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Can diseases such as Alzheimers, obesity and diabetes be prevented before birth? According to Jonathan D. Gitlin, M.D., the Helene B. Roberson Professor of Pediatrics and Professor of Genetics at the Washington University School of Medicine, researching whether diseases that strike adults are already genetically encoded in individuals while still in the womb, may enable physicians to one day address and prevent diseases in infancy.
In a talk entitled Child Health Research in the 21st Century: Obstacles and Opportunities, Dr. Gitlin, who is also scientific director of the Childrens Discovery Institute, will address why, despite substantial investments in both the academic and private sectors, the health status of our nation remains dismal particularly the health and wellness of our children.
Childrens health has been pushed aside, states Dr. Gitlin. The amount of money currently dedicated to research that could identify key factors leading to diseases both in childhood and later in their adult lives is very small compared to the funding for adult onset diseases such as heart disease or cancer. Dr. Gitlin says scientists need to redirect their thinking to find a way to identify and ultimately offset diseases in children that may affect them later in life, such as obesity, depression or even drug and alcohol addiction.
Dr. Gitlin will also discuss how the identification of human genome sequencing now offers researchers the opportunity to change not only the direction of science, but also of medical care, by looking into more ways to prevent diseases from conception while understanding each persons individual genetic make up. There is also tremendous potential for drug discovery and small molecule alteration for long-term intervention and prevention of diseases that could be genetically imprinted in individuals before birth.
Going into the 21st Century, we have the capacity to eliminate many childhood diseases. We can now know the fetal origins of many adult diseases, such as diabetes and obesity, and how lifestyles -- in terms of food intake and environmental factors, may contribute or help prevent certain diseases, explains Dr. Gitlin.
Dr. Gitlin uses zebra fish to illustrate this theory with a chemical genetic screen to identify small molecules and note their influence on nutrient metabolism. When we think about controlling our environment, the one thing we can control is nutrition. So the question we are trying to answer is Can we take a simple, genetically tractable organism thats similar in development to humans and manipulate the nutrition and understand by that manipulation what kind of metabolic outcome we get? Findings from this research may ultimately reveal the genetic factors that suggest how nutrients are metabolized and how this may contribute to birth defects and long-term metabolic abnormalities.
|Contact: Jennifer Bender|
Society for Biomolecular Sciences | <urn:uuid:daafd9b3-179b-43ac-8432-b3872f044b23> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Leading-pediatrician-addresses-the-future-of-childrens-health-2698-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93955 | 538 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Drawing, Fritz Carlson House, Minneapolis, 1916-17
(William Gray Purcell and
George Grant Elmslie)
Minnesota is home to a number of remarkable Prairie School buildings, from banks and other commercial structures to churches and residential houses.
Many excellent examples—designed by William Gray Purcell, George Grant Elmslie, George Washington Maher, and Prairie School founder Louis Sullivan—can be found in Minneapolis, St. Paul, and smaller cities and towns in the southeastern part of the state.
You can take these tours online or in person. Select from the options below or use these printable tour guides.
Note: If you look at any of these buildings in person, please respect the privacy of the people who live and work in them. | <urn:uuid:3ce0e702-db7b-442a-95b9-be2938496d1f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://artsmia.org/unified-vision/architectural-tour/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892945 | 155 | 2.578125 | 3 |
(Formerly Surveying Technology)
The Surveying Technology Curriculum provides training for technicians in the many areas of surveying. Surveyors are involved in land surveying, route surveying, construction surveying, photogrammetry, mapping, global positioning systems, geographical information systems, and other areas of property description and measurements.
Course work includes the communication and computational
skills required for boundary, construction, route, and control surveying, photogrammetry, topography, drainage, surveying law, and subdivision design, with emphasis upon applications
of electronic data collection and related software including CAD.
Graduates should qualify for jobs as survey party chief, instrument person, surveying technician, highway surveyor, mapper, GPS technician, and CAD operator. Graduates will be prepared to pursue the requirements necessary to become a Professional Land Surveyor in North Carolina.
Because the use of computers is integral to this curriculum, some courses are delivered in an online format.
As technologies become more complex, opportunities will be best for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have a bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills. Graduates may transfer into the Bachelor of Science in Geomatics program at NC A&T University.
NC A&T Geomatics
Ed Spitler, Coordinator/Professor
<< Back to Engineering Technologies | <urn:uuid:8912ce52-f525-49f7-acd4-c6c240a8b9a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sandhills.edu/programs/engineering/survey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.887997 | 277 | 2.625 | 3 |
Calcium (Ca) in Urine
A test for calcium in urine is a 24-hour test that checks the amount of calcium that is passed from the body.
The normal values listed here-called a reference range-are just a guide. These ranges vary from lab to lab, and your lab may have a different range for what's normal. Your lab report should contain the range your lab uses. Also, your doctor will evaluate your results based on your health and other factors. This means that a value that falls outside the normal values listed here may still be normal for you or your lab.
Test results may be affected by the amount of calcium in the diet.
Calcium in urine
| Low amount of calcium in diet:
Less than 150 milligrams (mg) per day or less than 3.75 millimoles (mmol) per day
| Average amount of calcium in diet:
100-250 mg per day or 2.5-6.2 mmol per day
| High amount of calcium in diet:
250-300 mg per day or 6.2-7.5 mmol per day
High values of calcium in the urine may be caused by:
In some cases, calcium in the urine may be high for other reasons. One example of this is idiopathic familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia.
Low values of calcium in the urine may be caused by:
What Affects the Test
Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include:
- Eating or drinking too much or too little calcium before the test. For the best results, follow the instructions on how much calcium to have before the test.
- Taking medicines, such as diuretics. Many medicines can affect calcium levels in the blood.
- Not collecting 24 hours' worth of urine.
- Being on bed rest for a long time.
