose their own labor representatives, but most of the population lacks permanent employment and is engaged in subsistence activity. The law provides for the right to strike, but no strike has ever been recorded.
In the public sector, civil servants, teachers, and nurses--who total less than 1,000 employees--are grouped into associations that do not have the status of unions. The only registered trade union, the Tuvalu Seamen's Union, has about 600 members, who work on foreign merchant vessels. Unions may affiliate with international bodies. The Seamen's Union is a member of the International Transportation Workers' Federation.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
The 1978 Industrial Relations Code provides for conciliation, arbitration, and settlement procedures in cases of labor disputes. Although there are provisions for collective bargaining, the practice in the private sector is for wages to be set by employers. For both the private and public sectors, the legal procedures for resolving labor disputes are seldom used; instead, the two sides normally engage in nonconfrontational deliberations in the local multipurpose meeting hall.
Tuvalu is not a member of the International Labor Organization.
There are no export processing zones.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The 1978 Employment Law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and there have been no reports of either being practiced.
d. Status of Child Labor Practices and Minimum Age for Employment
The Employment Law prohibits children under the age of 14 from working. Education is compulsory for children from 6 through 13 years of age. The law also prohibits children under 15 years of age from industrial employment or work on any ship and stipulates that children under the age of 18 years are not allowed to enter into formal contracts, including work contracts. Children rarely are employed outside the traditional economy. The Government prohibits forced and bonded labor by children and enforces this prohibition effectively (see Section 6.c.).
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
The minimum wage, set administratively by the Government, is sufficient to allow a worker and family in the wage economy to maintain a decent standard of living. The present biweekly minimum wage in the public (government) sector is $81.25 ($A130). This rate applies regardless of sex and age. In most cases, the private sector adopts the same minimum wage rate.
The Labor Office may specify the days and hours of work for workers in various industries. The workday by law is set at 8 hours. The majority of workers are outside the wage economy. The law provides for rudimentary health and safety standards. It requires employers to provide an adequate potable water supply, basic sanitary facilities, and medical care. Specific provisions of the law provide for the protection of female workers. The Ministry of Labor, Works, and Communications is responsible for the enforcement of these regulations, but it is able to provide only minimum enforcement.
f. Trafficking in Persons
The law does not specifically mention trafficking; however, there were no reports that persons were trafficked in, to, or from the country.
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A large, gray Antarctic seal that has leopardlike spots and preys on penguins and other seals.
- Hydrurga leptonyx, family Phocidae.
- To catch penguins, a leopard seal will lurk near the water's edge just under the surface to watch shadows on the ice above.
- Experts think the leopard seal mistook marine biologist Kirsty Brown for another seal and dragged her down beneath the icy waters.
- Although they are formidable hunters, leopard seals are solitary creatures and it is virtually unknown for them to attack humans.
For editors and proofreaders
Syllabification: leop·ard seal
Definition of leopard seal in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:bcf91743-07ce-42bf-9cf2-4d687eec9942> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/leopard-seal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881814 | 175 | 3.421875 | 3 |
The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has discovered water vapour erupting from the frigid surface of Jupiter's moon Europa, in one or more localised plumes near its south pole.
Europa is already thought to harbour a liquid ocean beneath its icy crust, making the moon one of the main targets in the search for habitable worlds away from Earth. This new finding is the first observational evidence of water vapour being ejected off the moon's surface.
"The discovery that water vapour is ejected near the south pole strengthens Europa's position as the top candidate for potential habitability," said lead author Lorenz Roth of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas. "However, we do not know yet if these plumes are connected to subsurface liquid water or not." The Hubble findings will be published in the 12 December online issue of Science Express, and are being reported today at the meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco, California, USA.
The Hubble discovery makes Europa only the second moon in the Solar System known to have water vapour plumes. In 2005, plumes of water vapour and dust were detected by NASA's Cassini orbiter spewing off the surface of the Saturnian moon Enceladus.
The Europa plumes were discovered by Hubble observations in December 2012. The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) detected faint ultraviolet light from an aurora at the moon's south pole. This aurora is driven by Jupiter's intense magnetic field, which causes particles to reach such high speeds that they can split the water molecules in the plume when they hit them, resulting in oxygen and hydrogen ions which leave their telltale imprint in the colours of the aurora.
So far, only water vapour has been detected—unlike the plumes on Enceladus, which also contain ice and dust particles.
"We pushed Hubble to its limits to see this very faint emission," said co-lead author and principal investigator of the Hubble observing campaign Joachim Saur of the University of Cologne, Germany. "Only after a particular camera on the Hubble Space Telescope had been repaired on the last servicing mission by the Space Shuttle did we gain the sensitivity to really search for these plumes."
Roth suggests long cracks on Europa's surface, known as linea, might be venting water vapour into space. Similar fissures have been photographed near Enceladus's south pole by the Cassini spacecraft. It is unknown how deep inside Europa's crust the source of the water may be. Roth asks, "Do the vents extend down to a subsurface ocean or are the ejecta simply from warmed ice caused by friction stresses near the surface?"
Also like Enceladus, the Hubble team found that the intensity of the plumes varies with Europa's orbital position. Active geysers have only been seen when the moon is furthest from Jupiter. But the researchers could not detect any sign of venting when Europa is closer to Jupiter.
One explanation is that the long fractures in the ice crust experience more stress as gravitational tidal forces push and pull on the moon and so open vents at larger distances from Jupiter. The vents are narrowed or closed when at closest approach to the gas giant planet. Team member Kurt Retherford, also of the Southwest Research Institute, points out that "the plume variability supports a key prediction that we should see this kind of tidal effect if there is a subsurface ocean on Europa".
Future space probe missions to Europa could confirm that the exact locations and sizes of vents and determine whether they connect to liquid subsurface reservoirs. It is important news for missions such as ESA's JUpiter ICy moons Explorer, a mission planned for launch in 2022, and which aims to explore both Jupiter and three of its largest moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa.
Explore further: NASA Planning for Possible Landings on Europa
Science paper "Transient Water Vapor at Europa's South Pole": www.spacetelescope.org/static/archives/releases/science_papers/heic1322a.pdf | <urn:uuid:e22d0a78-f368-4e68-9194-11d23783adad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://phys.org/news/2013-12-hubble-vapor-venting-jupiter-moon.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927941 | 847 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Summer 2001: Feeling at Home in the Community – The Challenge Facing Consumer/Survivors
IN THIS ISSUE: Building a Society That Cares – Breaking Down the Barriers – Integration versus Segregation – The Role of Education.
Vol. 17, No. 2
In This Issue
Editorial: A Sense of Belonging
Building a Society that Cares
John McKnight talks about the ‘Careless Society.’ How do we build a society that cares?
Breaking Down the Barriers
The difficulties experienced by consumer survivors of being included in the community.
Including the Excluded
The characteristics common to those who help bring someone into the web of associational life.
Just what do we mean when we talk about community?
The Accepting Community
What has to be in place to make a community accepting of those with mental health issues?
Integration versus Segregation
Including the mentally ill in ‘well’ communities. | <urn:uuid:295e06ac-2975-4d31-b93f-e20ad72cd0a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ontario.cmha.ca/news/summer-2001-feeling-at-home-in-the-community-the-challenge-facing-consumersurvivors/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892979 | 201 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Dysphagia, or difficulty in swallowing, can occur among people with MS. While more frequent in advanced disease, it can occur at any stage.
The person may cough after drinking liquids, or choke while eating certain foods, particularly those with crumbly textures. When this kind of coughing or choking occurs, the food or liquids are inhaled into the trachea (windpipe) instead of going down the esophagus (gullet) and into the stomach. Once in the lungs, the inhaled food or liquids can cause pneumonia or abscesses. Because the food or drink is not reaching the stomach, a person may also be at risk for malnutrition or dehydration.
A person can also inhale small amounts of food or liquids without being aware of it. This is called silent aspiration.
Treating swallowing problems
Dysphagia is initially diagnosed by a careful history and neurologic examination of the tongue and swallowing muscles. A special imaging procedure called a modified barium swallow (videofluoroscopy) is used to evaluate a person’s ability to chew and swallow solids and liquids. In this test, the person drinks a small quantity of barium, which makes the structures of the mouth, throat, and esophagus visible on x-ray. The movement of these structures is recorded on videotape by a videofluoroscope as the person eats or drinks foods of varying consistencies — thin liquid, thick liquid and solid. The precise location and manner of a swallowing defect can then be identified, and treatment prescribed.
A speech/language pathologist is the professional who diagnoses and treats dysphagia. Treatment typically consists of strategies for safer eating and swallowing, dietary changes, exercises or stimulation designed to improve swallowing. In very severe cases that do not respond to these measures, feeding tubes may be inserted directly into the stomach to provide the necessary fluids and nutrition.
Many people who have difficulty swallowing also have speech disorders. | <urn:uuid:490104b6-b0e1-44fd-9a03-16cf61bf63fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalmssociety.org/Symptoms-Diagnosis/MS-Symptoms/Swallowing-Problems | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945441 | 400 | 3.765625 | 4 |
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Significance and Use
5.1 Vapor pressure is an important physical property of liquid spark-ignition engine fuels. It provides an indication of how a fuel will perform under different operating conditions. For example, vapor pressure is a factor in determining whether a fuel will cause vapor lock at high ambient temperature or at high altitude, or will provide easy starting at low ambient temperature.
5.2 Petroleum product specifications generally include vapor pressure limits to ensure products of suitable volatility performance.
Note 3: Vapor pressure of fuels is regulated by various government agencies.
1.1 This test method covers and is applicable to gasolines and gasoline-oxygenate blends with a vapor pressure range from 35 kPa to 100 kPa (5 psi to 15 psi) (see ). This test method, a modification of Test Method (Reid Method), provides two procedures to determine the vapor pressure ( ) of gasoline and gasoline-oxygenate blends.
Note 1: Because the external atmospheric pressure is counteracted by the atmospheric pressure initially present in the air chamber, this vapor pressure is an absolute pressure at 37.8 °C (100 °F) in kilopascals (pounds-force per square inch). This vapor pressure differs from the true vapor pressure of the sample due to some small vaporization of the sample and air in the confined space.
Note 2: Vapor pressure of gasoline or gasoline-oxygenate blends below 35 kPa (5 psi) or greater than 100 kPa (15 psi) can be determined with this test method but the precision and bias (Section ) do not apply. For materials with a vapor pressure greater than 100 kPa (15 psi), use a 0 kPa to 200 kPa (0 psi to 30 psi) gauge as specified in the annex of Test Method .
1.2 Some gasoline-oxygenate blends may show a haze when cooled to 0 °C to 1 °C. If a haze is observed in , it shall be indicated in the reporting of results. The precision and bias statements for hazy samples have not been determined (see ).
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific warnings are given in , , , , , and .
2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard.
D323 Test Method for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method)
D4057 Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum Products
D4175 Terminology Relating to Petroleum, Petroleum Products, and Lubricants
D5190 Test Method for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Automatic Method)
D5191 Test Method for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Mini Method)
E1 Specification for ASTM Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
ICS Number Code 75.160.20 (Liquid fuels)
UNSPSC Code 15101506(Gasoline or Petrol)
|Link to Active (This link will always route to the current Active version of the standard.)|
ASTM D4953-15, Standard Test Method for Vapor Pressure of Gasoline and Gasoline-Oxygenate Blends (Dry Method), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.orgBack to Top | <urn:uuid:5fb3cfd2-a479-433e-a798-b77d430ccaaf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astm.org/Standards/D4953.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.819335 | 828 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Preserving Hong Kong's Archaeological and Built Heritage Exhibition
a well-known financial pivot and commercial centre, Hong
Kong is renowned for its economic success over the world.
While the city is distinguished for its spectacular skyscrapers,
Hong Kong's long history and rich heritage resources are
We can deduce from archaeological evidences that Hong Kong was inhabited by early settlers at least around 6,000 years ago. Hong Kong had been under British rule for over 150 years until China resumed sovereignty in 1997 and the energetic society evolves and develops amid integrations and challenges brought by the east and the west. It eventually becomes a cosmopolitan city assembling both the eastern and western virtues with a fusion of the new and the old.
This exhibition aims at introducing Hong Kong's rich heritage and its preservation work. | <urn:uuid:bfef96ef-e38f-4aaa-923a-380cb1964ff5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Monument/en/discovery_preserving.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949717 | 163 | 3.125 | 3 |
Why do we love dragonflies so? The iridescent grace of finely veined wings, the constant motion over a sunny pond, the bright colors and striking patterns...
Plus the eating of mosquitoes. As adults, dragonflies use their legs as a basket to catch other flying insects, like mosquitoes -- thus their nickname, "mosquito hawks."
But they don't just eat mosquitoes in the air. Both dragonflies and mosquitoes lay their eggs in water. And dragonfly nymphs are voracious eaters, with mosquito larvae on their menu. Some dragonfly nymphs also eat much larger prey, like small fish, tadpoles, and other aquatic critters.
When it's ready, a dragonfly nymph crawls out of the water, splits its back open, and emerges as an adult. Fast forward to 2:20 in this video to see the process, greatly sped up:
There have been at least 120 species of dragonfly recorded in DC and Maryland. Here are a few you might have noticed:
|Common Green Darner|
|Common Pondhawk |
|Autumn Meadowhawk |
In the wild: Look for a sunny pond or stream. You may notice that you see different species depending on the size of the body of water, whether it is moving or still water, and how shaded or sunny it is.
In your yard: You're much more likely to have dragonflies if you have water. This is our third summer having a pond in our backyard, and we have started to see dragonflies relatively regularly. Which makes me a very happy camper.
What's your favorite spot for watching dragonflies? Do you have a favorite species that I left out? Leave us a comment!
Photo credits: Top photo by the Natural Capital; Common green darner by mean and pinchy; Halloween pennant by afagen ; Common pondhawk by meanlouise; Blue dasher by Dope on the Slope; Autumn Meadowhawk by jerryoldenettel ; Common Whitetail by afagen. Click on any picture for a larger version of the photo on flickr. | <urn:uuid:4576958e-fbfb-4bbc-a29b-6b3744a6ce6b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thenaturalcapital.com/2009/08/look-for-dragonflies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914567 | 442 | 2.8125 | 3 |
On this page:
- Definition of the noun DISEASE
- Definition of the verb DISEASE
- Phrases with Disease
- Printed books with definitions for Disease
- Online dictionaries and encyclopedias with entries for Disease
- Photos about Disease
- Video language resources about Disease
- Sign language
- Quotes about Disease
- Scrabble value of D2I1S1E1A1S1E1
- Anagrams of DISEASE
- Share this page
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Definition of the noun DISEASE
What does DISEASE mean as a name of something?
Disease is one of the top 1000 most common nouns in the English language.
noun - plural: diseases
- an impairment of health or a condition of abnormal functioning
- examples: Life is a fatal sexually transmitted disease. | Tension is a major cause of heart disease. | Disease and famine go together. | A curious disease struck the town. | We should check the spread of the disease. | Eating too much fat is supposed to cause heart disease. | The office for disease control reported a 10 percent spread. | Too much alcohol may result in gastric disease. | In medical research, one of the first problems is to isolate the cause of the disease. | The doctor can cure your son of the disease.
- lexical domain: States - nouns denoting stable states of affairs
- more generic words: illness / malady / sickness / unwellness = impairment of normal physiological function affecting part or all of an organism
- more specific terms:
- disease of the neuromuscular junction = a disease characterized by impairment of neuromuscular junctions
- aspergillosis = disease especially in agricultural workers caused by inhalation of Aspergillus spores causing lumps in skin and ears and respiratory organs
- anthrax = a disease of humans that is not communicable
- blackwater = any of several human or animal diseases characterized by dark urine resulting from rapid breakdown of red blood cells
- cat scratch disease = a disease thought to be transmitted to humans by a scratch from a cat
- complication = any disease or disorder that occurs during the course of (or because of) another disease
- crud = an ill-defined bodily ailment
- endemic disease / endemic = a disease that is constantly present to a greater or lesser degree in people of a certain class or in people living in a particular location
- enteropathy = a disease of the intestinal tract
- incompetence = inability of a part or organ to function properly
- mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome / Kawasaki disease = an acute disease of young children characterized by a rash and swollen lymph nodes and fever
- pycnosis / pyknosis = a degenerative state of the cell nucleus
- boutonneuse fever / Indian tick fever / Marseilles fever / Kenya fever = a disease (common in India and around the Mediterranean area) caused by a rickettsia that is transmitted to humans by a reddish brown tick (ixodid) that lives on dogs and other mammals
- Meniere's disease = a disease of the inner ear characterized by episodes of dizziness and tinnitus and progressive hearing loss
- milk sickness = caused by consuming milk from cattle suffering from trembles
- mimesis = any disease that shows symptoms characteristic of another disease
- occupational disease / industrial disease = disease or disability resulting from conditions of employment
- onychosis = any disease or disorder of the nails
- rheumatism = any painful disorder of the joints or muscles or connective tissues
- periarteritis nodosa / polyarteritis nodosa = a progressive disease of connective tissue that is characterized by nodules along arteries
- periodontal disease / periodontitis = a disease that attacks the gum and bone and around the teeth
- liver disease = a disease affecting the liver
- communicable disease = a disease that can be communicated from one person to another
- roseola infantilis / exanthema subitum / roseola infantum / pseudorubella = a viral disease of infants and young children; characterized by abrupt high fever and mild sore throat
- respiratory disorder / respiratory disease / respiratory illness = a disease affecting the respiratory system
- hereditary condition / genetic abnormality / congenital disease / hereditary disease / inherited disorder / inherited disease / genetic disorder / genetic disease / genetic defect = a disease or disorder that is inherited genetically
- inflammatory disease = a disease characterized by inflammation
- autoimmune disorder / autoimmune disease = any of a large group of diseases characterized by abnormal functioning of the immune system that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against your own tissues
- deficiency disease = any disease caused by a lack of an essential nutrient
- fibrocystic disease of the breast / fibrocystic breast disease / cystic breast disease / cystic mastitis = the presence of one or more cysts in a breast
- thyromegaly / goiter / goitre / struma = abnormally enlarged thyroid gland
- pappataci fever / sandfly fever / phlebotomus = a mild viral disease transmitted by the bite of the sand fly Phlebotomus papatasii
- disease of the skin / skin disorder / skin disease = a disease affecting the skin
- malignance / malignancy = a malignant state
- eye disease = any disease of the eye
- animal disease = a disease that typically does not affect human beings
- plant disease = a disease that affects plants
- ozaena / ozena = a chronic disease of the nose characterized by a foul-smelling nasal discharge and atrophy of nasal structures
- filariasis = a disease caused by nematodes in the blood or tissues of the body causing blockage of lymphatic vessels
Alternative definition of the noun DISEASE
- [pathology] An abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort or dysfunction; distinct from injury insofar as the latter is usually instantaneously acquired.
- synonym: illness
- [by extension] Any abnormal or harmful condition, as of society, people's attitudes, way of living etc.
- synonym: malady
Definition of the verb DISEASE
What does DISEASE mean as a doing word?
verb - inflections: diseased | diseasing | diseases
- [obsolete] To cause unease; to annoy, irritate.
- To infect with a disease.
- "Disease" is the second studio album by the industrial/horror techno band G.G.F.H.. This album saw the band take a more techno approach, pushing aside the sludgier sound of their earlier material. The album features three of the tracks recorded for the Reality EP, albeit in a more techno-inspired form.
- artist: G.G.F.H.
- released in (22 years ago)
- "Disease" is a musical album of Regenerator.
- released in (10 years ago)
- "Disease" is a musical EP of Matchbox Twenty.
- released in (13 years ago)
- "Disease" is a composition.
- "Disease" is a musical single of Marina Sirtis & Marina Siertis.
- released in (9 years ago)
- "Disease" a.k.a. "Desease" is a musical EP of Bardoseneticcube.
- released in (16 years ago)
Phrases with Disease
- eye disease
- Meb Disease
- tin disease
- leaf disease
- loco disease
- lyme disease
- pink disease
- ring disease
- skin disease
- Wilt disease
- black disease
- blood disease
- brain disease
- Fifth disease
- gland disease
- heart disease
- kakke disease
- liver disease
- Plant disease
- sachs disease
View more phrases with the word Disease in thesaurus!
Printed books with definitions for Disease
Click on a title to look inside that book (if available):
by Courtney Cumbart
Heart disease is a serious threat to human health because the cardiovascular system is of critical importance in the...
How to Detect Disease in Your Energy Field Before It Manifests in Your Body by Christina L. Ross, PhD, BCPP
Chronic disease is an opportunity to improve our quality of life. Incurable diseases such as heart disease, cancer, HIV/AIDS, and...
by Kevin J. Martinez
Heart disease is a major health problem within some cultures. One theory for heart disease is the radical changes within our lifestyles. People are often less active and eat diets high in fats. Takeaway food is abundant today and often people ...
by James M. Rippe
Although heart disease is an equal-opportunity killer, many people, men and women alike, continue to think that heart...
by Robert H. Seller, Andrew B. Symons
Benign breast disease is a continuum of entities, from fibroadenoma and cysts with atypia to cystic changes with marked atypia. The most common breast lesions are fibrocystic breasts, fibroadenomas, breast cancer, mastitis (especially in ...
by Hunter Manasco
Alzheimer's disease is a cortical dementia that is the most common cause of dementia. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive and fatal disease with no known treatments to stop or slow its progression.
Focus on Neuroimaging (2009)
by Patricio S. Espinosa, Charles D. Smith
Canavan disease is an autosomic recessive disorder that is characterized by megalencephaly, seizures, spasticity, ...
by Alicia J. Jenkins, Peter P. Toth, Timothy J. Lyons
Cardiovascular disease is the largest single cause of premature mortality in developed nations and it is increasing as such in developing and emerging...
Cardiovascular disease is the commonest cause of death of adults with diabetes [ 1].
. . . At Any Age by Donald Vickery, Larry Matson, Carol Vickery
Chronic disease is the leading cause of death and disability, responsible for seven out of...
Rubin's Pathology (2011)
Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine by Raphael Rubin, David S. Strayer, Emanuel Rubin
Lyme disease is a chronic systemic infection that begins with a characteristic skin lesion and later manifests as cardiac,
Lyme disease is a growing problem in the United States, where it is the most common tick-borne illness, causing an ...
The Chiropractor (1994)
by D. D. Palmer
Disease is a disturbed condition, functions performed abnormally, in too great a degree or not enough; it is not something foreign to the body which by some means...
Disease is the result of releasing too much or not enough stored energy .
How to stay healthy before, during and beyond the menopause by Marilyn Glenville
Cardiovascular disease is the biggest killer, so you want to put the emphasis onkeeping your heart healthy; and one in two women will get osteoporosis, soyou need to keep your bones in good shape (see chapter 15). In this chapterI will cover ...
by CIBA Foundation Symposium
Cardiovascular disease is the major cause of death and disability in the elderly. Atherosclerotic coronary heart disease is the most prevalent problem, followed by hypertensive cardiovascular disease ...
Technique, Diagnosis, and Clinical Applications by Antonello Trecca
Introduction Celiac disease is a permanent autoimmune enteropathy that is triggered, in genetically determined...
Celiac disease is the most common food intolerance worldwide and its reported incidence is increasing annually. Although ...
Lysosomal Storage Diseases (2010)
Early Diagnosis and New Treatments by Rossella Parini, Generoso Andria
Gaucher disease is a clinically heterogeneous disorder and it is traditionally classified as type 1 (non-neuronopathic...
by Martha H. Stipanuk, Marie A. Caudill
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine that is caused by a reaction to gliadin from wheat and to...
Heart Disease, Stroke, Type-2 Diabetes, Obesity, Cancer : and how to Prevent Them by Fred Ottoboni, M. Alice Ottoboni
Disease is a social development no less than the medicine that combats it.
Alzheimer's Disease (2008)
by Evelyn B. Kelly
Alzheimer's Disease is an adventure into the exciting world of the search for a cure.
by Roberto Lang, Steven A Goldstein, Itzhak Kronzon, Bijoy K Khandheria, Victor Mor-Avi
Fabry disease is an X-linked autosomal recessive disease caused by a deficiency of the lysosomal enzyme,
Danon disease is a rare X-linked disorder caused by lysosomeassociated membrane protein 2 deficiency.2 It affects men at an ...
by Sue E. Huether, Kathryn L. McCance
Acute disease is the sudden appearance of signs and symptoms that last only a short time. Chronic disease develops more slowly and the signs and symptoms last for a long time, perhaps for a lifetime. Chronic diseases may have a pattern of ...
Online dictionaries and encyclopedias with entries for Disease
Click on a label to prioritize search results according to that topic:
Photos about Disease
Click on an item to view that photo:
Photo credit: Capt' Gorgeous
Its like a cancer, or as already pointed out, bad acne.
Photo credit: tourist_on_earth
Photo credit: mikecogh
Photo credit: Erik Starck
Photo credit: erix!
- Tree disease
Photo credit: dimsis
- Checking salmon for disease
DFG pathologist checks spawning salmon and egg batches for any sign of disease at each hatchery. California Department of Fish and Game photo by Harry Morse.
Photo credit: CaliforniaDFW
- A mysterious disease
Photo credit: wwhyte1968
- Butternut Disease
Diseased butternut tree in Governor Dodge State Park.
Photo credit: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
- Ash Disease
Forestry Commission. Ho ckhan Fen. TM o4169410
Photo credit: gailhampshire
View more pictures about skin disease.
If you need related images for an article or a report, you can download stock photos:
Video language resources about Disease
Click on an item to play that video:
- Vocabulary health and disease 1
- The Germ Theory of Disease: Definition & Louis Pasteur
- The Metaphysical Meaning of Disease (Introduction)
Contents: A brief intro on a FREE video series to find the deeper meaning and purpose of an illness or imbalance. Facebook Fan Page: ...
- What is Alzheimer's Disease Definition
What is Alzheimer's Disease Definition. All About Alzheimer's Disease...
- Disease Meaning
Video shows what disease means. An abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort or dysfunction; distinct from injury insofar as the latter is ...
- Kienbock's disease Meaning
Video shows what Kienbock's disease means. A painful disease of the wrist that results from loss of circulation to the lunate bone.. Kienbock's disease ...
- Hashimoto's Thyroiditis, Graves disease, and Endemic Goiter Explanation
Discussion of thyroid pathophysiology and physiology. Watch more videos below: Why Disability Adjusted Life Years Reflects Burden of Disease at ...
- Parkinson's disease Meaning
Video shows what Parkinson's disease means. A chronic neurological disorder resulting in lack of control over movement; poor balance and coordination; and ...
- Bright's disease Meaning
Video shows what Bright's disease means. Any of several diseases of the kidney characterized by inflammation, and the presence of albumin in the urine; ...
- Johne's disease Meaning
Video shows what Johne's disease means. A chronic, contagious and often fatal disease of cattle, sheep and goats, caused by the intestinal bacterium ...
- Graves' disease Meaning
Video shows what Graves' disease means. Hyperthyroidism accompanied by protrusion of the eyeballs.. Graves' disease synonyms: exophthalmic goiter, ...
- The Meaning of Islands, the Genesis of Disease & the Wonders of Botany (1997)
The Island of the Colorblind is a book by neurologist Oliver Sacks about achromatopsia on the Micronesian atoll of Pingelap. The second half of the book is ...
- Lumpy Louise - An explanation of Dercum's Disease
Meet Louise and an explanation of the rare disorder she suffers from, Dercum's Disease.
- Hansen's disease Meaning
Video shows what Hansen's disease means. The disease leprosy, caused by infection by Mycobacterium leprae.. Hansen's disease Meaning. How to ...
- The Meaning of Mitochondrial Disease
What does it mean to be living with Mitochondrial Disease? MitoAction is a Boston based nonprofit dedicated to improving quality of life for the thousands of ...
- Meniere's Disease: A definition from a patients perspective
Meniere's Disease: A definition from a patients perspective.
- Kimura disease Meaning
Video shows what Kimura disease means. A rare benign chronic inflammatory disorder whose primary symptoms are subdermal lesions in the head or neck or ...
- Marie's disease Meaning
Video shows what Marie's disease means. The disease acromegaly.. The disease hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy.. Marie's disease synonyms: ...
- Pott's disease Meaning
Video shows what Pott's disease means. A presentation of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that affects the spine, a kind of tuberculous arthritis of the intervertebral ...
- Addison's disease Meaning
Video shows what Addison's disease means. A disorder in which the adrenal glands fail to produce a sufficient quantity of steroids, causing a brownish ...
- Now 10 Dead - Deadly LEGIONNAIRES DISEASE Ravage NEW YORK | UPDATES See 'DESCRIPTION'
- Disease - Disorder - Illness - Ailment - The Difference - ESL British English Pronunciation
- Aimee Pierce - Alzheimer's Disease and Language
UCI MIND Presents: 25th Annual Southern California Alzheimer's Disease Research Conference September 12, 2014 University of California, Irvine.
- 63 Disease Symptoms : Module 3 : English Language Training
Module 3 : English Language Training English & Hindi 1 ) To introduce the user to fundamental information related to Numbers, Alphabets, Names of Months ...
- What Is The Definition Of Bowen disease Medical Dictionary Free Online
what is the definition of medical terminology, medical dictionary, medical dictionary free download, medical terminology made easy, medical terminology song ...
- What Is The Definition Of Dercum disease - Medical Dictionary Free Online
- What Is The Definition Of Alzheimer disease early onset familial (Medical Dictionary Online)
what is the definition of Alzheimer's disease: A progressive degenerative disease of the brain that leads to dementia. On a cellular level, Alzheimer's disease is ...
- What Is The Definition Of Addison disease Medical Dictionary Free Online
what is the definition of Addison disease: Long-term underfunction of the outer portion of the adrenal gland. In medical terms, chronic insufficiency of the adrenal ...
- Dreadful BAT!! Disease AFRICA - EBOLA | See 'DESCRIPTION'
View more videos about eye disease, Fifth disease, heart disease, kidney disease, caisson disease, genetic disease, Kawasaki disease, Newcastle disease, Infectious disease, Ebola virus disease, Heart valve disease, respiratory disease, Sickle cell disease, Cardiovascular disease, Coronary Artery Disease, and Degenerative disc disease.
See also the pronunciation examples of Disease!
Strike out against American Sign Language (Lou Gehrig's disease)
Quotes about Disease
Scrabble value of D2I1S1E1A1S1E1
The value of this 7-letter word is 8 points. It is included in the first and second editions of the Official Scrabble Players Dictionary.
Anagrams of DISEASE
What do you get if you rearrange the letters?
See also the blanagrams of Disease!
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Helgafell, a little-eroded basaltic hyaloclastite ridge in southwest Iceland, formed in a single eruption under a Pleistocene ice sheet. The ice thickness at the eruption site was at least 500 m and it was probably located some 15 km from the glacier�s snout. The eruption created a 2 km long, 0.8 km wide and initially 300 m high ridge. Gravity modelling indicates that Helgafell has a bulk density of 1800 kg m3, and that Holocene lavas around it are 40�80 m thick. This confirms that Helgafell is predominantly made of hyaloclastite, with pillow lavas and intrusions only making up a few percent of the total volume. The southeast side is made of unsorted eruption-fed hyaloclastites considered to have been piled up against an ice wall, while moderately to well-sorted watertransported material is found on the northwest side. Glacier flow and meltwater drainage was towards the northwest. The absence of basal pillow lavas suggests that magma fragmentation occurred from the onset of the eruption until its end. The lithofacies preserved indicate a fully subglacial eruption, although a final subaerial eruptive phase may have taken place through an ice chimney. The volatile contents (H2O: 0.26�0.37 wt.%) of several glass samples from the southeast side of the mountain indicate water pressures of ~1 MPa throughout the eruption. Efficient syn-eruptive drainage of meltwater coupled with rapid ice subsidence probably led to partial dynamic support of the ice, causing water pressure in the vault to be much lower than the static load of the overlying ice. Observed lack of correlation between elevation and volatile content may be a consequence of gradual reduction in dynamic support as the eruption rate declined and the edifice grew higher. Helgafell demonstrates that explosive activity may occur under ~500 m thick ice, and it may be an analogue to the ridge formed in the Gja´lp eruption in 1996.
The final, definitive version of this article has been published in the Journal, Journal of Volcanology | <urn:uuid:fb9ef03e-2bf9-43ac-b827-4a0a2cf30f9a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.research.lancs.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-formation-of-helgafell-sw-iceland-a-monogenetic-subglacial-hyaloclastite-ridge-sedimentology-hydrology-and-ice-volcano-interaction(412c2d91-631d-4d82-94c0-9ed3e85200b5).html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950821 | 446 | 3.15625 | 3 |
I would like to comment on a letter published on Oct. 18 under the headline “The road and the rules.” With recent increases in traffic volumes and highway congestion, driver education is a matter of public safety. Some statements made in the letter warrant comment and suggest driver education in this province may be inadequate.
The letter’s author states, among other things, that “there is no ‘keep right except to pass’ stipulation on the Outer Ring Road.”
The author also states that “the right lane is an ‘on ramp/off ramp’ lane…to be used for traffic merging from on ramps and for those slowing down to exit off the Outer Ring Road.”
The author further suggests that all through traffic must use the left lane, and “from the left lane, you are to signal right and merge into the lane when your exit is approaching and merge right again when your exit has arrived.”
The author suggests this conclusion follows from the “overhead signs which indicate which lane you are to drive in” (e.g. the signs over the right driving lane that provide advance notification of upcoming exits). I believe this may show a misunderstanding of certain rules of the road and may help explain why traffic on our highways does not always flow as smoothly as it could.
The “drive to the right except to pass” rule is widely followed throughout the world, and is brilliant and elegant in its simplicity.
One will typically see this when motoring in foreign countries, not just because it’s likely the law, but also because it is a common sense way to ensure the smooth and orderly flow of traffic. There are some (not enough) “keep right” signs along our highways, but the important point is this rule does not only apply where the Department of Transportation decides to place a sign, as the letter’s author suggests; rather “drive to the right” is a rule of general application (see Highway Traffic Act, section 95).
Failure to follow this basic rule causes unnecessary traffic crowding and congestion, leads to avoidable risk-taking and just plain reduces the efficiency of the highway.
At the same time, driving in the left lane when not passing creates no benefit for anyone. Everyone’s goal should be the smooth and efficient flow of traffic. Keeping right except to pass facilitates that, as do most other traffic rules.
The letter writer’s assertion that the right lane of the Outer Ring Road is an “on ramp/off ramp” lane is plain wrong.
While it is obvious that all traffic leaving or entering the highway must do so from the right lane, the off-ramp is the off-ramp, and the on-ramp is the on-ramp.
The right lane of the Outer Ring Road is the driving lane, where you should maintain highway speeds until you enter the off-ramp, where you then slow down. You should not slow down while still in the right driving lane.
Likewise, when entering the highway you accelerate to highway speed while on the on-ramp so as not to disturb the traffic flow upon entering the highway. The left lane of the Outer Ring Road is the overtaking lane, and is designed to allow traffic to travel at different speeds yet share the same road.
Further, if the overhead sign indicates the next off-ramp is for “Donovans,” this does not mean, as the letter’s author suggests, that the right lane is reserved exclusively for people exiting or entering the highway at Donovans; the sign simply signals that if you want to exit there, you will need to be in the right lane to do so.
One may always drive in the right lane and pass exits without exiting. Further, you may remain in the right lane even when a sign above the left lane lists your exit as being further down the road. Just because your distant exit is listed above the left passing lane doesn’t mean one must drive in that lane.
A lot to learn
The intent here is not to criticize. My point is there seems to be an issue with driver education. I have always felt that our licensing system should aim to produce drivers, as in many European countries, and not just dispense driver’s licenses.
Further, I believe all motorists should not just know the rules of the road, but should also receive training in the physics of driving, emergency manoeuvres and winter driving techniques, and they should feel confident enough to drive comfortably at highway speeds and change lanes as required.
If you remove any of these skills, you reduce overall driving ability and increase driving risk. The white-knuckled driver who is not sure what highway lane they should be in, fears changing lanes or drives so slow relative to others (e.g. when merging) as to be like an obstruction in a fast-flowing stream, is a dangerous thing.
I believe strongly in advanced driver training and periodic re-
testing. Highway traffic conditions in the St. John’s region today are more challenging than in the past, and demand greater driving abilities. Perhaps government should promote better driver education and awareness through higher testing standards, public service messages demonstrating correct driving practices, and better signage.
Based on my observations, the top three driver education priorities should be stay right except to pass, how to turn correctly onto a multi-lane road, and proper use of on/off ramps. You will note all three promote safe and efficient traffic flow.
Paul Fitzpatrick writes from Topsail. | <urn:uuid:993a5f54-aa72-4a65-9c04-4dc7a2ab5844> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetelegram.com/Opinion/Letter-to-the-editor/2013-11-09/article-3473427/Better-driver-education-needed/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954576 | 1,159 | 2.578125 | 3 |
New fibre-optic technology could heal wounds faster
Thursday 28 January 2016
A new technique which delivers light deeper into human tissue than previously possible has been developed by researchers at the University of St Andrews and Harvard Medical School.
The new method, published in the journal Nature Communications, could help heal wounds faster and treat tumours more efficiently.
Through a process called photochemical tissue bonding, light is applied to a wound to stimulate healing. Until now this technique has been limited to treating superficial wounds. The researchers set out to develop a technology for tissue repair that would allow this method to be applied deeper in the human body.
The international team found a way to make biodegradable optical fibres which can be inserted into the body to deliver light to heal internal wounds locally, for example after surgery.
Traditionally, fibre-optic devices or catheters have been fabricated from glass or plastic and remain in the body permanently or until removed through further surgical intervention. However, the St Andrews-Harvard research team shows how fibres can be made from materials that will be reabsorbed into the body, eliminating the need for removal and the risk of damaging the newly-repaired tissue. This advancement will give doctors the power to heal from within without scarring.
Professor Malte Gather, of the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of St Andrews, predicts that this breakthrough could have dramatic implications in medicine. He said: “A variety of optical techniques, such as photochemical tissue bonding and photodynamic therapy, require efficient delivery of light deep into tissues, but the current limited penetration of light in tissue constitutes a serious constraint in clinical use.
“Having biocompatible and bioabsorbable optical components may transform photomedicine from a discipline where light is predominantly applied externally, to a new paradigm based on tissue-integrated and precisely controlled delivery and collection of light.”
The research could also find application in a variety of other areas, such as long-term photodynamic therapy (PDT) for cancer treatment, as well as implanted endoscopy after surgery for repeated imaging and monitoring of the healing process.
Notes to news editors
Image caption: 'Bioabsorbable optical waveguides can be implanted into tissue to deliver light deeper and more effectively. After use, there is no need for removal as the waveguide disappears over time.'