What To Think About | <urn:uuid:f3dc2ef7-b2d7-47f4-8220-f702ab7b9cb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/calcium-ca-in-urine?page=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.828506 | 403 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Is there a best way to stack cans? What do different supermarkets
do? How high can you safely stack the cans?
Can you arrange fifteen dominoes so that all the touching domino
pieces add to 6 and the ends join up? Can you make all the joins
add to 7?
How many different ways can you find of fitting five hexagons
together? How will you know you have found all the ways?
"Tell me the next two numbers in each of these seven minor spells",
chanted the Mathemagician, "And the great spell will crumble away!"
Can you help Anna and David break the spell?
What do the digits in the number fifteen add up to? How many other
numbers have digits with the same total but no zeros?
Arrange the four number cards on the grid, according to the rules,
to make a diagonal, vertical or horizontal line.
Can you make a cycle of pairs that add to make a square number
using all the numbers in the box below, once and once only?
What is the total area of the four outside triangles which are
outlined in red in this arrangement of squares inside each other?
You thought carefully about this problem and Luke was able to tell
us about the shortest routes very convincingly.
Go to last month's problems to see more solutions.
In this article, Jennifer Piggott talks about just a few of the problems with problems that make them such a rich source of mathematics and approaches to learning mathematics.
Use your addition and subtraction skills, combined with some strategic thinking, to beat your partner at this game. | <urn:uuid:79be384f-deb5-4585-9c09-69190d5fb9e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nrich.maths.org/thismonth/1and2/2009/07 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91467 | 339 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Rites and rituals are an essential part of Tibetan religion and reflect its practical side. Not restricted to temples alone, they are performed in a variety of places and circumstances, for a myriad of purposes. Daily ceremonies are conducted in temples, although they are perhaps not so elaborate as those that take place in Hindu temples in India and Nepal. Throughout the year, too, special rituals are performed to propitiate deities, to precipitate rain, to avert hailstorms, diseases, and death, to ensure good harvests, to exorcise demons and evil spirits, and of course to destroy the passions of the mind and, ultimately, the ego. All these practices-whether occult, magical, or shamanistic, require various implements which are as important as the images of the deities in whose service they are employed. Each such object is pregnant with symbolic meaning and is frequently imbued with magical power and potency.
Many of these ritual implements also occur as hand-held attributes of various important Buddhist deities. Many of these weapons and implements have their origins in the wrathful arena of the battlefield and the funerary realm of the cremation grounds. As primal images of destruction, slaughter, sacrifice, and necromancy, these weapons were wrested from the hands of evil and turned-as symbols-against the ultimate root of evil, the self-cherishing ego. In the hands of wrathful and semi-wrathful deities, protective deities, the siddhas and the dakinis, these implements became pure symbols, weapons of transformation, and an expression of the deities' wrathful compassion, which mercilessly destroys the manifold illusions of the inflated human ego.
Some of the important ritual implements are:
- The Vajra or Thunderbolt, also known in Tibetan as dorje.
- The Bell, known in Sanskrit as the Ghanta, and in Tibetan as dril bu.
- The Phurpa (Ritual Dagger)
- The Skull Cup, known as kapala in Sanskrit.
- The Curved Knife or Chopper.
The Vajra is the quintessential symbol of Vajrayana Buddhism, which derives its name from the vajra itself. The Sanskrit term vajra means 'the hard or mighty one', and its Tibetan equivalent dorje means an indestructible hardness and brilliance like the diamond, which cannot be cut or broken. The vajra essentially symbolizes the impenetrable, immovable, immutable, indivisible, and indestructible state of enlightenment or Buddhahood.
The form of the vajra as a scepter or a weapon appears to have its origin in the single or double trident, which arose as a symbol of the thunderbolt or lightning in many ancient civilizations of the Near and Middle East. Parallels are postulated with the meteoric hammer of the Teutonic sky-god Thor, the thunderbolt and scepter of the Greek sky-god Zeus, and the three thunderbolts of the Roman god Jupiter. As a hurled weapon the indestructible thunderbolt blazed like a meteoric fireball across the heavens, in a maelstrom of thunder, fire and lightning.
In ancient India, the vajra, as a thunderbolt, became the chief weapon of the Vedic sky-god Indra. It controlled the forces of thunder and lightning, breaking open the monsoon storm clouds, bringing the welcome rains to the parched plains of an Indian summer. According to legend, Indra's thunderbolt was fashioned from the bones of the great Rishi Dadhichi, who was decapitated by Indra in sacrifice. Dadhichi's 'indestructible' skull-bones gave Indra the most powerful of weapons. By its energy he slew innumerable of his enemy demons. In mythological descriptions, Indra's thunderbolt or vajra is shaped either like a circular discus with a hole at its center, or in the form of a cross with transverse bladed bars. The Rigveda, the most ancient text in the world, identifies the vajra as a notched metal club with a thousand prongs. What is significant is that all these descriptions identify the vajra as having open prongs, unlike the Buddhist one, which has closed prongs. According to a Buddhist legend, Shakyamuni took the vajra weapon from Indra and forced its wrathful open prongs together, thus forming a peaceful Buddhist scepter with closed prongs. The Buddhist vajra hence absorbed the unbreakable and indestructible power of the thunderbolt.
The Buddhist vajra may be represented with one to nine prongs. It is designed with a central shaft that is pointed at each end. The middle section consists of two lotuses from which may spring, at each end, for example, six prongs of the dorje. Together with the projecting and pointed central shaft, each end thus becomes seven pronged. The outside six prongs face inwards towards the central prong. Each of these outside prongs arise from the heads of makaras (mythical crocodiles), which face outwards. The mouths of the makaras are wide open and the prongs emanate from the mouth like tongues of flame.
The vajra is generally two-sided but the vishvavajra or the double thunderbolt has four heads representing the four dhyani Buddhas of the four directions namely, Amoghasiddhi for north, Akshobhya, who presides over the east, Ratnasambhava, lord of the south, and Amitabha who reigns over the west. It is the emblem of the crossed vajra that is inscribed upon the metal base that is used to seal deity statues after they have been consecrated.
The vajra is indeed the most important ritual implement and symbol of Vajrayana Buddhism. It is so important that many of the Vajrayana deities have the word vajra prefixed to their names, two of them being Vajradhara and Vajrasattva.
When used in ritual, the vajra is paired with the bell. It represents the masculine principle and is held in the right hand, the bell, held in the left hand, represents the female principle. More on this follows.
The bell is the most common and indispensable musical instrument in tantric Buddhist ritual. Gods and apotheosized lamas alike hold this popular symbol, along with the thunderbolt in their hands. The bell has an elemental function and its sound, like those made by the trumpet and the drum, is regarded as auspicious; it is said to drive away evil spirits. Like the church bell, the Buddhist hand bell sends the message to evil spirits that they must stay away from the consecrated area where the ritual is being performed.
As already mentioned, in ritual the bell is paired with the vajra. The vajra represents the compassion of the Buddha, the masculine principle; and the bell represents wisdom, the female principle. To achieve enlightenment, those two principles must be combined. The bell is visualized as the Buddha's body, the vajra is visualized as his mind, and the sound of the bell is visualized as Buddha's speech in teaching of the dharma.
The use of the bell and vajra differs according to the ritual performed or the sadhana chanted. The vajra can be used for visualization or evocation of deities; ringing the bell can be used to request protection or other actions from a deity, or it can represent the teaching of dharma, and can also be a sound offering. As one example of their use, during meditation on the deity Vajrasattva, the vajra is placed on the chest of the practitioner, meaning that Vajrasattva is brought to the meditator, and they become one and inseparable. Ringing the bell then represents the sound of Buddha teaching the dharma and symbolizes the attainment of wisdom and the understanding of emptiness.
While chanting, the vajra is held in the right hand, which faces down, and the bell is held in the left hand, which usually faces up, and they are moved in graceful gestures. Sometimes the hands are held with the wrists crossed over each other, against the chest. This represents the union of the male and female principles.
A phurpa, sometimes called a "magic dagger", is a tantric ritual object used to conquer evil spirits and to destroy obstacles. It is utilized in magic rituals by high level tantric practitioners. The word phurpa is used primarily in Central Tibet, while the word phurbu is used more often in Kham, Amdo and Ladakh.
The component phur in the word phurpa is a Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit word kila, meaning peg or nail. The phurpa is an implement that nails down as well as binds. It was thus by stabbing a phurpa into the earth, and thereby nailing and binding the evil spirits, that Padmasambhava, regarded as the inventor of this implement, consecrated the ground on which the Samye monastery was established in the eighth century. Whatever the original shape of the Indian kila may have been (none has survived), it seems very likely that in Tibet the form of the phurpa, with its three-sided blade, was suggested by the pegs that were driven into the earth to hold the rope stays of the tent. Due to the essentially nomadic nature of life in ancient Tibet, the tent was an important part of their routine. While traveling it was used by all, the peasants, the traders, the royalty, nobility and even the exalted monks. Indeed, the peg of the tent is the prototype of the phurpa. Its triple blade is really not a dagger but a peg, precisely the kind of peg used to secure tents.
The triple blade of the phurpa symbolizes the overcoming or cutting through of the three root poisons of ignorance, desire, and hatred, and also represents control over the three times of past, present and future. The triangular shape represents the element of fire and symbolizes wrathful activity. The tenacious grip of the makara-head at the top of the blade represents its ferocious activity.
When using the phurpa, the practitioner first meditates, then recites the sadhana of the phurpa, and then invites the deity to enter the phurpa. As he does so, the practitioner visualizes that he is frightening and conquering the evil spirits by placing the evil under the point of the phurpa. Or sometimes the practitioner visualizes throwing the phurpa in order to impale and subdue the spirits. The success will depend on the practitioner's spirituality, concentration, motivation, and his karmic connections with the deity of the phurpa and the evil spirits.
The Skull Cup
The skull cup, known as kapala in Sanskrit, is fashioned from the oval upper section of a human cranium. It serves as a libation vessel for a vast number of Vajrayana deities, mostly wrathful.
As a ritual implement, the selection of the right skull is of immense importance for the success of the ritual. The skull of a murder or execution victim is believed to possess the greatest tantric power; the skull of one who has died from a violent or accidental death, or from a virulent illness, possesses a medium magical power; the skull of a person who died peacefully in old age has virtually no occult power. The skull of a child who died during the onset of puberty also has great potency, as do the skulls of miscegenated or misbegotten child of unknown paternity, born from the forbidden union of castes, out of wedlock, from sexual misdemeanor, or particularly from incest. The 'misbegotten skull' of a seven or eight-year-old child born from an incestuous union is considered to possess the greatest power in certain tantric rituals. Here the vital force or potential of the skull's 'previous owner' is embodied within the bone as a spirit, rendering it as an effective power object for the performance of tantric rituals.
As the libation vessel of the Vajrayana practitioner, the skull cup essentially parallels the clay pot (kumbha in Sanskrit) of the Vedic sacrifice, the alms bowl of the Buddha, and the sacred water vase (Kalasha in Sanskrit) of the bodhisattvas. As a receptacle for sacrificial offerings presented to wrathful deities, it parallels the precious tray containing auspicious substances-the jewels, flowers, or fruit presented to peaceful deities. In its most benign symbolism, as the begging bowl or food vessel of an ascetic, the skull cup serves as a constant reminder of death and impermanence.