The paper is available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10374
Professor Malte Gather is available for interview. Please contact the Press Office on 01334 462 530 to arrange.
Issued by the University of St Andrews Communications Office, contactable on 01334 462530 or firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:5d0f3d23-d1e4-4a66-8e2d-1f4bcf0f7626> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/news/archive/2016/title,357129,en.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941605 | 575 | 3.265625 | 3 |
(Redirected from Tween)
Tween (full name Tween 20 or Polysorbate 20) is a common detergent used in biology used in cell lysis and membrane protein solubilisation among other uses.
- 2 years shelf life according to this chemicals manufacturer
- 2 years for 20x Tris-buffered saline/Tween20 according to this data sheet
Based on the SIGMA Tween20 data sheet
- aqueous solutions of polysorbates undergo autoxidation during storage, with changes being catalyzed by light, increased temperature, and copper sulfate
- autoclaving is not recommended without testing for changes in properties; TWEEN 20 may not be stable to autoclaving, particularly with metal cations in buffer solutions.
- TWEEN 20 is heat sensitive and will darken when exposed to elevated temperatures
- polysorbates have been reported to be incompatible with alkalis, heavy metal salts, phenols, and tannic acid
- polysorbates may reduce the activity of many preservatives
- no plastic incompatabilities have been observed
- "I've recently been doing a series of experiments comparing the sensitivity of various ELISA protocols. One thing I have noticed, which is slightly annoying, is that on opening a new tin of skimmed milk (Marvel) and a new bottle of tween-20 (BDH) there are big reductions in the background. OK, so this may have been expected, but not to the extent that I have noticed. Both of the 'old' reagents had probably been opened less than 6 months ago."
- TBST - tris-buffered saline with Tween
- PBS-T - phosphate-buffered saline with Tween
- Critical micelle concentration (CMC) | <urn:uuid:571c8558-c458-4da4-8536-beb6477039f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.openwetware.org/wiki/Tween | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913359 | 378 | 2.625 | 3 |
Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick will give the keynote address Monday at 4 p.m. during the general session of PV America 2014.
Solar energy is the cleanest, most abundant renewable energy source available. The U.S. has some of the world’s richest solar resources. Today's technology allows us to harness this resource in several ways, giving the public and commercial entities flexible ways to employ both the light and heat of the sun.
There are three primary technologies by which solar energy is commonly harnessed: photovoltaics (PV), which directly convert light to electricity; concentrating solar power (CSP), which uses heat from the sun (thermal energy) to drive utility-scale, electric turbines; and heating and cooling systems, which collect thermal energy to provide hot water and air conditioning.
Solar energy can be deployed through distributed generation (DG), whereby the equipment is located on rooftops or ground-mounted arrays close to where the energy is used. Some solar technologies can also be built at utility-scale to produce energy as a central power plant.
Learn more about the three major types of solar technology below.
These solar technologies directly produce electricity which can be used, stored, or converted for long-distance transmission. PV panels can be manufactured using a variety of materials and processes and are widely-used for solar projects around the world.
These technologies generate thermal (heat) energy for water & pool heating and space heating. Some people are surprised to learn that SHC technology can also be used for cooling. Solar heating technologies are cost-effective for customers in a variety of climates.
Using reflective materials like mirrors and lenses, these systems concentrate sunlight to generate thermal energy, which is in turn used to generate electricity. Similar to traditional power plants, many CSP plants are hundreds of megawatts (MW) in size and some can continue to provide power after sunset. | <urn:uuid:6393f20b-e9dd-4499-96c9-0adbdf96dbb0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.seia.org/policy/solar-technology | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924201 | 387 | 3.609375 | 4 |
What is a Native Herb?
The definition of a native herb, for purposes of the Native Herb Conservation Committee, follows:
The term ‘native herb' refers to mostly seed-bearing, generally fleshy annuals, biennials, and perennials, aromatic or useful shrubs, vines and trees that grew naturally in this country, without the influence, accidental or intentional, of man, prior to European settlement. The defining characteristic for these plants is their usefulness, past or present, including their value for flavoring, medicine, ornament, economic, industrial, or cosmetic purposes. Spices, traditionally defined as aromatic parts derived from the bark or seeds of a plant, are also included depending upon their history and uses. Excluded from this definition are crop vegetables and hardwood trees used for lumber.
Non-native invasive plants
A non-native plant is one that is growing in a place other than its natural habitat. Non-native plants can refer to plants that grow naturally in North America as well as plants from other places around the globe. .
Some non-native plants were introduced accidentally, while others were brought for food, forage, as medicines or ornamentals. Plant seeds have traveled long distances in hay stored as food for livestock on ships (and later discarded at a port); in packing materials used for china and other fragile goods; on hikers boots and horses hooves; on wind currents, and numerous other ways. Many plants are carried intentionally from one area to another, as favored foods or ornamental plants.
Not all non-native plants are undesirable. Those that take root quickly and begin to spread aggressively, establishing themselves over large areas and choking out other, more suitable and more desirable plants, are the ones generally called non-native invasive species. These plants often arrive without the natural predators that tend to keep plant communities in natural balance. Once established, they can be difficult to remove.
An estimated 3,500 species of non-native plants have escaped cultivation in the U.S. Some are now so widespread that they are mistaken as native. Many (think kudzu!) pose a serious threat to native plants and ecosystems. Others, such as Queen Anne’s Lace, are naturalized without interfering with the growth of native plants.
What does this mean to me?
Invasive plants can alter the natural balance of ecosystems. They can choke out native plants and wildlife habitat, thus endangering the survival of animal and insect species. They displace rare plant species and reduce overall biodiversity, the greatest cause of species extinctions worldwide. Invasive plants also degrade the scenic, agricultural and recreational value of the land.
What you can do.
Consider using native alternatives to invasive species in your landscape.
Remove invasive plants that are already on your property. Left where they are, they will spread in your yard, to your neighbors, and to nearby forests and open areas.
Learn more about non-native invasive plants and share that information with your neighbors.
Native Herb Conservation Committee, The Herb Society of America, Inc. May 2009 | <urn:uuid:606a6549-36e7-4d53-a92b-9a5af9e02e1c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.herbsociety.org/greenbridges/native-herbs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949402 | 626 | 3.46875 | 3 |
From Dr. John…Looking for a fun way to translate your love of pignut hickory (Carya glabra) into scientific data that can help the planet? Look no further than the National Phenology Network (NPN), an organization that calls on citizen scientists to monitor the influence of climate change on plants and animals in the US.
NPN defines phenology as the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events, such as the first flower on a plant, the appearance of a songbird species in spring, or the changing leaves in fall. Phenological events are particularly sensitive to climate variations (e.g., temperature), and shifts in timing can dramatically affect the planet’s ecological systems. That, in turn, can affect the way we live – allergies, recreation, farming, and our ability to respond to natural disasters are all impacted by phenology.
NPN harnesses the power of citizen scientists and the Internet to collect, share, and store information on patterns of phenology for 200 critical plant species across the nation. NPN will use your contributions to help scientists identify which species are changing, and ultimately, better predict the impact of changing phenologies on natural systems and people. Do this immediately:
1. Select your favorite plant.
2. Learn about site selection, plant marking, and phenological observations.
3. Join the network and become an official participant.
4. Start observing, collecting, and reporting.
5. Feel a sense of personal satisfaction and enrichment.
At this time, citizen scientists can only monitor plant species. However, in 2010, NPN will welcome observations for many species of animals, including yellow-bellied marmots, hummingbirds, wood frogs, bumblebees, and all of your favorite Disney characters.
- Topics: Biology, Computers and Technology
- Location: at home, close to home
- Duration: any
- Cost: free
- Gear: no
- Level of Difficulty: easy | <urn:uuid:c94c7a5d-1b69-403f-9f9a-b0add3048b57> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sciencecheerleader.com/2009/06/funology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901658 | 408 | 3.296875 | 3 |
- Table View
- List View
Sylvia Mader represents one of the icons of science education. Her dedication to her students, coupled with her clear, concise writing style has benefited the education of thousands of students over the past three decades. Dr. Michael's Windelspecht: The integration of text and the digital world are now complete with the addition of Michael's Windelspecht's expertise in the development of digital learning assets.
This comprehensive introductory textbook covers biology traditionally - from the structure and function of the cell to the organization of the biosphere. The new 11th AP Edition ofBiologyfeatures integrated coverage of the newAP Biology Curriculum Frameworkwith Part Openers that provide an overview of the Big Idea as it relates to the chapters within the Part. In addition, each chapter begins with a guide to Following the Big Ideas and concludes with a Connecting the Concepts with the Big Ideas section. The preface includes information on the AP Biology course, the AP Exam, and an AP Correlation, while a complete AP Practice Exam can be found in the back of the book. An icon of science education, Sylvia Mader's dedication to her students, coupled with a concise writing style, has benefitted the education of thousands of students. The integration of this classic text and the digital world is now completed with the addition of Dr. Michael Windelspecht's expertise in the development of digital learning assets. He has acted as the leading architect in the design of the accompanying media content forMcGraw-Hill'sConnect PlusandLearnSmart. These assets allow teachers to easily design interactive tutorial materials, enhance online and traditional presentations, and assess the learning objectives and outcomes of the course. New pedagogical tools: Before You Begin: Students assess their mastery of prerequisite key concepts before proceeding further into the chapters Media Integration Hallmark Mader Art Program: The highly acclaimed artwork inBiologyhas become the hallmark of this flagship text Connect Plus: This web-based assignment and assessment platform includes an integrated eBook, dynamic links between the problems or questions assigned and the location in the eBook where they are covered, fully integrated self-study questions you can assign, pagination that matches the print text, embedded media, and text you can customise for students with notes and highlights.
Essentials of Biology is an introductory biology text for non-major students that combines Dr. Sylvia Mader's superb and accessible writing style with clear visuals, a comprehensive learning system, and abundant applications and relevancy. Essentials of Biology explains the principles of biology clearly and illustrates them in a captivating, easy-to-understand manner. It emphasizes the relevance of biology to students' lives within a framework of biodiversity and is organized around the major concepts of biology--cells theory, gene theory, evolution, the theory of homeostasis, and ecosystems. The integration of text and the digital world are now complete with the addition of Dr. Michael's Windelspecht's expertise in the development of digital learning assets. Dr Windelspecht has acted is the leading architect in the design of the Mader media content for McGraw-Hill's Connect Plus and Learn Smart.Connect Plus suite of learning tools. These assets will allow you to easily design interactive tutorial materials, enhance presentations in both the online and traditional environments, and assess the learning objectives and outcomes of your course.
Instructors consistently ask for a human biology textbook that helps students develop an understanding of the main themes of biology while placing the material in the context of the human body. Mader's Human Biology was developed to fill this void. To accomplish the goal of improving scientific literacy, while establishing a foundation of knowledge in human biology and physiology, Human Biology integrates a tested, traditional learning system with modern digital and pedagogical approaches designed to stimulate and engage today's student. Multimedia Integration: Michael Windelspecht represents the new generation of digital authors. Through the integration of multimedia resources, such as videos, animations and MP3 files, and in the design of a new series of guided tutorials, Dr Windelspecht has worked to bring Dr. Mader's texts to the new generation of digital learners. A veteran of the online, hybrid, and traditional teaching environments, Dr. Windelspecht is well versed in the challenges facing today's students and educators. Dr. Windelspecht guided all aspects of the Connect content accompanying Human Biology. The authors of the text identified several goals that guided them through the revision of Human Biology, Thirteenth Edition: build upon the strengths of the previous editions of the text, enhance the learning process by integrating content that appeals to today's students, deploy new pedagogical elements, including multimedia assets, to increase student interaction with the text, develop a new series of digital assets designed to engage the modern student and provide assessment of learning outcomes.
Basic biological concepts and processes with a human emphasis. From the unique delivery of biology content, to the time tested art program, to the complete integration of the text with technology, Dr. Sylvia Mader has formed a teaching system that will both motivate and enable your students to understand and appreciate the wonders of all areas of biology. Inquiry into Life, 14/e emphasizes the application of all areas of biology to knowledge of human concerns, what the students are able to relate to. This distinctive text was developed to stand apart from all other non-majors texts with a unique approach, unparalleled art, and a straightforward, succinct writing style that has been acclaimed by both users and reviewers. In the 14th edition, the authors have focused on the concept of inquiry and a student's inherent desire to learn. To do this, they integrated a tested, traditional learning system with modern digital and pedagogical approaches designed to stimulate and engage today's student.
Select your format based upon: 1) how you want to read your book, and 2) compatibility with your reading tool. To learn more about using Bookshare with your device, visit the Help Center.
Here is an overview of the specialized formats that Bookshare offers its members with links that go to the Help Center for more information.
- Bookshare Web Reader - a customized reading tool for Bookshare members offering all the features of DAISY with a single click of the "Read Now" link.
- DAISY (Digital Accessible Information System) - a digital book file format. DAISY books from Bookshare are DAISY 3.0 text files that work with just about every type of access technology that reads text. Books that contain images will have the download option of ‘DAISY Text with Images’.
- BRF (Braille Refreshable Format) - digital Braille for use with refreshable Braille devices and Braille embossers.
- MP3 (Mpeg audio layer 3) - Provides audio only with no text. These books are created with a text-to-speech engine and spoken by Kendra, a high quality synthetic voice from Ivona. Any device that supports MP3 playback is compatible.
- DAISY Audio - Similar to the Daisy 3.0 option above; however, this option uses MP3 files created with our text-to-speech engine that utilizes Ivonas Kendra voice. This format will work with Daisy Audio compatible players such as Victor Reader Stream and Read2Go. | <urn:uuid:21dcea46-94ed-48b9-b8de-93bbba22951c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.bookshare.org/browse/author?key=Michael%20Windelspecht | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908509 | 1,494 | 2.546875 | 3 |
- Now that it feels like summer again, we can get back into the lakes. But you need to watch out for Blue-Green Algae. Blue-Green Algae are natural to Wisconsin lakes, streams and ponds. But summer can cause the amount of algae to grow dramatically. It can be toxic when people or pets ingest it. In extreme cases it causes neurological and liver problems. When Blue-Green Algae increases it looks like pea-soup on the water's surface. If you get sick from it you'll have a rash, upset stomach, breathing trouble and eye irritation. The Wisconsin Department of Health Services wants people to stay out of water that looks like it has the algae, and to report it to them if it makes you sick.For more information please see the link below.
Story By: Lyndsey Stemm | <urn:uuid:de5ab78e-c90d-4a07-a132-5ff7e0efbfc9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wjfw.com/email_story.html?SKU=20130730171338 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936123 | 171 | 2.640625 | 3 |
From Reuters, 01.05.09:
More than half of U.S. cyclists forgo helmetsHelmets are an often heated topic among bicyclists. The proponents of strict helmet use and the proponents of helmet-optional cycling offer intense arguments in support of their respective positions.
WASHINGTON (Reuters)-More than half of Americans admit they never use a helmet while bicycling and more than a quarter skip the sunscreen, even when they are in the sun all day, according to Consumer Reports National Research Center.
The risks of cycling without a helmet are even higher -- the group cited the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety as saying 92 percent of bicyclists killed in 2007 were not wearing helmets. Helmets reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent.
Similarly, sunscreen can prevent skin cancer, which is by far the most common cause of cancer, although the two most common types are rarely deadly. The American Cancer Society estimated that more than 1 million new cases of basal and squamous cell cancers were diagnosed in 2008.
The survey of 1,000 Americans has a margin of error of about 3 percent. It found that 58 percent of Americans never used a helmet while cycling and 27 percent claimed they never used sunscreen.(Read more.)
And articles such as this indicate a clear bias in favor of helmet use: "cyclists admit riding without helmets...tsk, tsk." The media perpetuates a popular perception that bicycling is in itself a dangerous activity, and that riding without a helmet is wanton recklessness.
Of course, this is complete nonsense. Bicycling is safe. Bicycle-related fatalities each year are relatively few, and easily avoidable with proper riding technique (stay sober, ride with traffic, use lights when riding at night, etc.) Certainly bicycling kills fewer people each year than sedentary lifestyles.
Helmets are not, repeat not, necessary to happily bike commute. In much of the world where bicycling is more prevalent, helmets are rarely used. Bicyclists should use their own judgment; if they feel safer with a helmet, fine. Helmets are certainly justified in higher-risk cycling activities, such as high-adrenaline racing or mountain biking.
It is important to stress, however: helmets merely mitigate the consequences of a crash, they don't prevent a crash. Many of the minimal risks of bicycle commuting can be avoided or mitigated through effective maintenance, proper bicycling technique, attentive riding, and street smarts.
Image: Web capture.
Visit: Why I'm done wearing a bicycle helmet, Spokesman Review
Visit: Helmet on Your Head or Egg on Your Face, Streetsblog San Francisco
Visit: 7 reasons there's more to bicycle safety than helmets, DC Examiner
Visit: Is it wrong to show a cyclist without a helmet? Denver Examiner
Visit: The Mailbag-Brain buckets, confessions and bike fit, VeloNews
Visit: The Mailbag-Readers write on helmets, VeloNews
Visit: Wearing a helmet is good resolution, Redding Record (CA)
Visit: Study: More cyclists means safer cyclists, Bike Commute tips Blog
Visit Cyclists should be proactive about safety, Bike Commute Tips Blog
Visit: Wearing helmets 'more dangerous', Bike Commuting Tips Blog
Visit: Paul Dorn's Bike Commuting Tips Site | <urn:uuid:19a965f1-6846-4213-81ac-7020146051f4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bikecommutetips.blogspot.com/2009/01/happy-bicycle-commuting-sans-helmet.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922166 | 684 | 2.5625 | 3 |
UN Convention Against Torture – Article 10
- Each State Party shall ensure that education and information regarding the prohibition against torture are fully included in the training of law enforcement personnel, civil or military, medical personnel, public officials and other persons who may be involved in the custody, interrogation or treatment of any individual subjected to any form of arrest, detention or imprisonment.
- Each State Party shall include this prohibition in the rules or instructions issued in regard to the duties and functions of any such persons.
During the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the British Armed Forces and the Royal Ulster Constabulary were using the ‘five techniques’ (wall standing, hooding, subjection to noise, sleep deprivation and food and drink deprivation) as a precursor to interrogation of suspected terrorists. Following complaints and an inquiry, Lord Chief Justice Lord Parker’s report stated that such practices were illegal under both the Geneva Conventions and domestic law. This being so, ‘no Army Directive and no Minister could lawfully or validly authorise the use of the procedures. Only Parliament can alter the law. The procedures were and are illegal.’
That same day Prime Minister Edward Heath made a statement to Parliament: ‘The Government, having reviewed the whole matter with great care and with reference to any future operations, have decided that the techniques… will not be used in future as an aid to interrogation… The statement I have made covers all future circumstances’ (my emphasis).
Directives expressly prohibiting the use of the techniques, whether singly or in combination, were then issued to the security forces by the Government. And note Lord Parker’s judgment. Putting international law aside, no Minister or Army Directive can legally order the use of procedures that our own laws regard as illegal, and only Parliament has the power to make those procedures legal. It has never done so.
But the abuse continued. In 1978 Amnesty reported on RUC abuse of prisoners at Castlereagh. Another inquiry followed, and Harry Bennett, an English circuit judge, examined ‘police procedures and practice’ in Northern Ireland. His main recommendation, installing CCTV to record interrogations, had not been implemented by the time the new Chief Constable Jack Hermon was appointed in 1980. Under Hermon the abuse decreased but within ten years – after his retirement and the UK’s ratification of the Convention on Torture – allegations of severe beatings had become common again.
Since then, the UK has added the Human Rights Act to its body of law protecting humans from abuse. The armed forces and intelligence services should be governed by the constraints of those laws yet, following the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq, reports, photos and videos started to circulate showing that, along with a shocking level of abuse and violent behaviour towards detainees, the ‘five techniques’, so expressly prohibited in 1972, were back in full force, if indeed they had ever fallen out of use.
In the case of Iraqi hotel worker, Baha Mousa, killed while in the custody of British soldiers, only one of the soldiers involved, Corporal Donald Payne, admitted the charge of inhuman treatment of civilians, and was convicted – for that offence only. In his evidence to the Baha Mousa Inquiry he said that as a recruit in 1988 he was taught that the hooding of all prisoners was ‘Standard Operating Procedure’.
Ministers and military insist that all personnel as part of their training are taught their responsibilities towards prisoners under the Geneva Conventions. They are obliged to carry an ‘aide memoire’ card on the law of armed conflict, though how many of the cards produced were actually given to the soldiers is unknown, nor whether any would bother to read it. For many soldiers giving evidence to the Inquiry, the cards were a distant rumour. Payne, himself, had not seen one, been supplied with one, or read one. And as he testified, a full copy of the rules governing the humane treatment of prisoners kept in the guard room was not there to be read, studied or referred to, but simply because, ‘You had to have a copy of JSP 469 as well as the standing orders for your battalion in your guard room.’
Another soldier said that the only training given to soldiers on how to treat prisoners humanely ‘involved watching a very old video followed by a briefing and a short test.’
Colonel Simon Wilson testified that basic training in the 1980’s permitted hooding, although he later ‘became aware that hooding was now no longer permitted.’ Captain Neil Wilson testified that on an exercise on POW handling in 2002, he had come across soldiers hooding ‘prisoners’ as a matter of course. He was also told that sandbagging of detainees had been taught at the infantry school at Brecon. Prior to and during the invasion, troops were briefed on the fact that ‘sandbagging’ was banned. In a report he produced in October 2003 he said that by the previous February it was clear the training for handling prisoners was ‘out of date’ (rather an understatement). But despite some effort to ensure that hooding was stopped, directives arrived from much higher up the chain of command allowing the hooding of Category A prisoners
Lt General Brims said he had seen troops using blindfolds and stress positions as part of their training on how to resist enemy interrogation. He added, somewhat optimistically, that it was never suggested these techniques were to be used by the troops themselves.
Captain Rogers said that hooding was permissible for security reasons, and that British forces policy covered stress positions, although he ‘couldn’t recall’ whether that instruction came in an operational order shortly before the invasion or once he was in Iraq. Although he was not pressed on this, he was stating, not implying, that they received orders to treat detainees this way
Witness SO17, a part-time instructor on Prisoner Handling and Tactical Questioning (PHTQ) courses, stated that hooding, stress positions etc. were prohibited for ‘conditioning or any other purposes’. Anything placed over the nose and mouth (as in hooding with sandbags) was also prohibited because of the dangers of restricting breathing. Blindfolds were allowed, but if none were available, the courses taught that clean sandbags could be torn into strips and used as blindfolds. Yet some witnesses, including Donald Payne, said that the TQ’ers (Tactical Questioners) ordered that the prisoners were to be conditioned for interrogation by hooding, stress positions etc. even though interrogators’ instruction manuals barred the practice. Did they hope, as proved correct, that the soldiers handling detainees were happily ignorant of their responsibilities regarding human rights?
Army lawyer Lt Colonel Nick Mercer tried to correct the situation. Witnessing the abuse of prisoners, he had repeatedly warned senior officers; had a ‘massive row’ with the commander of the Queens Dragoon Guards about the army’s legal obligations under the Conventions; had walked out of a meeting between British officials and the International Committee of the Red Cross after being told by a ‘political adviser’ to keep his mouth shut. His repeated protests about the unlawful treatment of Iraqis in British custody was so unwelcome within the Ministry of Defence that the head of its legal service threatened to report him to the Law Society. And the UK’s most senior military intelligence officer in Iraq, Lieutenant Colonel Ewan Duncan, told the inquiry that the US had been concerned that British interrogation techniques were ineffective, and asked for harsher methods to be used, even though British soldiers were already acting illegally.
To sum up: hooding and other practices were banned by Lt General Brims at the beginning of April 2003, seen to be still in use in July 2003, clearly in use in September 2003 when Baha Mousa died, banned again by Lt Gen Sir John Reith in October 2003, and in May 2004 the order banning hooding was extended to other theatres in which UK forces were operating. And having put the ban in place – again – in 2004 new operating guidelines were issued, not that anyone knew what those guidelines were.
The Human Rights Joint Committee tried and failed to get a copy from the government. The Intelligence and Security Committee also had trouble. The Prime Minister had promised to publish the Draft Guidance on Handling Detainees. As the ISC oversees MI5 and MI6, it repeatedly asked before being given a copy of the guidance. Having got one it was due to publish its findings in March 2010 but publication was delayed again after it emerged that the ISC had made significant criticisms of the guidelines. Finally in July the present government published the current guidelines and one wonders what was taken out. What did the ISC object to? And although it emphasises how against torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment (CIDT) the United Kingdom is, was, and will forever be, it says there is no agreed or exhaustive definition of what constitutes CIDT (many victims of the ‘war on terror’ could tell them, in disgusting detail). So while it gives a list of those practices that it does consider to come under CIDT, government lawyers have wriggle room to argue about any other practices that could be used.
The trouble is: we’ve been here before, on more than one occasion. As the above record shows, the United Kingdom has not only been complicit in other states’ practice of torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, it has practiced these illegal actions itself. And while some of the international laws we have signed up to have not yet been enacted into domestic law, all of the practices used by British soldiers and intelligence officers in Iraq were judged by Lord Parker in 1972 to be illegal, and punishable, under British law. Yet they went on being used, unpunished and, despite the fine words in support of humanitarian law, may still be in use. Somewhere. Out of sight.
So when will the United Kingdom obey its own laws? | <urn:uuid:8169686c-a853-45a3-9ab2-d6d830ef8ef7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dissidentvoice.org/2010/11/complicity-in-torture-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980066 | 2,062 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Dr. Ruth DeFries, Columbia University – The Earth From Above
In today’s Academic Minute, Dr. Ruth DeFries of Columbia University reveals what we can learn about how humans have altered the landscape when we view the Earth from above.
Ruth DeFries is Denning professor of sustainable development in Columbia University’s Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, and a faculty member of the university’s Earth Institute. Her research examines human transformation of the landscape and its consequences for climate, biogeochemical cycling and biodiversity. The research analyzes land use changes over broad scales through the lens of satellite observations, with a particular focus is tropical deforestation and its impacts on atmospheric carbon emissions and conservation.
Dr. Ruth DeFries – The Earth From Above
Airline travelers glue their eyes to the window. Google Earth enthusiasts zoom from continent to continent from the comfort of their desks. We all have an urge to peer down on our planet--and recently it has become a lot easier, as the technology of satellite imagery has grown.
My own group’s research uses satellite data to see changes occurring across the tropics as people clear forests, cities expand and farmers grow more food in more places. What is emerging from this view? It reveals a rapidly transforming planet in the pursuit of more food and other products for a growing, and increasingly urban, population.
But at this point, the pace of these changes seems determined less by sheer population growth, and more by growing markets for biofuels, and prosperous city-dweller diets getting heavier all the time on meat and other animal products. These trends eat up tremendous amounts of land. Our analysis of satellite data shows that those tropical countries with the most forest loss were the ones with the most rapidly growing urban populations-- and the most international exports of farm products. Much like the European westward sweep across the prairies of North America in the 1800s, today agriculture is poised to transform many places across the tropics—but this time the technologies include tractors, fertilizers, and high-yield seed varieties rather than hoes, plows, and horses.
Certainly it’s a good thing that people have more food, and that economies can grow. But the health and environmental repercussions tell a troubling story. Tropical forests contain much of the planet’s natural machinery that recycles nutrients, stabilizes climate, and provides space and food for millions of species in addition to our own. The big challenge for this century is to use the ingenuity that has made us successful up to now to produce the food and other things we need without undermining the very life-support system on which we depend. | <urn:uuid:4a4c9465-541e-4fb9-b19d-71415e2734e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wamc.org/post/dr-ruth-defries-columbia-university-earth-above | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932312 | 547 | 3.296875 | 3 |
The undersea temblor struck Monday at 11:49 a.m. local time in a narrow strait between the islands of Negros and Cebu at a depth of 12 miles, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
The shaking triggered deadly landslides and caused buildings to collapse upon those inside.
“Many infrastructures were damaged and at least three main bridges are not passable so we cannot reach some areas,” civil defense chief Benito Ramos told reporters.
A local tsunami destroyed cottages at a beach resort near the town of La Libertad, but no significant changes in sea level were detected elsewhere.
A landslide in the mountain village of Plantas buried as many as 30 houses, trapping dozens of people inside.
Government seismologists said the jolt was centered along a newly discovered fault line and was followed by more than 100 aftershocks.
Negros was struck by an 8.2 magnitude quake in 1948, when the island was still recovering from the devastation left by World War II. | <urn:uuid:a6a9891d-a51c-4dc2-9067-d8d9eaa17da3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.earthweek.com/2012/ew120210/ew120210g.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966221 | 216 | 2.515625 | 3 |
If a perpendicular cut is made from a point on the circumference of the base to the vertex and the cone is opened out, a sector of a circle with radius is produced. Since, the circumference of the base of the cone is , therefore, the arc length of the sector of the circle is .
Slant height of the cone
Radius of the base of the cone
Total Surface Area:
Total surface area Area of curved surface Area of base
The curved surface area of a right circular cone equals the perimeter of the base times one-half slant height.
The total surface area equals the curved surface area of the base.
The slant height of a conical tomb is m. If its diameter is m, find the cost of cleaning it at dollar 2 per cubic meter and also the cost of whitewashing the curved surface at cent per square meter.
Now, slant height, m
Perpendicular height m (as )
Volume of the conical tomb
Cost of construction
Curved Surface Square Meter
Cost of white washing Dollar | <urn:uuid:1f9f8fe8-0b96-43f3-8daa-c330f63af84a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emathzone.com/tutorials/geometry/curved-surface-area-of-a-cone.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.857873 | 218 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Definitions of legionary
a. - Belonging to a legion; consisting of a legion or legions, or of an indefinitely great number; as, legionary soldiers; a legionary force.
n. - A member of a legion.
The word "legionary" uses 9 letters: A E G I L N O R Y.
No direct anagrams for legionary found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after legionary (in bold), or to aegilnory in any order:
l - regionally m - mineralogy v - overlaying
Words within legionary
not shown as it has more than seven letters.
List all words starting with legionary, words containing legionary or words ending with legionary
All words formed from legionary by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: le eg gi io on na ar ry
Browse words starting with legionary by next letter
Previous word in list: legionaries
Next word in list: legionnaire
Some random words: iamb | <urn:uuid:c10ad185-aba9-4cf2-8f0a-3121d3f62410> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/legionary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.841975 | 227 | 2.53125 | 3 |
||The English used in this article or section may not be easy for everybody to understand. (January 2012)|
Husserl c. 1910s
|Full name||Edmund Husserl|
|Born||8 April 1859
Proßnitz, Margraviate of Moravia, Austrian Empire (present-day Prostějov, Czech Republic)
|Died||27 April 1938
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (IPA: [ˈhʊsɛrl]; April 8, 1859, Prostějov, Moravia, Austrian Empire – April 26, 1938, Freiburg, Germany) was a philosopher who is deemed the founder of phenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his time, believing that experience is the source of all knowledge.
Biography[change | change source]
Education and early works[change | change source]
His major written work is Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891). In these first works he tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with a main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzes the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis. To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between proper and improper presenting.
In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic as he also calls it) if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc.
Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano is intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena.
The elaboration of phenomenology[change | change source]
Some years after the publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations; 1900-1901) Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the object-in-itself, transcendent to consciousness).
Husserl then started to concentrate on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness.
Husserl proposed that the world of objects and ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural standpoint", which is characterized by a belief that objects materially exist and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them.
Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially "creating objects or objects" .
In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (Cartesian Meditations, Meditation V).
Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific observation: specifically he refers to psychology) and what he means for "bracketing natural attitude".
The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation.
List of works[change | change source]
In German[change | change source]
- 1887. Über den Begriff der Zahl. Psychologische Analysen.
- 1891. Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen (Philosophy of Arithmetic)
- 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. Erste Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik (Logical Investigations, Vol 1)
- 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. Zweite Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis (Logical Investigations, Vol 2)
- 1911. Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft (included in Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy: Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man)
- 1913. Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie (Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology)
- 1923-24. Erste Philosophie. Zweiter Teil: Theorie der phänomenologischen Reduktion (First Philosophy, Vol 2: Phenomenological Reductions)
- 1925. Erste Philosophie. Erste Teil: Kritische Ideengeschichte (First Philosophy Vol 1: Critical History of Ideas)
- 1928. Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins.
- 1929. Formale und transzendentale Logik. Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft (Formal and Transcendental Logic)
- 1931. Méditations cartésiennes (Cartesian Meditations)
- 1936. Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie (The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy)
- 1939. Erfahrung und Urteil. Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der Logik. (Experience and Judgment)
- 1952. Ideen II: Phänomenologische Untersuchungen zur Konstitution.
- 1952. Ideen III: Die Phänomenologie und die Fundamente der Wissenschaften.
In English[change | change source]
- Cartesian Meditations, 1960 . Cairns, D., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Online.
- The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Philosophy, 1970 [1936/54], Carr, D., trans. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
- Experience and Judgement, 1973 , Churchill, J. S., and Ameriks, K., translators. London: Routledge.
- Formal and Transcendental Logic, 1969 , Cairns, D., trans. The Hague: Nijhoff.
- Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy -- First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology, 1982 . Kersten, F., trans. The Hague: Nijhoff.
- Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy - Second Book: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution, 1989. R. Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer, translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy - Third Book: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences, 1980, Klein, T. E., and Pohl, W. E., translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- Logical Investigations, 1973 , Findlay, J. N., trans. London: Routledge.
- On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893-1917), 1990 . Brough, J.B., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- "Philosophy as Rigorous Science", translated in Lauer, Q., ed., 1965 Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. New York: Harper.
- Philosophy of Arithmetic, Willard, Dallas, trans., 2003 . Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- Willard, Dallas, trans., 1994. Early Writings in the Philosophy of Logic and Mathematics. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- Welton, D., ed., 1999. The Essential Husserl. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Other websites[change | change source]
|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Edmund Husserl|
- Husserl-Archives at the University of Cologne.
- Husserl Archives at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh.
- Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). -- Marianne Sawicki. Accessed 2008-11-18.
- www.husserlpage.com. Includes a number of online texts in German and English.
- Husserl.net, open content project.
- "Logic and Formal Ontology in the Work of Edmund Husserl." Resource guide on Husserl's logic and formal ontology, with annotated bibliography.
- The Husserl Circle.
- Spanish website on Husserl and phenomenology.
- Website devoted to Husserl's phenomenology and its relation to art and architecture, with specific reference to architectural drawings. | <urn:uuid:5ad66502-8b7e-44ea-aff4-2907df10cdb7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.763736 | 2,147 | 3.46875 | 3 |
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts submerged an 80-pound, 5-foot-long autonomous vessel equipped with six GoPro cameras into the waters off the west coast of Mexico last year to observe the behavior of tagged marine animals like great white sharks.
They got more than they bargained for -- and more than they could have hoped for -- when several great whites decided the yellow-colored REMUS SharkCam, as it's known, looked like a giant floating Twinkie and chomped down.
"Sharks have special electrosensory organs called ampullae of Lorenzini, which help them zero in on prey," said a National Geographic article about the video, which the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution just recently shared. That probably explains why the sharks attacked a meat-free metal tube floating in the water.
"White sharks are notorious for biting metal... objects that are emitting a strong electrical field," Gene Helfman, professor emeritus at the University of Georgia in Athens, told the magazine. "It must have been giving off some pretty damn delicious signals to stimulate them to not only bite once, but roll their eyes and chomp several times."
The video that resulted from the attacks demonstrates a common predatory behavior among sharks. They sneak beneath their prey and then rush up at it to catch it unaware. It certainly caught me unaware when those razor sharp teeth appeared out of nowhere to disturb the peaceful humming of the SharkCam. I hope it does the same to you. | <urn:uuid:2195e1ef-5f55-40b3-8d57-1cc99838dfe6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cnet.com/news/sharks-attack-underwater-cam-with-awesome-results/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951303 | 302 | 2.5625 | 3 |
- The definition of a haggle is an act of bargaining, or arguing about price.
An example of haggle is a situation where the cost of a pair of shoes were bargained down from $100 to $50.
- Haggle is defined as to bargain on a price, or to hack at something.
- An example of haggle is to get the sales price reduced on a house.
- An example of haggle is to chop down a bush by chopping at its base with a shovel.
Origin of hagglefrequentative of hag
verbhag·gled, hag·gling, hag·gles
- To bargain, as over the price of something; dicker: “He preferred to be overcharged than to haggle” (W. Somerset Maugham).
- To argue in an attempt to come to terms.
- To cut (something) in a crude, unskillful manner; hack.
- Archaic To harass or worry by wrangling.
Origin of haggleFrequentative of dialectal hag, to chop, hack, from Middle English haggen, from Old Norse h&odie;ggva; see kau- in Indo-European roots.
(third-person singular simple present haggles, present participle haggling, simple past and past participle haggled)
haggle (v.) 1570s, "to cut unevenly" (implied in haggler), frequentative of haggen "to chop" (see hack (v.1)). Sense of "argue about price" first recorded c.1600, probably from notion of chopping away. Related: Haggled; haggling. Source: | <urn:uuid:7797f3fb-cdc8-4628-a941-b6cc3fe76d78> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.yourdictionary.com/haggle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881494 | 373 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Dear Mr. Wizard,
What is the difference between temporary hardness and permanent hardness. I’m only 36, and we’re not talking Viagra here! We are talking brewing water.
Mr. Wizard replies: The most basic difference between hard and soft water is that hard water reacts with soap to form solid soap scum, and soft water does not form soap scum. The formation of soap scum on your skin is the reason that soap seems easier to rinse from your body when you shower with hard water.
Hardness in water is caused by the presence of calcium ions, magnesium ions, or both. As their concentrations increase, water becomes harder. The combined concentration of calcium and magnesium is frequently referred to as total hardness.
When hard water is boiled in the presence of carbonate (CO3-2) or bicarbonate (HCO3-) the calcium and/or magnesium ions react with the carbonate and bicarbonate ions to form solid calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, or both.
Much of the ground water in the United States is trickled through underground labyrinths of limestone (calcium carbonate) and has high concentrations of both calcium and carbonate. This is the type of water that really wreaks havoc on plumbing, especially water heaters. A large portion of the total hardness in this sort of water is composed of temporary hardness.
Temporary hardness is complex, because its concentration is a function of the concentration of carbonates in relation to their reaction with calcium in magnesium.
Suppose your water has 100 parts per million of total hardness before boiling and 60 ppm of total hardness after boiling. This means it has 40 ppm of temporary hardness. The good thing about temporary hardness is that it is easy to remove by boiling or through precipitation with lime (calcium hydroxide). Boiling and adding lime are two of the older methods used to soften water containing temporary hardness.
Permanent hardness is simply the hardness that is not removed by boiling. If your water is gypseous — that is it has passed through gypsum in the ground — it will contain calcium and sulfate. When gypseous water is boiled, very little hardness is lost, because calcium is not precipitated by sulfate.
Many brewers add calcium chloride to their brewing water, and this is another source of permanent hardness. The good thing about permanent hardness is that it is stable. This applies more to commercial brewers than to homebrewers, but if water is stored hot in large hot water tanks and contains temporary hardness, the concentration of calcium will change over time. This problem doesn’t happen with water in which most of the total hardness is composed of permanent hardness.
One trivial point worth noting is that distilled water adjusted with calcium sulfate still contains some temporary hardness because carbon dioxide from the atmosphere contributes a small amount of carbonate to water. This means that no teapot or bathtub is completely immune to calcium and magnesium deposits.
With modern water-treatment systems able to do just about anything to any sort of water, the difference between the two types of water is less significant than in the past. However, for homebrewers using local water without any major treatment, the difference between temporary and permanent hardness is important. A quick survey of traditional brewing centers reveals that the dark-beer cities have water dominant in temporary hardness and the cities known for light/pale beers are more skewed to the permanent-hardness side. | <urn:uuid:8cb9ccc9-1562-4632-aa6f-740c7609594d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://byo.com/stories/item/1596-what-is-the-difference-between-temporary-hardness-and-permanent-hardness-in-brewing-water | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947326 | 708 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Upton Sinclair, ed. (18781968). The Cry for Justice: An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest. 1915.
Going to the People (From Memoirs of a Revolutionist)
By Peter Kropotkin
(The Russian author and scientist, 18421921, who renounced the title of prince and spent many years in a dungeon for his faith, has here told his life story)
IT is bitter, the bread that has been made by slaves, our poet Nekrasoff wrote. The young generation actually refused to eat that bread, and to enjoy the riches that had been accumulated in their fathers houses by means of servile labor, whether the laborers were actual serfs or slaves of the present industrial system.
All Russia read with astonishment, in the indictment which was produced at the court against Karakozoff and his friends, that these young men, owners of considerable fortunes, used to live three or four in the same room, never spending more than ten roubles (five dollars) apiece a month for all their needs, and giving at the same time their fortunes for co-operative associations, co-operative workshops (where they themselves worked), and the like. Five years later, thousands and thousands of the Russian youththe best part of itwere doing the same. Their watch-word was, V naród! (To the people; be the people.) During the years 186065 in nearly every wealthy family a bitter struggle was going on between the fathers, who wanted to maintain the old traditions, and the sons and daughters, who defended their right to dispose of their life according to their own ideals. Young men left the military service, the counter and the shop, and flocked to the university towns. Girls, bred in the most aristocratic families, rushed penniless to St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kieff, eager to learn a profession which would free them from the domestic yoke, and some day, perhaps, also from the possible yoke of a husband. After hard and bitter struggles, many of them won that personal freedom. Now they wanted to utilize it, not for their own personal enjoyment, but for carrying to the people the knowledge that had emancipated them.
In every town of Russia, in every quarter of St. Petersburg, small groups were formed for self-improvement and self-education; the works of the philosophers, the writings of the economists, the researches of the young Russian historical school, were carefully read in these circles, and the reading was followed by endless discussions. The aim of all that reading and discussion was to solve the great question which rose before them: In what way could they be useful to the masses? Gradually, they came to the idea that the only way was to settle among the people and to live the peoples life. Young men went into the villages as doctors, doctors assistants, teachers, village scribes, even as agricultural laborers, blacksmiths, woodcutters, and so on, and tried to live there in closest contact with the peasants. Girls passed teachers examinations, learned midwifery or nursing, and went by the hundred into the villages, devoting themselves entirely to the poorest part of the population.
Here and there, small groups of propagandists had settled in towns and villages in various capacities. Blacksmiths shops and small farms had been started, and young men of the wealthier classes worked in the shops or on the farms, to be in daily contact with the toiling masses. At Moscow, a number of young girls, of rich families, who had studied at the Zurich university and had started a separate organization, went even so far as to enter cotton factories, where they worked from fourteen to sixteen hours a day, and lived in the factory barracks the miserable life of the Russian factory girls. It was a grand movement, in which, at the lowest estimate, from two to three thousand persons took an active part, while twice or thrice as many sympathizers and supporters helped the active vanguard in various ways. With a good half of that army our St. Petersburg circle was in regular correspondencealways, of course, in cipher.
The literature which could be published in Russia under a rigorous censorshipthe faintest hint of Socialism being prohibitedwas soon found insufficient, and we started a printing office of our own abroad. Pamphlets for the workers and the peasants had to be written, and our small literary committee, of which I was a member, had its hands full of work. Serghei wrote a couple of such pamphletsone in the Lammenais style, and another containing an exposition of Socialism in a fairy taleand both had a wide circulation. The books and pamphlets which were printed abroad were smuggled into Russia by thousands, stored at certain spots, and sent out to the local circles, which distributed them amongst the peasants and the workers. All this required a vast organization as well as much traveling about, and a colossal correspondence, particularly for protecting our helpers and our bookstores from the police. We had special ciphers for different provincial circles, and often, after six or seven hours had been passed in discussing all details, the women, who did not trust to our accuracy in the cipher correspondence, spent all the night in covering sheets of paper with cabalistic figures and fractions. | <urn:uuid:0dbbec7d-382a-4bca-bad3-674d08fd60d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartleby.com/71/0613.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982401 | 1,090 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Chicken cup, Ming dynasty, Chenghua mark and period (1465–1487). © 2000–2012 The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Porcelain painted in underglaze blue and overglaze enamels. D. 3 1/4 in. (8.3 cm). Purchase, Mrs. Richard E. Linburn Gift, 1987 (1987.85).
It is possible that the patronage of the emperor's favorite, Wan Gufei, was responsible for the promotion of several decorative techniques at the Jingdezhen kilns. Premier among these is the fabled Chenghua doucai ("contrasting colors" or "contending colors"), which is a combination of two ornamental processes. Indoucai decoration, designs were completely outlined in cobalt blue on the unfired vessel, and a few areas of blue wash were painted in as well. After glazing and the usual high-temperature firing, the outlines were filled in with overglaze red, green, yellow, and aubergine enamels that were then fired at low temperatures.Doucai-style enameling was usually reserved for intimate objects of exquisite refinement, and the rare examples of Chenghua date are some of the most highly treasured of all Ming-dynasty porcelains. | <urn:uuid:55a26c1e-2066-4f14-9da0-15830e839d07> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2012/06/26/24586383.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954626 | 268 | 2.75 | 3 |
Mutual Aid and Union Renewal
Cycles of Logics of Action
The ongoing decline in union membership is generally attributed to an increasingly hostile economic, legal, and managerial environment. Samuel B. Bacharach, Peter A. Bamberger, and William J. Sonnenstuhl argue that the decline may have more to do with a crisis of union legitimacy and member commitment. They further suggest that both problems could be addressed if the unions return to their nineteenth-century, mutual aid-based roots.
The authors contend that the labor movement is characterized by two models of union-member relations: the mutual aid logic and the servicing logic. The first predominated in the early days and encouraged a sense of community among members who worked to support one another. In the twentieth century, it was largely replaced by the servicing model, which asks little of members, who remain loyal only if their leaders deliver increasing wages and benefits.
Regaining legitimacy and strengthening member commitment can only happen, the authors claim, if mutual aid logic is allowed to return. They examine three unions in the transportation industry to judge the effectiveness of new programs created after the old model. | <urn:uuid:2cb6f7f3-9474-4c7c-936d-f074e05de097> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?gcoi=80140100797610 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956969 | 234 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Whereas the modernists were lyrical about the possibilities of using concrete as a new material for buildings, back in 1920, I now feel a comparable enthusiasm for sustainable plastic. Affresol, a Welsh company, has designed what could be the ‘house of the future’. The firm developed a material called Thermo Poly Rock (TPR) from recycled plastics and minerals, which can be used as a structural building product. With this material they are able to build pre-fab modular low carbon houses for the world market.
Comparable to the initial argument of the modernists, one of the main advantages of this new fabrication method is its price. According to a BBC video it will cost only 40,000 British Pounds to produce a flexible one-family house like this one. Interesting here is the question whether people in the future want to live in a plastic house — a question which never has been thoroughly put forward at one of modernist CIAM conferences in 1928. Nevertheless, I think people will, in the end. One of the main reasons for this preoccupation is the fact that the designers have done everything to approach complete dullness in their architecture, which generally is what people expect a house to be. As long as the neighbors do not see you’re living in a plastic house it’ll be okay for most of us.
The material is said to be stronger and more sustainable compared to concrete. And, above all ,the house can be built in approximately four days, which implies giant flexibility. Altogether it brings a lot of advantages here that might change the future of building forever. Therefore I propose to organize a conference to rethink architecture: CIAM Plastic Edition. | <urn:uuid:34e5f2aa-4123-4b31-be13-97f342c4237c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://popupcity.net/bye-bye-concrete-hello-plastic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956131 | 345 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The Normans came to govern England following one of the most famous battles in English history: the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Four Norman kings presided over a period of great change and development for the country.
Last update:January 5, 2016 at 3:35:07 UTC
People and Society
Sports and Hobbies | <urn:uuid:c6baaf13-1238-4f97-bdac-d6c6f9b0e697> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmoz.org/Kids_and_Teens/People_and_Society/Biography/British_Monarchs/Norman_Dynasty/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.819456 | 66 | 3 | 3 |
Definition of Sairer
1. sair [adj] - See also: sair
Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Sairer Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Sairer
sairer (current term)
Literary usage of Sairer
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. English and Scottish Popular Ballads by Francis James Child, Helen Child Sargent (1904)
"8 Then louder cry'd the Clerk Colvill, 'O sairer, ... sairer ever will,' The maiden crys, ' till you be dead.' 9 Out then he drew his shining blade, ..."
2. English and Scottish Ballads by Francis James Child (1880)
"Then louder cry'd the Clerk Colvill, " O sairer, ... sairer ever will," The maiden crys, " till you be dead. ..."
3. Popular British Ballads, Ancient and Modern by Reginald Brimley Johnson (1894)
"... frae her sark he cut a share; She's tied it round his whey-white face, But ay his head it ached mair. Then louder cried the Clerk Colvill, “0 sairer, ..."
4. The Life and Letters of Charles Samuel Keene by George Somes Layard (1892)
"Now, "gey an' sairer" is not Scotch. A Scotchman will say, "My head's gey ... but to say "gey an' sairer" is to say "very and sorer," which is nonsense. ..." | <urn:uuid:5e2d4573-9d62-481c-a274-16b384dd04c1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/sairer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.7974 | 361 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Physics insight sparks photo-editing innovation: 'Content-Aware Fill' in Adobe Photoshop
Graduate student Connelly Barnes in 2009 performs in a skit at the opening of the annual SIGGRAPH computer graphics conference. Tongue in cheek, Barnes explained that he uses the PatchMatch photo-editing tool every morning to improve his personal appearance.
The buzz about the newest version of Photoshop started in mid-March when Adobe released a sneak-peak video, which received millions of hits on YouTube, demonstrating how users would soon be able to manipulate images with magic-like speed. The new tool, called “Content-Aware Fill,” also was featured widely on technology websites such as Popular Science, Slashdot, Gizmodo and PC Magazine.
The technology driving the new eye-popping photo-editing feature was developed by Princeton computer science graduate student Connelly Barnes, who interned three times at Adobe Systems Inc. In Seattle, Washington.
“What Connelly invented is an algorithm for quickly identifying correspondences in images,” said Adam Finkelstein, associate professor of computer science and Barnes’s thesis adviser. The core algorithm, called PatchMatch, turns out to have many potential applications, from computer vision to video search.
Indeed, Barnes didn’t set out to invent a way to infuse Photoshop tools with magical powers. Rather, he and Finkelstein were developing a video search algorithm inspired by medieval tapestries.
“We call these video tapestries because their continuous nature is akin to narrative depictions predating the advent of motion pictures” Barnes said. The algorithm generates a “tapestry” that acts as a visual summary. However, unlike a filmstrip the images have no hard boundaries. And when you click on a given spot in the tapestry you can zoom in to see the image in ever greater detail.
Barnes, whose undergraduate degrees are in computational physics and mathematics from Oregon State University, said the inspiration for PatchMatch came from the Ising model and the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm, which are well-known in physics but not in the computer graphics world. “I think a lot of innovation happens when you take an idea from one field and apply it to a totally different field,” he said.
Barnes first publicly presented the PatchMatch algorithm that gave rise to the new Photoshop wizardry last August at SIGGRAPH, the premier annual computer graphics convention. So if you are looking for clues about what future consumer applications Barnes’s research might launch, take note: This August Barnes will be presenting a new paper at SIGGRAPH. The subject? Video tapestries.
- Dean's Message
- Art of Science 2010 gallery opens at Friend Center and online
- Andlinger plans blend technical, aesthetic goals for new energy research hub
- For Princeton valedictorian Karp, success is built upon teamwork
- Engineers turn noise into vision
- Scientists find an equation for materials innovation
- Name change highlights links between engineering and biology
- Princeton-led center focuses on the future of computer system design
- Plastic electronics could slash the cost of solar panels
- Energy-harvesting rubber sheets could power pacemakers, mobile phones
- Engineers and architects develop disaster relief technologies for Haiti
- Physics insight sparks photo-editing innovation: ‘Content-Aware Fill’ in Adobe Photoshop
- Finding good ideas at the nexus of computers and sociology
- Project X: Innovation fund supports bold thinkers and 'tinkerers'
- Em[Power] plans an escape from severe poverty
- Forum drives University innovations toward marketplace
- Entrepreneurial Princeton
- Faculty Awards
- Students honor professors, grad students for excellence in teaching
- Two esteemed faculty transfer to emeritus status
- Connecting art and engineering in Streicker Bridge critique
- Undergraduate Awards
- Mixer connects grad students and alumni
- Bezos ’86 emphasizes the power of choice to graduates
- Engineering After Princeton: Harari and Toppin on innovation
- Winter 2010 | <urn:uuid:54e33e57-e60f-4655-b2ce-1282a737c358> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://blogs.princeton.edu/equadnews/summer-2010/physics-insight-sparks-photo-editing-innovation-content-aware-fill-in-adobe-photoshop.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910597 | 845 | 2.71875 | 3 |
In his famous speech on the Kansas-Nebraska Act, given in Peoria, Illinois in the fall of 1854—the speech that relaunched his moribund political career by attacking the opening of new western territories to the spread of slavery—Abraham Lincoln addressed part of his argument to his southern fellow citizens. He was convinced that their own social customs gave evidence of a moral principle against slavery half asleep in their souls:
[Y]ou have amongst you, a sneaking individual, of the class of native tyrants, known as the “slave-dealer.” He watches your necessities, and crawls up to buy your slave, at a speculating price. If you cannot help it, you sell to him; but if you can help it, you drive him from your door. You despise him utterly. You do not recognize him as a friend, or even as an honest man. Your children must not play with his; they may rollick freely with the little negroes, but not with the slave-dealer's children. If you are obliged to deal with him, you try to get through the job without so much as touching him. It is common with you to join hands with the men you meet; but with the slave-dealer you avoid the ceremony—instinctively shrinking from the snaky contact. If he grows rich and retires from business, you still remember him, and still keep up the ban of non-intercourse upon him and his family. Now why is this? You do not so treat the man who deals in corn, cattle or tobacco.
Of course, if the right to own and traffic in slaves was protected by the Constitution—as the Supreme Court was to assert in 1857—then the slave-dealer was doing absolutely necessary work. But Lincoln was right: Decent people instinctively recoiled from contact with someone whose business was the despoliation of others’ human dignity.
Who but the abortionist is the slave-dealer today? On whom does the traffic in abortions entirely depend? Who else gives practical effect to the “right to choose” an abortion proclaimed in Roe v. Wade?
But our own social customs are not so different from what Lincoln saw in the antebellum South. We “shrink from the snaky contact” with the abortion provider, and even people who call themselves “pro-choice” avert their eyes from the grisly reality of what it means, in practice, to exercise the “right to choose.”
Barack Obama, on April 26, was the first sitting president of the United States to give a public address to a convention of the slave-dealers of our age. That morning he gave a twelve-minute speech to the annual conference of Planned Parenthood, an organization responsible for more abortions than any other provider in the country.
Evidently he is not afraid to come into contact with our own “class of native tyrants,” who carry on the despicable business of destroying hundreds of thousands of human lives each year, and have the audacity to say they are serving “women’s health.” But then this is, after all, the same politician who voted against an Illinois law to protect the lives of newborns who survived failed abortions.
There is a limit even to Obama’s audacity, though. The president mentioned the “right to choose” four times in his brief speech, but somehow this transitive verb never took an object. Choose what? He never uttered the word “abortion,” though it was plain that the entire speech was about the centrality of abortion to the president’s notion of women’s “health.” Is there any other constitutional right, real or invented, that does not go by its true name when its defenders speak of it?
And far be it from the president to utter the name of Kermit Gosnell, the abortionist now convicted of three counts of first-degree murder for “snipping” the necks of babies who survived their abortions, as well as manslaughter in the case of a pregnant woman who did not survive his ministrations.
Gosnell, whose clinic was shut down by the Philadelphia authorities who charged him with murder, is the ne plus ultra of the abortion trade. Not because of the filth, the squalor, the jars of amputated keepsake baby feet, the employment of unlicensed incompetents, the promiscuous use of narcotics on unwitting patients, or the poisonous racism of a physician who preyed upon women and babies of his own race—although all of these are no surprise at all in America’s most unregulated branch of medicine.
No, Gosnell is the “slave-dealer” par excellence because, even if he had run the cleanest, brightest, most professional clinic in the country, he was simply following out the remorseless logic of the abortion regime installed forty years ago by the Supreme Court.
Women came to him for the very latest of late-term abortions, and he made sure their children were dead. Whether he accomplished their deaths in utero or ex utero—before or after their births—didn’t really matter to Gosnell. And, as we have heard from Planned Parenthood officials, from then-Illinois state senator Barack Obama, and from “pro-choice” politicians like Senator Barbara Boxer, it doesn’t matter to them, either.
Their insouciance about infanticide, moreover, is given intellectual respectability when a leading academic publication like the Journal of Medical Ethics publishes a symposium on infanticide in which the majority of the contributing scholars cannot bring themselves to condemn it.
And there is something inexorably logical about this attitude. How can it really matter where an innocent human being’s life is deliberately snuffed out? If it’s a legally protected “baby” after birth at 24 weeks’ gestation, but only an unprotected “fetus” before birth at 25 weeks’ gestation, how does that make any sense? Yet this is the kind of gyration the law produces, just as it was shot through with contradictions and inanities under the regime that sanctioned slavery.
It mattered a great deal whether Gosnell’s tiny victims were born dead or alive to his defense counsel, attorney Jack McMahon, for it meant the difference between capital crimes and the facilitation of women’s “constitutional rights.” McMahon mounted no affirmative case for his client, calling no witnesses and entering no evidence into the record. Instead he counted on pure argumentative obfuscation to induce the jurors to acquit.
Of the seven first-degree murder charges on behalf of the babies whose spinal cords were severed in Gosnell’s clinic, three were thrown out by the trial judge at the conclusion of the prosecution’s case, apparently on grounds urged by the defense that babies seen to breathe or to move “just once” after delivery could have been dead before the scissors were applied to their necks. McMahon seemed to be soliciting a similar conclusion from jurors in the remaining four cases, and perhaps they reached it in one of them. But in three cases, they could not deny that living human beings emerged from their mothers’ wombs and were killed by Gosnell, and so they convicted him of murder.
The defense counsel urged jurors to avert their eyes from Gosnell’s filthy practice and his profiting on others’ misery, instead seeing the doctor as supplying an essential service: “He provided those desperate young girls with relief. He gave them a solution to their problems,” McMahon said in closing arguments. Just like the slave-dealer, the abortionist “watches your necessities” and profits from them.
And like the slave-dealer, the abortionist is someone whose acquaintance we don’t want to make. This is more true of abortion’s defenders than of its opponents. For the defenders, the truth about the men and women who make this judicially-protected commerce possible is not something they want to know, much less to tell others about. This accounts for the dearth of media coverage during most of the Gosnell trial, which improved only slightly after the persistent criticisms of journalists Mollie Hemingway and Kirsten Powers.
When Gosnell passes from the scene, the liberal media blackout will resume. This is why it is incumbent on legislators, state and federal, to inform themselves and the public to the best of their ability.
We have been here before, of course, in some of our legislatures. The most under-reported aspect of the Gosnell case is that he was charged with more than twenty counts of illegal abortion under Pennsylvania law, merely by virtue of having aborted unborn children at 24 or more weeks’ gestational age. This law, passed by the state legislature in the late 1980s under Governor Robert Casey, Sr., was an effort to put the Kermit Gosnells of the abortion industry—the worst of the worst of the slave-dealers—out of business.
The Pennsylvania Abortion Control Act provides that unless a physician can establish that he “reasonably believes” an unborn child is younger than 24 weeks, or, if the child is older, he can establish that continuing the pregnancy will result in either the death of the mother or “the substantial and irreversible impairment of a major bodily function,” the physician cannot perform a late-term abortion.
If he knowingly commits a post-24 weeks abortion, based on such stringent life and health criteria, the doctor must certify his judgment about the threat in writing; acquire the concurrence of a second doctor in that judgment based on a “separate personal medical examination” of the woman; perform the abortion in a hospital; employ procedures designed to maximize the unborn child’s chances to survive; and have a second physician present, ready to consider any surviving child his primary patient.
The purpose of this Pennsylvania statute is, in substance, identical to that of the federal Born-Alive Infants Protection Act (BAIPA), and state laws similar to the latter. Whereas BAIPA protects the right to life of the child who survives an abortion, the Pennsylvania act protects the child who could survive an abortion, making it criminal in most cases to abort the child and, where an abortion is permissible within narrow limits, requiring doctors to treat the child as a second patient who should be brought into the world alive and unharmed if possible.
Gosnell did not conform his actions to any of these regulatory strictures. Still, the Pennsylvania authorities failed to enforce the law to the point of malign neglect—which is why Gosnell continued to prosper after its passage, until he came to the Philadelphia district attorney’s attention in a way that couldn’t be ignored, following a Drug Enforcement Agency raid on his clinic for reasons unrelated to abortion. He has now been convicted on 21 counts of illegal late-term abortions.
As the jury heads into the next phase of the trial—for the DA has indicated an intention to go for the death penalty on the first-degree murder charges—we can already see the inevitable appeals taking shape. Pennsylvania’s near-total ban on late-term abortions, after all, flies in the face of the forty-year-old precedents of Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton. The Roe decision said that states could prohibit post-viability abortions, with exceptions for the sake of a pregnant woman’s “life or health,” and the companion case of Doe said that “health” could be defined as “physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman’s age.”
Thus the “health exception” swallowed up the apparent ruling that states could ban late-term abortions, with the predictable result that abortionists could guarantee any pregnant woman the death of her child—if they could accomplish its death before it was born. Gosnell was evidently not skilled enough for this, and so he made the guarantee good by infanticide instead. Under the Roe and Doe precedents, Gosnell’s convictions in the 21 cases of late-term abortion could be overturned on appeal—unless the Supreme Court is willing to reconsider the moral failure for which it has been responsible.
But assume for a moment that those late-term abortion convictions are overturned. Why should he not win the same result in the three murder cases? We have it from some of the world’s leading medical ethicists, after all, that “after-birth abortion” is as permissible as “pre-birth abortion.”
In statements issued immediately after the Gosnell verdict, the slave-dealers’ lobby—Planned Parenthood and NARAL Pro-Choice America—reacted as though the real problem with Gosnell is that he preyed on women and endangered their health. To be sure, he did just that. But Gosnell victimized these women as the logical extension of these groups’ moral reasoning and public policy goals, which they have advocated for decades. They have devoted themselves to teaching American women that their unborn children simply don’t count in any moral calculus, and horrors like Gosnell’s clinic are the fruit of their diligent work.
There is no alchemy, no magic spell that can tell us how to distinguish, in terms of their moral claim on us, between the children aborted in Gosnell’s Philadelphia abattoir and the ones who were delivered and then killed. In certain respects, Kermit Gosnell has a right to be the most surprised man in America right now. We, on the other hand, who have not wanted to notice the slave-dealers in our midst, have no such excuse.
Matthew J. Franck is Director of the William E. and Carol G. Simon Center on Religion and the Constitution at the Witherspoon Institute. | <urn:uuid:07a2b656-2705-47be-981d-07649ec19016> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thepublicdiscourse.com/2013/05/10155/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966983 | 2,905 | 2.59375 | 3 |
NodPlot was developed to facilitate visualization of rapidly changing properties in 3D structured meshes for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) research. The mesh must be 3D or more explicitly: 3 dimensions in space or 2 in space and 1 in time. 2D meshes can be visualized simply by repeating twice the 2D data in the input file. The visualization is performed on a node basis, rather than a spatial and/or temporal basis, which makes it easier to visualize complex spatial geometries in 3D.
released on 8 November 1998
|License||Verified by||Verified on||Notes|
|GPLv2orlater||Janet Casey||4 September 2002|
Leaders and contributors
Resources and communication
|Source requirement||Qt libraries|
This entry (in part or in whole) was last reviewed on 4 January 2008. | <urn:uuid:761db21c-d2e5-4063-8574-fd5e911b20b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://directory.fsf.org/wiki?title=Nodplot&redirect=no | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.771573 | 179 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Global Challenges and Directions for Agricultural Biotechnology: Workshop Report (2008)Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Many developing countries are exploring whether biotechnology has a role in addressing national issues such as food security and environmental remediation, and are considering whether the putative benefits of the technology to biodiversity, health, and local jobs. Some policy leaders worry that their governments are not prepared to take control of this evolving technology and that introducing it into society would be a risky act. Others have suggested that taking no action carries more risk, given the dire need to produce more food. This book reports on an international workshop held to address these issues. Global Challenges and Directions for Agricultural Biotechnology: Mapping the Course, organized by the National Research Council on October 24-25, 2004, in Washington, DC, focused on the potential applications of biotechnology and what developing countries might consider as they contemplate adopting biotechnology. Presenters at the workshop described applications of biotechnology that are already proving their utility in both developing and developed countries. | <urn:uuid:37316d3f-50b7-4b83-94be-0fe6433dddaf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dels-old.nas.edu/Workshop-Summary/Global-Challenges-Directions-Agricultural/12216?bname=banr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940232 | 204 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The providence of God may be defined as His guardianship and care for His creatures and creation. Also, any manifestation of such care may be described as providence.
"There is probably no point at which the Christian doctrine of God comes more into conflict with contemporary worldviews than in the matter of God’s providence. Providence means that God has not abandoned the world that he created, but rather works within that creation to manage all things according to the “immutable counsel of His own will” (Westminster Confession of Faith, V, i). By contrast, the world at large, even if it will on occasion acknowledge God to have been the world’s Creator, is at least certain that he does not now intervene in human affairs. Many think that miracles do not happen, that prayer isn’t answered and that most things “fall out” according to the functioning of impersonal and unchangeable laws."
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Concurrence is "[a]n aspect of God's providence whereby he cooperates with created things in every action, directing their distinctive properties to cause them to act as they do" (Wayne Grudem's Systematic Theology).
- This is a section stub. Please edit it to add information. | <urn:uuid:2e1af91e-b87b-4353-8507-4c2ef32c19fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://religion.wikia.com/wiki/Providence_of_God | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954305 | 277 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Some business strategies can be seen as defensive, while others go on the offense. Defensive business strategies are reactionary and involve a wait-and-see approach, observing what competitors are doing and then responding. Offensive business strategies involve taking proactive, often aggressive action in the market. This action can be focused directly at competitors or aimed at securing market share regardless of the existing competition.
A classic example of an offensive business strategy is direct, head-to-head competition. This type of direct competition could take the form of selling a product similar to a competitor's at a lower price or highlighting quality differences between one product and another. This type of offensive strategy can lead to destructive price wars that ultimately harm both organizations, however.
Direct competition strategies often involve an element of aggressive marketing. For example, one competitor might openly point out flaws in another competitor's product or service as a way to dissuade customers from doing business with the competitor. Such advertisements could be done with an objective price comparison or a more aggressive form of derision. Companies must be careful when using overly aggressive advertisements directed at competitors, as some customers may find these advertisements to be in poor taste.
Not all offensive strategies are directly aimed at a specific competitor. Some companies aggressively seek out new niches in the market that have not been tapped by the existing companies. For example, if the market for automobiles consisted primarily of large muscle cars, a company with an aggressive approach could offer a smaller, more fuel-efficient model to establish a new market. Similarly, a company’s offensive strategy may target a new geographic market not presently being served with a particular type of product.
Similar to establishing a new niche, many companies aggressively seek out new innovations to market to consumers. Innovation is not strictly limited to inventing a new product or a new process for creating a product. Innovation can also come in the form of inventive ways to run an existing business model more efficiently or more profitably.
- Institute for Business Growth; The Only 3 Winning Offensive Business Strategies; Andrew Neitlich
- Marketing for Success; Is Your Marketing Aggressive Enough?; Charlie Cook
- Michigan State University; International Business and Economic Integration: Comparative Business Strategies Past and Present; Dennis M.P. McCarthy
- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:d4dc2624-1e5b-4054-bdbe-92d1671813a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://smallbusiness.chron.com/offensive-strategies-business-23996.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927807 | 463 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Contrails Make Clouds Say Researchers
No, this is not a ChemTrail airticle, but the UK's Met Office has concluded that high level contrails do have a global and localized effect ... on sunshine levels. One contrail studied by the office turned into a high level cirrus cloud that, at the peak of its formation, "covered an area of more than 20,000 square miles," Met Office Research Manager, Jim Haywood, told the UK's Times Online. According to the study, vapor trails laid down by aircraft along high traffic flight paths can reduce sunshine levels by as much as 10 percent whereas a lone contrail reduces light by less than one percent. Atmospheric conditions dictate how long the contrails remain in the sky and most dissipate quickly, said Hawyood. But some can last much longer, stimulating reactions in the surrounding stratosphere, "because the extra ice and soot act as 'nuclei' around which more water can condense," wrote the Times. Cloud cover aside, researchers say that the aviation-induced cloud cover can have other effects.
Intuitively, shade reduces heat, but researchers believe that high level cloud cover like that sometimes produced by contrails overall trap more heat than they reject. The overall effect then is a positive warming effect, which may be added to the three percent of greenhouse gas emissions that aviation is thought to contribute. | <urn:uuid:3921a626-9b99-47e7-95fe-120bc9b65129> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.avweb.com/avwebflash/news/contrail_chemtrail_UK_report_sunshine_201610-1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964259 | 282 | 3.734375 | 4 |
When Facebook officially announced that it would be using high altitude drones as part of its bid to bring internet access to parts of the world without terrestrial connections, it was inevitable that there would be comparisons with Google’s Project Loon.
If Facebook CEO and founder Mark Zuckerberg is to be believed though, his multifaceted plan (which includes drones and low earth orbit satellites) is much more viable than Google’s high altitude balloons.
In part that’s because, as Zuckerberg points out in a detailed treatise on the matter, different areas around the globe require different levels of connectivity:
In dense urban areas, greater network capacity is needed to serve a larger population. That means we need to build cell towers, small cells or a big network of wi-fi access points. But in the less urban and less connected markets, there are also fewer people distributed over a wider area. Deploying other infrastructure solutions like satellites might be more efficient and cost-effective.
That doesn’t really apply specifically to the solar-powered drones Facebook’s investing in though. Their advantages, Zuckerberg says, lie in the fact that they can more easily meet the constraints brought about by trying to get the world online.
Any craft aiming to achieve this needs to be able to:
Zuckerberg reckons drones can do all those things pretty easily. Moreover, he says, it’s important to be able to “control the location of these aircraft, unlike balloons”. While he doesn’t mention Project Loon directly, it’s pretty obvious what the Facebook boss is alluding to with that one.
Based on these constraints and others, the social networking tycoon says, “drones operating at 65 000 feet are ideal”:
At this altitude, a drone can broadcast a powerful signal that covers a city-sized area of territory with a medium population density. This is also close to the lowest altitude for unregulated airspace, and a layer in the atmosphere that has very stable weather conditions and low wind speeds. This means an aircraft can easily cruise and conserve power, while generating power through its solar panels during the day to store in its batteries for overnight use.
His hoodiedness also reckons that drones have more endurance than balloons and, because they can be controlled, could easily be flown back to earth for maintenance.
Ultimately then, it seems to about cost do deploy versus cost to run. Google’s already running trials with Project Loon — as things go, the kind of balloons being used aren’t exactly pricey to get up in the air.
That said, Zuckerberg does appear to have a point, especially if the number of drones Facebook and Internet.org intend sending up is dramatically than the number of balloons Google wants to float. | <urn:uuid:ee7780ce-99c2-4d07-a702-1c4f7f586e7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://memeburn.com/2014/03/why-drones-are-better-for-internet-connectivity-than-balloons-according-to-mark-zuckerberg/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952904 | 572 | 2.8125 | 3 |
New Study Shows Breastfeeding Can Save Lives and Money
Breastfeeding can be a difficult and demanding commitment
for new moms. Some find it impossible to do so due to physical limitations or other demands, such as working. But the Pediatrics
study reports that if 90 percent of mothers breastfed exclusively for six months, we would see tremendous survival and financial benefits. Currently, the CDC reports that 74 percent of women start breastfeeding. Of those 74 percent, 33 percent exclusively breastfeed for three months, and the number drops to 14 percent at six months.
Researchers suggest that pressure to increase the breastfeeding rates should not be placed on new moms, but instead should fall on medical professionals. The study stresses the importance of new mothers getting adequate encouragement and support before and after the birth, and recommends medical professionals do the following:
Promote immediate skin-to-skin contact between mom and baby, to help the newborn act on its natural instincts to suckle.
Educate new moms on the importance of breastfeeding.
Help new moms receive adequate support when they leave the hospital for any breastfeeding issues or complications.
Educate older generations, for whom formula-feeding may have been the norm, about the benefits of breastfeeding.
For more information on the benefits of breastfeeding and how to overcome breastfeeding obstacles, visit La Leche League International at http://www.llli.org/. | <urn:uuid:49b2d76a-e28c-4cb3-9bdd-33cb4c899dfa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://life.familyeducation.com/breastfeeding/health-and-safety/65514.html?page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901647 | 278 | 2.90625 | 3 |
This announcement made by Igor Burtsev via his facebook page about the DNA analysis of a Sasquatch specimen. The Sasquatch DNA study was conducted by the head of DNA Diagnostics in Timpson Texas Dr. Melba Ketchum. The findings many believe are a major announcement for all Sasquatch researchers and believers. Although many still believe that until we have an actual Sasquatch specimen alive or dead this study still is not enough prove that Sasquatch does indeed exist. Here is the anncouncement in its entirety from Mr BurtSev.
The DNA analysis of the Bigfoot/Sasquatch specimen conducted by Dr. Melba Ketchum the head of DNA Diagnostics, Timpson, TX, USA has been over!
Team of American scientists led by Dr. Melba Ketchum for five years has analyzed 109 purported samples of such creatures. The study has sequenced DNA of a novel North American hominin, commonly called Bigfoot or Sasquatch.
There were a large number of laboratories associated with this study including academic, private and government laboratories in which blind testing was utilized to avoid prejudice in testing. Great time and care was taken in the forensic laboratories to assure no contamination occurred with any of the samples utilized in this study.
After 5 years of this study the scientists can finally answer the question of what Bigfoot/Sasquatch really is. It is human like us only different, a hybrid of a human with unknown species. Early field research shows that the Bigfoot/Sasquatches are massively intelligent which has enabled them to avoid detection to a large extent. They are different than us, however human nonetheless.
The hybridization event could not have occurred more than 15,000 years ago according to the mitochondrial data in some samples. Origin of this Hominin was probably Middle Eastern/Eastern Europe and Europe originally though other geographic areas are not excluded. The manuscript associated with this study has been submitted to a scientific reviewed magazine.
For many years, people have refused to believe they exist. Now that we know that they are real, it is up to us to protect them from those that would hunt or try to capture them for research or for sport. They should be left alone to live as they live now. After all, they are our relatives.
At this time, analysis of the Sasquatch genomes is still ongoing. Further data will be presented in the future following this original study. Additionally, analysis of various hair samples purportedly from Siberian Wildman are being tested in an effort to determine if relatedness exists between the Sasquatch and Russian Wildman. | <urn:uuid:cb793a38-5ea0-463d-b4aa-2e10203a2787> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cryptoreports.com/sasquatch-dna-study-finding | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970242 | 533 | 2.578125 | 3 |
After many years living peacefully in alliance with Gondor, the Northmen found their lands invaded by a mysterious eastern people known as the Wainriders. Together, the Gondorians and Northmen formed an army to meet the Wainriders, but the resulting Battle of the Plains proved disastrous. King Narmacil II of Gondor was killed in the battle, and so was Marhari of the Northmen. Marhari's son Marhwini fought in the rearguard of the army, and his cavalry was said to have saved many of Gondor's soldiers, but in the end, the Wainriders had the victory.
After the battle, many of the Northmen remained in their old lands as a subject people of the Wainriders. Others fled north, with some mingling with the people of Dale. Marhwini led another group between the eastern bank of Anduin and the western edge of Mirkwood, settling at last in the northern Vales of Anduin. This was the origin of the Éothéod, the people from whom the Rohirrim would eventually arise.
For acknowledgements and references, see the Disclaimer & Bibliography page.
Website services kindly sponsored by Axiom Software Ltd.
Original content © copyright Mark Fisher 2004, 2016. All rights reserved. For conditions of reuse, see the Site FAQ. | <urn:uuid:3705c56d-8662-4a0f-b416-196c139d2b42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/m/marhwini.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973262 | 284 | 2.578125 | 3 |
In the award-winning movie “Amadeus,” Antonio Salieri labored in the shadow of his rival, the absurdly talented Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Salieri was a competent, seasoned composer, but his work never achieved the recognition or acclaim of Mozart’s. The scientific world has similar personalities. Mozart might be compared to the Galileos, Darwins and Einsteins of the world; Salieri to all of the other scientists who push their fields forward, if not in anonymity, then at least without fame.
In our own way, we’re trying to remedy that situation. On the following pages, you’ll meet 10 actively working scientists whose research continues to shine a light into the shadowy corners of our mysterious universe. Some have walked away with Nobel Prizes, while others have basked in much smaller spotlights on much smaller stages. All are forward thinkers with the vision and drive to change the world and, perhaps, to become the next Amadeus of the scientific community.