In the iconography of wrathful protective deities the skull cup, held at the level of the heart, may also be paired with the curved knife or chopper which may be held above the skull cup. Here the chopper is the weapon that severs the life veins and vital organs of demonic enemies, and the cup is the oblation vessel in which the blood and organs are collected as the deity's sustenance. Descriptions of the contents of a wrathful deity's kapala include warm human blood, blood and brains, blood and intestines, human flesh and fat, the heart or the heart and lungs of an enemy, the heart of Mara and the blood of Rudra.
But it is not only the wrathful deities who hold the skull-cup. Certain other deities may hold other attributes within their skull cups. Padmasambhava, for example, holds a skull cup described as an ocean of nectar, in which floats a longevity vase.
The Curved Knife or Chopper
The chopper is one of the most prominent weapons used by Buddhism's angry deities, both male and female. Continuously brandished by them or simply carried in their hands, its purpose is to chop up disbelievers.
This curved flaying-knife is modeled on the Indian ' knife of the butchers', used for skinning animal hides. The gibbous crescent of its blade, which terminates in a sharp point or curved hook, combines the flaying implements of a cutting-knife and scraping blade, and the piercing activity of a dagger or pulling-hook. The blade's crescent is used for cutting through flesh and scraping it clean, separating the outer and inner as 'appearance and emptiness'. The sharp hook or point of the blade is used for the more delicate acts of flaying: the initial incising of the carcass, the pulling out of veins and tendons, and cutting around the orifices of the skin.
An interesting but somewhat disturbing legend is related about the Mahakala 'protector chapel' at Samye monastery in Central Tibet. Traditionally, this forbidding chapel was kept locked for most of the year and entry into its precinct was rarely permitted. The attendant monk who supervised the chapel would each year ceremoniously replace an iron chopper and wooden chopping board which had become blunt and worn down by its nocturnal activities. Even though the chapel was locked and empty, at night the screams of the ethereal miscreants hacked under Mahakala's chopper could be clearly heard from outside the chapel.
In Mahakala's symbolism the curved knife cuts through the life veins of enemies such as oath-breakers and hindering spirits; and his skull cup is filled with the heart-blood of these enemies. This crescent shaped chopper, held by deities such as Mahakala, corresponds in shape to the cavity of the skull cup and functions to make 'mincemeat' of the hearts, intestines, lungs, and life-veins of enemies hostile to the dharma, which are then collected in the skull cup. As mentioned, a similar crescent shaped hand cleaver is used in oriental cuisine to chop meat and dice vegetables.
Just as the thunderbolt is typically paired with the bell, so do the chopper and skull cup generally accompany each other. The symbolism of the two pairs may be the same. Since the chopper is the instrument for cutting through the fog of ignorance, it represents method, the masculine principle, while the cup symbolizes wisdom, the feminine principle. In many ways, the chopper serves the same purpose as the dorje or the phurpa and is employed in rituals of exorcism by priests and shamans.
Broadly speaking, the category of ritual objects in Tibetan religion includes nearly all objects that serve a religious function. The extensive variety and uses of ritual objects should be noted as one of the defining elements of Tibetan art, for no other culture has generated so wide a range of such implements. The great breadth also holds true for the materials they are made from. These include various metal alloys, precious metals, especially silver, jewels, wood, sculpted butter, and even human bones and ashes, taking the ritual well beyond the usual range of materials familiar among most religious traditions.
Most ritual objects are used in temples by initiated lamas who alone have the right and duty to perform the various rituals. In this and in many other ways the customs are not different from those of Judaism and Christianity, in which the rabbi or priest performs most acts of worship.
Aesthetically appealing and visually resplendent, Tibetan ritual implements are indeed fascinating, as much for their exquisite craftsmanship as for their rich forms and symbolism. | <urn:uuid:3c2dbb29-da1f-4b98-b126-54322cfaa85d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ritual/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950141 | 3,613 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Not too long ago we celebrated Bettijo’s son’s first Birthday. (Look for a post on that soon!) With a name like Rockwell, it only makes sense that his nickname be Rocket Man, right? So, in honor of her little guy (and my own space-loving little guys), I present this week’s worksheet.
Playing anything rocket ship is a great way to teach counting backwards. Simply counting down from 10 and “blasting off” after 1 can be so fun and silly, your littles won’t even know they’re learning! This worksheet teaches the concept of counting down which reinforces sequencing. This worksheet is best suited for kids who have mastered counting to 10. | <urn:uuid:38ed7114-2a91-415d-b406-e13acf12b405> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pagingsupermom.com/2014/05/worksheet-wednesday-3-2-1-blast-off/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946279 | 156 | 2.75 | 3 |
What is a 'Guest'?
To talk about stuff, we need some naming. The physical machine is called 'Host' and the 'main' context running the Host Distro is called 'Host Context'. The virtual machine/distro is called 'Guest' and basically is a Distribution (Userspace) running inside a 'Guest Context'.
What kind of Operating System (OS) can I run as guest?
With VServer you can only run Linux guests. The trick is that a guest does not run a kernel on its own (as XEN and UML do), it merely uses a virtualized host kernel-interface. VServer offers so called security contexts which make it possible to seperate one guest from each other, i.e. they cannot get data from each other. Imagine it as a chroot environment with much more security and features.
- memory: Dynamically.
- CPU usage: Dynamically (token bucket)
You can put limits per guest on different subsystems.
- using ulimits and rlimits (rlimit is a new feature of kernel 2.6/vs2.0.) per guest, to limit the memory consumption, the number of processes or file-handles, ... : see Resource Limits
- CPU usage : see CPU Scheduler
- disk space usage : see Disk Limits and Quota
Note that you can only offer guaranteed resource availability with some ticks at the time. | <urn:uuid:31517db9-8605-4a2f-8e58-d2d6f1eefd7e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://linux-vserver.org/index.php?title=Sandbox&oldid=3260 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901061 | 293 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Bolster National Institutes of Health Lupus Research Efforts
Federal spending on lupus research has not kept pace with similar diseases. LFA respectfully requests that Congress provide urgently needed new funding to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to help reduce and prevent the suffering caused by lupus. Specifically, LFA urges Congress to direct NIH to support and bolster lupus research across all relevant Institutes, centers and offices:
- Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases: Lupus affects the skin, bones, joints, and connective tissue.
- Heart, Lung, and Blood: Lupus attacks the heart, lungs, blood, and blood vessels.
- Allergy and Infectious Diseases: Lupus is a dysfunction of the immune system.
- Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases: Lupus damages the kidneys, stomach, and intestinal tract.
- Environmental Health Sciences: Lupus disease activity can be triggered by certain environmental factors.
- Neurological Disorders and Stroke: Lupus attacks the blood vessels in the brain, causing seizures, psychosis, and stroke.
- Minority Health and Health Disparities: Nine of ten victims of lupus are women; lupus is more common among women of color, especially among African Americans.
With additional resources -- coupled with an enhanced focus on lupus research -- the NIH and its Institutes, centers and offices will help our nation to make much-needed gains in understanding the causes of lupus and, ultimately, discover a cure for the disease.
National Lupus Patient Registry and Lupus Epidemiological Studies
Lupus Foundation of America (LFA) respectfully requests that Congress provide funding for the National Lupus Patient Registry (NLPR) and lupus epidemiological studies funded through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to sustain current epidemiological efforts and ensure the inclusion of all forms of lupus and all affected populations, particularly Hispanics/Latinos, African Americans, Native Americans, and Asian Americans who are disproportionately at-risk for lupus.
The purpose of the program is to collect data and conduct lupus epidemiological studies to better understand and measure the burden of the illness, the social and economic impact of the disease, and stimulate additional private investment by industry in the development of new, safe and effective therapies for lupus. Existing epidemiological data on lupus is decades old and no longer reliable. Population-based epidemiological studies of lupus must be conducted at strategically-located sites throughout the nation that will provide accurate data on all forms of lupus (i.e. systemic lupus, primary discoid lupus, drug-induced lupus, neonatal lupus, antiphospholipid antibodies) and the disparity among the various racial and ethnic populations.
We urge Congress to keep lupus as one of the diseases listed under the Peer Reviewed Medical Research Program (PRMRP) within the Congressionally Directed Medical Research Program in the Senate Defense Appropriations bill. As an organization whose constituency was represented in the FY 2012 PRMRP, we very much value this biomedical research program which has led to breakthroughs with great potential to improve the health of our soldiers.
Surgeon General’s Report
LFA respectfully requests that Congress direct the Secretary of Health and Human Services to issue a Surgeon General’s Report on Lupus.
The Surgeon General's Report on Lupus would be a comprehensive public health study and final document focusing on the gaps in lupus research and education. The Report would identify these gaps and make recommendations related to: (1) federal funding for research on lupus; (2) professional and public lupus awareness and educational programs; (3) approaches to improve the quality of life for individuals with lupus; and, (4) access to quality health care for individuals with lupus. The Report will focus on a wide variety of stakeholders, including policymakers; national, state, and local public health officials; health system leaders; health care professionals; community advocates; and individuals.
Changes to Lighting in Your Home
Due to the world-wide lighting changes, many light bulb manufacturers have begun developing other lighting options. The larger lighting manufacturers have developed three core types of light bulbs: Compact Fluorescent Light (CFL), Halogen, and Light-emitting Diode (LED).
Because the halogen and LED bulbs are newer technologies, we have yet to determine how they will affect people with lupus. According to some dermatologists, longer wavelengths than ultraviolet may also be an issue in lupus, so it is hard to know without further study exactly how these other wavelengths and newer bulbs might affect some people with lupus. We would like to hear from you to find out how halogen and LED bulbs may affect people with lupus. | <urn:uuid:6fc34a8a-8258-480a-965c-fbd4ee636faa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lupus.org/florida/pages/legislative-priorities | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925651 | 1,008 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The Sirens of Greek mythology are sometimes portrayed in later folklore as fully aquatic and mermaid-like; the fact that in Spanish, French, Italian, Polish, Romanian and Portuguese the word for mermaid is respectively Sirena, Sirène, Sirena, Syrena, Sirenă and Sereia, and that in biology the Sirenia comprise an order of fully aquatic mammals that includes the dugong and manatee, add to the visual confusion, so that Sirens are even represented as mermaids.However, “the sirens, though they sing to mariners, are not sea-maidens,” Harrison had cautioned; “they dwell on an island in a flowery meadow.”
Lorelei is a mermaid name that belonged to the mermaid who lured unwary fisherman to their death by singing the most beautiful song they had ever heard.
The name comes from the old German words “lureln” (Rhine dialect for “murmuring”) and the Celtic term “ley” (rock). The translation of the name would therefore be: “murmur rock” or “murmuring rock”. The heavy currents, and a small waterfall in the area (still visible in the early 19th century) created a murmuring sound, and this combined with the special echo the rock produces which acted as a sort of amplifier, giving the rock its name. The murmuring is hard to hear today owing to urbanization of the area. Other theories attribute the name to the many accidents, by combining the word “luren” (lurk) with the same “ley” ending, with the translation “lurking rock”.
Original folklore and the creation of the modern mythThe rock and the echo it creates have inspired various tales. An old explanation told of the rock as the home of dwarves.
In 1801 German author Clemens Brentano wrote the poem Zu Bacharach am Rheine (part of his novel Godwi oder Das steinerne Bild der Mutter) which first created the story of an enchanting female connected to the rock. In the poem, the beautiful Lore Lay is falsely accused of maliciously bewitching men and driving them to ruin; later pardoned and on the way to a nunnery she passes and climbs the Lorelei rock, watching out for the lover who abandoned her, and falls to her death; the rock still retained an echo of her name afterwards. Brentano had taken inspiration from Ovid and the Echo myth.