Discovery Magazine once said this guy possessed one of the “20 Best Brains Under 40.” In 2012, the professor of astronomy and physics at Johns Hopkins University is now in his 40s and no less impactful for the few extra years. Adam Riess’ research has sought to answer some of the biggest questions of cosmology: Is the universe expanding? And, if it is, at what rate and by what mechanisms?
In 1998, he began to provide crucial answers when he led the High-Z SN Search Team — an international group of scientists using the Hubble Space Telescope to study the behavior of light from distant exploding stars — to investigate whether or not gravity was reeling the universe back from the slingshot ride caused by the big bang. To their surprise, Riess and his colleagues discovered that the acceleration of the universe wasn’t halting, but speeding up at an alarming rate. Riess coined the term dark energy to describe the mysterious force responsible for the rapid expansion.
Riess has been hungry to better understand and describe dark energy ever since. He continues to keep an eye on supernovae, but he also studies cepheids (pulsating stars), all with the goal of getting more and better data to refine his calculations. Those calculations predict that dark energy makes up more than 70 percent of the universe. What they haven’t revealed is the nature of dark energy itself. Is it a property of space, a new dynamic fluid or evidence of a different form of gravity? The answer to that question may be the biggest discovery of the 21st century.
As a biogeochemist stationed at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks, Katey Walter Anthony studies one of the most understood compounds in chemistry — CH4, or methane. Unfortunately, the impact of methane on global warming is far less evident, which is why Walter Anthony regularly treks to Siberia, near the North Pole, to study a type of soil known as permafrost, the soil that remains at or below the freezing point of water for years and years.
But the “perma-” isn’t permanent. In fact, the frozen soil can melt, forming first a sinkhole, then a small lake, then a large lake. As our planet warms, more of these bodies of water will form. In and of itself, that’s not so bad, but these permafrost lakes produce something else — methane gas, a byproduct of microbial decomposition that bubbles from the lake bed to the surface. At the surface, it bursts into the atmosphere and, like carbon dioxide, becomes part of the gassy blanket warming our planet up.
Walter Anthony has been collecting methane from Arctic lakes for years and worries that Earth may be on course to experience an unprecedented warming. Her estimates suggest that, by 2100, melting permafrost could increase levels of atmospheric methane by as much as 40 percent beyond what would be produced by all other sources [source: Walter Anthony]. Because methane is even more potent than carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas, it could potentially raise Earth’s mean annual temperature an additional 0.32 degrees Celsius [source: Walter Anthony]. This could accelerate global warming to drastic levels and wreak havoc with weather patterns and sea levels.
When you think of cutting-edge research, you often think of sophisticated labs stuffed with multibillion-dollar equipment. But arguably one of the biggest discoveries in the last decade of physics and materials science came on the back of a small piece of invisible tape — the same kind you use every day in your home or office. The brainchild behind the discovery was University of Manchester researcher Konstantin Novoselov, and the novel material he plucked from the sticky tape was graphene.
Graphene comes from graphite, the form of carbon that makes up the tip of your No. 2 pencil. Scientists have known graphite’s structure for years — it consists of carbon-atom sheets stacked on top of each other — but they were never able to separate the black, crumbly substance into its individual layers. Then, in 2004, Novoselov (perhaps stuck on some tedious conference call) placed a small crumb of graphite on the business side of a piece of a tape. Next, he folded the tape over the crumb and peeled it back to reveal an even smaller piece of graphite. He repeated this process several times until, finally, he had graphene — a single layer of carbon atoms, arranged in a flat plane of interconnected hexagons.
After isolating graphene, Novoselov was able to begin testing the material’s properties. He and other scientists discovered that a monolayer of carbon atoms conducts electricity faster at room temperature than any other substance (hello, faster computers!). In 2010, Novoselov received a Nobel Prize in physics for his groundbreaking research. Now he’s working to turn graphene into useful products, such as ultrahigh-speed transistors, that could revolutionize the electronics industry.
Social networking usually makes us think of Mark Zuckerberg, but how and why people connect have been central questions of social science for centuries. More recently, James Fowler, professor of medical genetics and political science at the University of California, San Diego, has been lighting up the field. In 2007, Fowler teamed up with Harvard University researcher Nicholas Christakis to study the effects of social networks on health outcomes.
What they discovered mesmerized scientists and laypeople alike: that a person’s friends can profoundly affect that person’s health. They started with obesity, reporting in The New England Journal of Medicine that a person’s chance of becoming obese increased 57 percent if a close friend became obese at the same time. The effect held even when a direct friend wasn’t involved; obesity in a friend of a friend also increased the odds of a person becoming obese.
In 2008, Fowler and Christakis followed up with two additional studies examining the effects of social networks on smoking and levels of happiness. They discovered similar patterns in both health measures. If someone’s friends quit smoking or described themselves as happy, then that person was more likely to quit smoking or to be happy himself. In 2011, the two researchers summarized their discoveries in “Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives,” a best-selling book that has since been translated into 20 languages.
Fowler has gone on to research overconfidence as an evolutionary trait. His findings suggest that overconfident people outcompete realists in many situations, even though those folks could hurt the group as a whole.
The word chemistry comes from ancient Egypt — Khem described the soil’s changing colors when the Nile flooded — so it seems strangely satisfying that one of the world’s most significant chemists is Egyptian by birth. Ahmed Zewail was born in Damanhur, Egypt, in 1946 and received his bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Alexandria University before moving to the United States to pursue his Ph.D. Fast-forward a few decades and you’d find Zewail as the Linus Pauling Chair professor of chemistry and professor of physics at the California Institute of Technology. He’s also a Nobel laureate, picking up the 1999 award in chemistry for his groundbreaking work using lasers to study chemical reactions.
Here’s why that work is important: Most chemical reactions occur in the smallest fractions of a second. Transition states — intermediate molecules or atoms that are neither the reactants nor the products — exist for only 10 to 100 femtoseconds (a femtosecond is equal to 10-15 seconds or 0.000000000000001 seconds). Zewail developed a technique whereby ultrashort laser pulses froze these transition states and made it possible to observe them clearly. For the first time, chemists could witness molecules split apart, move and recombine.
His pioneering work in femtosecond spectroscopy would be enough to earn him a spot on our list, but his lasting contributions are just as likely to come from his ongoing efforts to revitalize science education in the Middle East. After the revolts of the Arab Spring, Zewail returned to his homeland to discuss how the region might cultivate the next generation of scientists. In May 2011, the new government unanimously approved a research center called the Zewail City of Science and Technology, which hopes to attract the brightest Middle Eastern minds and return the country to its glory as the seat of scientific innovation.
Daniela Witten, an assistant professor at the University of Washington, has an impressive pedigree. Both of her parents work in Princeton at the Institute for Advanced Study, the same hallowed research center that served as the academic home of Albert Einstein. In fact, Witten’s father, Edward Witten, had a little something to do with string theory, as did her mother, Chiara Nappi.
But Daniela Witten is proving to be a great thinker in her own right and own field — the application of statistics to medicine. Specifically, Witten uses artificial intelligence programs to analyze the enormous amounts of data coming from DNA sequencing and gene expression. The ultimate goal is to make sense of a person’s genetic code and use that information to develop personalized treatments for diseases.
Witten earned her doctorate in biostatistics from Stanford University and joined the faculty of the University of Washington School of Public Health. In September 2011, she received an Early Independence Award from the National Institutes of Health. The honor enables exceptional, early-career scientists to move into independent research positions directly upon completion of their graduate degrees. In other words, Witten is in the game, while some of her colleagues still labor through their post-doctoral training. It’s why Forbes Magazine recognized her as one of “The 30 Under 30” and featured her research in the science category of the award. And it may be why we could enjoy a customized cure for cancer in the near future.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s disease, affects about 30,000 Americans by causing their nerve cells to waste away, which leads to muscle weakness, twitching and, eventually, death, according the ALS Association. People with ALS and other related neurodegenerative diseases have long looked to stem cells as the medical miracle that might save their lives. Kevin Eggan, an associate professor in the Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology at Harvard University, is working on it.
Eggan made headlines in 2007 when he successfully created motor neurons characteristic of ALS using skin cells from a patient with the disease (see sidebar for details on how he did it). Since then, he has produced billions of spinal nerve cells to use in experiments probing the pathways and mechanisms of ALS, as well as trials testing new therapeutic agents.
In 2009, Eggan was selected as a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Early Career Scientist, an honor that earned him six years of dedicated support to conduct his research. In that time, he may unlock the mysteries of ALS and provide the techniques and knowledge about stem cells to help other scientists develop treatments for other devastating illnesses.
You know how certain physicists and cosmologists are fixated on trying to unravel what took place in the first few moments after the big bang? Biologists have a similarly mysterious moment they like to obsess over: the rise of multicellular animals from unicellular progenitors. One scientist trying to piece together that enigmatic puzzle is Nicole King, an associate professor of genetics, genomics and development at the University of California, Berkeley.
King’s research focuses on choanoflagellates, single-celled protists found in both freshwater and saltwater environments, that may be the missing link between unicellular organisms and animals. One clue to this link is the resemblance of choanoflagellates to the collar cells of sponges, the simplest of animals. Another clue is the ability of choanoflagellates to organize themselves into colonies, much as an early animal might have done. But the most telling clue, revealed by King’s investigations, is the presence of two genes previously believed to exist only in animals. Those genes code for adhesion molecules and receptor tyrosine kinases, responsible for maintaining the physical integrity of tissues and for intercellular communication, respectively.
Now King’s lab is sequencing the genomes of several choanoflagellates to test whether genes required for animal development evolved before multicellular animals themselves. The answers she finds may reveal how and when Earth’s primordial soup began to fill up with tastier, more complex morsels.
Today, global warming is old news, but back in the 1980s, when NASA climatologist and Columbia University researcher James Hansen began warning the public and politicians about the threat of greenhouse gases, the concept was relatively new. Hansen stayed on the case to make sure the science — and the side effects — of global warming were known to as wide an audience as possible. One person in that audience was Al Gore, who turned to Hansen for advice, consultation and information. The product of that partnership was “An Inconvenient Truth,” a slide show, film and book that introduced the concepts of climate change to millions of people and, in many ways, encouraged the world to “go green.”
Hansen continues the drumbeat today. In 2009, he published “Storms of My Grandchildren,” a searing look at how human-caused climate change could destroy the planet as we know it today. The book has won awards and stirred controversy, but its major contribution is that, just like Al Gore’s work, it has reinforced the key concepts of global warming to a worldwide audience. In fact, New Scientist editor Michael Le Page said this about the 2009 book: “This is not the best-written science book ever, nor the easiest to understand. But it could be the most important one you’ll ever read.” Hansen regularly updates the facts of the book on the Web, so you can stay current, if you’re so inclined, with the ongoing debate surrounding one of the most significant issues humans will face in the near future.
The spacecraft used in NASA’s Kepler mission isn’t a person, but since it’s named after one of the great minds in the history of science — Johannes Kepler — it seemed fair to include it (him) in the list, especially considering the magnitude of the mission’s discoveries.
First, the facts: Kepler is a space telescope launched by NASA in March 2009 with the goal of surveying 170,000 stars in a small patch of sky near the constellations Cygnus and Lyra. Its quarry aren’t the stars themselves, but the exoplanets that might be orbiting them and that might have conditions capable of supporting life. Kepler finds these planets when they cross the face of their parent star.
Now, the amazing results: Kepler has found a spectacular array of planets. In just a few months, it has discovered more than twice the number of exoplanets spotted from Earth in the last 15 years. More than 400 of these worlds exist in solar systems containing a number of bodies revolving around strange, faraway stars. What are some of these worlds like? Kepler-16b is a Saturn-sized planet orbiting two stars, a la Luke Skywalker’s home Tatooine. The Kepler-11 system consists of six planets — some rocky and some gas giants — orbiting a single, sunlike star. In all, Kepler had identified more than 1,200 candidate planets awaiting confirmation and further study, as of January 2012.
The Kepler mission is scheduled to make observations through the end of 2012, but its design will support an additional three years of investigation. NASA officials, faced with extreme budget cuts, are now trying to decide if the program should be granted an extension or terminated. Given its success, one can only hope that Kepler — the telescope, not the man — is allowed to live on.
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Comfortable reading is one click away… | <urn:uuid:a6d048e0-80a4-4af7-a9a7-7847ff0e99a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://extragoodshit.phlap.net/index.php/10-scientists-rocking-our-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950612 | 3,556 | 2.53125 | 3 |
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) set a new particle collision energy record at 1.18 TeV, surpassing Fermilab's Tevatron record of 0.98 TeV. And the LHC is just getting started! It is designed to ultimately accelerate beams of protons to 7 TeV. The beams run in opposite directions and head-on collisions occur when the beams are steered into each other, for a total collision energy of 14 TeV! That's 14 million million electron volts! That's a heady number and it's very difficult to grasp the enormity. But think of it this way: if every person on earth had just one electron volt, you would need 14 million million people! Crazy - I know.
Or, here's another way to imagine it. 1 TeV is about equal to the kinetic energy of 1 flying mosquito. So the LHC is like sending 7 mosquitoes one way and 7 t'other, and having them collide head-on in midair. Do it enough times, and one of the mosquitoes will poop out a god particle. At least that's what the physicists will be looking for. Like I said - crazy! I may crap a god particle just thinking about it. | <urn:uuid:032a59a7-bbc9-4c14-8d0b-be110a1cd706> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wayofthewoo.blogspot.com/2009/12/118-tev-and-counting.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939687 | 252 | 2.984375 | 3 |
There are many ways to explore spooky holidays like Halloween and Dia de los Muertos in the Montessori classroom, with Montessori appropriate activity ideas such as the ones we've collected for you here!
Halloween and Dia de los Muertos in the Montessori Classroom: Montessori Appropriate ActivitiesHalloween is celebrated in several countries and is one of the world’s oldest holidays. The holiday’s roots are in the Celtic festival of Samhain. Halloween came to America with Irish and English immigrants. Today Halloween is celebrated with costumes, parties and trick-or-treating.
Halloween and Dia de los Muertos Activities for the Montessori Classroom
- Research Celtic history and the festival of Samhain.
- Create a timeline and map of Halloween and its roots and journey around the world.
- Read The Legend of Sleepy Hollow as a class.
- Make Dia de los Muertos sugar skulls as a class. Want to avoid sugar? Make Dia de los Muertos hand soaps instead!
- Study Mexican folk art and create some of your own. Do an internet search for images of the Dia de los Muertos art for inspiration.
- Practice Spanish vocabulary with Mexican Loteria. This old and traditional bingo game can be purchased in affordable and beautiful sets or your students can create their own.
- Shake Dem Halloween Bones, by W. Nikola-Lisa and Mike Reed
- Where the Wild Things Are, by Maurice Sendak
- By the Light of the Halloween Moon, by Caroline Stutson and Kevin Hawkes
- Halloween Night, by Charles Ghigna and Adam McCauley
- The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, by Washington Irving and Russ Flint
- Day of the Dead, by Tony Johnston and Jeanette Winter
- Calavera Abecedario: A Day of the Dead Alphabet Book, by Jeanette Winter
- Festival of Bones / El Festival de las Calaveras: The Little-Bitty Book for the Day of the Dead, by Luis San Vicente
- Day of the Dead: A Celebration of Life and Death, by Amanda Doering Tourville
- Paper Crafts for Day of the Dead, by Randel McGee
- El Dia De Los Muertos: The Day of the Dead, by Mary Dodson Wade
- Clatter Bash! A Day of the Dead Celebration, by Richard Keep
- Mexican Folk Art Coloring Book, by Marty Noble
© North American Montessori Center - originally posted in its entirety at Montessori Teacher Training on Tuesday, October 27, 2009. | <urn:uuid:a16f2118-7c16-473e-a9b0-cf9a863578a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://montessoritraining.blogspot.com/2009/10/more-than-candy-and-skeletons-halloween.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.822646 | 543 | 3.65625 | 4 |
What Is A Druid, Anyway?
Article ID: 8742
Age Group: Adult
Days Up: 4,286
Times Read: 28,073
Author: Ellen Evert Hopman
Posted: October 3rd. 2004
Times Viewed: 28,073
There are many different Druid Orders and as is the case with most Pagan groupings, no two Druids will see things in exactly the same way.
To further confuse matters there is a different focus and feel to American Druid Orders and English ones. I can only speak for myself, as an American Druid of the Order of the Whiteoak (Ord Na Darach Gile) .
"Gaine daughter of pure Gumor, There is plenty of evidence that women as well as men were Druids in ancient times. Druids presided at divinations and sacrifices and praised the Gods, but the primary task of all grades of Druids was to follow an intellectual path.
nurse of mead-loving Mide,
surpassed all women though she was silent
she was learned and a seer and a chief Druid."
(From The Metrical Dindsenchas, Gwynn translation, 1903)
The Druids were the learned class of the ancient Celts, analogous to the Brahmins of India.
Both Hindu and Celtic culture are derived from the same proto-Indo-European roots. The caste system of the Hindus and the caste system of the Celts were essentially the same; both were fluid, that is one could move up or down the social ladder depending on skill and learning (it was only in the 10th century that Hinduism "froze" its caste system - a reaction to invaders from outside) .
The Druid was analogous to the Brahmin, the warrior to the Kshatria. There were the producer class of farmers and craftsmen and finally the slaves who were analogous to the Hindu untouchables. Among Druids there were specialists; it seems unlikely that every Druid was mistress of every Druidical function. Druids did not commit their knowledge to writing; important facts were memorized and passed down orally.
A Druid could be a Sencha, or historian for the tribe. They could be a Brehon, in which case they would have memorized volumes of Brehon Law making them eligible to be a lawyer, a judge, or an ambassador. A Druid could also be a Scelaige, or keeper of myths and epics. These myths were recited at important occasions like weddings and births, at the onset of a major journey or a battle.
The Cainte was a master of magical chants, invocations and curses. They could banish or bless with a song. The Cruitire was a harpist who knew the magical uses of music; she was mistress of the "three kinds of music:" laughing music (the sound of young men at play) , crying music (the sound of a woman in the travails of childbirth) , and sleeping music (the sound of which would put a person to sleep) .
The Druid might be a Liaig, a doctor who used surgery, herbs and magic to heal, or a Deoghbaire, a cupbearer who knew the properties of intoxicating and hallucinogenic substances.
Further specialties included the Faith, or diviner, the Bard, who was a popular poet and singer, and the highest grade of Druid, the Fili, a sacred poet and diviner whose words were prophetic.
Like Sorcerers, Druids performed feats of magic in the service of the king or queen and in the service of the tribe.
"Then Mogh Roith said to Ceann Mor: 'Bring me my poison-stone, my hand-stone, my hundred-fighter, my destruction of my enemies.' Druids were the teachers of the sons and daughters of the nobility. It was their task to hand down from generation to generation the knowledge of sacred animals, trees, plants, stones and all the details of the landscape, its history and how each feature got its name, as well as the tribal laws and precedents.
This was brought to him and he began to praise it, and he proceeded to put a venomous spell on it..."
(Forbhais Droma Damhghaire, Sean O'Duinn translation)
In contrast to village Cunningmen and Wisewomen (Witches) , who were counselors, midwives, magicians, herbalists, and veterinarians for their community, the Druids advised and worked closely with the nobility. A king or queen was a person from the warrior class who had spent their entire life learning the arts of defense and war, who was then elevated to the "Nemed" or sacred class by means of an elaborate ritual.
Druids were hereditary members of the Nemed class who had spent their lives learning the laws. A king or queen had to have a Druid advisor by their side at all times so that they could rule according to precedent. The stories of Arthur and Merlin are a good illustration of this relationship.
The justice of the king was so important that it would determine whether strong and good-looking children would be born to the people and if the weather, crops and animals would prosper.
There is evidence that the Druids supervised at human sacrifices. However, there is no evidence of the type of wholesale immolation in wicker cages reported by Julius Caesar. It is well to remember that Caesar was attempting to paint the Druids in a lurid light in order to get funding from Rome to continue his military campaigns and further his personal political ambitions. It seems likely that prisoners of war and criminals were dispatched in much the same way as we do it today, after judgment and sentencing.
The Druids were persecuted by the Romans and killed off in many Celtic areas.
However, the Romans never got to the extreme north of Caledonia (Scotland) nor did they invade Ireland. As a result Druids and their teachings persisted for many centuries. The Bards were able to continue to disseminate Druid teachings via story and song.
Who the Druids Were Not:
The Druids were not priests and priestesses of Atlantis, nor were they a lost tribe of Israel. Early English historians could not imagine that groups such as the Irish (whom they considered to be backward and inferior) could possibly have produced such a class of noble intellectuals and clergy.
The Druids did not build Stonehenge or the magnificent cairns of the Boyne Valley; Knowth, Dowth and Newgrange, which were built by pre-Indo-European, Bronze Age peoples. However, it is quite likely that the Druids used those monuments. In the case of the Irish structures, there is plenty of mythological evidence that the Iron Age Celts and their Druids revered these sites as sacred.
The Druids were not proto-Christians. They had their own system of ethics and deities that pre-dated Christianity.
All of which brings us to the difficult question of what it means to be a Druid in the new millennium.
All modern Druids attempt to honor Celtic tradition. They also understand that there is no fully intact tradition of Druidism that stretches back to ancient times and that of necessity every Druid Order must create its own ritual form.
Some are happy to include recent speculations, such as the poetry of Robert Graves (inventor of the Celtic Tree Calendar) and others try to stick to more rigorously researched, scholastically verifiable sources.
It is more common to find practicing Christians among the English Orders. American Druid Orders, such as Whiteoak, Keltria, and ADF, place a larger emphasis on Pagan Celtic scholarship, seeing themselves as lore keepers for Pagan Celtic cultural, religion and magical tradition.
Irish Druidism is often concerned with the Forest Druid tradition, seeking to keep alive the ancient woods lore of the forest dwellers of the Elizabethan era and earlier.
As in the past, modern Druids tend to be intellectually curious, reading voraciously on subjects such as Celtic tribal law, history, philosophy, poetry, magic, religion, mythology, spirituality, traditional healing methods, music, archaeology and astronomy. They use these studies to create ceremonies that honor the Earth and the Celtic pantheon of Gods.
The Druids are not a male priesthood. There are a few popular authors and at least one old English Order that try to perpetuate that idea, but they are in the minority and do not represent the majority of Druids today. Druids are not among those who seek to exploit or ignore the Earth in Her time of need. They recognize that nature hangs in a delicate balance and that all life must be tended with care.
Druids do not ignore the needs of the people. As in ancient times they care for the welfare of the people, giving comfort in times of sickness and death, rejoicing in each other's life passages and achievements, and seeking to advise, as best they can, the secular leaders of their towns, states and nations. They donate time and money to religious, cultural and humanitarian projects that capture their imaginations.
In short, Druidism is not a solitary path. The Druid is not isolated from her spiritual community, her town, her city, her nation or the world.
Ways of Worship:
Druids love nature and seek to know the land they live on intimately, observing seasonal and astronomical changes and animal behaviors as timing for festivals and as portents for the future.
Druids honor rivers, trees, mountains, green herbs, rocks, animals and every living thing. The Whiteoak Druids, for example, take an oath to protect "the Earth and Her creatures, " making offerings to trees, stones, and to the local River Goddess of the Druid's bioregion. Druids place an emphasis on praising the Gods and less of an emphasis on magic, using song, poetry, and crafts to express their love and kinship with their chosen deities. Druids make offerings to fire and water as a regular part of their rituals, in keeping with ancient Indo-European tradition.
Celtic Reconstructionist Druids, in keeping with tradition, work with the Three Worlds (Land, Sea and Sky) more than the Four Directions. Druids invoke and thank the ancestors, the Nature Spirits and the Gods in their rites. Druids are true polytheists, understanding each deity as a distinct individual with His or Her unique likes, dislikes, and spheres of influence. Among Druids it is considered somewhat rude to bring deities from different religions and cultures together in the same circle and every effort is made to work within genuine Celtic pantheons.
A Witch's circle is a closed space, designed to hold and contain energy to build it into a "cone of power." A Druid circle is a permeable affair; persons may walk in and out at will. Since part of the energy raising involves inviting the Nature Spirits to participate, Druids feel that there is no point in walling off the circle. Druid ceremonies are most often performed out of doors, ideally in the presence of living water, a fire, and a tree (or a pole or staff substitute) .
Modern Druids do not practice animal or human sacrifice, regarding hard work and artistic achievements as adequate offerings.
The major festivals of the Druids are: Samhain, the ritual end of the harvest season and great festival to honor the dead; Imbolc, a festival especially dedicated to the Goddess Brighid; Beltaine, the beginning of Summer and Lughnasad, the start of the harvest season and a festival dedicated to Lugh and His foster mother. These festivals are known as "Fire Festivals."
Many Druids also celebrate the Equinoxes and Solstices and some meet at the full or new moons.
Reading and Other References:
For a list of links to the major Druid Orders, book lists and service projects please see:
Breatnach, Liam (translator) ; Uraicecht Na Riar, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, 1987.
Hopman, Ellen Evert; A Druids Herbal, Destiny Books, Rochester, VT, 1995.
Kelly, Fergus; A Guide To Early Irish Law, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, 1991.
Kelly, Fergus (translator) ; Audacht Morainn, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, 1976.
Markale, Jean; The Druids, Celtic Priests of Nature, Inner Traditions, Rochester, VT, 1999.
Matthews, John; The Druid Source Book, Blanford Press, London, 1996.
Ellen Evert Hopman
Ellen Evert Hopman
Location: Amherst, Massachusetts
Author's Profile: To learn more about Ellen Evert Hopman - Click HERE
Bio: Ellen Evert Hopman is a founding member of The Order of the White Oak (Ord Na Darach Gile, www.whiteoakdruids.org) and its former Co-Chief, ArchDruid of Tribe of the Oak www.tribeoftheoak.com, a Bard of the Gorsedd of Caer Abiri, and a Druidess of the Druid Clan of Dana. She was Vice President of The Henge of Keltria, an international DruidFellowship, for nine years. She has also been at times a member of The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids and Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship (ADF) . Hopman has been a teacher of Herbalism since 1983 and of Druidism since 1990. She is a professional member of the American Herbalists Guild. Hopman is a member of the Grey Council of Mages and Sages and has been a professor at the Grey School of Wizardry.
Visit her online at: http://www.elleneverthopman.com
Her publications include; Priestess of the Forest: A Druid Journey (Llewellyn, February 2008) , The Druid Isle (Llewellyn, April 2010) ,
Priestess of the Fire Temple - A Druid's Tale (Llewellyn, March 2012)
The Secret Medicines in Your Kitchen (mPowr Publishing, London, October 2012)
A Druid's Herbal for Sacred Tree Medicine (Inner Traditions - Bear and Company, June 2008) , Being a Pagan: Druids, Wiccans, and Witches Today (Destiny Books, 2001) ,
People of the Earth: The New Pagans Speak Out (Inner Traditions, 1995, currently out of print) ,
Walking the World in Wonder - A Children's Herbal (Healing Arts Press, 2000) ,
A Druid's Herbal for the Sacred Earth Year (Destiny Books, 1994) , and
Tree Medicine-Tree Magic (Phoenix Publishing, Inc., 1992, currently out of print)
DVD's; Celtic Cosmology, Gifts from the Healing Earth, Vol I and Vol II (herbal healing) , and Pagans - the Wheel of the Year (Sawmill River Productions: http://www.sawmillriver.com/)
Other Articles: Ellen Evert Hopman has posted 1 additional articles- View them?
Other Listings: To view ALL of my listings: Click HERE
Email Ellen Evert Hopman... (No, I have NOT opted to receive Pagan Invites! Please do NOT send me anonymous invites to groups, sales and events.) | <urn:uuid:ad3698a8-2b5c-4f1f-8647-9f6e4ef5b496> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usma&c=trads&id=8742 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958562 | 3,213 | 2.859375 | 3 |
When Carbon Neutral Buildings Don't Add Up
via Mario Cucinella
Mario Cucinella is one of the greener architects in Italy; I loved his Casa 100K euro that we featured earlier. His Satander building is interesting too, billed as the first "Zero CO2 office building in Milan." But the three storey building sits on stilts, so everyone will probably take the elevator, which they might not have done if it sat on the ground like a conventional building. The Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability in Vancouver, on the other hand, takes carbon neutral to another level.
via Mario Cucinella
The Satander Building in Milan, by Mario Cucinella
The Satander building, Cucinella tells us, is raised 13 metres above ground level with piazzas, pathways and green areas below." And, "The facades are glazed with high technology selective glass and the treatment of the glass varies depending on the orientation of the façade."
But wait till you get to the roof: It's covered with 2,500 square meters (26,909 square feet) of photovoltaic panels that "produce enough renewable energy to completely satisfy the building's cooling needs" of 304,000 kWh/year. The engineer for the project notes that these cost € 1.800.000 (US$ 2.5 million), well over a quarter of the budget and twenty bucks a foot on the building's hard costs. There are other green features as well, such as pre-cooling the air with ground water, heat pumps instead of boilers, and carefully engineered sun shades on the south-west facade to "maximize the solar radiation for free heating in winter, and to minimize it in the summer to avoid heating."
via Mario Cucinella
Indeed, there is a lot going on here. But if you are telling a green story, why put a three-storey building 42 feet up in the air so that everyone has to take an elevator to just get in? And what is the carbon footprint of making over half an acre of photovoltaics? After all, processing a tonne of silicon produces a tonne and a half of CO2, and a square meter of solar cells appears to carry a debt of 75 kilograms of CO2, or 187 Tonnes. Production of semiconductors like solar cells also uses a lot of chemicals like sulfur hexaflouride or nitrogen trifluoride, both notorious greenhouse gases. The engineer says that the photovoltaics will "avoid the pollution of 175 Tonnes of CO2 per year" so that carbon debt is paid off fast, but it still matters.
There is little information available about what the building is made of, and no accounting of the carbon footprint of its materials and construction, so it is hard to really determine at what point this "zero carbon" building overcomes the carbon debt of its construction, but I suspect it will be a while. And isn't it something that should be considered?
via Busby Perkins + Will
The Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability in Vancouver by Busby Perkins + Will
Peter Busby of Busby Perkins + Will thinks so. He is designing the Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability in Vancouver to look at the full range of issues that make a building "sustainable" or "zero carbon." The facility is designed to be a "test-bed and research laboratory for the most advanced building sustainability technologies in North America."
The Centre has all of the expected green gizmos, including enough photovoltaics to supply 30% of the building's requirements, a wind turbine, ground source heat pumps and "exterior and interior solar control strategies specific to each façade in order to minimize solar heat gain in interior spaces and to offset cooling loads. For south-facing facades use exterior louvered sunshades." It also has high performance glazing. But wait, there's more.
Instead of throwing millions into photovoltaics to run the air conditioning, the Centre is designed to run without them, thanks to operable windows, proper shading, effectively placed thermal mass, and natural ventilation. Says Busby Perkins + Will, the Centre is designed to "ensure that the building works by itself and that it responds actively and autonomously to environmental stimulus."
It collects its rainwater and uses it for irrigation and toilets.
It has a green roof to reduce the rate and quantity of stormwater runoff from the roof.
Building materials are chosen for the lowest ecological footprint and greenhouse gas impact. A life cycle analysis is performed on all building materials to assess impact. All elements are demountable and bolted, designed for disassembly, yet with a 100 year projected lifespan. It is constructed from locally and sustainably harvested wood.
I could go on, but the main point is simple: The CIRS building uses every trick in the book to go beyond carbon neutrality, and starts its useful life with half of the carbon debt of most buildings. The Satander building is draped in expensive and flashy green jewellery but borrowed deeply from the carbon bank; CIRC is frugal and prudent. In these times, that is a virtue.
This article was adapted and expanded from an article I wrote for Azure Magazine.
More on Peter Busby:
Collin's original post on Cirs: Accelerating Sustainability: New Super-Green Research Lab
Smart Condo by Peter Busby | <urn:uuid:e4d017d2-ac90-48b5-9c20-4cfd80211920> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/when-carbon-neutral-buildings-dont-add-up.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93871 | 1,136 | 2.765625 | 3 |
The thermometer is in something (air, water, let's say water to make the following easier to write) that has a temperature.
It has a particular temperature; the temperature of that water is not the same as the temperature of anything else.
That particular temperature is a reality and we can talk of accurate portrayal of it as "real".
The thermometer is not reporting it accurately, so "the thermometer does not give the real temperature" is correct.
We can also use temperature as an abstract noun, to talk about the concept of temperature more widely. Here though, there isn't a specific "real temperature" to talk of.
"Real" with abstract nouns contrasts a view of it we hold to be genuine with one we don't ("Real love"). Saying it doesn't measure "real temperature" would make sense if we had some theory as to why it's working on a completely different concept of "temperature" to that we hold to be "real".
To express the same thing with an abstract use of temperature we'd need to avoid real and use something like "The thermometer doesn't measure temperature accurately". | <urn:uuid:4fb27e00-e95c-490d-beb3-1d52426d06ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/104688/give-the-real-temperature-vs-give-real-temperature | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974182 | 234 | 3.3125 | 3 |
On May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally, and World War II, at least in Europe, had come to an historical end. The loss of life caused by the war, precipitated by Germany's invasion of Poland in September of 1939, was devastating. Approximately 53 million people (soldiers and civilians) had died. This figure included the death of 20-30 million Eastern Europeans from countries such as the Soviet Union and Poland. Nine million people (six million of them Jews) had been murdered under German orders in concentration camps. Germany was a morally bankrupt country.
Germany lay in ruins. Over one-quarter of all houses had been destroyed in the allied bombing raids, and in most cities only half of the buildings were left standing. Six and one-half million German soldiers and civilians had died, and millions of German soldiers remained in foreign prisoner of war camps. Grief over the death and/or uncertainty of the fate of loved ones made life in occupied Germany difficult.
Ten to 12 million Germans were expelled from East Prussia and the areas east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (approximately 50 miles east of Berlin) after these territories had been annexed by the Soviets. The expulsion of the German population, conducted by Russians, Poles and Czechs who had suffered under the German occupation, were accompanied by acts of revenge. In a hasty, forced departure, most people could only take a few belongings. The "Vertriebene" (expellees) flooded into Germany, and compounded an already catastrophic shortage of food, housing, fuel and medical supplies. The unusually harsh winter of 1946 increased shortages of resources necessary to assure a minimal subsistancy level for the German population. The black market flourished. People traded their belongings for coal, firewood and food, and cigarettes became a method of payment.
With the defeat of National Socialism, Germany was without any government. The victorious allies, the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain and France divided Germany into four zones and within their zones established separate administrative structures. Berlin, the capital of the former Third Reich, was located in the Soviet zone; however, it also was divided into four separate sectors (see The Berlin Wall).
Despite the initial division of Germany into four different zones, the allies did not intend to create a divided Germany. At the Potsdamer Conference in July of 1945, Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt had decided on the 'Five Ds': demilitarization, democratization, decentralization, denazification and decartelization of Germany, but could not agree on the country's final boundaries. This issue was to be resolved at a future peace treaty. However, the advent of the Cold War made collaboration between the U.S. and the Soviet Union impossible, and Germany (see German/German border) as well as Berlin (see Berlin Wall) remained divided until the 2 + 4 Talks in 1990. | <urn:uuid:2dce5ec1-e2b7-40c0-be73-7570e173724a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.foothill.fhda.edu/divisions/unification/historical.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978601 | 589 | 4.1875 | 4 |
Eileen Hawley March 6, 1995
CLEMENTINE PROBE'S FINDINGS HIGHLIGHT 26TH LUNAR CONFERENCEA wealth of scientific data gathered by the Clementine lunar probe detailing the surface and history of the moon will be one of the highlights of the 26th annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference to be held March 13-17 at the Johnson Space Center.
International experts in the fields of meteorites, astronomy, lunar geology and geochemistry will meet at JSC's Gilruth Center for five days of presentations that also will include data on NASA's planned Discovery and Mars Pathfinder missions; and information from the series of Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet impacts on the surface of Jupiter last July.
"The conference promises to be very exciting and interesting again this year," said Douglas Blanchard, chief of JSC's Earth Science and Solar System Exploration Division. "We will have a tremendous amount of expertise gathered in one place to share ideas and information, and I am sure the conference will provide many topics for discussion and future research."
The public is invited to an open house from 6-9 p.m. Sunday, March 19 at the Lunar and Planetary Institute.
Conference presentations beginning Monday are: 8:30 a.m. -- Basaltic Meteorites, Real and Virtual; Mars Exploration, Pathfinder and Beyond; Origins of Planetary Systems; and Mercury. 9:15 a.m. -- Remote Sensing. 10:15 a.m. -- Lunar Exploration Strategies and Resources.
A special session will be held at 1:30 p.m. with presentations to the 1994 Stephen E. Dwornik Student Paper Award Winners followed by the Harold Masursky Lecture. Dr. Michael J. Drake will discuss "The Moon: What We (Think We) Know About It, How We Know It, and What We Don't Know."
- more -- 2 -
The 2:30 p.m. presentations include: Presolar Grains; Mars Surface Mineralogy and Remote Sensins; a special session -- Clementine Explores the Moon; and Outer Planets/Satellites.
March 14, 8:30 a.m. -- Chondrule Formation; Mars Geophysics; and Lunar Highlands Rocks and Geology. 1:30 p.m. -- Calcium-aluminum-rich Inclusions and their Formation; Mars Geology; Lunar Mantle Processes and Mare Basalts; and Tektites and Impact Studies.
March 15, 8:30 a.m. -- Chondrites; Meteorites and Mars I, Surface, Volatiles and Atmosphere; Meteorites from the Moon; and Craters on the Earth with Diamonds. 9:45 a.m. -- Lunar Surface Processes. 1:30 p.m. -- Meteorites and Mars II; The Chicxulub Syndrome; and a special session on the Discovery programs.
March 16, 8:30 a.m. -- Differentiated Meteorite Melange; Venus Resurfacing and Lithospheric Properties; and The NEAR Mission and the Nature of S-class Asteroids. 1:30 p.m. -- Interplanetary Dust; Venus Geology and Surface Properties; Planetary Interior Processes; and Asteroids, Too.
March 17, 8:30 a.m. -- Carbonaceous Chondrites; Volcanism and Lava Flows; and Shoemaker-Levy 9 Impacts.
In addition to the daily sessions, scientists will participate in two Poster Sessions set for 6-9:30 p.m. March 14 and 16 at the Lunar Planetary Institute. The conference is co-sponsored by the Lunar and Planetary Institute and JSC. All sessions are at JSC's Gilruth Center.- end -
NOTE TO MEDIA: Dedicated lines are available for filing stories from the Gilruth Center.
- end - | <urn:uuid:86d0894e-f85c-49d2-9620-c4d3bb49e435> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/releases/1993_1995/95-018.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862868 | 808 | 2.75 | 3 |
12 Facts about Easter traditions in Poland
When is the main celebration: Easter Sunday (Niedziela Wielkanocna)
Main dish: eggs for breakfast
Main decorations: lamb-shaped cake (Baranek Wielkanocny)
Who brings the presents: Easter bunny (Zajączek Wielkanocny)
How to say “Happy Easter”: Wesołych Świąt Wielkanocnych (vess–OH–wikh shvyont vyel-kah-NOTS-tikh)
Easter Traditions in Poland
1. Although spring cleaning (wiosenne porządki) is a common practice in other European countries, in many Polish households it is associated with Easter preparation and it’s carried out usually at the beginning of Lent (the period of repentance and self-denial 6 weeks before Easter).
2. Ash Wednesday (Popielec / Środa Popielcowa) is the first day of Lent on which believers go to church to have their heads marked with ash. This tradition dates back to the 18th century.
image source: Wikipedia
3. Holy Week (Wielki Tydzień)is the last week of Lent and the official beginning of Easter celebrations.
4. Palm Sunday (Niedziela Palmowa) symbolises Jesus’ triumphal entry on a donkey into Jerusalem. On this day Polish people prepare special palms which they take to church for a blessing. Palms look different depending on the region but they are usually made of willow or buxus branches decorated with colourful dried flowers and/or feathers. In some Polish cities there are competitions for the tallest or the most beautiful palm. The highest of them can reach even 30 metres and the most popular contests are organised in the towns of Łyse and Lipnica Murowana.
5. After the palms are blessed they are kept in the hose for the whole year. Tradition says that they protect the household from all evil. In the following year they are collected by priests and burnt in a fire outside the church. Their ash is used on Ash Wednesday.
6. On Holy Saturday every Polish household prepares an Easter basket (święconka) which is full of goods that will be eaten on Easter breakfast – the most celebrated Easter meal in Polish culture. In the basket there is usually some bread, eggs, ham, lamb-shaped cake, sausages, salt, horseradish, ćwikła and nowadays also chocolate. The baskets are decorated with white serviettes and flowers or willow/buxus branches. They are taken to church to be blessed by the priest who uses an aspergillum (kropidło – little brush that’s dipped in holy water) and sprinkles holy water over people’s heads and Easter baskets. This tradition dates back to the 7th century.
7. Easter Eggs (pisanki), the multi-national symbol of Easter, are in Poland decorated before being put inside the Easter baskets. There are many ways of decorating eggs depending on the region. One of them called drapanki is made by colouring eggs and scraping different patterns onto them. Kraszanki, which are the most common and the least laborious, are made by boiling eggs in coloured water. Oklejanki are done by pasting dried flowers, cloth or coloured paper onto the eggs. Ażurki are made by first making two little holes in the fresh egg. Then the content of the egg is blown outside (you put your mouth around one hole and blow inside to get the yolk and white on the other end). Later they are cut with a tiny knife or a drill into beautiful lacy patterns.
8. On Easter Sunday (Niedziela Wielkanocna) Polish families celebrate their traditional Easter breakfast and eat all the food that was blessed the day before. The most common Easter food includes: coloured eggs, bread, ham, sausages, horseradish, ćwikła (horseradish mixed with beetroot) and żur (sour rye soup). As a dessert Polish people eat mazurek (flat square cake), baranek (lamb-shaped cake), babka (spongy, brioche-like yeast cake with a hole in the middle), cheesecake and chocolate eggs and bunnies.
9. Before the Easter Breakfast begins, Polish families share Easter eggs with each other wishing their relatives all the best. Sharing eggs, which is pretty similar to sharing holy bread (opłatek) at Christmas, involves first cracking the eggs against your relatives’ eggs. Whose ever egg is the most cracked, is considered the most unlucky. Then you bite off (or cut off, if you’re slightly more posh) your relatives’ eggs and give them Easter wishes.
10. After breakfast many families spend their time of gift giving. As a child you are told that it’s the Easter Bunny (or actually Easter Hare, Zajączek Wielkanocny) that brings you presents.
11. Easter celebrations end in Poland on Easter Monday (Poniedziałek Wielkanocny / Lany Poniedziałek) when the cruel tradition of Śmingus-Dyngus is performed. Traditionally, boys throw water over girls (gentlemen use perfume) and spank them with pussy willow branches. Every Polish girl and woman fears this day as this tradition is often abused and there is no way you can get away with getting soaking wet! The most popular tools for this horrible custom are water guns and large buckets.
You can get the ideas by watching this video by batolomeo150.
12. The most common symbols of Easter in Poland include: lamb and lamb-shaped cake, Easter bunny (or ‘hare’ in Polish), chicks, Easter palms, spring flowers (e.g. daffodils), buxus and pussy willow.
– Petr Kratochvil – Easter eggs in the basket
– George Hodan – pussy willow | <urn:uuid:65c04335-50b7-4fec-8455-c92ac399cc67> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hitchhikershandbook.com/2014/04/20/easter-traditions-in-poland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917867 | 1,308 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Shifts in climate are strongly linked to human violence around the world, with even relatively minor departures from normal temperature or rainfall substantially increasing the risk of conflict in ancient times or today, according to a new study by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, and Princeton University.
The results, which cover all major regions of the world and show similar patterns whether looking at data from Brazil, China, Germany, Somalia or the United States, were published today (Thursday, Aug. 1) in the journal Science. By amassing more data than any prior study, the authors were able to show that the Earth’s climate plays a more influential role in human affairs than previously thought.
The study data covers all major regions of the world and show similar patterns of conflict linked to climatic changes, such as increased drought or higher than average annual temperature. Examples include spikes in domestic violence in India and Australia; increased assaults and murders in the United States and Tanzania; ethnic violence in Europe and South Asia; land invasions in Brazil; police using force in Holland; civil conflicts throughout the tropics; and even the collapse of Mayan and Chinese empires.
The new study could have critical implications for understanding the impact of future climate change on human societies, as many global climate models project global temperature increases of at least 2 degrees Celsius over the next half century. Refining the lens
Although there has been a virtual explosion in the number of scientific studies looking at how climatic impacts shape human conflict and violence, especially in in recent years, the research stems from disparate research fields ranging from climatology, archaeology and economics to political science and psychology.
“What was lacking was a clear picture of what this body of research as a whole was telling us,” said Solomon Hsiang, the study’s lead author, who was a postdoctoral fellow in Science, Technology, and Environmental Policy at Princeton during the research project and is now an assistant professor of public policy at UC Berkeley’s Goldman School of Public Policy. “We collected 60 existing studies containing 45 different data sets and we re-analyzed their data and findings using a common statistical framework. The results were striking.”
The latest study adopted a broad definition of conflict and used the latest research methods to re-evaluate what they found to be the most rigorous quantitative studies released since 1986 to examine aspects of climate such as rainfall, drought or temperature, and their associations with various forms of violence.
To determine if a link between climate and conflict existed at multiple levels of social organization, the UC Berkeley-Princeton researchers looked at whether evidence of a linkage was consistent within each of three broad categories of conflict:
- Personal violence and crime such as murder, assault, rape, and domestic violence;
- Intergroup violence and political instability, like civil wars, riots, ethnic violence, and land invasions;
- Institutional breakdowns, such as abrupt and major changes in governing institutions or the collapse of entire civilizations.
They found that all three types of conflict exhibit systematic and large responses to changes in climate, with the effect on intergroup conflict being the most pronounced in percentage terms. The authors found that conflict responded most consistently to temperature, with all 27 out of 27 studies of modern societies finding a positive relationship between high temperatures and greater violence.
New approach to climate studies
A central contribution of the study was to develop a method for comparing results around the world, because the nature of climatic events differs across locations. The authors’ new approach was to convert climate changes into location specific units known to statisticians as standard deviations.
“We found that a 1 standard deviation shift towards hotter conditions causes the likelihood of personal violence to rise 4 percent and intergroup conflict to rise 14 percent,” said Marshall Burke, the study’s co-lead author and a doctoral candidate at Berkeley’s Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics. “For a sense of scale, this kind of temperature change is roughly equal to warming an African country by 0.4°C (0.6°F) for an entire year or warming a United States county by 3°C (5°F) for a given month. These are moderate changes, but they have a sizable impact on societies.”
“We often think of modern society as largely independent of the environment, due to technological advances, but our findings challenge that notion,” said study coauthor Edward Miguel, the Oxfam Professor of Environmental and Resource Economics and director of the Center for Effective Global Action (CEGA) based at UC Berkeley.
Just the beginning
The researchers said that exactly why climate affects conflict and violence is the most pressing question for future related research.
“We’re in the same position that medical researchers were in during the 1930s: they could find clear statistical evidence that smoking tobacco was a proximate cause of lung cancer, but they couldn’t explain why until many years later. In the same way, we can show that climatic events cause conflict, but we can’t yet exactly say why,” said Hsiang.
“Currently, there are several hypotheses explaining why the climate might influence conflict. For example, we know that changes in climate shape prevailing economic conditions, particularly in agrarian economies, and studies suggest that people are more likely to take up arms when the economy deteriorates, perhaps in part to maintain their livelihoods.”
No single answer
Burke said there are very likely multiple mechanisms at play, since no single theory explains all of the evidence.
“The studies showing that high temperature increases violence crime in the U.S. and other wealthy societies seems to suggest that physiological responses are important, too, with very short-run exposure to heat contributing to more aggressive and violent behavior,” he said. Nonetheless, in all cases, Burke noted “the collected evidence shows that humans across the globe have proven poorly equipped to deal with exposure to hotter temperatures.”
While the study finds strong evidence that climatic events may be a cause of conflict, the researchers stressed that they are not claiming that climate is the only or primary cause of conflict, cautioning that conflict dynamics are complex and remain poorly understood.
“Say you look at data on car accidents,” offered Hsiang, “and you see that they become more likely on rainy days. Does that mean that rain is the only factors responsible for accidents? Of course not. Driver error ultimately causes accidents but rain can make it much more likely. Similarly, violent conflicts might occur for a variety of reasons that simply become more likely when climatic conditions deteriorate.”
Facing a hotter future
“Our results shed new light on how the future climate will shape human societies,” said Burke. The findings of the study suggest that a global temperature rise of 2 degrees Celsius could increase the rate of intergroup conflicts, such as civil wars, by over 50 percent in many parts of the world.
“It’s possible that future societies might figure out better ways to cope with hot temperatures and variable rainfall, and indeed we hope that they will,” said Miguel. Nevertheless, the authors argue that it is dangerous to assume that people will cope well to extreme climate when they have not done so historically.
“We need to understand why climate changes cause conflict so we can help societies adapt to these events and avoid the violence. At the same time, we should carefully consider whether our actions today are making our children’s world a more dangerous one,” said Hsiang.
Header Image : Mayan Warefare : Bonampak murals : Wiki Commons | <urn:uuid:3a80323e-c9ea-4a16-b1e4-5f533d9b5043> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.heritagedaily.com/2013/08/climate-strongly-affects-human-conflict-war-and-violence-worldwide-says-study/97355 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946156 | 1,576 | 2.90625 | 3 |
ANN ARBOR, Mich.—A University of Michigan cell biologist and his colleagues have identified a potential drug that speeds up trash removal from the cell's recycling center, the lysosome.
The finding suggests a new way to treat rare inherited metabolic disorders such as Niemann-Pick disease and mucolipidosis Type IV, as well as more common neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, said Haoxing Xu, who led a U-M team that reported its findings March 13 in the online, multidisciplinary journal Nature Communications.
"The implications are far-reaching," said Xu, an assistant professor of molecular, cellular and developmental biology. "We have introduced a novel concept—a potential drug to increase clearance of cellular waste—that could have a big impact on medicine."
Xu cautioned, however, that the studies are in the early, basic-research stage. Any drug that might result from the research is years away.
In cells, as in cities, disposing of garbage and recycling anything that can be reused is an essential service. In both city and cell, health problems can arise when the process breaks down.
Inside the trillions of cells that make up the human body, the job of chopping up and shipping worn-out cellular components falls to the lysosomes. The lysosomes—there are several hundred of them in each cell—use a variety of digestive enzymes to disassemble used-up proteins, fatty materials called lipids, and discarded chunks of cell membrane, among other things.
Once these materials are reduced to basic biological building blocks, the cargo is shipped out of the lysosome to be reassembled elsewhere into new cellular components.
The steady flow of the materials through and out of the lysosome, called vesicular trafficking, is essential for the health of the cell and the entire organism. If trafficking slows or stops, the result is a kind of lysosomal constipation that can cause or contribute to a variety of diseases, including a group of inherited metabolic disorders called lipid storage diseases. Niemann-Pick is one of them.
In previous studies, Xu and his colleagues showed that proper functioning of the lysosome depends, in part, on the timely flow of calcium ions through tiny, pore-like gateways in the lysosome's surface membrane called calcium channels.
If the calcium channels get blocked, trafficking throughout the lysosome is disrupted and loads of cargo accumulate to unhealthy levels, swelling the lysosome to several times its normal size.
Xu and his colleagues previously determined that a protein called TRPML1serves as the calcium channel in lysosomes and that a lipid known as PI(3,5)P2 opens and closes the gates of the channel. Human mutations in the gene responsible for making TRPML1 cause a 50 to 90 percent reduction in calcium channel activity.
In their latest work, aided by a new imaging method used to study calcium-ion release in the lysosome, Xu and his colleagues show that TRPML1-mediated calcium release is dramatically reduced in Niemann-Pick and mucolipidosis Type IV disease cells.
More importantly, they identify a synthetic small molecule, ML-SA1, that mimics the lipid PI(3,5)P2 and can activate the lysosome's calcium channels, opening the gates and restoring the outward flow of calcium ions.
When ML-SA1 was introduced into mouse cells and human Niemann-Pick Type C cells donated by patients, the increased flow through the lysosome's calcium channels was sufficient to speed trafficking and reduce lysosome storage.
Xu and his colleagues believe it might be possible to use ML-SA1 as a drug to activate lysosome calcium channels and restore normal lysosome function in lipid storage diseases like Niemann-Pick. The same approach might also be used to treat Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's, neurodegenerative diseases that involve lysosome trafficking defects.
Such studies might also provide insights into the aging process, which involves the very slow decline in the lysosomes' ability to chop up and recycle worn-out cellular parts.
"The idea is that for lysosome storage diseases, neurodegenerative diseases and aging, they're all caused or worsened by very reduced or slow trafficking in the cellular recycling center," Xu said.
Next step? The researchers hope to administer ML-SA1 to Niemann-Pick and mucolipidosis Type IV mice to determine if the molecule alleviates symptoms.
In Niemann-Pick disease, harmful quantities of lipids accumulate in the spleen, liver, lungs, bone marrow and brain. The disease has four related types. Type A, the most severe, occurs in early infancy and is characterized by an enlarged liver and spleen, swollen lymph nodes and profound brain damage by the age of 6 months. Children with this type rarely live beyond 18 months. There is currently no cure for Niemann-Pick disease.
The first author of the Nature Communications paper is Dongbiao Shen, a graduate student research assistant in the U-M Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology.
Other authors, in addition to Xu, are Xiang Wang, Xinran Li, Xiaoli Zhang, Zepeng Yao, Shannon Dibble and Xian-ping Dong of the U-M Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology; Ting Yu and Andrew Lieberman of the U-M Medical School's Department of Pathology; and Hollis Showalter of the Vahlteich Medicinal Chemistry Core in the U-M College of Pharmacy's Department of Medicinal Chemistry.
The work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the ML4 Foundation. | <urn:uuid:79a6e7e1-0e77-4499-b837-79c19adf1e39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ns.umich.edu/new/releases/20268-u-m-biologists-find-potential-drug-that-speeds-cellular-recycling | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940295 | 1,211 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Bands and Tribes
The simplest political systems are found in bands and tribes. To the casual observer from the outside, these kinds of societies do not seem to have leaders in the sense that we commonly expect. Political power is essentially diffused throughout the society. Subsequently, they have been referred to as being acephalous (Greek for "without a head").
Bands have been found primarily among foragers, especially self-sufficient pedestrian foragers. The total number of people within these societies rarely exceeds a few dozen. Bands are essentially associations of families living together. They are loosely allied by marriage, descent, friendship, and common interest. The primary integrating mechanism for these societies is kinship. Bands are extremely egalitarian--all families are essentially equal. There is no economic class differentiation. However, there are often clear status differences based on gender and age.
There is a horizontal status and power relationship in bands between all adults of the same gender. They are more or less equal as far as community decision making is concerned. However, some individuals in a band stand out for their skills and knowledge. These often are the people who have the best memories, are the best hunters, most successful curers, most gifted speakers, or have some other special ability. Such people become informal leaders. Most often they are given authority by community consensus arrived at through casual discussion without the need for a formal vote. This is possible because the entire society is small and everyone knows everyone else intimately as a result of living and working together throughout their lives. Band leaders generally have temporary political power at best, and they do not have any significant authority relative to other adults. They can give advice and propose action, but they do not have the formal authority to force others to accept their decisions.
The principle goal of politics in most bands is making sure that people get along with each other. This is not easy given human nature. There is always the potential for social disruption brought about by individuals failing to share food, sexual competition for the same mate, or other personal conflicts. Given the small size of bands and the fact that everyone is involved in the lives of everyone else, quarrels quickly become community problems that have the potential for splitting the band along family lines. In fact, band fissioning apparently has been a common occurrence. As the number of people in a society increases, the potential for disruptive interpersonal conflicts inevitably rises. Subsequently, the likelihood of families deciding to leave and form their own bands increases. Richard Lee has referred to this process as social velocity. He observed that among the ju/'hoansi of southwest Africa, fissioning often occurred before a community reached the full carrying capacity of the environment. In other words, it was not food scarcity but, rather, social discord that was the cause of the break-up.
Typically, there is no leadership position in bands that has the authority to conclusively settle disputes, punish criminals, prevent families from leaving, or represent the entire community in dealings with outsiders. Decisions are made by community consensus, but people who don't agree with the consensus generally do not have to accept it. During the late 19th century, this highly democratic diffused political system of bands made it difficult for the U.S. government to create binding treaties with some Native American societies in the West. It was naively assumed by the federal government that when "spokesmen" for a band agreed to a treaty that it legally bound all members of their society to its terms. From the perspective of the band members, it really only obligated those specific individuals who agreed to the treaty. If others in the band failed to follow the terms of the agreement, the federal government assumed that they were going back on a legal agreement. This cultural misunderstanding on both sides was the consequence of having radically different kinds of political systems as well as profound ethnocentrism.
Ethnographic accounts suggest that the political power and status of women in many pedestrian foraging bands was surprisingly high, especially compared to pastoralist and agricultural societies. Since forager women in all but the cold polar regions usually provided most of the food calories consumed, they performed economically critical roles for their families and society as a whole. Men generally hunted for meat. This was often the most desirable but usually the least dependable food source. The central economic role for women in providing vegetable foods, along with traditions of diffused political power in bands, allowed women to voice their opinions at important community meetings. Clearly, women in some types of foraging societies had significantly less political clout. The status and authority of women in aquatic and equestrian foraging societies was usually far lower than that of men. This may be due to the fact that men generally provided most of the food in these societies that depended on meat as their principal source of calories. In addition, the passionate military focus of equestrian foraging societies put men in a position to dominate political decision making.
No band level societies survive today with their traditional form of political organization intact. However, they did until the last half of the 19th century in out-of-the-way regions of northern Siberia, the desert and sub-arctic regions of North America and Greenland, the tropical lowlands of Central and South America, the Australian desert interior and tropical north, as well as a few isolated areas of Southeast Asia. While it is easy to think of these people and their traditional way of life in the past as oddities, it is important to keep in mind that the distant ancestors of all people on earth lived in bands at one time. Before the end of the last ice age, around 10,000 years ago, it is likely that very few societies had more complex levels of political integration.
Members of an Inuit
band in northern
Canada during the
late 19th century
A tribe is a somewhat more complex type of acephalous society than a band. As the population size increases with a shift in subsistence pattern from foraging to horticulture or pastoralism, it eventually reaches a point at which kinship ties and friendship are no longer sufficient to hold society together. This is especially the case when there are hundreds of people and multiple communities. Tribes also are characteristic of some large equestrian and rich aquatic foraging societies. Regardless of the subsistence base, new forms of societal integration become a necessity in tribes to settle disputes and prevent the society from disintegrating.
The new integrative mechanisms of tribes are referred to by anthropologists as pantribal associations or sodalities. These are groups that cross-cut the society by bringing together a limited number of people, typically at least one from each family. Pantribal associations often are in the form of councils, groups of elder men or women who are members of the same age set, warrior societies, religious cults, or secret societies. While these groups have specific purposes, they also serve to create order and a sense of unity for a tribe.
foraging tribe of
Indians on the
plains of western
Canada during the
late 19th century
A temporary camp for part of the tribe
A pantribal association of elder men in the
tribe who met to discuss important issues
affecting their tribe
(the man kneeling second from the left in the front
row is a non-Indian government agent)
In a number of tribal societies of New Guinea, all men traditionally lived together communally in a "big house," while women lived with their daughters and young sons in their own individual houses close to the gardens where they farmed. Older boys went through an initiation ceremony in order to become a man, move into the "big house", and learn the religious secrets kept by men. In these societies, men made the important political decisions. The group of men living in the big house acted as the pantribal association that cross-cut society. Even in New Guinea societies that did not have a tradition of "big houses", the important pantribal associations were most often made up of men as they are in most tribal societies. Subsequently, men had more political power and prestige than women.
Many societies in New Guinea
were traditionally divided into
social groups based on gender
Men formed a pantribal association that held
most of the political power in their society
Women and young children were largely
excluded from political decision making
Tribes commonly have village headmen who perform leadership roles, but these individuals have relatively limited authority. Political power stems largely from their senior position within kin groups and their ability to persuade or harangue others into doing what they want. In New Guinea and many of the neighboring islands of Melanesia, these leaders are called "big men." In the past, there often were competing "big men" who vied with each other for status and nominal authority over a number of villages. They worked for years to accumulate pigs and other items of high value in order to give them away in large, very public formal ceremonies. This functioned to not only enhance their status and political influence but to also redistribute wealth within their societies. A similar ritualized economic redistribution was orchestrated by the leading men among the Kwakiutl and some other rich fishing societies on the northwest coast of North America. Their principle goal was also to increase their status and power.
"Big man" officiating
at a pig give-away
ceremony in Papua
Like bands, most tribal societies are still essentially egalitarian in that no one family or residential group is politically or economically superior to others. All families are basically alike, including those of the headmen. They are for the most part self-sufficient in regards to food and other basic necessities. However, tribes differ from bands in the way that they are integrated. They are also larger societies.
Tribal societies have suffered the same consequence of contact with the large-scale societies. There no longer are any tribes that have been able to maintain their traditional political systems unaltered by outside influences.
The next section of this tutorial describes societies that eventually departed from the age-old egalitarian systems of bands and tribes and developed chiefdoms and states. These were political systems that had progressively more centralization of power.
NOTE: Native American societies have been commonly referred to as tribes. They have been lumped into this category without regard to their actual level of political integration. In western North America and the sub-arctic north, they most often had bands. This was especially true in the desert regions where population densities were low. Tribes were common among the agricultural peoples of the Southwest (Pueblo Indians). In the eastern woodlands, tribes and more complex chiefdoms were widespread. During the 20th century, Native American societies throughout the U.S. changed their political systems to what are now usually referred to as "tribes." However, these new political systems generally reflect more the European concept of representative democracies with written charters, elected tribal chairmen, and councils. The same kinds of political changes occurred among the indigenous populations of Canada, but there they are referred to as "first nations."
This page was last updated on Monday, July 10, 2006.
Copyright © 2004-2006 by Dennis O'Neil. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:eb2b46c7-ae5a-4d6f-beec-9694bcb173b7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://anthro.palomar.edu/political/pol_2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97742 | 2,287 | 3.546875 | 4 |
When you don't 'see', you are left behind
Tuvia BrodieTuvia Brodie has a PhD from the University of Pittsburgh under the name...
Our Sages make an interesting observation about an incident in this past week’s Torah reading, Va-Yeah-rah. You might want to remember the observation.
At the beginning of the story of Ah-kei-dat Yitzchak (the Binding of Isaac, B’reisheet 22:1-19), Abraham travels with three companions to a place we call today the Temple Mount. Those companions, our Sages teach, were Abraham’s sons Isaac and Yishmael, plus Abraham’s learned slave, Eliezer (for a description of Eliezer, see Tractate Yoma, 28b). As the group of four approaches the Mount, called Har HaMoriah, “Abraham lifted his eyes and saw the place from afar” (ibid, 22:4). As presented in the ArtScroll Stone Edition, The Chumash, (see commentary on 22:4) the midrashic Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer (80-118CE) relates that, as Abraham lifted his eyes to the Mount, he saw a cloud hovering there. That cloud was the Presence of G-d.
Abraham asked Isaac, ‘do you see what I see?’ Isaac responded, ‘yes.’ Abraham then asked the same question to Yishmael and Eliezer. Both said, ‘no.’
Therefore, the commentary relates, Abraham told Yishmael and Eliezer, ‘stay here’ (ibid 22:5). He left them behind specifically because they did not ‘see’ what they were looking at. Both Yishmael and the learned Eliezer didn’t understand the significance of what they saw.
Could the same happen today to Jews in exile? Well, in a single twelve-day news cycle (October 10-21, 2013), some stories and opinion-pieces have appeared that paint a stark picture for Jews in exile. Will those Jews understand what they read?
On October 10, Hen Mazzig wrote in The Times of Israel of anti-Israel bigotry and hostility on American college campuses. At one BDS (Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions) event in Portland, a professor from a Seattle university told the assembled crowd that the Jews of Israel have no national rights and should be forced out of the country. When Mazzig (who was travelling to talk about Israel) asked, “Where do you want them to go?” she replied, “I don’t care. I don’t care if they don’t have any place to go.” On another occasion, a professor asked Mazzig if he knew how many Palestinians have been raped by IDF (Israel Defence Force) soldiers (Mazzig had served in the IDF). He answered that, so far as he knew, none. She then triumphantly responded that he was right, because, she said, ‘You IDF soldiers don’t rape Palestinians because Israelis are so racist and disgusted by them you won’t touch them!’
On October 14, Caroline Glick wrote in the Jerusalem Post about the Washington, DC, Jewish Community Center (DCJCC) and its in-house Theater J. It seems that, for its Spring 2014 season, Theatre J will present a play entitled, ‘The Admission.’ This play presents a story about a so-called massacre of Arabs by Jews (in the 1947-8 War of Independence) that never occurred. Israeli courts have ruled that the original story—it was part of a Masters Thesis at Haifa University—was a fabrication. Nevertheless, the play portrays Jews as murderers and aggressors in the 1947-8 War. According to Glick, the play’s design is to defame Israel and romanticize its enemies. She argues that this is a blood libel that depicts Israeli soldiers – and the society that supports them – as mass murderers. It represents, she contends, the beginning of an conversation regarding whether or not Israel is a criminal state born in war crimes—and it is being promoted by the Jewish community.
On October 18, The Times of Israel reported that 40 per cent of French Jews, 49 per cent of Swedish Jews and 36 per cent of Belgian Jews are afraid to wear Jewish symbols for fear of attack. In addition, 91 per cent of Hungarian Jews, 88 per cent of French Jews, 87 per cent of Belgian Jews and 80 per cent of Swedish Jews say that anti-Semitism has increased over the last five years.
On October 21, Richard L Cravatts wrote on Arutz Sheva that the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), the largest and most significant organization of academic faculty members in the United States, with over 47,000 members, has traditionally not supported boycotts. But now, he reports, the organization has dedicated an entire issue of their online Journal of Academic Freedom to examine the feasibility of an academic boycott of Israel.
These four stories, appearing in a single ten-day period, represent a warning call to Jews in exile. As European Jews have clearly discovered, the anti-Israel Movement is not just a philosophic enterprise. They see now that the more Israel is demonized, the stronger anti-Semitism becomes.
The Biblical story of Abraham and Isaac looking up at the Temple Mount is today’s story. It is the story of, ‘do you see’?
It’s a reminder. It reminds us that, if we don’t understand what we see, we will be ‘left behind’—and whatever ‘left behind’ means, it’s not good. | <urn:uuid:d3087aa9-d42e-4334-af14-362f5ee15b3f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Blogs/Message.aspx/5357 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956907 | 1,222 | 2.6875 | 3 |
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International French television channel website featuring shows, programs, continuous information, weather, music, and more.
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Focuses on the principles of evolution and ecology as major events of geography.
Watch 4.6 billion years of the earth's history in sixty seconds! Don’t blink at the end.
Walk through the period of time following the extinction of the dinosaurs, during which new species came about and mammals ruled the earth.
Review of patterns of evolution and climate change during the Cenozoic Era.
Scientists will some day be able to clone extinct animals. A park of Pleistocene megafauna might be a reality someday.
The La Brea Tar Pits are a fabulous Pleistocene fossil site. | <urn:uuid:0396525f-7070-4f9e-a6b1-46533a33b507> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ck12.org/earth-science/History-of-Cenozoic-Life/?difficulty=basic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911879 | 128 | 3.25 | 3 |
The level of the lower edge of a garment such as a skirt, dress, or coat: a long jacket with a lowered hemline at the back
More example sentences
- Some designers showed fur as a trim - around the necklines or hemlines of dresses, or on the collars and cuffs of sweaters and jackets.
- There were groups of Neanderthal-looking guys talking about football, and groups of girls wearing dresses with way high hemlines and way low necklines.
- Some dresses feature freaky frilled hemlines, and striped suits were shown with dramatic hats that wouldn't have looked out of place at Ascot.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of hemline in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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New Criticism Introduction
In a Nutshell
New Criticism is all about the text. No need to read hundreds of pages of history or dig up evidence of Jane Austen's love life. In fact, forget about when and where the author lived, and whether the author was rich or poor, man or woman.
What's that, you say? You have the author's very private personal journal? The New Critics don't care. It's the text that matters. They're not interested in reading every writer's innermost personal musings—that kind of navel gazing is best reserved for yo' momma—and they're not going to call the psychic hotline to figure out what some poet meant to say.
Their motto is: If the poem is good, if the book is well written, it'll say everything.
See, many of the New Critics took a hard line against studying anything "outside" the literary work. But these guys and gals weren't totally banishing history, biography, and politics. It's not like they don't think those things are important. It's just that they believe the text—and nothing but the text—should be the main focus of literary study.
But there's really no "just" involved in New Critics' readings. That's not giving them enough credit. They close read every word in order to gain insight into the work's form, literary devices, technique, and so on. They were all about studying the poem as a poem, the play as a play, and the novel as a novel.
Given that you're reading this page, we bet you're already a bit of a New Critic yourself. New Criticism was developed in the early 20th century, and really got rolling in the 1930s and '40s when more people started attending college. That's when close reading became a skill that everyone could practice and apply—regardless of background or politics.
Suddenly, people didn't need to wear a tweed coat and study history and the classics in order to read poetry and novels closely. Which was really kind of liberating. The New Critics were a great democratizing force that said: you, too, can know everything there is to know about Shakespeare.
Unlike many theories that seem to have been developed for the sole purpose of stumping newcomers, New Criticism is actually pretty welcoming. So get your magnifying glasses ready, Shmoopers. The New Critics want you to out how this text functions. And… go.
Why Should I Care?
Why Should Readers Care?
New Criticism tried to lay down some laws for reading and interpreting texts. They wanted to make the whole activity more systematic—scientific, even. And in the process, New Criticism made literary analysis more democratic, too; power to the (book-lovin') people, man.
To talk about Keats's poems, you don't need to get dusty comparing different manuscript versions. You don't even need to spend years reading the history of England. Or researching different styles of 19th-century vases hoping to stumble across the model for Keats's Grecian urn.
Nope, you just need to get really up close and personal with the poems. New Criticism demands you ask yourself questions like: What ingredients make his poems good? Is it the paradoxes? The tension between different ideas? The sound of the meter and rhyme? That whole "unravish'd bride of quietness" bit?
The New Critics made it easier to talk clearly about literature and about how it works its intellectual and emotional magic on us. That's because all it demanded of readers was to, well, read. To pay attention to what was on the page (and what was markedly missing from it).
But that handy dandy New Criticism toolbox allows us to discuss why Pride and Prejudice reads so well, in a pithy and understandable fashion. You know, who doesn't love the irony, the misunderstandings, and the marriage plots? Ladies, grab your knitting gear, let's talk some lit.
Why Should Theorists Care?
Before the New Critics arrived on the scene, English literature studies were all about history. All the great thinkers believed that in order to truly dig into a book's themes, you had to know the history of the language the work was written in, how it got written, what the author's life was like. And so on and so forth.
In fact, folks back then even maintained a strict division between being a critic and being a scholar. Critics were supposedly amateurs who just read literature for fun. Scholars were supposed to be the real professionals—the professors who knew every nit-picky detail, like how Shakespeare signed his name, and what sort of paperweights Dickens kept on his desk.
These two different camps—the amateur critics and the professional scholars—asked very different questions. If you were a critic, you tried to answer questions about quality: which poems were good or bad? Which novels were just so-so, and which were sparkling and brilliant? On the other hand, if you were a scholar, you kept your nose to the grindstone. You studied facts and spewed literary history.
Imagine we gave an apple to one old-school critic and one old-school scholar. The scholar would tell you all about the history of apple trees and maybe even about how this particular apple traveled from an orchard in Washington to our little neighborhood market. But the critic would bite into it, and tell you whether it was a perfectly tart and crisp apple or kind of sad and mealy.
Yum. So what did New Criticism do? Combined the two, of course. If we gave a New Critic an apple, she would closely examine it, then eat it slowly, and then explain why it was good or bad.
New Critics wanted to create a whole system for appreciating and criticizing literature. These critics didn't simply gush praise for a poem; they tried to explain why it was an extraordinary example of the poetic form. They asked questions like: What's going on with language in the poem? Where do the line breaks fall? How do all of these formal elements contribute to the poem's major themes?
If it weren't for New Criticism, we might still be studying literature by tracking down every allusion to astronomy in John Donne. Or imagine some future scholar starts reading Harry Potter in order to deduce what we thought about magic and science in the 21st century. Yikes.
As interesting as those studies might be, they're not really about the text: they're about 17th-century astronomy and 21st-century make-believe. They take us further and further away from the text itself—which, when you think about it, is where all of the text's meaning actually lives. | <urn:uuid:8d6c5e65-a195-45bf-a6d9-d6f22911b9f5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shmoop.com/new-criticism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97763 | 1,410 | 2.9375 | 3 |
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Developing a Scientific Theory of the Nature of the Universe
August 24, 2010
As explained by the American sociologists Richard P. Appelbaum and William J. Chambliss, “A scientific theory consist of a set of logically consistent ideas about the relationships between things that permits those ideas to be checked against observations… Theories tell the natural scientist which facts to look for; indeed, the theory often tells the scientist what facts may be relevant. Theories help the scientist to see what is happening: facts help the scientist to construct and evaluate the theory. Theories and facts require one another, and each continually modifies the other in a never-ending process that is the hall-mark of science”1 Every scientist knows that since a scientific theory is checked by observation, it must include the scientist whose developing the theory as observer.
As Appelbaum and Chambliss tells us, “Two scientists observing the same event often have different interpretations, depending on the theory they bring to their observations.”2 A satisfactory scientific theory explains all the known facts, based on observation. I agree with the American Unitarian clergyman John Weiss (1818-79), who explained that: “Theory is the guide to practices, and practice is the ratification and life of theory. The theory that can absorb the greatest number of facts, and persist in doing so, generation after generation, through all changes of opinion and detail, is the one that must rule all observation.”3
Developing a scientific theory begins with posing a question(s) and exploring possible answers to it based on observation. “Observation” is the use of one or more of our five senses to gather information about the world that we are observing. Our natural senses of sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell provide us with evidence that the world is made up of things that take up (or occupy) space, have mass, and react to gravity. “Mass” is often defined as the amount of matter in an object. It is also defined as the inertia (or resistance) of an object to a change in its motion, a property of all matter.
“Gravity” is the force of attraction between any two objects (masses) that pulls them together. Gravity pulls objects toward the Earth. It also keeps the planets in orbit around the sun.
Here are some of the most obvious things that we observe about the world:
1. We observe that the matter of which the world is made is particulate, consisting of very small, separate particles.
2. We observe that all matter is three-dimensional, having height, width, and depth.
3. We observe that matter changes form but is never annihilated.
4. We observe that all matter is bounded by empty space and empty space by matter.
5. We observe that all matter is in motion.
6. We observed that when matter moves from one place to another, the space it occupied does not move with it.
7. We observe that when new things come into existence, they always come from something already existing.
8. We observe that matter disintegrates or decays.
9. We observe that the existence of objects varies in duration.
10. Observing the duration of existence of things, we become aware of the existence of time, which we define as the measurement of duration of existent.
11. We observe that the duration of the existence of all things always moves straight forward at the same constant rate of time.
12. We observe that space always remains the same while time passes.
13. We observe that empty space has no ability to affect the objects, or bodies, moving within it.
14. We observe that the laws of nature are immutable.
From all of the observations mentioned above, we can develop a valid scientific theory of the nature of the universe. I will reiterate: A satisfactory scientific theory explains all the known facts, based on observation. Judging by this standard, the only satisfactory scientific theory of the nature of the universe is the theory of Atomism, also known as the Atomic theory, which was developed by the ancient Greek natural philosophers Leucippus (fl.c. 450BC), Democritus (c.460-c.370 BC), and Epicurus (341-270 BC), and the Roman philosophic poet Lucretius (c.98-55 BC).
The theory of Atomism states that:
1. Everything in the universe is made of matter and void and that nothing can exist which is non-material, except the void.
2. Matter is anything that takes up (or occupies) space, has mass, and reacts to gravity.
3. Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
4. Gravity is the force of attraction between two objects because of their mass.
5. All matter is made up of atoms and void.
6. Void is pure empty pure space or nothingness. It’s the opposite of matter.
7. Atoms are the invisible and indivisible elements from which nature forms, increases, and sustains all things, and into which, when they disintegrate or decay, nature again resolves them.