Brentano’s poem was followed by many other authors who took his story and wrote versions of their own. Most famous is the poem Die Lore-Ley by Heinrich Heine, which tells of the titular female as a kind of siren luring shipmen to distraction with her singing, who then crash on the rocks in the riverbed. Heine’s poem was labelled as “written by unknown writer” during the Third Reich because it was too popular to ban it completely for its Jewish authorship.
The Loreley character, although originally created by Brentano, has passed into folklore in her Heine form, and is commonly but mistakenly believed to be an old myth. And it influenced the creation of the same title of Guillaume Apollinaire.
A barge carrying 2,400 tonnes of sulphuric acid capsized on January 13, 2011 near the town of St. Goarshausen, home to the Lorelei rock, which marks the narrowest part of the Rhine, blocking traffic on one of Europe’s busiest waterways amid a frantic search for two crew members.
FEATURED IN DIGITAL ART COMPILATIONS | <urn:uuid:88f1ff47-e585-409d-a744-7b1e57dcc73a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redbubble.com/people/tammera/works/6971621-call-of-the-siren?c=13368-women-3&ref=work_carousel_work_collection_1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959746 | 791 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The digital game development curriculum includes a series of shared courses for study of the theory and practice of creating games. These courses provide a foundation in the history and business of the games industry, as well as the professional practices of game design and development.
At the heart of the Guildhall curriculum is the application these concepts to develop 2D and 3D games in multi-disciplinary teams. Cross-specialization student teams (artists, level designers, producers, and programmers), utilize studio space to form game concepts and build three games for their portfolios using current gaming equipment and technologies. All student work and games are featured at our bi-annual student Exhibition.
- Team game production
- Team formation and conflict resolution
- Game user research
- History of games
- Game deconstruction
- The business of digital games
- Advanced research in games
- User interface | <urn:uuid:e78ab169-39c6-49d6-b9fa-edd94a0f6894> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smu.edu/Guildhall/Academics/CoreCourses | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937587 | 176 | 2.640625 | 3 |
You and Your Students!
Vicki Cobb, Education World Science Editor
A diamond’s sparkle and cable TV have something in common.
Setting the Scene (Background)
A diamond sparkles because light bounces off the inside of its back surfaces. (It also reflects off the top surfaces if held at the right angle.) A diamond is cut so that it has many surfaces at different angles to each other. When the diamond is moved, the back surfaces reflect light to your eyes and you see them as flashes. Diamonds are not the only things that reflect light internally. A glass baking dish also does the job. Internal reflection is the key to a diamond’s sparkle and fiber-optic cables.
Place the glass baking dish on a level surface and shine the flashlight down on one rim of the dish. Look at the rim of the dish on the side opposite the flashlight. Move the flashlight back and forth along the rim and follow the light that appears on the rim of the other side.
Here's what's happening: Some of the light you shine through the rim of the baking dish reflects internally off the inside surface of the side of the dish. This reflected light hits the other surface and again is reflected internally bouncing back and forth until it exits out the other end where your eye is waiting to see it. Internal reflection bends light around corners!
As you might expect, a glass measuring cup will bend your light beam just like the baking dish does. Hold the measuring cup in one hand while you send the light from the flashlight down through the rim of the cup. Put your eyes close to the rim and find the light coming up through the glass.
After you find the light, put the bottom of the cup into the bowl of water. See the light dim.
The internal reflection is influenced by the way light travels through the boundary between the glass surface and air or water -- all transparent materials. Water is not as transparent as air. More of the internally reflected light is lost at the water-glass boundary than at the water-air boundary and so less light ends up at your eye.
Behind the Scenes
Optical fibers are very thin flexible rods of glass surrounded by another transparent material. Light is sent into the fiber and it bounces back and fourth all the way to the other end, which can be hundreds of miles away! (You can see fiber optics at work with some holiday decorations.) Pulses of light in a fiber-optic material can carry the same kind of information that is transmitted as electrical pulses in a copper wire. That information can be telephone conversations or television shows or data from computers and fax machines. A conventional copper wire can carry a few million electrical pulses each second; an optical fiber can carry as many as 20 billion light pulses per second! That extra capacity is what makes hundreds of cable channels and the Internet possible.
See more experiments in Light Action! Amazing Experiments With Optics by Vicki Cobb and Josh Cobb, illustrated by Theo Cobb.
Article By Vicki Cobb
Copyright © 2004 Education World | <urn:uuid:d80ce997-69ae-4bd7-a691-d4fe517ca62e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/showbiz_science/showbiz_science006.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91686 | 623 | 4 | 4 |
in Just- Theme of Youth
Spring is a young season. Children are young humans. You could even call lower-case letters the baby version of upper-case alphabets. Everything in "in Just-," in other words, is young and vibrant…everything, that is, except for the "old, lame" figure who serves as the central focus of the poem. How do youth and age interact? What sort of language can a poem create to express and embody youth? And exactly how bad is it to be old? This poem may not resolve any of these questions, but it does tease out some of their implications.
Questions About Youth
- Is the use of lower-case letters related to the subject matter of the poem (children)? If so, how?
- Is the speaker of this poem a child?
- What makes spring such a "young" season, anyway?
- How does the listing of the games the kids are playing affect your understanding of their characters? Do the two groups seem like different characters or not?
Chew on This
Although this poem appears to be celebrating the joys of youth, it actually foretells the end of innocence. | <urn:uuid:c009ba30-34ad-44e7-a2dc-1eea21c9b411> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shmoop.com/in-just/youth-theme.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949056 | 244 | 3.109375 | 3 |
The result is a convincing argument for the importance, in the origins of altruism and reciprocity, of multi-level selection and conflict between groups, of cultural "institutions" coevolving with individual behaviours, and of social emotions and the internalisation of norms.