7. Nothing can come into existence without atoms.
8. Our beliefs, thoughts, desires, sensations, and other mental states are properties of atomic systems.
9. Atoms and void are the ultimate instruments of nature’s work; there is nothing else.
10. Atoms are constantly in motion, but there is no motion inside them because they are absolutely solid particles.
11. Atoms possess a certain original momentum that can be transferred to other atoms by impact.
12. Atoms move faster than light, which their motion produces.
13. All changes in matter are the result of atoms moving and combining in different ways.
14. Atoms naturally move downwards.
15. In a constant state of congestion they seem immobile, but they are not.
16. Varieties of atoms size and shape cause variation in the properties of objects.
17. All objects are compounds of different kinds of atoms.
18. The number of possible compounds of atoms is finite.
19. Whatever is seen to be sentient is nevertheless composed of atoms that are insentient.
20. Atoms have no color, heat, sound, taste, smell, or feeling.
21. The movements of the atoms are random; the effects of their collisions are dictated by their construction and nature.
The above ideas stated by the theory of Atomism have led to the discovery of the following atomic principles, or laws, of reality:
1. Nothing can be created out of nothing (the non-existent). If something comes into existence, it must come from something already existing.
2. Nothing can be destroyed into nothing (masslessness), but only broken up into constituent atoms.
3. Matter exists in the form of invisible particles.
4. The universe is void space as well as solid matter.
5. Matter and void are the only ultimate realities; there is no third form of existence.
6. All other things are properties or accidents (unessential attributes) of matter and void.
7. Atoms are the ultimate instruments of nature’s work.
8. The atoms are solid, everlasting, and simple.
9. Being solid and simple, the atoms are indivisible.
10. The atoms cannot undergo change.
11. Although physically indivisible, the atoms have parts, which are the minima of extension and magnitude.
For over two thousand years, natural philosophers believed that all of nature could be understood by describing the atomic structure of matter and the atomic laws governing its behavior.
In 1638, the Italian mathematician, astronomer, and natural philosopher Galileo Galilei (1561-1626), expressed his belief in the theory of atoms in a book that he wrote entitled Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove science, 1638 (The Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences). In this book, he described objects as being made up of an infinite number of infinitesimally small particles held together by an infinite number of small vacua.
In 1687 and 1704, the English mathematician, astronomer, and natural philosopher Isaac Newton (1642-1727), described the nature of matter as follows:
1. “The least parts of bodies are all extended, and hard and impenetrable, and moveable, and endowed with their proper inertia.” (Newton, Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687, Book 1)
2. “Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the them.” (Newton, Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687, Book 1).
3. “Are not the Rays of Light very small Bodies emitted from shining Substances?” (Newton, Opticks, 1730, Book 3, 4th ed., Query 29)
4. “Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays, and is not action (other things being equal) strongest at the least distance?” (Newton, Opticks, 1730, Book 3, 4th ed., Query 1)
5. “Are not gross bodies and light convertible into one another, and may not bodies receive much of their activity from the particles of light which enter into their composition?... the changing of bodies into light, and light into bodies, is very conformable to the course of nature, which seems delighted with transmutations….?” (Opticks, 1704, Book 3, Part 30)
In 1806-8, the English chemist John Dalton (1766-1844) unified the theory of Atomism with the modern theory of elements. He explained that:
1. All elements are made up of atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical.
3. The atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element.
4. Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds.
5. Atoms are indivisible in chemical reactions.
The above statements by Dalton are based on experimentation, not on pure reason. He conceived of atoms in a compound as mere juxtaposition, with each atom under the influence of Newton’s law of gravitation, or gravity, the force that draws any two bodies together because of their mass.
Dalton, like every Atomist before him, conceived of atoms as “absolutely solid” particles that are the smallest particles of matter that can exist; the ultimate and smallest division of matter. Being absolutely solid particles, he held that atoms could not be destroyed. This idea about the atoms became the basis of the law of conservation of mass (the atoms that make up mass can neither be created nor destroyed).
To help him explain that atoms are absolutely solid particles, he used models depicting them as “billiard balls” or “solid spheres.” The models are useful because an experiment can show that atoms cannot be split or divided and always act as wholes in chemical changes. They do not, and cannot, break up under any condition.
No new facts about atoms have been discovered since Dalton. But, in modern physics, it is taught that Dalton’s concept of the atom had to be modified when new facts about the atom were discovered, claiming that atoms can, and do, break up under certain conditions. I will reiterate: The English word “atom” comes from the Greek word atomos, meaning “uncuttable”. If the description of a particle does not fit this definition of an atom, it cannot be an atom. The particle called an atom in modern physics, which has been split into sub-particles – protons, neutrons, and electrons – is certainly misnamed.
Now that I have shown you how to develop a scientific theory of the nature of the universe based upon observation, I will leave it to your own judgment about whether or not the theory of Atomism, also known as the Atomic theory, is correct or not.
1- Richard P. Appelbaum and William J. Chamblis, Sociology, Second Edition (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1979), p. 14.
3- John Weiss, The New Dictionary of Thoughts: A Cyclopedia of Quotations (New York: Standard Book Company, 1944), p. 643.
Copyright © 2008-2010 Atomism.Info. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:5618b403-1388-43bf-bfc3-b65dab87fc2d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.atomism.info/Articles/Theory-of-the-Nature-of-the-Universe.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937947 | 2,677 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Endometriosis, defined as the presence of endometrial-like glands and stroma in any extrauterine site, has markedly varied presentations, confounding the diagnosis.
Patients may be asymptomatic or, depending on the location of the lesions, may experience pelvic pain (particularly during menstruation), dyspareunia, and/or pain associated with urination or bowel movements. Infertility is a common consequence. Diagnosis has been limited to direct observation through surgery and may be further compromised by its “protean” or widely varied appearance. Thus, most patients are not diagnosed until symptoms are severe or during infertility workups, if at all. Hence, the reported prevalence of endometriosis in the reproductive age group varies between 2% and 10%, and it may be up to 30% in women with infertility.1
Although endometriosis cannot be termed a premalignant condition, epidemiologic, histopathologic, and molecular data suggest that endometriosis may be a precursor lesion to the specific subtypes of ovarian cancer.2 Furthermore, certain patients with endometriosis are at higher risk for malignancies, suggesting a potential benefit to selective patient surveillance.
Prevalence of Ovarian Cancer in Women With Endometriosis
The malignant transformation of endometriosis was first suggested by Sampson3 in 1925. Early epidemiologic studies suggested a link between endometriosis and invasive epithelial ovarian cancer, based on frequent co-occurrence in surgical specimens, particularly with the histologic subgroups endometrioid and clear cell ovarian carcinoma.
For example, in a large Swedish retrospective cohort study of 20,686 women hospitalized for endometriosis, Brinton et al4 found that patients with long-standing ovarian endometriosis (>10 years) had a highly relative risk (RR) for ovarian cancer [Standardized incidence ratio (SIR) = 4.2]. Melin et al5 later updated this report, supporting the results of the original study and finding that the highest risk was attributed to patients with ovarian endometriosis; there was no elevated risk for patients with adenomyosis. Similarly, the other factors associated with higher risk for ovarian cancer included long-standing endometriosis and endometriosis diagnosed at younger ages.
Throughout the early prevalence studies, when ovarian cancer was found, the endometrioid and clear cell histologic subtypes predominated. In a review of 15 published reports,6 the prevalence of endometriosis was 39.2% (198/505) for clear cell and 21.2% (147/694) for endometrioid ovarian malignancies, compared with 3.3% (39/1173) for serous type and 3.0% (13/436) for mucinous type of ovarian cancer. Similarly, Deligdisch et al7 found ovarian endometriosis present in 40 of 76 well staged I ovarian carcinoma cases. On further analysis, 71% (54/76) of the cases were nonserous cancers, and almost all were associated with endometriosis based on histologic examination.
Most recently, in a landmark study, Pearce et al8 from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium assessed the association between self-reported endometriosis and risk for ovarian cancer. Original data from 13 large case-control studies were pooled and, using logistic regression, were analyzed with respect to histologic subtypes, grade, and stage, among other variables. Overall, data were collected from 13,226 controls and 7911 women who had invasive ovarian cancer, of which 818 (6.14%) and 738 (9.33%) women, respectively, reported a history of endometriosis. Women with endometriosis had a significantly higher risk of developing ovarian cancer than the general population (odds ratio [OR], 1.46; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.31–1.63; P < 0.0001). Self-reported endometriosis was associated with a significantly increased risk (P < 0.0001) for clear cell (OR, 3.05) and endometrioid (OR, 2.21) tumors. In addition, for the first time, there was a significant association between preexisting endometriosis and low-grade serous invasive ovarian cancers (OR, 2.21; P < 0.0001). There was no similar association between endometriosis and risk for high-grade serous invasive ovarian cancer (P = 0.13).
Ness et al9 completed 2 case-control studies confirming the association between endometriosis and ovarian cancer.10 In a group of 767 women with ovarian cancer and 1367 control subjects, with adjustments made for age, parity, family history of ovarian cancer, race, oral contraceptive use, tubal ligation, hysterectomy, and breast-feeding, women with ovarian cancer were 1.7-fold more likely to report an endometriosis history.9 Furthermore, in a pooled study of 13,000 women, ovarian cancer was more likely among subfertile women, especially when infertility resulted from endometriosis, showing an OR of 1.9 (95% CI, 1.2–2.9), suggesting a role for specific biologic causes of infertility but not for fertility drugs in overall risk for ovarian cancer.2
Guo11 examined the link between endometriosis and cancer through a reanalysis of this and other epidemiologic studies and critically assessed the components of the measurements of the risk (RR, OR, and SIR) and the various confounding factors and discrepancies. He reported that all studies show the increase in risk for ovarian cancer particularly of clear cell, endometrioid, and low-grade serous subtypes in women with endometriosis. However, he pointed out that the results of these studies are not sufficient to establish causality between endometriosis and ovarian cancer. Alternatively, they may be the results of identical risk factors shared by both endometriosis and the subtypes of ovarian carcinoma.11
Pathogenetic Similarities Between Endometriosis and Ovarian Cancer
It is clear that endometriosis has mixed traits of both benign and malignant diseases. The pathogenesis of endometriosis involves limited loss of control of cell proliferation and is associated with local and distant spread. Endometriosis, however, does not cause catabolic disturbance, metabolic consequences, or death in humans.12
Genomic instability is a known characteristic of cancer cells. Similarly, endometriosis demonstrates somatically acquired genetic alterations, leading to clonal expansion of genetically abnormal cells. Endometriotic cysts are monoclonal13 and characterized by the loss of heterozygosity in 75% of endometriotic cysts with associated adenocarcinoma and even in 28% of cases without accompanying carcinoma.14 Although there are reports of Mendelian inheritance patterns of endometriosis, such as higher risk in first-degree relatives and twins, there is an increasing evidence that endometriosis is a complex genetic trait involving the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors conferring disease susceptibility and malignant behaviors.15
Factors that predispose patients with endometriosis to develop ovarian cancer are unknown but involve genetic, epigenetic factors and/or the effects of the (micro) environment.16 Ovarian cancers and adjacent endometriotic lesions have shown common genetic alterations, such as PTEN gene mutations, suggesting a possible malignant genetic transition spectrum. Loss of heterozygosity at chromosome locus 10q23.3 occurs with high frequency in solitary endometrial cysts (56.5%), endometrioid carcinoma of the ovary (42.1%), and clear cell carcinoma of the ovary (27.3%), and a concentration of mutations in the PTEN gene exons encoding the phosphatase domain has been demonstrated in endometrial cysts and clear cell carcinomas of the ovary.17
Benign endometriosis-like lesions can develop within the normal ovarian surface epithelium (OSE) after expression of oncogenic K-ras; however, progression to endometrioid ovarian cancer necessitates inactivation of PTEN. Cheng et al18 demonstrated in an explant model of epithelial ovarian cancer that aberrant Hoxa10 expression along with Hoxa7 and Hoxa9 confer early endometrioid differentiation. The authors speculated that deregulated expression of HOX genes “tip the balance toward tumorigenicity” in “phenotypically uncommitted” OSE undergoing neoplastic transformation.
Wiegand et al19 found mutations in the tumor-suppressor gene ARID1A in endometrioid and clear cell carcinomas and showed the same mutation to be present in atypical endometriosis and associated ovarian carcinomas. The authors concluded that this may be an early event in the transformation of endometriosis to cancer.
Our group20 used immunohistochemistry to identify sequential or etiologic correlations between endometriosis and ovarian malignancies. We found alterations of bcl-2 and p53 in benign-appearing areas of malignant endometriotic cysts when compared with benign endometriotic cysts, suggesting that alterations in the expression of these 2 proteins may be involved in the malignant transformation of endometriotic cysts. Pearce et al8 speculated that the processes of endometriosis (and endosalpingiosis) result from an underlying host susceptibility to implantation of exfoliated Mullerian epithelial cells from both the endometrium and fallopian tube.
Angiogenic and Inflammatory Factors
Balkwill and Mantovani21 offer a keen description of the link between inflammation and cancer in general, “If genetic damage is the ‘match that lights a fire’ of cancer, some types of inflammation may provide the ‘fuel that feeds the flames.’”
Indeed, inflammation is considered to be a hallmark of endometriosis, with local and systemic implications.12 Local inflammatory reactions at the endometriotic implant site elicit proinflammatory protein secretions by associated immune cells and cells integral to the implant itself; elevated levels of proinflammatory tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, and interferon γ have been recorded in the peritoneal fluid in women with endometriosis.22 Recently, NF-κB and its activating kinases IKKα and IKKβ have been shown to have a central role in linking cancer to inflammation by differential regulation of cell survival and production of proinflammatory cytokines.23,24
In ovarian cancer, the hypothesis has been put forth that inflammation acts as an intermediary between an extrinsic factor such as infection or physical or chemical stimuli. Ovarian carcinogenesis has been linked to inflammatory mediators, cytokines, eicosanoids, and immune cells. Prolonged exposure to these factors that aim to degrade noxious stimuli may lead to increased oxidative stress, disruption of homeostasis, genomic instability and, consequently, to abnormal proliferation.
Higher intraperitoneal macrophage activity may play a role in optimizing endometriosis development by a release of angiogenic factors, leading to increased microvascularization of the parietal peritoneum. Integrins allow cells to attach to components of extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesion. Thus, a stressful change in the microenvironment may contribute to the malignant transformation of endometriomas.
Both endometriotic cell components and OSE can become prolific in response to endocrine-mediated growth factors. In that respect, an important aberration of ectopic endometrial cells, namely, the pathologic expression of P450 aromatase, triggers constitutive synthesis of estradiol (E2).25 A second anomaly of this tissue is the lack of the enzyme 17β-HSD-2, which converts E2 to estrone, leading to further accumulation of E2. Elevated estrogen levels stimulate COX-2 production in these cells, leading to an increase of prostaglandin E production, which in turn stimulates further aromatase activity contributing to the constitutive production of E2. This prostaglandin is itself implicated in tumor progression, and ovarian tumors are shown to contain increased levels.26 Thus, estrogen itself is a potent mitogenic factor that can increase the risk for both ovarian cancer and endometriosis.
Progesterone is a natural antagonist of estrogen that reduces cell proliferation and may induce apoptosis.27 In fact, a marked reduction in expression of the 2 progesterone receptor isoforms is noted in ovarian cancer specimens, thus increasing the possibility for proliferation.28 Given the well-documented anti-inflammatory qualities of progesterone, its attenuated action in endometriostic cells may enhance proinflammatory environment.
Clearly, high estrogen levels persist in the microenvironment created by the presence of an endometriotic implant at the ovary, generating a highly altered physiologic milieu surrounding the ovarian surface. This suggests a proliferation with an enhanced level of DNA synthesis and repair and, thus, a higher chance of DNA damage and mutations. Specific changes in hormone receptors and enzyme expressions in transformed OSE cells continually exposed to nonphysiologic hormonal conditions may lead to further progression to malignancy.
Dual Model of Ovarian Carcinogenesis and Endometriosis
More recently, our knowledge of pathogenesis of ovarian cancer has critically evolved. Molecular genetic studies have led to a new paradigm based on a dualistic model of ovarian carcinogenesis. Based on this new model, epithelial ovarian cancer is divided in 2 categories, namely, types I and II. Type I tumors are low-grade serous, endometrioid, clear cell, or mucinous and typically have KRAS or BRAF mutations.29 Type II carcinomas are high-grade serous carcinomas, presenting at advanced stage, characterized by TP53 mutations. Both type I and II tumors seem to have extra ovarian origin. Type I tumors are thought to arise from the epithelium of distal fimbriated part of the fallopian tubes, whereas type II tumors may originate from displaced endometrial tissue- endometriosis. According to this paradigm, type I endometrioid and clear cell carcinomas develop via malignant transformation of the endometrial tissue deposited on the ovarian surface via retrograde menstruation.30
Clinical Implications and Future Directions
Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecologic malignancy in developed countries. In the United States, approximately 22,000 new cases and 14,000 cancer-related deaths are expected from ovarian cancer in 2013. The lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer is 1 in 70, and the average age at diagnosis of ovarian cancer in the United States is 63 years old.31 Secondary to its insidious nature, ovarian cancer is usually diagnosed in stage III/IV. Early stages of the disease are diagnosed in only 15% to 20% of women, with a 5-year survival of greater than 90%, whereas stage III disease has a 5-year survival rate of 46%. Approximately 80% of all malignancies associated with endometriosis are identified in the ovary; 20% of those are extragenital.32 Although the most common histologies are endometrioid and clear cell carcinomas, other histologies, such as carcinosarcomas and adenocarcinoma have also been reported.33,34
As presented previously, most of early ovarian carcinomas are of endometrioid and clear cell type, with a background of endometriosis.7,8,35,36 Whereas endometriosis is a relatively common diagnosis, endometriosis-associated cancers are relatively uncommon. Given this discrepancy of prevalence and absence of a sensitive test to predict which patient with endometriosis will develop ovarian cancer, the question arises as how to use this information in clinical practice. In women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, the lifetime risk for ovarian cancer is 12% to 46%, whereas in Lynch syndrome, the lifetime risk is 3% to 14% (compared with 1.8% in the general population).37,38 Obviously, unlike women with BRCA mutation where prophylactic bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, by the age of 40 years or after the conclusion of childbearing, is recommended,39–42 it is not rational to suggest such radical procedure in every patient with pelvic endometriosis. However, the available information may be used in clinical practice to decrease the potential risk of malignant transformation or association. The important clinical questions to answer are the following.
1. Identifying patients who may be at an increased risk for ovarian cancer.
Both the gynecologist and the general practitioner should pay special attention to patients with endometriosis and the following history:
* Long-standing endometriosis
* Endometriosis diagnosed at an early age
* Endometriosis associated with infertility and/or history of infertility treatment
* Patients with ovarian endometriomas
2. What screening opportunities are available to practitioners for women with endometriosis?
The dualistic model of ovarian carcinogenesis allows for more rational screening methods for ovarian cancer. Type II high-grade serous carcinomas are associated with TP53 mutations, and BRCA-related DNA repair defects may be amenable to mutation screening; however, type I cancers such as clear cell and endometrioid do not have clearly identifiable genetic hereditary component, and no genetic testing is available to screen for “high-risk endometriotic lesions.” Population screening of women with endometriosis does not seem to be necessary or justified presently. At the same time, careful follow-up of women at risk, as identified, might be prudent. To that goal, several methods have been proposed. For example, CA-125 has been shown to be a poor screening modality for endometriosis-associated ovarian cancers and nonendometriosis ovarian cancers. Wang et al43 found that CA-125 levels were lower in endometriosis-associated ovarian carcinoma compared with those of patients with nonendometriosis ovarian carcinoma (mean, 122.9 vs 1377.5, respectively). Lim et al44 found that 32.6% of patients with early-stage endometriosis-associated ovarian carcinoma demonstrated normal CA-125 levels.
Sonography is useful in the identification of ovarian endometrioma with homogeneous hypoechogenic cystic features (Fig. 1) and those with mural malignant changes (Fig. 2). However, it is difficult to detect relatively small endocystic echogenic components with this modality.45 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be more useful to both visualize endometriomas and possibly detect malignant transformation. Hyperdense mural nodules within the ovary and rapid growth of an endometrioma can be visualized on MRI; these have been associated with malignant transformation.46 In a cohort study comparing MRI findings of 10 patients with ovarian adenocarcinoma with those of 10 patients with benign endometriomas, Tanaka et al45 found mural nodules in all 10 malignancies but in only 3 of the benign cases. Long-term follow-up is necessary to understand the timeline of transformation in patients with mural nodules and the predictive value of such a discovery.
In addition, Deligdisch et al7 showed the value of evaluating women with endometriosis as well as with abnormal vaginal bleeding owing to the association of endometriosis with ovarian endometrioid carcinoma and with concomitant endometrial diseases such as polyps, hyperplasia, and carcinoma. In their study, of 76 consecutive cases of stage I ovarian cancer, all nonserous ovarian carcinomas have been diagnosed from associated symptoms, such as pelvic pain with endometriosis/adnexal masses or vaginal bleeding associated with underlying endometrial pathology. Therefore, careful evaluation of the endometrium of symptomatic patients with endometriosis is of importance in the early detection of ovarian and endometrial malignancy.
3. What preventative measures can be offered to women with endometriosis?
Although our knowledge about the association of ovarian cancer with endometriosis continues to broaden, it is safe to say that vast majority of women with endometriosis will not develop ovarian cancer. Although screening and preventative measures are not justified at the level of population, a woman and her physician may discuss the options including surgery and hormonal treatment of symptoms and prevention.
When endometriosis is diagnosed, surgical resection remains the most effective treatment.47,48 Interestingly, Melin et al49 showed that women who underwent unilateral oophorectomy for endometriosis had a significantly reduced risk of later development of ovarian cancer, with an OR of 0.19 (95% CI, 0.08–0.46) compared with controls. In addition, ovarian cancer was significantly less likely to develop in women who underwent radical surgical excision of all visible endometriosis, with an OR of 0.30 (95% CI, 0.12–0.74).
Hormonal therapy induces a decrease in the severity and recurrence rate of endometriomas.50 Most endometriomas are composed of endometrial implants, which invade a functional cyst as reported by the Nezhats.51 Ovarian suppression and elimination of functional cyst formation will decrease the incidence of endometriomas, thereby preventing a large proportion of potentially premalignant lesions. Hormonal therapy alone, however, often fails to cause a total regression of endometriomas52 and is most effective after a thorough surgical excision of endometriomas and associated endometriosis. A review of the literature by Vercellini et al50 comparing diligent postoperative oral contraceptive versus sporadic use demonstrated a pooled OR of 0.21 (95% CI, 0.11–0.40) for ovarian endometrioma recurrence. Koga et al53 presented similar findings, with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, oral contraceptive pills, levonorgestrel intrauterine device, and pregnancy.
4. How should we approach treatment options for women with endometriosis who are determined to be at an increased risk for ovarian cancer?
Treatment options for women with endometriosis include observation, hormonal therapy, surgical therapy, or a combination of the latter two. The treatment plan for each patient should be individualized based on her symptoms, age, desire for childbearing, and family history.
A large proportion of patients with endometriosis and endometriomas may be surgically treated. To decrease the rate of recurrence, a complete resection of the endometrioma with the cyst wall is recommended.54 Unfortunately, the recurrence of the endometrioma without adjuvant therapy is common, with reported incidence of 11% to 50% within 5 years.52,53 The decision to perform a complete resection of the endometrioma or endometriotic tissue versus an oophorectomy will be highly individual. It is important to consider whether the patient is premenopausal or postmenopausal, her childbearing status and wishes, and her family history. In the absence of any future fertility issues, bilateral salpingectomy should be considered as it could prevent high-grade serous carcinoma, by targeting the site of origin. Removal of fallopian tubes may also decrease the risk of endometrioid and clear cell carcinoma by obstructing the carcinogenic pathway from endometrium and vagina, reducing the risk of peritoneal inflammation and endometriosis.55
In summary, a comprehensive approach to women with endometriosis should include (i) identification of women with endometriosis, either surgically documented or self-reported by symptoms; (ii) careful follow-up of ovarian endometriomas with imaging studies, particularly MRI, to detect any characteristics changes such as mural formation; (iii) complete surgical resection of all endometriotic foci in women undergoing surgical treatment, with tissue evaluation of ovarian endometriomas to rule out malignancy; and (iv) hormonal treatment aimed at reducing the risk for recurrent endometriosis and endometriomas.
In the future, efforts should be directed toward biomarker discovery to identify women at risk of developing cancers and to develop preventative strategies and curative therapies for endometriosis.
1. Somigliana E, Vigano P, Parazzini F, et al. Association between endometriosis and cancer: a comprehensive review and a critical analysis and epidemiologic evidence. Gynecol Oncol. 2006; 101: 331–341.
2. Nezhat F, Datta MS, Hanson V, et al. The relationship of endometriosis and ovarian malignancy: a review. Fertil Steril. 2008; 90: 1559–1570.
3. Sampson JA. Endometrial carcinoma of ovary arising in endometrial tissue in that organ. Arch Surg. 1925; 10: 1–72.
4. Brinton L, Gridley G, Persson I, et al. Cancer risk after a hospital discharge diagnosis of endometriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997; 176: 572–579.
5. Melin A, Sparen P, Persson I, et al. Endometriosis and the risk of cancer with special emphasis on ovarian cancer. Hum Reprod. 2006; 21: 1237–1242.
6. Yoshikawa H, Jimbo H, Okada S, et al. Prevalence of endometriosis in ovarian cancer. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2000; 50 (suppl 1): 11–17.
7. Deligdisch L, Penault-Llorca F, Schlosshauer P, et al. Stage I ovarian carcinoma: different clinical pathologic patterns. Fertil Steril. 2007; 88: 906–910.
8. Pearce CL, Templeman C, Rossing MA, et al.; Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium. Association between endometriosis and risk of histological subtypes of ovarian cancer: a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Lancet Oncol. 2012; 13: 385–394.
9. Ness RB, Cramer DW, Goodman MT, et al. Infertility, fertility drugs, and ovarian cancer: a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2002; 155: 217–224.
10. Ness RB, Grisso JA, Cottreau C, et al. Factors related to inflammation of the ovarian epithelium and risk of ovarian cancer. Epidemiology. 2000; 11: 111–117.
11. Guo SW. The association of endometriosis with ovarian cancer: a critical review of epidemiological data (chapter 25). Harada T, ed. Endometriosis-Pathogenesis and Treatment. Tokyo, Japan: Springer. 2014.
12. Gazvani R, Templeton A. New considerations for the pathogenesis of endometriosis. Int J Gyn Obstet. 2002; 76: 117–126.
13. Wu, Basir Z, Kajdacsy-Balla A, et al. Resolution of clonal origins for endometriotic lesions using laser capture microdissection and the human androgen receptor (HUMARA) assay. Fert Steril. 2003; 1 (suppl 79): 710–717.
14. Wells M. Recent advances in endometriosis with emphasis on pathogenesis, molecular pathology, and neoplastic transformation. Int J Gynecol Pathol. 2004; 23: 316–320.
15. Bischoff FZ, Simpson JL. Heritability and molecular genetic studies of endometriosis. Hum Reprod Update. 2000; 6: 37–44.
16. Munksgaard PS, Blaakaer J. The association between endometriosis and ovarian cancer: a review of histological, genetic and molecular alterations. Gynecol Oncol. 124: 164–169.
17. Sato N, Tsunoda H, Nishida M, et al. Loss of heterozygosity on 10q23.3 and mutations of the tumor suppressor gene PTEN in benign endometrial cyst of the ovary: possible sequence progression from benign endometrial cyst to endometriod carcinoma and clear cell carcinoma of the ovary. Cancer Res. 2000; 60: 7052–7056.
18. Cheng W, Lui J, Yoshida H, et al. Lineage infidelity of epithelial ovarian cancers is controlled by HOX genes that specify regional identity in the reproductive tract. Nat Med. 2005; 11: 531–537.
19. Wiegand KC, Shah SP, Al-Agha OM, et al. ARID1A mutations in endometriosis-associated ovarian carcinomas. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363: 1532–1543.
20. Nezhat F, Cohen C, Rahaman J, et al. Comparative immunocytochemical studies of bcl-2 and p53 proteins in benign and malignant ovarian endometriotic cysts. Cancer. 2002; 94: 2935–2940.
21. Balkwill F, Mantovani A. Inflammation and cancer: back to Virchow? Lancet. 2001; 357: 539–545.
22. Burney RO. The genetics and biochemistry of endometriosis. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2013; 25: 280–286.
23. Affara NI, Coussens LM. IKKa at the crossroads of inflammation and metastasis. Cell. 2007; 129: 25–26.
24. Lee DF, Kuo HP, Chen CT, et al. IKK/3 suppression of TSCI links inflammation and tumor angiogenesis via the mTOR pathway. Cell. 2007; 130: 440–445.
25. Bulun SE, Fang Z, Imir G, et al. Aromatase and endometriosis. Semin Reprod Med. 2004; 22: 45–50.
26. Tariverdian N, Theoharides TC, Siedentopf F, et al. Neuroendocrine-immune disequilibrium and endometriosis: an interdisciplinary approach. Semin Immunopathol. 2007; 29: 193–210.
27. Riman T, Nilsson S, Persson IR. Review of epidemiological evidence for reproductive and hormonal factors in relation to the risk of epithelial ovarian malignancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004; 83: 783–795.
28. Mukherjee K, Syed V, Ho SM. Estrogen induced loss of progesterone expression in normal and malignant ovarian surface epithelial cells. Oncogene. 2005; 23: 4388–4400.
29. Kurman RJ, Shih Ie M. The origin and pathogenesis of epithelial ovarian cancer: a proposed unifying theory. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010; 34: 433–443.
30. Kurman RJ, Shih IM. Molecular pathogenesis and extraovarian origin of epithelial ovarian cancer—shifting the paradigm. Hum Pathol. 2011; 42: 918–931.
31. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013; 63: 11–30.
32. Heaps J, Nieberg R, Berek J. Malignant neoplasms arising in endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 74: 1023–1028.
33. Nezhat C, Malik S, Osias J, et al. Laparoscopic management of 15 patients with infiltrating endometriosis of the bladder and a case of primary intravesical endometrioid adenosarcoma. Fertil Steril. 2002; 78: 872–875.
34. Booth C, Zahn CM, McBroom J, et al. Retroperitoneal carcinosarcomas associated with endometriosis: a case report. Gynecol Oncol. 2004; 93: 546–549.
35. Heintz AP, Odicino F, Maisonneuve P, et al. Carcinoma of the ovary. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006; 95: S161–S192.
0. For a full list of references, contact: FNezhat@chpnet.org.
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"The key to the evolution of the American railway is the contempt for authority displayed by our engineers, and the untrammelled way in which they invented and applied whatever they thought would answer the best purpose, regardless of precedent. When we began to build our railways, in 1831, we followed English patterns for a short time. Our engineers saw that unless vital changes were made our money would not hold out and our railway system would be very short. Necessity truly became the mother of invention."
—Thomas Curtis Clarke, a Railway Bridge Engineer for the Phoenix Bridge Company and its unincorporated predecessors in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania from his essay "Building of a Railway," in Scribner's Magazine, III(6), p. 643, June, 1888.
THE FIRST TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD
by JOHN DEBO GALLOWAY, C. E.
[CHAPTER 7, pp. 136-170.]
Constructing the Central Pacific Railroad
THE CONSTRUCTION of the Central Pacific Railroad through uninhabited regions involved tremendous problems absent in building roads in more settled parts of the country. However, in the major items, the procedure was much the same.
Financing construction, while a part of general management of a railroad, played an important role in determining the speed at which the work went forward. Once the location Surveys had been made, rights of way had to be obtained, and after that final construction surveys were needed. These surveys continued throughout the construction period and required surveying parties at frequent intervals along the line. The roadbed in cuts and on fills passed over uneven ground and through all kinds of earth materials where ditches had to be dug and provisions made for the discharge of storm water. Tunnels in solid rock could be left as excavated, but many other tunnels had to be lined with timber, brick, stone, or concrete. Bridges had to be designed and erected ahead of track laying. Culverts of stone or concrete were built under fills. Snow sheds, in the case of the Central Pacific, and snow fences on the Union Pacific, were essential in keeping the line open in winter.
The track, rails, switches, and other items were transported to the construction depots from distant locations and carried from there to the end of the track. Sidings and station tracks were built along with the main line. Ballast was brought from distant quarries, placed in position, and the track brought to line on an even grade. Station houses with water tanks for the locomotives, eating houses on long lines, and similar structures were also vitally necessary. Machine repair shops and engine houses were located at carefully selected points. Provision had "to be made for fuel to be stored in quantity at division points. Rolling stock of locomotives, freight and passenger cars, and construction trains were also an important and costly item in Central Pacific construction. A telegraph line had to be built as an adjunct to the construction forces. In many places a wagon road reaching ahead of the track was required. Then, too, there had to be an organized force of trainmen, graders, bridge builders, teams, earth-moving equipment, and finally the force that Maintained and operated the railroad when construction was finished. Over all, there was the company organization, the engineering staff with the chief engineer and his principal assistants, the construction superintendent and assistants, contractors for various kinds of work, and many other groups of skilled men for performing special tasks.
When the Law of 1862 was passed it contained a clause stating that "the track upon the entire line of railroad and branches shall be of uniform width to be determined by the President of the United States, so that when completed, cars can be run from the Missouri River to the Pacific Coast." President Lincoln, harried by the worries of the Civil War, set the gauge at five feet, but an Act of Congress of March 3, 1863, established the gauge as four feet, eight and one half inches, which is the standard gauge today. The previously mentioned clause of the law, which stated that standards of the Baltimore and Ohio had to be used, was indefinite, and for this reason Secretary of the Interior James Harlan in 1865 appointed a board made up of government commissioners, government directors of the Union Pacific Railroad, and a number of representatives of the companies constructing the Pacific railroads. A circular was sent out to prominent railroad engineers, among whom were Major General M. C. Meigs, John B. Jervis, George Lowe Reid, Ashbel Welch, Benjamin H. Latrobe, G. A. Nicholls, W. W. Evans, Philip S. justice, J. L. Williams, and Silas Seymour, the last two being government director and consulting engineer of the Union Pacific respectively. The comments of these men constitute an excellent summary of railroad building as it was understood in 1865. The men from the eastern states favored solid, permanent construction, such as stone bridges, but on most of the other items of construction there was a general agreement. It is interesting to note that Silas Seymour, whose name appears elsewhere in this work, advocated a road built on rails resting upon longitudinal timbers instead of upon crossties, a plan that had been abandoned everywhere long before. He favored Howe truss bridges, built mainly of wood, and said that he had never been in favor of iron bridges for railroads. This was the type of man with whom General Dodge of the Union Pacific had to contend.
The weight of locomotives suggested by the advisers ranged from twenty to forty tons, the weight being limited by the carrying capacity of the fifty- to sixty-five-pound rails then available. Today steel rails are double these weights, and locomotives weigh ten to fifteen times more than was then deemed safe. It is true that steel rails made by the Bessemer process were then coming into use, and the possibility of using them was discussed, but they were not adopted on the first Pacific Railroad.
The Board brought in recommendations on location, grades and curves, embankments and excavations, mechanical structures, ballasting, crossties, rails, sidings, rolling stock, and buildings. It properly stated that grades and curves should be adapted to the country, and that while grades of 116 feet to the mile, (2.2 per cent) had been used on the Baltimore and Ohio with curves of a minimum radius of 400 feet, the situation in the Platte and Kansas valleys was such that grades should not exceed thirty feet per mile. The roadbed should not be less than fourteen feet wide at the grade line, excavation in long cuts should be twenty-six feet wide, and in shorter cuts, twenty-four feet wide to allow room for side ditches. Earth slopes should be one and one half base to one of rise. Rock slopes could be steeper. Tunnels in rock should be made for double track, but this provision was never enforced. Culverts were to be of stone or brick, but could be made of wood and replaced later with permanent materials. Bridges were to be built of stone, iron, or wood, at the discretion of the railroad company. Ballast should be of broken stone or gravel, twelve to fourteen inches thick. Crossties should be of oak or other suitable timber; if of soft wood, such as cottonwood, they should be treated by the Burnetizing process. They should be six inches thick, at least six inches on the face and eight feet long, and laid 2,400 to the mile. Rails were to be of American iron and should weigh at least fifty-six pounds to the yard on ordinary track, and sixty pounds per yard in the mountains. Rails should be fastened by fishplates and bolts at the joints and should be spiked to the ties on each side of the rail at each tie. However, wrought-iron chairs could be employed at the joints if the use of fishplates would delay the work. Sidings should be at least 6 per cent as long as the line. Buildings should be of brick or stone.
The specifications were liberal and allowed for plenty of leeway in construction, depending upon the country. Much was left to the judgment of the railroad officials, and of the directors and commissioners who had charge of the work for the government. In accordance with the standards, a first-class road was constructed.
At Sacramento, the starting point of the line, the railroad was located on an embankment, which formed a levee that protected the city of Sacramento from the flood water of the American River, one of the broadest streams flowing from the Sierra Nevada. About three and a half miles from the initial point, the river, flowing nearly due westward, was crossed by the largest bridge on the entire Central Pacific line. At the crossing point the American River is about 700 feet wide, and on both sides there are wide bottom lands, flooded in times of high water.
Geologically, the mountains begin at Arcade Creek. In the vicinity of Rocklin, granite is encountered, but the road for seventy miles up the mountains to a point near Cisco runs mostly in gravels, sedimentary rocks, slates, cemented gravels, and volcanic rocks of various types. From Cisco to the summit and down the eastern slope of the mountains, the rock is a hard granodiorite. In the vicinity of Truckee there are glacial deposits, but between Truckee and Verdi a canyon is encountered where the river runs through a lava flow for about ten miles. Through Reno and the Truckee Meadows the construction was easy, but when passing over the Virginia Range the road had to follow an open canyon to Wadsworth, at the Big Bend of the Truckee. From Wadsworth to Ogden the railroad was built over the desert, which at places borders the Humboldt River, and across the mountains that were not difficult to surmount. In this distance of 550 miles, there were a few stretches of difficult construction, the most troublesome being at Palisade Canyon, where for some twelve miles the line was built beside the river between basalt cliffs. In the sections across Nevada and Utah, the country was similar to the terrain where the Union Pacific crossed the Wyoming Basin. It was here that great progress was made during the last year of building.
As the Central Pacific began at Sacramento and built eastward, all supplies other than those obtained from California or from along the road had to be brought from the eastern states.
The usual route from Atlantic ports was around Cape Horn, a distance of 18,000 miles, which took a sailing ship some four months in passage. Some freight, mainly locomotives and rail, was sent across the Isthmus of Panama, but this route, while shorter in distance and time, was extremely costly, owing to high freight rates.