Bowles and Gintis begin with a survey of the experimental evidence, from behavioural economics and psychology, for altruism and other-regarding behaviours. (These are not, contrary to some presentations, irrational, but rather expressions of internalised values.) Among others, these include cooperation in prisoner's dilemma games, "strong reciprocity" or the punishment of free riders even when that is itself costly, and retribution rather than behaviour modification (even in once-off games), sometimes extended to "antisocial punishment".
One reason so many people have believed humans are self-regarding, apart from economic ideology, is that it hasn't been clear how other-regarding behaviours could evolve. Bowles and Gintis classify the different sociobiological approaches to this, going back to work by Trivers, Wilson, and so forth. One line of explanation rests on inclusive fitness, either through kin-based selection or through multi-level ("group") selection. Reciprocal altruism is an alternative, but while this works for dyadic interactions, with errors and imperfect knowledge it doesn't scale to groups of any size at all. Other possible mechanisms, resting on some kind of assortment, include indirect reciprocity with strategic reputation building and altruism as a signal of quality.
In contrast, economic thinking in this area has been dominated by "folk" theorems proving the existence of Nash equilibria in various game-theoretic models. However with imperfect public information or private information, and the possibility of error, these break down. They are "evolutionarily irrelevant equilibria" which no group would ever find and which wouldn't persist even if stumbled upon. Such equilibria can work with assumptions about social norms and institutions, but a theory of origins can't just assume the existence of these — they have to have evolved and be stably maintained, too.
A brief chapter presents some likely features of ancestral human society, drawing on ethnographic evidence from modern hunter-forager societies as well as on archaeology, ecology, and genetics. Key features here are the size of groups, the observed genetic variation between them, the frequency of inter-group conflict, and the mechanisms used to maintain social order. (One minor complaint I have here is that Pathan values are included as an example of "pre-state" norms, though the Pathan are settled and have always been in contact with centralised states.)
With that background out of the way, Bowles and Gintis present some simulations, based on a simple selective extinction model, for the coevolution of culturally transmitted group-level institutions with individual behaviours, socially learned or genetic. For the evolution of altruism two institutions are key, "reproductive levelling" and within-group segmentation:
"if group-level institutions implementing resource sharing or positive assortment within groups are free to evolve, group-level selection processes support the coevolution of altruistic individual behaviours along with these institutions, even where these institutions impose significant costs on the groups adopting them."
Expanding on this, parochialism and altruism probably coevolved in the context of regular war between groups, with simulation results again putting some flesh on possible mechanisms. There is also evidence that parochial altruism provides a better explanation than kin-based or reputation-based arguments for behaviour in third-party punishment and trust games, and that group conflict can stimulate altruistic punishment of free-riders.
Unconditional altruism is rare: more common is strong reciprocity, with punishment of defectors. Simulations of several different models of coordinated punishment suggest that "punishers" can invade and maintain their numbers in a population: their success depends not on simple assortment but on being more likely to receive the benefits of cooperative action by others, including non-punishers. Such mechanisms work in conjunction with social emotions such as shame.
How did these evolve? Bowles and Gintis consider how a genetic predisposition to internalise norms could have evolved: there is an interplay here with the resulting norms themselves. Some simple models for gene-culture coevolution and socialization (with "oblique transmission") suggest ways an individually fitness-reducing norm can increase the average group fitness: the cultural transmission of altruism can evolve and persist, supporting a proportion of altruists in the population.
Social emotions such as guilt and shame have the "ability to enhance the present motivational salience of future punishments" and "may function in a similar manner to pain", averting damage, avoiding impossibly complex calculations, and helping balance impatience and other short-term goals. They are important in sustaining cooperation and a guide to how that may have evolved. Shame would have reduced the costs of strong reciprocity, with disapprobation or shaming much less costly than violence.
A brief conclusion steps back again to consider cooperation in the context of the development of linguistic capacity and cultural transmission. The social preferences that probably coevolved with our ability to cooperate remain hugely important, but Bowles and Gintis warn: "It would be wise to resist drawing strong conclusions about cooperation in the 21st century solely on the basis of our thinking about the origins of cooperation in the Late Pleistocene".
To what extent does all this consist of "just so" stories driven by plausibility but with little empirical support — does it pass what I call "the Stoczkowski test", after Wiktor Stoczkowski's analysis of such stories in Explaining Human Origins? Bowles and Gintis are open about the limitations of their work:
"Conclusive evidence about the origins of human cooperation will remain elusive given the paucity of the empirical record and the complexity of the dynamical processes involved. ... the best that one can hope for is a plausible explanation consistent with the known facts."
Only in a few places do they indulge in purely speculative stories, however — for example in some off-hand, entirely incidental suggestions about the importance of projectile weapons for human evolution. Their analysis operates with a certain universality, largely abstracted from particular low-level mechanisms, and, through the use of quantitative models with explicit uncertainties in key parameters, makes the robustness of the results explicit.
No radically novel ideas are introduced in A Cooperative Species. What is new in many places is the formal modelling, which provides something stable on which further work could build — even those who disagree with its conclusions may find having a concrete target useful. It is also an excellent survey of the state of knowledge in the area, as well as illustrating how ideas and tools from economics can contribute to our understanding of human evolution.
- Related reviews:
- Samuel Bowles - Meritocracy and Economic Inequality
- Samuel Bowles - Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution
- more primates + paleoanthropology
- more psychology
- books published by Princeton University Press | <urn:uuid:f6376e8a-0016-43e9-a1cc-4b9b041a6bc8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cooperative_Species.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940301 | 1,463 | 2.890625 | 3 |
GULF BREEZE, Fla. (AP) -- A highly contagious disease that could radically damage citrus tree growth has been found in the Florida Panhandle.