Mr. Clement stated that shipping rail by way of the Isthmus in 1868 cost $51.97 per ton, making the cost of rail delivered at Sacramento $143.67, which did not include transfer charges to lighters at San Francisco or transportation up the Sacramento River. The corresponding Isthmus freight on one locomotive was $8,100, and the average freight cost for eighteen locomotives was $4,692.50 each. Freight charges on the first locomotive sent by way of Cape Horn was $2,282.25. Much of the high freight cost was due to high war-risk insurance during the period of the Civil War.
When material reached San Francisco, it was loaded on river steamers or barges and carried up San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento River, 130 miles to Sacramento. In flood seasons the river furnished a reliable means of transportation, but at low water, even with the help of the tides, the passage was difficult. Thus all equipment for building and operating the Central Pacific had to be shipped from eastern mills to Atlantic ports, loaded on vessels, taken on a long sea voyage by way of Cape Horn, or across the Isthmus, to San Francisco, there to be transferred again to river craft and by way of the bay and river carried to its destination. There it was again loaded on cars and forwarded to the place of use at the end of track.
Iron for the track, in accordance with the Law of 1862, was manufactured in American mills in the East. The rail varied from fifty-six to sixty-six pounds per yard, the heavier rail being used on the mountains where the height of the rail section was raised in order that the head would be above snow. Wrought iron chairs to connect the ends of two rails were used on 115 miles of road, but the remaining length of the line was laid with fishplate joints, which were much superior.
Ties and bridge timbers were cut from California forests. Redwood ties from the Coast Mountains were brought by steamer to San Francisco and were used from Sacramento to the summit. From there on, the native lumber, sawed in mills at Verdi and elsewhere on the eastern side of the mountains, was used. All of this timber was of a quality that made special treatment unnecessary. The number of ties varied from 2,260 to 2,640 per mile, depending upon alignment and grade. The forests also provided wood for bridges and trestles, some timber being hewn but most of it being sawed. From the forests, too, came fuel, since wood-burning locomotives were used during the entire construction. In this respect, the Central Pacific had a great advantage over the Union Pacific, but the Union Pacific had a similar advantage later when coal deposits were discovered along its line in Wyoming.
Stone of good quality for culverts, bridge piers, and building foundations was found along the Central Pacific line through the mountains; and for the long stretch across Nevada and Utah, stone for replacement of temporary structures could be brought from quarries along the part of the line that had already been built.
Ballast, also, was usually obtained from pits along the line. Up the Sierra Nevada and down the Truckee River there was an ample supply. Across the deserts, where the railroad was kept away from the Humboldt River in order to avoid the sediments of the former Lake Lahontan, material from the excavations was used as ballast. It generally consisted of coarse sands and gravels washed down from the nearby mountains.
On the open plains east of the Sacramento Valley and from Reno eastward to Promontory, no clearing or grubbing was necessary. On the slopes of the Sierra Nevada, especially in the center portion, the line passed through dense forests where trees 100 to 150 feet in height were common. Brush was also abundant. In some sections the cost of cutting trees and brush and grubbing out stumps was an item of considerable expense.
For eighteen miles eastward from Sacramento to Roseville, the grading was light, inasmuch as the road was located over the flat lands of the Sacramento Valley. Beyond Roseville, then called Junction, where the line crossed the railroad leading northward from Folsom, the work became heavier; and from Newcastle, thirty-two miles from Sacramento, to a point near Truckee, a distance of nearly ninety miles, grading work was the heaviest order of construction. In order to keep within the ruling grades, deep cuts and high fills were essential over most of the distance. Bloomer Cut, west of Auburn, about 800 feet long and sixty-five feet in average depth, had to be blasted through a mass of cemented gravel. Higher in the mountains the excavation was through stained earth and shale, or sometimes sandstone; and when beyond Emigrant Gap the line passed to side-hill construction the material encountered was granite. Wide ravines were passed by trestles that were afterward filled, and in the upper, region, tunnel succeeded tunnel. From Truckee eastward the work was lighter, except in the two canyons of the Truckee River. Out on the plains of Nevada and Utah the grading was all light, except for rock work in narrow canyons.
All earth work was done with pick and shovel in the hands of laborers, who loaded the material in wheelbarrows or on one horse wooden dump carts. Animal traction was the only power used. Blasting was mainly done with black powder, which was far less expensive than the newly patented nitroglycerine that was just coming into use. Nitroglycerine was put to good use, however, in some of the tunnel blasting operations.
The Central Pacific was built largely by Chinese laborers, imported for that purpose from southern China. The Chinese had a well-developed system of contracting for labor, which was used on the railroad. As organized by Strobridge, the work was under the supervision of riding bosses, whose responsibility it was to keep the work going and to provide supplies for the workmen.
At first Strobridge was opposed to the use of Chinese laborers, but later changed his mind, since white laborers were not available. Clement thus described the situation: "California laborers were mainly miners accustomed to work in placer mines or not, as it suited them. Mining was more to their liking than the discipline of railroad work. They were indifferent, independent, and their labor high priced. Labor sufficient for the rapid construction of the Central Pacific was not then on the coast and the labor as it existed could not be depended upon the first mining excitement meant a complete stampede of every man and a consequent abandonment of all work."
Strobridge expressed his revised opinion of the Chinese when he said: "They learn quickly, do not fight, have no strikes that amount to anything, and are very cleanly in their habits. They will gamble and do quarrel among themselves most noisily but harmlessly."
The Chinese, who numbered about 12,000 at the most, worked in groups, each with his own cook, who also provided hot water for bathing. Their drink was tea, which, being made with hot water, avoided the danger of disease to which white men were subject from drinking all kinds of water along the line. The pay of the Chinese ranged from $30 to $35 a month, on which they boarded themselves. They were paid in coin, brought to them by the railroad paymaster, the payment being made to the Chinese labor boss of the gang, who kept the time of the men during the month. The Chinese gave very little trouble, but out in Nevada they sometimes wanted to quit. The Piute Indians spread the story that in the desert toward which they were heading there were snakes big enough to swallow a Chinese whole, which of course had its effect. However, the Chinese were kept on the work to the finish, and years later the people of California came to recognize the splendid character of the Celestials.
White labor, as stated, was difficult to obtain and was used only on important tasks. After the Civil War, white labor was more readily available with the Irish predominating. White common laborers were paid about the same as were the Chinese but were provided with subsistence and living quarters by the contracting company. The number of whites employed ranged from 1,200 to 1,300, the largest number being used in the years 1866–1868. Expert workers, such as carpenters, track layers, and stone masons of which some 500 were used, were paid higher wages, ranging from $3 to $5 a day. All wages were paid in coin, usually gold.
In contrast to the Union Pacific, the tunnels on the Central Pacific were one of the major problems of construction. In all, there were fifteen tunnels, with a total length of 6,213 feet. The shortest was the Red Spur Tunnel, ninety-two feet long, and the longest was the Summit Tunnel, 105 miles from Sacramento, which was 1,659 feet in length. Some of the tunnels were built on curves and some were on tangents, the long tunnel at the summit being constructed on a tangent.
All of the tunnels were located over a distance of sixty miles on the upper reaches of the Sierra Nevada, but the heaviest tunnel work was in the twenty miles from Cisco eastward to the summit. Nine tunnels, having a total length of 5,158 feet, were necessary in this stretch of the road, which lies at elevations of from 6,000 feet to 7,000 feet above sea level in the region of heaviest snowfall. Here the road was built along the sides of steep mountains, with an average slope greater than forty-five degrees, sometimes on the side of bare granite cliffs that were broken by projecting ledges and boulders. Embankments were impracticable, as the excavated material from cuts slid far down the mountainside. Under such conditions it was best to locate the road inside the mountain, since tunnels made snow sheds unnecessary, heavy retaining walls were avoided, and work could be carried on in the wintertime. In one place there were seven tunnels in two miles of line.
Most of the tunnels were excavated in solid granite. The cross section of a tunnel was a rectangle at the bottom, sixteen feet wide by eleven feet high, above which the section was arched with a diameter of sixteen feet. Grade was at the center of tie, being one foot three inches above subgrade. Tunnel I I was partly lined, and Tunnel 13 wholly lined with timber. Sills were 12 inches by 12 inches, posts were 12 by 16, and the arch was formed of three 5– by 12-inch planks bolted together at breaking joints. The distance between the centers of the timber supports varied from one and one half feet to five feet, according to the type of earth material to be supported. Wall and ceiling clearance in mixed soil tunnels was greater than in rock tunnels, allowance having been made for future lining with masonry. However, after completion of the road, the size of rolling stock increased so rapidly that the original tunnel sections had to be enlarged.
Tunnel 6 at the summit, the longest on the road, was 1,659 feet in length, and was the greatest depth below the surface, 124 feet. It was built through granite of medium hardness, crossed by seams. The excavation of this tunnel caused such a serious delay that to expedite matters a shaft was sunk about halfway between the tunnel openings, a hoisting engine was installed, and the tunnel was simultaneously excavated from both ends and from the middle.
It was at Tunnel No. 6 that nitroglycerine was first used on the road. It had been discovered in 1846, but it was not until 1867 that Alfred Nobel patented it as being usable for blasting. It was made by treating glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids, which produced a light yellow-colored oily liquid that was highly explosive. It was possible to use nitroglycerine in small holes, thereby reducing drilling costs and correspondingly increasing the speed of excavation. At Tunnel 6, and to some extent at Tunnel 8, nitroglycerine was used, being prepared on the spot by James Howden at a cost of about seventy-five cents a pound. It was thought to be eight times as effective as powder, and building progress was increased by 50 per cent.
Work on the tunnels was carried on throughout the winter of 1866–1867, although Tunnels I and 2, both west of Cisco, were finished in 1866. Some work had been done on the approach cuts to the Summit Tunnel late in 1865, but winter set in before much was accomplished, and the work gangs were driven out. During 1866 the tunnel approaches swarmed with men working night and day in three shifts of eight hours each. Some storms occurred in November and December, but by the time winter arrived the headings were all under ground. The work was then independent of the weather, except as storms would block tunnel entrances or avalanches would sweep over the work camps. In spite of these difficulties, excavation went on inside and much was taken out through tunnels in the snow. Tunnel 6 took longest to complete on account of its length and its position at the head of Donner Pass, but, it was finally holed through in November, 1867.
Much of the foregoing information regarding tunnels was obtained from an account contributed to the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1870 by John R. Gilliss, engineer in charge under L. M. Clement.
In describing the work, Gilliss dwells on the snowstorms of the high Sierra and the difficulties of carrying on work. All accounts of the winters emphasized the violence of the storms and the deep snows. Speaking of the winter of 1866–1867 Gilliss says:
"These storms, forty-four in number, varied in length from a short snow squall to a two-week gale, and in depth from a quarter of an inch to ten feet—none less than the former number being recorded, nor had we occasion to note any greater than the latter. This, the heaviest storm of the winter began February 18th at 2 P. M. and snowed steadily until 10 P. M. of the 22nd, during which time six feet fell .... It snowed steadily until March 2nd, making ten feet of snow and thirteen days of storm. It is true that no snow fell for five days, but it drifted so furiously that in time the snow tunnel at the east end of Tunnel No. 6 had to be lengthened fifty feet.
"The storms were grand. They always began with a fall in the barometer and a strong wind from the southwest .... The thermometer was rarely below twenty degrees at the beginning of a storm, and usually rose to thirty-two degrees before its close so that the last snow would be damp and heavy, sometimes ending in a rain. The storms ended and clouds were scattered by cold winds blowing over the eastern range of the Sierra Nevada; these raised the barometer and dropped the temperature at once. The lowest temperature of the winter was from a wind of this sort, five and a half degrees above zero."
Gilliss gives a picture of the furious winds that roared through the pass, piling the snow into towering drifts. He tells also of the difficulties in breaking roads, and of the use of snowshoes by the men. Of the snow slides or snow avalanches, he gives the following graphic account:
"Snow slides or avalanches were frequent. The storm winds being always from the southwest, form drifts or snow wreaths on the northeast crests of hills. When these become too heavy, which is generally towards the close of the storms, they break off, and in falling start the loose snow below. This slides on the old crust. I never knew of a slide from the ground.
"Near the close of one storm, a log house with board roof, containing three Scotchmen, brothers, and sub-contractors with their gang, some fifteen or sixteen men in all, was crushed and buried up at day-break. The storm ended at noon. Towards evening a man coming up the road missed the house and alarmed the camp, so that by six o'clock the men were dug out. The bulk of the slide had passed over and piled itself up beyond the house, so that it was only covered fifteen feet deep. Only three were killed, the bunks were close to the log walls and kept the rest from being crushed. Most of them were conscious and strange to say, the time had passed rapidly with them, although about fourteen hours under the snow . . . . (The snow slides) were so frequent across the trail leading to Tunnel No. 9, some fifteen or twenty Chinamen were killed by a slide about this time. The year before, two road repairers had been killed and buried, too, by a slide, and their bodies were not found until spring."
Dirt and rock from the tunnels were carried out to the waste banks through tunnels dug through the snow that filled the approach cuts. The length of the snow tunnels varied from 50 to 200 feet, and some of the tunnels were big enough for a two horse team to walk through. At Tunnel 8 a snow tunnel for the men was dug around the outside of the rock ledge through which the tunnel was being excavated. As the rock tunnel was 375 feet in length, the snow tunnel must have been at least 500 feet long. In the spring, when the wagon roads down the mountain had begun to be bare, snow had to be dug out of the cuts in order that the road could be used. One such snow bank was twenty-five feet deep.
The snowfall in the winter of 1866–1867 and also in the following winter was extremely heavy. Over forty-four feet of snow fell and the depth of hard packed snow in Summit Valley was eighteen feet. This extraordinary snowfall comes from the storms that sweep in from the Pacific Ocean and break against the high mountains. The rain precipitation increases about one inch for each 100 feet up to 5,000 feet as a storm climbs up over the Sierra. While the average rainfall may be eighty inches, it has occasionally reached more than 100 inches. Once the storm passes over the summit of the range the snowfall rapidly decreases. At Truckee there may be from two to three feet, and at Reno, at the base of the mountains, only a few inches of snow may fall.
SNOW SHEDS AND GALLERIES
As has been mentioned, when the railroad over the Sierra Nevada was projected by Theodore Judah, he believed that the railroad line could be kept open during the winter by using the ordinary snow plows of that period. Such plows only shoved the snow to each side of the tracks, where it packed. In the fall of 1866 the road had reached Cisco, where experience during the following winter proved that snow plows would not solve the problem. Most of the snow had to be removed by hand and it was therefore necessary to keep a small army of men shoveling all the time. It was obvious that some other method had to be found to keep the road open.
Much discussion followed before it was finally decided that snow sheds
and galleries were the only solution. To build fifty-odd miles of these
structures was unprecedented in railroad work and the cost would be heavy,
but there was no alternative. The work was entrusted to Arthur Brown, Engineer
of Bridges and Buildings.
In the summer of 1867 some experimental sheds were erected from a design that was later modified. In 1868 the building of the sheds was begun, all the cuts were covered with sheds, and at the points where there was danger of avalanches, snow galleries were built. As the great rush across the deserts of Nevada and Utah was then under way, it was vitally necessary to keep the railroad open for through traffic in order that supplies would reach the builders at the end of the track without interruption. Men Were gathered from every source and were paid high wages for the work. About 2,500 men were employed and six trains were used to bring material. It was not until the fall of 1869, months after the rails had been joined at Promontory, that work on the snow sheds was finished.
The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof. Owing to the lack of sawed timber, hewn timber and round logs were often used. The galleries differed from the sheds in that they had but one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountain side. This design permitted avalanches to slide over the gallery, some of which extended up the mountainside as much as two hundred feet. In some places, masonry walls were built across canyons where avalanches occurred, to prevent an avalanche from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction.
The total completed length of the sheds and galleries was about thirty-seven
miles, the building of which consumed 65,000,000 feet board measure of
lumber and 900 tons of bolts, spikes, and other iron. The cost was over
$2,000,000, but the sheds and galleries did accomplish the purpose of protecting
the line from snow blockades. Maintenance experience since 1869 has brought
about changes in the design of snow sheds, but the railroad still depends
upon such works to keep the line open for traffic throughout the entire
[Engraving of "Donner Lake, from the Snow-Sheds" from Appleton's "Our Native Land," 1886. Hand coloring added. Courtesy Bruce C. Cooper Collection.]
BRIDGES, TRESTLES, AND CULVERTS
With the exception of the great bridge over the American River at Sacramento, spans were of moderate size on the Central Pacific. However, over the Sierra Nevada the location of the line was such that long, high trestles were often necessary. They were employed as an economy measure on the first construction, but it was also true that they speeded up the progress of the road. For a number of years after the opening of the road to traffic, the work of filling the canyons crossed by trestles was carried on, the time for the fill-ins being determined by the condition of the individual wooden trestle. Where fills were made across small water courses, cut stone culverts were generally used, the stone being set in Portland cement.
The bridge over the American River was a work of considerable magnitude. As first built, there were two spans of 19–9 feet each, the two spans covering a length of 400 feet. In addition, there was a trestle approach on the south or Sacramento side of 2,196 feet, and one on the north side of 2,890 feet over the bottom lands of the river. The total length of trestle was thus 5,086 feet, making the total length of the bridge 5,486 feet, or over a mile. Trusses of the bridge were simple Howe trusses, where all members, including the lower chord, were of timber, with only the vertical members being of iron. The original bridge was founded on pile piers that were later replaced by stone masonry piers. The stone piers rested on piles that had been driven into the bed of the river, cut off below low water, and covered with a timber grillage. The first bridge burned a few years after it was built.
Most of the bridges on the line were also erected with a truss span having trestle approaches at one or both ends. At Long Ravine there were three Howe trusses with a combined length of 428 feet, and at one end 450 feet of trestle of a maximum height of seventy feet, the total length of the bridge being 878 feet. Others of this type, with truss spans exceeding 100 feet, were the bridges at Lower and Upper Cascade Creek, each with spans of 204 feet; at Cold Creek, 126 feet; at Little Truckee and at Prosser Creek, each with spans of 105 feet; the first, third, fourth, and fifth crossing of the Truckee River, with spans of 150 feet; the first crossing of Humboldt River of 129 feet and the second crossing of the same stream of 150 feet. All of these truss spans were of the Burr type, which was the same as the Howe truss, with a wooden arch in addition, built alongside the trusses from end to end and abutting upon the piers or abutments. The Burr type was popular with bridge engineers at that time, but went out of use a long time ago. All of these bridges rested upon stone masonry piers, usually on rock sides of the river or canyon.
In addition, there were numerous trestles made with bents spaced about sixteen feet apart, with wooden stringers spanning the space between on which the ties of the track rested. The bents were made of four posts, one on the bottom, two inclined, and one as a cap at the top. Longitudinal girts connected the several bents, which were sometimes in two or more stages. The bents rested upon stone masonry foundations. In some cases, where the track was high above a gully, the trestles were made up of short spans of trusses, about forty feet in length. An example of this combination was the Secret Town trestle, where there were 280 lineal feet of forty-foot spans and 820 lineal feet of trestle, a total of about 1,100 feet of timber structures with a maximum height of ninety feet.
There were originally a number of long, standard-type trestles crossing low places or ravines. Among these, on the ascent of the Sierra Nevada were: Newcastle, 528 feet long; Auburn, 416 feet; Station 450, 568 feet; Station 470 near Lovells Gap, 496 feet; Clipper Gap, 464 feet; Clipper Ravine, 450 feet; and Butte Canyon, 48 feet. The height of the trestles ranged up to seventy feet.
At the time the road was nearing completion, culverts had been built on 375 miles of line. They were usually of stone, but some were of brick, and all were laid in hydraulic cement. The bottoms were paved, and some of large size were made to be used as cattle crossings. On the line across the desert, where stone could not be easily obtained, short trestles were built in place of culverts, although as a rule the water courses were small. Culverts were afterward built at these places.
A telegraph line and other adjuncts of a railroad were built along the main track. The track sidings and turnouts aggregated about 7 1/2 per cent of the length of the main line. The necessary rolling stock was determined at first by the needs of construction. Near the close of the work there were on hand 162 locomotives, of which two had two drivers, 110 had four drivers, and fifty had six drivers, the number of drivers depending on the capacity of the locomotive. One locomotive had been constructed in San Francisco, the others had been purchased from various companies in the eastern states. At that time thirty-six additional locomotives were being shipped west and twenty-eight more were under construction. There were some passenger cars, but when the road opened there were not enough. The first sleeping car, the "Silver Palace Sleeping Car," arrived at Sacramento June 8, 1868. There were 1,694 freight cars of various types, with additional cars being manufactured at the company's shops at Sacramento at the rate of eight a day. Snow plows were provided for all the locomotives. Turntables had been built at section points, with principal shops being located at Sacramento, where all necessary machinery had been installed for repair and construction of both cars and locomotives. Passenger and freight stations had been built at depots, while at Sacramento a wharf and quay with a frontage of 1, 150 feet were erected. Watering stations as far east as Wadsworth were easily found, but across the desert water had to be obtained from wells or from springs from which it was piped to the railroad. The wells at Humboldt Wells and in Thousand Springs Valley furnished much of the supply. One reason for locating the road north of Great Salt Lake was the fact that water was available on that route, whereas it was lacking on the salt deserts south of the lake.
CONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS
The Central Pacific Railroad of California was incorporated June 28, 1861, and a year and six months later, on January 8, 1863, ground was broken at Sacramento, marking the commencement of the actual work of building the railroad. As a local newspaper described the event, there were gathered on the water-soaked levee on Front Street near K, "Dignitaries of the state, representatives of every portion of the commonwealth and a great gathering of citizens to see Leland Stanford, newly elected governor and president of the Central Pacific Railroad of California, break ground for the commencement of the iron belt that was to make the United States for the first time a united country and open to California an era of great development."
Women looked on from nearby balconies, a brass band played, a preacher called for divine. blessing on the work, and Stanford said that the work would go on with "no delay, no halting, no uncertainty in its continued progress." He cast a few shovelfuls of earth from a cart and told his hearers that they could look forward with confidence to the completion of the road. He used more flowery terms that seemed appropriate for the occasion, and then followed a spate of oratory by a group of politicians whose names have since passed into oblivion. Charles Crocker, who was master of ceremonies, then said, in a more practical vein:
"This is no idle ceremony. The pile driver is now, while I am talking, driving piles for the foundation of the bridge across the American River. Tomorrow morning one of the subcontractors who owns these teams and has brought this earth here to deposit on the commencement of this road, will proceed across the river and commence the labor of grading. It is going right on, gentlemen, I assure you! All that I have—all of my own strength, intellect, and energy—are devoted to the building of this section which I have undertaken. Amen." A mural painting in the Southern Pacific depot at Sacramento idealizes the scene, which was more significant than many of those present could appreciate. It is probable that Judah was there, but there is no record of a speech being made by the man who had originated the project and to whom much credit was then due.
Grading and bridge building went forward slowly and it was not until October 8, 1863, that the ship, Herald of the Morning, arrived at San Francisco with rail. The first rail was laid on October 26, and the next month, on November 10, the first locomotive, the "Governor Stanford," moved over the rails. Grading across the level plain was easy, and by February 29, 1864, when the road had been finished to Roseville, eighteen miles distant, train service started. It had taken fourteen months from the time when ground was first broken to build those eighteen miles. Judah had been in his grave four months.
The fundamental trouble with the constructive progress, or rather lack of progress, was due to a lack of money. The Law of 1862 had not produced any securities that would sell, other than government bonds, and forty miles of road had to be built before those bonds became available. However, the builders went on slowly with the construction, and Newcastle, thirty-one miles from Sacramento, was reached on January 31, 1865. Two years had been consumed in building thirty-one miles of railroad under favorable physical conditions. But by that time the Law of 1864 had been passed, and the Civil War was soon to close, and from that date on until the line was completed to Promontory, four years later, progress was rapid.
The contract for constructing the first eighteen miles had been let to Charles Crocker, who had resigned from the firm's board of directors, and Crocker had sublet the work of grading to several other contractors. On the section as far as Newcastle, Crocker was given only two miles to construct, the remaining road being awarded to other minor contractors. This method was unsatisfactory from a number of standpoints. The contractors bid against each other for the scanty supply of labor; some work was finished and other parts left unfinished, as the small contractors failed to complete their work on time. For these and other reasons, a general contract was given to Charles Crocker to build to the California-Nevada line, and from that point on the work was in the hands of the Contract and Finance Company, which was the Big Four under a different name.
In building the railroad to Dutch Flat, the construction forces relied on local wagon roads that had been built by the mining interests, but beyond Dutch Flat there was no road of any importance. As a wagon road is a vital adjunct to the construction of a railroad through a new country, especially so across a high range of mountains such as the Sierra Nevada, the directors of the Central Pacific organized the Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road. This was the basic reason for the road, but there were other reasons that were also important. At that time the mines of the Comstock Lode at Virginia City and Gold Hill were under intensive development and thousands of people had gathered in that region. All supplies had to be obtained in California, and therefore a highly developed system of animal-drawn freighting had been organized. It was a profitable business while it lasted. The route led from Folsom, at the terminus of the Sacramento Valley Railroad, and over the mountains by way of Placerville and the South Fork of the American River, across two summits to the Carson Valley, thence to Virginia City.
The ninety-mile Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Road, which was started in 1862, was built at a cost of $100,000, being completed in June, 1864. There was some profit from it but it was in full use for only about three years. When the railroad reached Reno in June, 1868, the highway was completely abandoned, but it had already served its principal purpose as a construction road.
The road was located over the Donner Summit, where the railroad was to be built, because no road crossed that rocky gap. There was some semblance of a road that led up Cold Creek and across Emigrant Pass to Summit Valley, but this pass was some 700 feet higher than Donner Pass, although easier for wagons to cross. Today, tourists traveling through the pass by automobile can see portions of the old construction road where it leads eastward from the summit.
The road could not be kept open for wagons during the winter, so animal-drawn sleighs were used for the transportation of men and animals for the construction forces. It was over this road that the rolling stock and materials were moved in the winter of 1866–1867. Three locomotives, forty cars, and material for forty miles of track, together with camp supplies, were hauled from Cisco across the summit and down to Donner Lake, a distance of over twenty miles. The locomotives were carried on sledges made from logs that had been split down the middle and rounded at the ends. This work was often done during raging blizzards and it was sometimes even necessary to transfer construction forces from the snowbound western side of the Sierra to the eastern slope, where the snowfall was less and work could go on. In this manner about fifty miles of road were completed down the eastern side of the mountains before the summit tunnel had been opened and the final track laid across the summit.
Track laying was organized under Strobridge as a part of the general construction contract, and not, as on the Union Pacific, as a separate contract. A camp train moved ahead with the track at the speed at which the track was being laid. Trains of track material came from Sacramento, with ties being obtained from mills along the Truckee River. Rails, fastenings, and ties were first dumped on the ground and were then loaded in horsedrawn cars that carried supplies forward to the end of track. The correct number of ties were then placed in position to hold the rail and the rail gang carried forward two rails to place them on the ties, where a spiking and bolting crew fastened them into place. The small car was then moved ahead and the operation was repeated. When the car was empty, it was tipped off the track so that another car could be pulled past it. The empty car was then returned to the track and sent back for another load.
It was on the track of the Central Pacific, near Promontory, that the laying of ten miles of track in one day of twelve hours was achieved on April 28, 1869. This accomplishment stands as a record even today. The Union Pacific under the able management of the Casement brothers, had stepped up track laying from one mile a day to an average of about three miles, and on one occasion, when everything was favorable, had laid eight and one half miles. The uncorroborated story runs that Durant bet Crocker $10,000 that the Central Pacific force would not exceed that record. In any case, Crocker was determined to beat the record of the other road. It was close to the end of the great race of the two roads across the country; therefore Crocker waited until the distance between the track was so short that there was no chance for the rival road to beat the record he hoped to make. An accident on April 27 delayed the start, but on the next day the contest was held, with a newspaper correspondent timing the movement of the track layers. The first rail was laid and others followed at the rate of about 240 feet of rail in one minute and twenty seconds. As the reporter said: "It may seem incredible, but nevertheless it is a fact that the whole ten miles of rail were handled and laid down this day by eight white men. These men were Michael Shay, Michael Kennedy, Michael Sullivan, Patrick Joyce, Thomas Dailey, George Wyatt, Edward Kioleen, and Fred McNamara. These eight Irishmen in one day handled more than 3,500 rails—1,000 tons of iron."
The rails were fifty-six pounds to the yard and weighed 560 pounds each. On curves, the rail was bent in the usual manner. In all, there were brought up and placed 25,800 ties, 3,520 rails, 55,000 spikes, 7,040 poles, and 14,080 bolts, a total of 4,362,000 pounds. The distance was ten miles and 200 feet, and representatives of the Union Pacific were present to measure the distance. The track was ballasted with the ties tamped, so that a train was run over the line that night. It was a notable achievement. That ten-mile stretch of track was later marked by signs recording the feat.
The telegraph line was built at the same time the track was laid. Poles were brought out on the material trains and distributed by wagons. The cross-arms were fastened to them, a gang of laborers tinder a foreman duo, the holes, and a third gang erected them. The wire was then brought forward on a wagon and unwound from a reel as the wagon went ahead. A wire gang raised the wire and fastened it to the insulators. Great rivalry existed between the telegraph gangs and the track gangs, the former being sometimes delayed by lack of poles. However, at the end of a day the wires were connected to a temporary telegraph set and communication established with the supply points at the rear.
It is customary to indicate the progress of construction of a railroad by the position of the rail head, or end of track. That is the measure of the advance of the operated track but not of the progress of the entire project, as much difficult work may be in progress beyond the end of track that must be completed before track laying is resumed. The tunnels at the summit of the Sierra Nevada held the end of track at Cisco for over a year, but still work went on beyond Truckee. The following record of track should be of interest.
The first rail was laid at Sacramento October 26, 1863; and Roseville, eighteen miles away, was reached February 29, 1864. Newcastle, thirty-one miles from Sacramento, was reached June 6, 1864, and then there was a long delay. The line was in operation to Clipper Gap, forty-three miles, June 10, 1865, and to Colfax, fifty-five miles from Sacramento, September 10 of that year. Grading had begun beyond Colfax on August 1, 1865, when work was started on the Summit Tunnel. In July of 1866 trains were running to Dutch Flat, and by November 9 to Cisco, ninety-four miles from Sacramento. At this point the track was held up, although about fifty miles of track were laid east of the mountains. In August, 1867, the Summit Tunnel was completed, together with the other tunnels, leaving only a seven mile gap in the track at the end of that year, between Coldstream and Tunnel 12. The completed track reached Truckee April 3, 1868; Reno, 154 miles, June 19; and Wadsworth, 189 miles from Sacramento, July 22. The road across the desert from Wadsworth to Promontory, a distance of 501 miles, was built between July, 1868, and the early part of May, 1869. Actually, 523 miles of line were built in ten months, July 1, 1868, to May 1, 1869, and about fifty miles of grading had been done beyond Promontory. Afterward the Central Pacific purchased forty-seven and one half miles and leased five miles of line from the Union Pacific so that a connection could be made at Ogden. In this manner the Central Pacific comprised 742 miles of line from Sacramento to Ogden, and the Union Pacific 1,032 miles of line from Omaha to the same place, a total length from Sacramento to Omaha of 1,774 miles.
Accounts differ as to the number of men that worked on the Central Pacific. On the western side of the Sierra Nevada there were about 11,000 men employed at the time of maximum effort. It has been stated that, in the race with the Union Pacific, from western Nevada to Promontory, the Central Pacific employed from 5,000 to 6,000 men. Thirty vessels were at sea at one time carrying supplies, and numerous mills were at work along the Truckee River turning out ties, bridge timbers, and fuel.
The men on the western side of the mountains were moved eastward as the construction work progressed. The experience of one engineer, J. M. Graham, was typical of this progress. Employed first at the Summit, Graham moved progressively to the Truckee River, to the Truckee Meadows, to Wadsworth, to Humboldt Station, to Emigrant Canyon, to Palisade, and finally to the Toana Mountains.
In a report to Leland Stanford, Strobridge describes the construction work under his charge:
I was superintendent of construction during the building of the road. The work was pushed with the utmost vigor; all the men were hired that could be found and no effort or expense was spared to complete the road as quickly as possible. In this way it was finished and in operation from Sacramento, Cal., to Ogden, Utah, about seven years sooner than was required by the act of Congress. During construction very high prices we re paid for powder and all tools and supplies used on the work, and nothing was spared that would hasten its completion and the work was pushed regardless of the season. The winter of 1865 and 1866 was a very wet one, making the roads on the clay soils of the foothills nearly impassable for vehicles. Large numbers of pack animals had to be brought into use and on them were carried nearly all supplies and even hay and grain over steep mountain trails to the construction camps. ... During the winter of 1866 and 1867 and the following winter of 1867 and 1868 there were unusual snowfalls in the upper Sierra Nevadas where the road was then under construction. The tunnels were got under way with as large a force as could be used on them and the remainder of the force was sent to the Truckee canyon on the cast slope of the Sierras where the snowfall was not so great as to prevent entirely grading during the winter, the total force being about 13,500 men at that time. . . . In the spring of each year the men were taken back from the Truckee into the mountains and an average depth of ten to twelve feet of snow was cleared away before grading could be commenced.
In crossing the deserts eastward from the Truckee River, water for men and animals was hauled at one time forty miles. It was necessary to have the heavy work in Palisade Canyon done in advance of the main force, and 3,000 men with 400 horses and carts were sent to that point, a distance of 300 miles in advance of the track. Hay, grain, and all supplies for the men and horses had to be hauled over the desert for that great distance, there being no supplies to be obtained on the entire route. The winter of 1868 and 1869 was one of severe cold. The construction was in progress in the upper Humboldt Valley, where the ground was frozen to a depth of two to three feet, and material required blasting and treatment like rock which could have been cheaply moved in a more favorable time.
The road from Wadsworth to Ogden, about 555 miles, was built between July, 1868, and May, 1869, about ten months, with a force averaging 5,000 men.
As the road advanced across the desert, the same procedure of sending men and supplies to advance points was followed. The final advance outfit was sent from Wadsworth to Promontory, as construction east of that point was done by the Mormons.
On the Central Pacific there was little or no trouble from liquor, gambling, and prostitution such as troubled the builders of the Union Pacific. The common laborers were Chinese, who kept to themselves. The white men were above the grade of laborers, but credit for the absence of saloons was due to Strobridge. He hated liquor, and whenever someone set up a tent to sell it, the superintendent sent men to destroy the tent and if objections were offered to destroy the liquor. His actions may not have been quite legal, but the railroad builders were the only law in that uninhabited region, and drastic action was deemed necessary.
There is no record of any particular Indian trouble on the Central Pacific, in contrast to the major difficulties with Indians experienced by the Union Pacific. In western Nevada the Piutes were the only tribe of any consequence, and they had been subdued in what was known at Virginia City as the "Indian War." In previous years Indians had murdered a number of emigrants and had robbed the pioneers' wagon trains, but much of the trouble should have been laid to the deeds of renegade white men, bad whiskey, and outrages committed by the whites against the Indians. In 1860, several white men were murdered by Indians at William's Station in revenge for assaults on Indian women. When a party of men under Major Ormsby was sent out after the redskins, the party was trapped on the Truckee River near Pyramid Lake, and a. number, including Major Ormsby, were killed. A larger expedition soon afterwards defeated the Indians and drove them into the northern deserts.
In eastern Nevada and in Utah there were constant conflicts between the Indians and the operators of the stages, which finally led to the establishment of a number of military posts through central Nevada. To protect the construction forces on the Central Pacific, the federal government in 1867 established Fort Halleck near the north end of the Ruby Mountains, not far from the Humboldt River. The presence of troops at Fort Halleck and the operations of General Patrick E. Conner in cleaning out the Indians had its effect, and while brushes with the Indians occurred from time to time, this did not delay the building of the Central Pacific.
THE MEETING OF THE RAILS
By the Law of 1862, the Central Pacific was authorized to build eastward as far as the Missouri River, provided the eastern roads had not built westward. The Law of 1864, inspired by the Union Pacific, limited the Central Pacific to building to a point 150 miles east of the California-Nevada line, the Union Pacific to meet with it at that point. Huntington was not especially worried by that provision, preferring to allow the matter to come up later. The subject was brought to a head in 1866, and by the Act of Congress of July 3 of that year the "Central Pacific Railroad Company of California, with the consent and approval of the Secretary of the Interior, are hereby authorized to locate, construct and continue their road eastward, in a continuous completed line until they meet and connect with the Union Pacific Railroad."
Each company was prohibited from working more than 300 miles in advance of their completed lines.
At all times it was the intent of the laws that the two railroads should join when and where they met. The men of each road, however, interpreted this statement to suit themselves. The Union Pacific graded a complete line to Promontory and a partial line to Monument Point, and did a small amount of work as far west as Humboldt Wells, about 168 miles west of Promontory. The Central Pacific made its surveys and filed its maps beyond Ogden as far east as the eastern end of Echo Canyon, and had graded to Ogden. Thus the grading of the roads, more or less complete, paralleled each other for about 200 miles. The struggle was for the trade of the Salt Lake region and for the subsidy bond and also to secure the greatest freight length of haul over the total distance. Over a million dollars were wasted in the struggle between the two roads. A compromise was finally offered to the Union Pacific by Huntington, by which the Union Pacific would build its road to Promontory and the Central Pacific would then purchase enough of the line to enable it to reach Salt Lake Valley. As an alternative, he would continue with his plans of extending the Central Pacific to Ogden. He seemed to hold the trump cards when he applied for and received over a million dollars in government bonds for the line east of Ogden. The struggle had reached a point where the grading crews of the two railroads were setting off blasts that killed men on the rival line, when Huntington's compromise was accepted by the Union Pacific. The Union Pacific agreed to join rails at Promontory and to sell forty-seven and one half miles of line extending to within five miles of Ogden for $4,000,224.96. When this agreement was reached, Congress ratified it on April 10, stating that the "common terminus of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads shall be at or near Ogden; and the Union Pacific Railroad Company shall build, and the Central Pacific Railroad Company shall pay for and own, the railroad from the terminus aforesaid to Promontory Point, at which point the rails shall meet and connect and form one continuous line."
Later the price to be paid was reduced and the Central Pacific leased the remaining five miles into Ogden for 999 years. Thus, after much pointless struggle and waste of money, the meeting point was settled and the proper junction, Ogden, was determined.
The early building years of the two railroads did not interest the general public especially, but after the Civil War ended and as progress on the work was accelerated, the attention of the American people became focused on the great project. Prominent men journeyed into the West to see the work, and editors all over the country described it. In the year 1868, the race across the Utah and Nevada deserts by the Central Pacific and across the Wyoming Basin and over the mountains to the Salt Lake Valley by the Union Pacific was in full swing. Every day the newspapers of the country carried bulletins of miles laid and vivid descriptions of progress made. It soon became apparent that the meeting of the rails would take place some time in the first part of 1869, almost seven years sooner than the date set by Congress for completion.
In April came the last rush, and on the 28th of that month Crocker and his men laid the ten miles that set the track-laying record. The gap between the tracks grew smaller and smaller until finally early in May it was seen that it would close on or before May 8. The Union Pacific permitted the last of its rowdy construction towns to be established at Promontory, complete with saloons, gambling dens, and houses of prostitution. The celebration of the meeting of the rails and the driving of the last spike was set for May 8, but the Union Pacific train bearing the official delegation was late, and so the ceremonies had to be held on May 10.
The story of the event has been told by various writers, but the eyewitness account given by Sidney Dillon, then a director and later president of the Union Pacific, covers the essential points. He said:
The point of junction was the level circular valley about three miles in diameter surrounded by mountains. During all the morning hours the hurry and bustle of preparation went on. Two lengths of rail lay on the ground near the opening in the roadbed. At a little before eleven the Chinese laborers began leveling up the roadbed preparatory to placing the last ties in position. About a quarter after eleven, the train from San Francisco [he should have said from Sacramento] with Governor Stanford and his party arrived and was greeted with cheers. In the enthusiasm of the occasion there were cheers for everybody, from the president of the Union Pacific to the day laborers on the road. The two engines moved nearer each other and the crowd gathered around the open spaces. Then all fell back a little so that the view should be unobstructed.
Brief remarks were made by Governor Stanford on one side and by General Dodge on the other. It was now about twelve o'clock noon, local time, or about two P.M. in New York. The two superintendents of construction, J. H. Strobridge of the Central Pacific and S. B. Reed of the Union Pacific, placed the last tie on the rails. It was of California laurel, highly polished, with a silver plate in the center bearing the following inscription: The last tie laid on the completion of the Pacific Railroad, May 10, 1869, with the names of the officers and directors of both companies.
Everything was then in readiness, the word was given and "Hats Off" went clicking over the wire to the waiting crowds at New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and all principal cities. Prayer was offered by Mr. Todd, at the conclusion of which our operator tapped out: "We have got done praying. The spike is about to be presented," to which the response came back: "We understand. All ready in the East." The gentlemen who had been commissioned to present the four spikes, two of gold and two of silver, from Montana, Idaho, California, and Nevada, stepped forward and with brief appropriate remarks, discharged the duty assigned to them.
Governor Stanford, standing on the north, and Dr. Durant on the south side of the track, received the spikes and put them in place.
The operator tapped out, "All ready now. The spike will soon be driven. The signal will be three dots for the commencement of the blows."
An instant later the silver hammers came down and, at each stroke, in all the offices from San Francisco to New York, the hammer struck the bell.
The signal "Done" was received at Washington at 2:47 P.M., which was about a quarter of one at Promontory. There was not much formality in the demonstration that followed, but the enthusiasm was genuine and unmistakable. The two engines moved up until they touched each other and a bottle of champagne was poured on the last rail, after the manner of christening a ship at a launching.
There were several photographs taken, in one of which General Dodge and Montague, the engineers of the two roads, are shown shaking hands. It was fitting that Strobridge, superintendent of construction on the Central Pacific, and Reed, of the Union Pacific, should be there and take a prominent part in the ceremony. For some reason never explained, Crocker was not there to meet Durant of the Union Pacific, though they represented the driving forces that had pushed the construction over the plains, mountains, and deserts for nearly 1,800 miles. The memory of General Dodge must have gone back over the years to that day in 1853, sixteen years before, when he had crossed the Missouri River with his survey party on the first investigation of the Pacific Railroad. The other great engineer, Theodore Judah, had been dead for six years, but undoubtedly he was not forgotten by those at the ceremonies. There were celebrations in many cities of the country. The telegraph company had arranged for bells to be rung in Washington, New Orleans, New York, Boston, and Omaha by the strokes of the hammer that drove the last spike. A gun was fired at Fort Point in San Francisco. In Chicago there was a parade. In New York a salute of 100 guns was fired, and the bells of Trinity Church were rung. There were celebrations at Omaha and Sacramento, and ministers throughout the nation preached sermons about the work. The importance of the great achievement was everywhere appreciated with the closing of the line at Promontory, being justly regarded as the greatest engineering and construction feat of the nineteenth century.
When the ceremonies were concluded a luncheon was held in Stanford's car, and then the trains separated. There was still work to be done, but in the weeks that followed the working forces gradually melted away. Many of the men went into the operating forces of the two railroads, but most of the engineers moved to other railroads and were active in later construction. Many railroads were to be built across the continent, but never again would there be a first one. That had been completed. It was not long before the shacks that formed the town of Promontory Point disappeared and nature reclaimed the lonely valley. Since that time some attempts at farming have been made there, but today the desert mountains with their sparse growth of stunted trees look down in silence upon the historic spot where the great enterprise was culminated. A concrete monument erected there bears this inscription:
DRIVEN AT THIS SPOT
MAY 10TH 1869
The line over the Promontory Mountains was operated for more than thirty-three years, but was largely discarded when the Lucin Cutoff across the Great Salt Lake was opened for service in 1903. Later, most of the western end of the line was abandoned, and in 1942, during the World War 11, the entire line of rails from Corinne to Lucin was scrapped.
The railroads were not completed when the tracks were joined. There was still much work to be done, even to comply with the requirements of the government. To settle the legal requirements of the laws, an examination was made by a special commission of five men that was appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, J. D. Cox. The Central Pacific was examined in September, 1869, and the commission's report included a list of twenty-seven items to be completed at an estimated cost of $576,650. The inspection of the Union Pacific was made in the same month, and the cost of the sixty-four items listed was estimated as $1,586,100. The commission concludes its report, which is dated October 30, 1869, with the following statement:
"This great line, the value of which to the country is inestimable, and in which every citizen should feel a pride, has been built in about half the time allowed by Congress, and is now a good and reliable means of communication between Omaha and Sacramento, well equipped and fully prepared to carry passengers and freight with safety and dispatch, comparing in this respect favorably with a majority of first-class roads in the United States."
The actual date of the completion of the two roads was long the subject of controversy between the railroads and the government. The report of the commission was not conclusive, as it noted in the case of each road that additional work was necessary. In November, the Secretary of the Interior released to the companies the remaining bonds that were due them, but required that collateral securities be deposited with him. However, the Secretary refused for five years to issue patents for the lands. On request of the Union Pacific another commission, this one of three men, was appointed, and after an examination rendered a report that the roads had been completed as required by law, by the report of the former commission, and by the instructions of the Department of the Interior on October 1, 1874. However, when the Secretary of the Treasury, acting under the Law of 1874, demanded payment of 5 per cent of the net earnings, he gave the date of completion for the Central Pacific as the 16th of July, 1869, and of the Union Pacific as the 6th of November, 1869. A suit was then brought by the government against the Union Pacific, in which the court held that the above completion dates would hold as far as payment of the 5 per cent was concerned, inasmuch as these were the dates when the last bonds were delivered by the government to the railroad companies.
Courtesy Cathy Murphy, Barnes and Noble, Inc. (formerly Dorset Press).
Find an available copy of this book. | <urn:uuid:64cbe55d-580e-4c8f-a7b1-ae2117a8ce42> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cprr.org/Museum/Galloway7.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985609 | 15,015 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Crinum species O-Z are found on this wiki page.
Crinum oliganthum is a small plant native to the Caribbean. Allied to Crinum americanum, it prefers damp growing conditions and spreads by rhizomes. When I bought this from Yucca Do Nursery, they called it Crinum sp. mini-americanum. It is also called 'West Indies mini' Crinum. Their pictures show six-petaled flowers, but these are only five-petaled. The plant is very small and is shown here growing in a 1 gallon container. The first photo taken August 2004 by Lee Poulsen & though not directly from them this plant originated from Yucca Do Nurseries; photos two and three taken summer 2006 by Alani Davis, and photo number four from Alessandro Marinello
Crinum paludosum is native to South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. Photo by Alessandro Marinello.
Crinum procerum var. splendens is one of the red leaved forms of C. asiaticum. I am not sure what the exact correct nomenclature for type is at the moment so I am using the older one for now. This is one of the deepest burgundy pigmented forms. The outsides of the tepals are wine colored and the insides are pale pink while the scape is burgundy. Photos by Alani Davis and Alberto Grossi.
Crinum razafindratsiraea is a recently named species from Madagascar. The first three photos are by Alani Davis. The following two photos are from Jacob Uluwehi Knecht's plant grown in Honolulu, Hawai`i. The blooms open slightly at dusk and only fully once night has fallen. I was not able to detect a scent at the time, and the flowers only last one night. The terra cotta pot it was growing in was approx 8 cm wide.
Crinum scabrum is a form surrounded with much mystery to its history. Seeming to have originated from an African heritage, it is not known to occur there and where exactly it originated is not clear. Originally it was described from material collected in Rio de Janeiro and its occurrences in the southeast United States and the scattered in the Caribbean as well are areas historically associated with the slave trade. I have had several anecdotal discussions about the medicinal and ethnobotanical uses of this plant and I have often wondered if this was not just a horticultural selection, possible of hybrid origins, which has the useful reproductive characteristic of readily offsetting which many native and wild forms are reluctant to do. It has nicely scented white flowers with red stripes which encourage its growth for mere garden reasons as well which is the reason it is typically grown today. Photos by Alani Davis & Michelle Davis. Final photo of seed of Crinun scabrum on the left and Crinum jagus by David Pilling.
Crinum stuhlmannii. It was a great surprize when this plant flowered in our collection for the first time in 2008. This large bulb was rescued from a Durban herbalist market where hundreds of tons of similar plant (and animal) material is illegally harvested and sold annually. Crinum stuhlmannii grows naturally in the warm coastal areas of KwaZulu-Natal and is closely allied to C. graminicola and C. delagoense. In fact C. delagoense is often considered a subspecies of C. stuhlmannii. Photos by Rogan Roth.
Crinum sp. was sold as by an African plant importer as C. graminicola which it is not, but I am not sure what it is. Any ideas anyone? The buds on each 50 cm scape open nearly all at one time on the same night with just a few buds opening the night before or the night after. The flowers only last one night & are wilting by dawn the morning after. I have self pollinated all the flowers but have never gotten any seed. The glossy medium green leaves form a low spreading rosette of foliage. Photos by Alani Davis.
Crinum variabile grows on rocky or sandy seasonally streambeds from the northwest Cape to the western Karoo. Plants grow from 40 to 60 cm high and form clumps. Flowers are white to pale pink with deeper pink or green keels and are heavily scented. In the wild it blooms between January and May. It doesn't mind summer water in cultivation, and tends to bloom better when grown in large pots or in the ground. The first two photos were taken in habitat on the road to Studer's Pass, Kamiesberg in Namaqualand by Andrew Harvie. The third photo was taken by Cameron McMaster near Nieuwoudtville September 2011. The last photo by Nhu Nguyen shows seeds, one of which has already sprouted.
Crinum zeylanicum is native to western India and Sri Lanka. It has very showy red and white striped flowers, but is tender and needs protection from cold weather. Will grow to at least zone 8b. It is often confused with the Crinum scabrum, however it is quite distinct in several ways. It has a prominent whitish rib on the underside of the leaf which is prominent on several of its hybrids as well. The scapes, peduncles, seed pods, and buds are burgundy and the scape also has a glaucous coating as well giving it a distinctive purplish appearance. Also note the attenuated tip to each tepal especially evident on the photos of the just open flowers. Photos by Alani Davis.
A paper collage called "Crinum zeylanicum: Asphodil Lilly", made in England in 1778 by Mary Delany who began making her 'mosaicks', at the age of 72. © Trustees of the British Museum. | <urn:uuid:7463ac88-33ff-436e-938b-5aaddc032f6d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/CrinumSpeciesFour | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966454 | 1,234 | 2.6875 | 3 |
NASA's LRO Team Helps Track Laser Signals to Russian Rover Mirror
Using information provided by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) instrument teams, researchers at the University of California San Diego successfully pinpointed the location of a long lost light reflector on the lunar surface by bouncing laser signals from Earth to the Russian Lunokhod 1 retroreflector.
The initial imaging of the two Russian rovers, Lunokhod 1 and 2 were made earlier this year by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) team, led by Mark Robinson from Arizona State University in Tempe.
On April 22, Tom Murphy from the University of California San Diego and his team sent pulses of laser light from the 3.5 meter telescope at the Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico, zeroing in on the target coordinates provided by the LROC images and altitudes provided by the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter.
“We quickly verified the signal to be real and found it to be surprisingly bright: at least five times brighter than the other Soviet reflector, on the Lunokhod 2 rover, to which we routinely send laser pulses,” said Tom Murphy, an associate professor of physics at the University of California San Diego. “The best signal we’ve seen from Lunokhod 2 in several years of effort is 750 return photons, but we got about 2,000 photons from Lunokhod 1 on our first try. It’s got a lot to say after almost 40 years of silence.”
Since Apollo deployed laser retroreflectors, astronomers have routinely used them track how the moon is slowly moving away from the Earth. This helps scientists develop a better understanding of the processes that are causing this motion, including what’s occurring inside the moon’s core and the tidal motions on the Earth.
The Lunokhod 1 retroreflector was sent aboard the unmanned Luna 17 mission, which landed on the moon Nov. 17, 1970, releasing a robotic rover that roamed the lunar surface.
Murphy said his team had occasionally looked for the Lunokhod 1 retroreflector over the last two years, but had little chance of finding it until the LRO team produced coordinates based on the recent images of the lander and rover that were good to within 100 meters.
“It turns out that our previous best-guess position was miles off,” he said. “We could only search one football-field-sized region at a time, so without LRO, we never would have found it. But with the new coordinates, we found the signal promptly at the very edge of our available window.”
Locating Lunokhod 1 and measuring its exact coordinates is important in furthering our understanding of the moon.
“Getting more than a few photons back from an unknown location at the distance of the moon is quite an achievement. The rediscovery of the Lunokhod-1 retroreflector was made possible by the LRO camera team and by the diligence of Tom Murphy,” said Gregory Neumann, Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter team member from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. “That we have located it so quickly and ranged to the Lunokhod rover, last heard from Sept. 14, 1971, is a tribute to Tom's team and to the amazing LRO observatory and instrument teams.”
LRO is scheduled for a one-year exploration mission in a polar orbit about 31 miles above the lunar surface. During this time, LRO will acquire information for a new comprehensive map of the lunar surface in unprecedented detail, search for resources and potential safe landing sites for a potential future return to the moon and measure lunar temperatures and radiation levels.
LRO will move into its science phase in September, when the program management responsibility moves from the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate to the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters. LRO will continue to map the moon for two additional years during its science phase with the possibility of two more years of observation following that.
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center built and manages the mission for the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. The Institute for Space Research, Moscow, provides the neutron detector aboard the spacecraft.
More information can be found about LRO at:
Goddard Release No. 10-038
Nancy Neal Jones
Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Md.
University of California San Diego | <urn:uuid:f7e80ffa-4735-496e-8d2c-fddc9f76de43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/lro-20100426.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923114 | 921 | 3.453125 | 3 |
I would have thought that the realm of reverse engineering was limited to just hardware, but here we are with word that rat cells were actually used in the reverse-engineering process to create an artificial life form (a jellyfish) which will then be used to test drugs. Achieved thanks to the brilliance of a group of bioengineers, this artificial jellyfish relied on silicone and muscle cells from a rat’s heart. Called a medusoid, this synthetic creature resembles a flower with eight petals. Whenever it is placed in an electric field, it will pulse and swim just like its living counterpart – albeit sans any nasty sting, I suppose.
Kit Parker, a biophysicist at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, said, “Morphologically, we’ve built a jellyfish. Functionally, we’ve built a jellyfish. Genetically, this thing is a rat.” You don’t say? It would be cool to see how future developments will unfold – in fact, Parker and his team already has plans to construct a medusoid that relies on human heart cells. Hopefully it will help usher in a new age of medical research. | <urn:uuid:5d925e53-110c-4835-b760-2e8e5742c868> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ubergizmo.com/2012/07/artificial-jellyfish-uses-rat-cells-as-its-building-blocks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956291 | 244 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Using interactive exhibits, students learn about the intelligence and biology of marine mammals, as well as how researchers study them. Kids get the answers to all of their questions about marine mammals and get involved with the activities. The program’s showstopper is a life-sized inflatable right whale. This program takes place in any large meeting area such as a cafeteria or auditorium.
- Offered for grades 1-2, grades 3-5 and grades 6-8
- Up to 60 students per session
- 45 mins.
- $825 for up to four sessions, $150 for one additional session
- This program comes to your school
See what kids are saying about whale programs at their school!
Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (as a guideline)
- Life Science
- Technology and Engineering | <urn:uuid:677737e1-9473-4695-b6a0-6c09f2d32f04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.neaq.org/education_and_activities/teacher_resources/school_programs/complete_list_of_school_programs/whale_day_school_program.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938439 | 169 | 2.546875 | 3 |
People give up eating meat and animal products such as milk, cheese, and eggs for many reasons.
But doing so may increase the risk of iron deficiency anemia, a potentially serious condition in which the body does not make enough oxygen-bearing red blood cells.
For vegetarians who eliminate meat, anemia can be due to an iron deficiency. For vegans, who give up all animal products including dairy, eggs, and even honey, anemia can also be caused by vitamin B12 deficiency.
The answer is to eat a carefully balanced diet — by getting needed iron and B12 from other sources, you should be able to stay committed to a vegetarian or vegan diet and prevent anemia.
The Facts on Iron Deficiency Anemia
The most common cause of anemia is iron deficiency. This means that you are not getting enough iron in your diet. Iron is necessary for carrying oxygen in the hemoglobin of your red blood cells. These cells carry oxygen throughout your body, giving you energy. Fatigue is the most common symptom of anemia, but many people have mild anemia without knowing it.
Start by learning how much iron you need every day:
- Women, ages 14 to 18: 15 milligrams (mg)
- Women, 19 to 50: 18 mg
- Women, 51 and older: 8 mg
- Men, 14 to 18: 11 mg
- Men, 19 and older: 8 mg
Iron is available in two forms: heme and non-heme. Heme iron is the most easily used by your body and is found in meat, poultry, and fish. Non-heme iron is found in vegetables — your body can still use it, just not as easily.
Some of the foods that vegetarians can eat to increase iron in their diet are:
- Fortified breakfast cereals, both hot and cold
- Blackstrap molasses
- Green leafy vegetables
- Dried beans, such as black and kidney beans, and lentils
- Whole grains
- Enriched rice or pasta
- Pumpkin seeds
- Prune juice
- Dried fruit, especially raisins
It is a good idea to combine these iron-rich foods with foods high in vitamin C because C helps your body use iron. For example, you might want to top your spinach salad with grapefruit sections or drink a glass of orange juice as you dig into your fortified cereal in the morning.
Multivitamins often contain iron, especially those labeled for women under age 50. You should discuss the need for taking a multivitamin with iron with your doctor, and get a recommendation for which type of supplement to purchase.
The Facts on Vitamin B12 Deficiency Anemia
Also called pernicious anemia, this type of anemia is due to a lack of vitamin B12 in your diet. This B vitamin plays an important role in making red blood cells. In nature, this vitamin is only available in meat or animal products, which is why vegans must be careful to find other ways to include it in their diets. Vegetarians who eat dairy and eggs usually get enough B12 through these sources.
When you read the nutrition labels on packaged foods, , look for foods fortified with vitamin B12. Here are some examples of processed foods that contain vitamin B12:
- Fortified rice or soy milk
- Fortified cereal or grain products
- Some meat substitutes (check the labels for vitamin B12)
- Dietary supplements, such as those labeled as containing B-complex
- Nutritional yeast
If you do decide to take a dietary supplement, do some homework. For example, know that even a healthy body does not readily absorb all of the B-12 vitamin in a supplement. Talk to your doctor or nutritionist for the amount of supplemental B12 that’s right for you.
Whatever your reasons for choosing a vegetarian or vegan diet, learn how to create a healthy balance that includes enough iron and vitamin B12 to stave off anemia and leave you with plenty of energy.
Learn more in the Everyday Health Anemia Center.
Last Updated: 9/8/2010 | <urn:uuid:54c681bc-d5d8-4845-a010-41252f8022df> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.everydayhealth.com/anemia/anemia-risk-for-vegans-and-vegetarians.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941898 | 854 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Date Written: c. 1450 BC - 517 BC
The authorship of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) is much debated. Traditionally, Moses wrote the Pentateuch, but in the 19th and 20th centuries scholars have questioned whether this was the case. Many scholars believe that the books of the Pentateuch underwent a series of revisions and editorial additions and subtractions before reaching their final form which we have today. Most generally agree that the revisions were completed by the end of the Exile in 517 BC.
Genesis is a story, the story of God's relationship with mankind and his calling of a particular family to be his own. It is not a collection of laws or sayings, nor a letter or poetry. As Genesis progresses, the relationship of God and mankind widens. First, God makes a covenant with Adam and Eve: one holy couple. Then he makes a covenant with Noah and his family: one holy family. After that, he makes a covenant with Abraham and his descendents: one holy tribe.
The first part of Genesis (1-11) narrates the creation of the world and the activity of the first few generations of human beings. God creates everything good, but Adam and Eve sin against him by disobeying his commandment (3). Thus, the Fall occurs. This "original sin" is thereafter inherited by every human being except two: Jesus and Mary. Unfortunately, sin progresses after the Fall to murder, violence and sexual corruption so much so that God decides to destroy humanity with the Flood (6:13). He commissions Noah to preserve a human remnant and the animals by building the ark. Noah faithfully obeys and God destroys the world with a great flood. God makes a covenant with Noah, represented by the rainbow, in which he promises never to destroy the world with a flood again (9:9-17). Yet humanity again falls into sin and rebellion against God when building the
God then calls Abraham from
Isaac and his wife Rebekah give birth to twins: Esau and Jacob. Esau was born first, but Jacob buys Esau's birthright from him and steals his blessing so he become the bearer of the promises given to Abraham (27). Jacob has twelve sons and after wrestling with the Lord, he is renamed
Genesis sets the stage for the story of Exodus and the whole Bible. It is the book of "origins" which narrates the beginnings of creation, humanity and God's action in history.
By Mark Giszczak | <urn:uuid:6184e9ae-f345-47c5-b66d-500edbb77fc3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resources/bible/introduction-to-the-old-testament/genesis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970298 | 524 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Definition of antialiasing
: a procedure in computer graphics for smoothing lines and removing visual distortions
Origin and Etymology of antialiasing
alias (spurious frequency generated during digital processing of a signal)
First Known Use: 1981
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up antialiasing? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:758240ae-777a-447d-9837-213addedf4a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/antialiasing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89275 | 86 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Cells that wrap around the axons of nerve fibers to form a fatty, protective myelin sheath. Between sections of myelin sheath are small gaps called nodes of Ranvier. The sheath serves to electrically insulate the nerve and allow the more rapid passage of nerve impulses. The cells were named after their discoverer Theodor Schwann.
Related category• CELL BIOLOGY
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:f87eeab4-2283-4eed-b987-882455be2910> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/Schwann_cells.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.858403 | 100 | 2.921875 | 3 |
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORBUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT
|Needles Field Office|
GENERAL INFORMATION: Rockhounding is one of many recreational pursuits on 141/2 million acres of lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in California. Collecting small, non-commercial quantities of rock by rockhounds is allowed free of charge on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management. Commercial collecting for the purpose of sale or barter is not allowed without special authorization. Rockhounds may use hand tools such as shovels and picks, but must not use explosives or power equipment for excavation.
While rockhounds are welcome to collect limited amounts of rocks, minerals, and gemstones from most federal lands, there are some exceptions. Some lands are withdrawn or reserved for certain purposes such as outstanding natural areas, research natural areas, recreation sites, national historic sites, etc. Other lands are not open to collecting due to the presence of mining claims. The local BLM offices can provide you with information about available collecting areas and those areas that are closed to rockhounding including any fire or vehicle use restrictions. Non-commercial/non-barter collecting is allowed within BLM Wilderness. However access is limited to hiking and horseback, vehicle use in wilderness is prohibited. Rockhounds must get permission from the land owner to collect rock, minerals, and gemstones on private property.
PETRIFIED WOOD: Petrified wood is available for collection on a free use basis in limited quantities as long as the collection is for personal, non-commercial purposes. According to Federal regulations (43 CFR 3622), limits free use collection weights to 25 pounds plus one piece per day, not to exceed 250 pounds in one calendar year, and no specimen greater than 250 pounds may be collected without a special permit. The petrified wood must be for personal use only, and shall not be sold or bartered to commercial dealers. A material sale contract must be obtained from a BLM Field Office for collection of more than 250 pounds a year, or for commercial use. Mining claims may not be staked for petrified wood.
HISTORIC ARTIFACTS AND FOSSILS: The Antiquities Act of 1906, the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, and the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 prohibit the excavation, collection or destruction of any archaeological materials (including vertebrate fossils) located on lands under federal jurisdiction. The indiscriminate removal of artifacts and certain fossils could affect scientific and educational uses of public lands creating unfortunate gaps in scientific understanding. Petroglyphs, human remains, dwellings, and artifacts of Native American cultures are protected by law because they are integral to the preservation of the cultural heritage of these ongoing traditions and also may provide important information concerning populations who lived here long ago.
MINING CLAIMS: Rockhounding on mining claims is not authorized without the mining claimant's consent because the claimant has a legal right to the minerals on the claim, including gemstones. Most mining claims can usually be identified in the field by claim posts or markers, but you should contact a local BLM office or visit the Lands & Minerals Legacy Rehost System, LR2000 to find out which areas have mining claims. It is illegal for a mining claimant to charge fees to the public for recreational use of a mining claim, such as rock collecting.
Material such as agate, chert, jasper, petrified wood, obsidian, cinders and other volcanic products are not considered locatable under the 1872 Mining Law. Most commonly collected rocks and minerals are not subject to mining claim location even though people occasionally stake claims for these minerals anyway. The mere fact that some stones may be cut and polished does not give them a distinct or special value to make them locatable.
1. Know whose property you are on.
1. Turtle Mountain. Parker Dam Desert Access Guide (DAG). Needles California Trail Users Coalition(CTUC) map
The Turtle Mountain Wilderness and surrounding areas have long been known for it's beautiful rocks, good jasper, opalite, and much more. Each rain seems to uncover something new. Three proven locales are Mohawk Spring, Mopah Peak, and Negro Peak. In addition chalcedony rose and agate can be found on either side of Turtle Mountain Road.
To find these locations drive approximately (approx)23 miles south of Needles on U.S. 95 and turn west on Turtle Mountain road. This is a formerly maintained dirt road and most standard vehicles can safely operate for the first few miles, but if you want to reach the best collecting areas a 4 wheel drive vehicle is highly recommended. Mohawk Spring, Mopah Peak, and Negro Peak are inside the Turtle Mountain Wilderness. Rock collecting is allowed in wilderness, however use of vehicles is not. For that reason the best specimens can be located in wilderness where the less adventurous don't go.
2. Chemehuevi Wash. Parker Dam DAG. Needles California Trail Users Coalition(CTUC) map
Havasu Lake Road is located approximately 21 miles south of Needles on U.S. 95. Turn east and drive approx. 5 miles. When you reach the Needles to Parker Wagon Rd. turn south and then almost immediately turn left on route NS513. Take time to walk both sides of this route as well as route NS510, you can find red, yellow, white and brown moss, banded and picture agate, as well as blue opal, agate, and rhyolite. After investigating these areas take route NS520 south 1 mile from it's junction with NS510 to find colorful agate, brecciated red and white jasper, opalite in pastel shades of pink, yellow, chalcedony rose and crystal-lined geodes.
3. Vidal Junction . Parker Dam DAG
The large wash north of U.S. Highway 62 just 2 miles east of Vidal Junction is an excellent site for collecting Chalcedony, which can be found from Highway 95 extending east approximately 1 mile. More can be obtained near the Whipple Mountains, about 4.5 miles to the north.
This area contains plentiful jasper and can be reached by taking the Water Road exit (Camino) off I-40 and traveling approximately 4 miles south to an intersection with the pipeline road then turning east for 3 miles. Keep in mind the area just to the north of the pipeline road is wilderness and although rock collecting is allowed motorized travel is not.
5. Chambless. Amboy DAG
Explore this area in the Marble Mountains for hematite and magnetite, found in reddish-brown iron deposits near mining shafts, and apple green epidote found in the washes. An abandoned quarry yields sizable chunks of limestone and marble. The next canyon has a tiny mountain of garnet, with dark red and brown crystals forming small clusters. Green epidote is scattered about and much of it contains bright metallic hematite blades. Further east is yet another canyon with gray ridge of limestone embedded with many interesting fossils. To reach this site start at the intersection of Route 66 (R-66) and Cadiz road. Proceed west on R-66 approximately .9 miles to Route NS 325 and turn north (right). Follow this route roughly 2.2 miles and park at the boundary of the Trilobite Wilderness. From here walk north up the canyon directly in front of you and keep your eyes open.
6. Marble Mountain Fossil Beds. Amboy DAG
One of the classic Cambrian trilobite fossil sites in the western U.S. is located at this beautiful outcrop in a 60 foot thick formation over 550 million years old. Trilobites were small marine crustaceans that resembled modern day horseshoe crabs. You can identify the site by the quarry holes and pink, dark green and light brown shale spread along the hillside. By splitting the shale you stand a good chance of finding a complete trilobite.
Over the years this site has been used heavily and it is recommended that only one trilobite per person be removed.
7. Marble Mountain Rock collecting area
In addition to many Trilobite fossils found here, this rock collecting area yields green epidote, dolomite, chrysocolla, chalcedony, serpentine, marble, garnet and specular hematite, iron and kenatite, chalcedony crystals, geodes and gold. You can access this site by taking one of the many dirt roads that lead into the area from Route 66 in and around the town of Chambless.
8. Ship Mountains. Amboy DAG
Nodular masses of beautifully colored and patterned opalite can be found in the Ship Mountains. The combination of pastel colors and fine quality make this material highly prized by collectors although it is necessary to dig into the blown sand to obtain it. To access this site drive east 12 miles from Chambless on Old Route 66 then turn south on Danby road for 1.7 miles to the old Danby town site. hen drive west for 6.9 miles and turn south. Drive .6 miles. To access the second site drive an additional .4 miles and turn south and drive .9 miles. The last .4 miles to the site require 4 wheel drive or may be covered on foot. | <urn:uuid:46b9e226-daec-4dd8-a367-1801b7566947> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/needles/rock.print.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928507 | 1,948 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Scientists at The University of Nottingham say adverse side-effects caused by the anti-parasitic drug quinine in the treatment of malaria could be controlled by what we eat.
The research, carried out by Nottingham scientists on the University’s campuses in the UK and Malaysia, indicates that natural variation in our levels of the amino acid, tryptophan, has a marked bearing on how we respond to quinine treatment. It appears that the lower our levels of tryptophan the more likely it is that we would suffer side-effects. And because tryptophan is an essential amino acid the body cannot produce it — we get it from the food we eat.
Discovered back in the 1600s, quinine is still used for anti-malaria treatment. However, it is associated with a long list of side effects ranging from sickness and headaches to blindness, deafness and in rare cases death. This latest study, published in the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, could offer a cheap and simple way of combating our adverse reaction to quinine treatment and improving the performance of this important drug.
The study, funded by The University of Nottingham’s doctoral award scheme, was led by Dr Simon Avery and Dr Kang-Nee Ting from the Schools of Biology in the UK and Biomedical Sciences in Malaysia, in collaboration with Professor Richard Pleass now at the University of Liverpool.
Reinforcing previous research
These findings reinforce a discovery they made three years ago.
Using a yeast model, which is a relatively close evolutionary neighbour of the human, they showed that quinine can block take-up of tryptophan, causing quinine toxicity in cells. This research, published in 2009, gave the scientific community a new insight into the way quinine behaves and led Dr Avery and his team to believe that a quinine/tryptophan combination therapy might allow the use of higher quinine dosages to improve the effectiveness of the drug and reduce the risk of adverse side-effects.
A year later the researchers received funding through the University’s Intercampus Doctoral Award Scheme (MIDAS) and Malaysia’s Ministry of Higher Education Scholarship for a PhD student, Ms Farida Islahudin, to screen malaria patients in several public hospitals in the Klang Valley in Malaysia.
They discovered that quinine levels in patients receiving treatment for Malaria were linked to the patients’ levels of tryptophan. They were also able to show that the incidence of adverse reaction to quinine was significantly lower in patients with high levels of tryptophan.
Diet or dietary supplements could avert the toxic effects of quinine
Dr Simon Avery said: “This new work with malaria patients shows that our earlier suggestions are largely borne out in the clinic. That is, natural variation in human levels of the amino acid tryptophan can have a marked bearing on patient responses to quinine therapy. One potential application stems from the fact that tryptophan levels can be modified by diet, possibly offering a cheap and simple way of manipulating adverse quinine responses in patients.”
About 3.3bn people — half the world’s population — are at risk of malaria. In 2010 there were about 216 million cases of malaria and an estimated 655,000 people died from the disease. In Africa, malaria is a leading cause of death in children.
The body uses tryptophan to make the brain chemical serotonin — which is thought to produce healthy sleep and a stable mood — so a lack of tryptophan, induced by quinine, could also explain why many of quinine’s toxic effects are localised to the head region.
This on-going research fits well with evidence that quinine reactions are more severe in malnourished individuals. Tryptophan is abundant in meat but limited in yams, a staple food crop in the tropics where malaria is prevalent. If quinine severely reduces tryptophan uptake, then it follows that people with pre-existing tryptophan deficiency, a common occurrence in undernourished populations, would be especially at risk from this drug.
The paper is also a rare example of how yeast can be used as a model for gaining clinically-relevant insights into anti-malarial action. This approach avoids the use of animal experimentation adding further value to the strategy.
— Ends —
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The University of Nottingham, described by The Sunday Times University Guide 2011 as ‘the embodiment of the modern international university’, has 42,000 students at award-winning campuses in the United Kingdom, China and Malaysia. It is also the most popular university in the UK by 2012 application numbers, and ‘the world’s greenest university’. It is ranked in the UK's Top 10 and the World's Top 75 universities by the Shanghai Jiao Tong (SJTU) and the QS World University Rankings.
More than 90 per cent of research at The University of Nottingham is of international quality, according to the most recent Research Assessment Exercise. The University aims to be recognised around the world for its signature contributions, especially in global food security, energy & sustainability, and health. The University won a Queen’s Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education in 2011, for its research into global food security.
Impact: The Nottingham Campaign, its biggest ever fund-raising campaign, will deliver the University’s vision to change lives, tackle global issues and shape the future. More news… | <urn:uuid:3417b01f-ff2f-4e8e-846f-1b17491e89d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/news/pressreleases/2012/september/diet-could-combat-side-effects-of-quinine.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941821 | 1,164 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Design in a Simulation Environment
When designing a building, the architect has typically relied on the input of outside experts to determine the performance of building systems. When done properly this collaboration can yield highly effective designs, but typically this reliance has left the architect outside of the loop on performance based decisions and impeded the development of innovative solutions. With the availability of powerful building simulation tools, designers can have direct access to building performance attributes and use them to qualify the environmental impact of design-decisions. With knowledge of fundamental principles in building performance and computer modeling, a designer can effectively harness the power of these tools from the beginning of the design process. While this does not eliminate the need for expert opinion, it allows the designer to further develop and have more control over the solution through collaboration. By working effectively in this digital design environment, the practice of architecture can meet its responsibility to reduce the impact of buildings on the physical environment.
To test this statement, a brief overview of the integration of analysis tools in two projects that represent the current state of the art for digital performance simulation describes the need for multiple tools to achieve effective results. Based on this experience, a study was done to explore the capabilities of four representative simulation tools to support a design process that is entirely digital. The software evaluated was Energy-10, eQUEST, Sketch-Up with Demeter (a recently released plug-in for energy analysis) and ECOTECT. These tools were chosen because they have been targeted toward architects and claim to be easy to use. The results of this investigation were used to determine an appropriate tool set to develop a design for submission to the Leading Edge Competition, chosen because one of the requirements is that entrants perform energy analyses on their schemes to show how design decisions led to improved performance, making it a good vehicle to explore the process of designing in a simulation environment.
Advisor:Choudary, Ruchi; Al-Haddad, Tristan; Riether, Gernot
School:Georgia Institute of Technology
School Location:USA - Georgia
Source Type:Master's Thesis
Date of Publication:04/01/2008 | <urn:uuid:d9a829cf-1a2e-47e4-9ade-a217cd97f020> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Design-in-Simulation-Environment-265559.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935193 | 430 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Dengue is a mosquito-borne infection which in recent years has become a major international publichealth concern. Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical regions around the world, predominantly inurban and semi-urban areas.
Dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF), a potentially lethal complication, was first recognized in the 1950s during the dengue epidemics in the Philippines and Thailand, but today DHF affects most Asiancountries and has become a leading cause of hospitalisation and death among children in several ofthem.
There are four distinct, but closely related, viruses that cause dengue. Recovery from infection by oneprovides lifelong immunity against that serotype but confers only partial and transient protectionagainst subsequent infection by the other three. There is good evidence that sequential infectionincreases the risk of more serious disease resulting in DHF.
The global prevalence of dengue has grown dramatically in recent decades. The disease is now endemicin more than 100 countries in Africa, the Americas, the Eastern Mediterranean, South-east Asia and theWestern Pacific. South-east Asia and the Western Pacific are most seriously affected. Before 1970 onlynine countries had experienced DHF epidemics, a number that had increased more than four-fold by1995.
Some 2500 million people -- two fifths of the world's population -- are now at risk from dengue. WHO currently estimates there may be 50 million cases of dengue infection worldwide every year.
In 2001 alone, there were more than 609000 reported cases of dengue in the Americas, of which 15000 cases were DHF. This is greater than double the number of dengue cases which were recorded in thesame region in 1995.Not only is the number of cases increasing as the disease is spreading to new areas, but explosiveoutbreaks are occurring. In 2001, Brazil reported over 390000 cases including more than 670 cases of DHF.
The spread of dengue is attributed to expanding geographic distribution of the four dengue viruses andof their mosquito vectors, the most important of which is the predominantly urban species Aedesaegypti. A rapid rise in urban populations is bringing ever greater numbers of people into contact withthis vector, especially in areas that are favourable for mosquito breeding, e.g. where household waterstorage is common and where solid waste disposal services are inadequate. | <urn:uuid:5c829348-be47-4a58-8777-b41b2c39847e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ogpbb.com/general/medical/dengue-fever/dengue-haemorrhagic-fever.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956869 | 488 | 3.6875 | 4 |
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