Reports say agriculture agencies are asking gardeners in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties to be on the lookout for signs of citrus canker.
Citrus canker is transmitted by a bacterial pathogen and harms healthy citrus trees, causing fruit to drop prematurely.
One verified case of the disease was discovered recently in Tiger Point, but agriculture officials believe there are likely others.
The Santa Rosa County Extension Agency is working to schedule a removal day for infected plants. Signs of the disease include the presence of lesions on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves or fruit. The lesions are raised and usually surrounded by yellow halos. | <urn:uuid:afd1f340-0a11-4c99-8eb2-feb5408db0a7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wtvy.com/news/florida/headlines/Officials-warn-gardeners-of-citrus-tree-disease-234001791.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948093 | 161 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Past studies have show that hormone therapy can be effective in preventing heart disease and osteoporosis in post-menopausal women, but a panel now says the risks of such treatments outweigh the benefits.
Reuters reports that the guideline came from the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, an influential panel of medical professionals. The finding was published in the Annals of Internal Medicine on Monday.
The suggestion is that hormone therapy is not worth the risk as a preventative measure, but the panel didn’t address its use for treating symptoms of menopause, like hot flashes or vaginal dryness. Many doctors do prescribe hormone therapy for treating various conditions.
“The evidence shows that the harms of hormone therapy for the prevention of chronic conditions outweigh the benefits, which is what the evidence also showed in 2005,” Dr. Kirsten Bibbins-Domingo, a member of the Task Force, told Reuters.
ABC News reports that the panel took a look at nine studies from 2002 onward that showed while estrogen and progestin reduced bone fractures, they often increased invasive breast cancer, stroke and, a variety of other ailments.
Back in 2002 a study found a link between certain hormone therapies and invasive breast cancer. Since then, other studies have show that hormone therapy started just after a woman’s last menstrual period can have a protective effect on the heart, but those studies are more recent and were not considered by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.
“In the context of the larger body of evidence the Task Force considered when making this recommendation, it is unlikely that this study would have altered the balance of harms versus benefits and led the Task Force to a different recommendation,” Bibbons-Domingo told ABC.
Because of the risks with hormone therapy, doctors will usually prescribe the lowest dose that will be effective, leaving the patient on the treatment for as short a time as possible. | <urn:uuid:781cba7c-10b9-498d-927c-8deebb7c1248> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.inquisitr.com/372979/panel-hormone-therapy-not-recommended-for-disease-prevention/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00162-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956554 | 397 | 2.8125 | 3 |
NEW YORK ? Pluto was once a planet. Then, a dwarf planet. And as of last week, a plutoid. The fall from grace has teachers, parents and educational publishers struggling to keep up, while kids remain loyal to their favorite, the ninth planet. Underscore planet.
Last week, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) announced Pluto should now be called a "plutoid," two years after the organization voted to demote Pluto to "dwarf planet" status.
Meanwhile, many kids are nearly certain Pluto is still a planet.
"I think it's a planet. But me and my friends, we talk about it sometimes and we go back and forth," said Natalie Browning, 9, sitting in a park in Manhattan with her family. "Right now, I'm not 100 percent. I'm just 75 percent" sure that Pluto is a planet.
Natalie's mom, Bobbie Browning, said, "You've got kids with textbooks saying that Pluto is part of the solar system and a planet, and teachers have to say it isn't [a planet]."
Science teachers and publishers already worked to update their resources to read "dwarf planet." And now, boom, that category is out of favor among astronomers.
"Students who have just learned about the concept of dwarf planets must now be taught the new concept of plutoid," said Janis Milman, who teaches earth science at Thomas Stone High School in Maryland. "This will lead to confusion in the classroom and resistance to learning the new terms, because the students will question, why learn something that might change again in a year or so?"
A cursory survey at a large chain bookstore here revealed three out of four books published in 2006 or later were updated, with Pluto designated as a dwarf planet and the solar system said to include just eight planets.
Chronicles of Pluto
Discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh at Lowell Observatory in Arizona, Pluto was always considered an oddball of sorts, with its tiny size (smaller than some moons) and eccentric orbit.? During its 248-year trek around the sun, Pluto swings from its farthest point from the sun at 49.5 astronomical units (AU) to as close as 29 AU from the sun. One AU is the average distance between the Earth and sun, or about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers).
More than 70 years later, in August 2006, 424 astronomers at an IAU meeting voted to demote Pluto to dwarf planet status. Last week, the IAU Executive Committee reclassified Pluto as a plutoid. The other object in the plutoid club, Eris, is larger and more massive than Pluto.
Astronomers expect to find hundreds of Pluto-sized objects. And so the fate of Pluto will determine how these worlds are classified. For instance, new computer modeling suggests an object up to 70 percent of Earth's mass is lurking beyond Pluto. This "Planet X," if confirmed, would be called a plutoid under the IAU's scheme.
No matter what the scientists say, many kids won't let go.
"It's a planet," said fifth-grader Emily Mitchell, whose mother Laurie agreed, saying, "I grew up learning it was a planet."
"It's the smallest planet," said Liam, a 4-year-old who is "about to be 5." Liam's teacher Rachel Kaplan said, "I was really sad when Pluto was declassified as a planet, because I've studied astrology for a number of years."
Aileen Wilson said her 7-year-old son is interested in Pluto's label. "He's interested in why it was a planet and why it's not a planet anymore."
"I know that it was demoted and it's not a planet. But I don't know what it's called," said Erin Kelly, a pre-school teacher sitting on a park bench with her students in New York.
In the classroom
Even as scientists are arguing over the "plutoid" designation, with some saying they won't use the term, educators are already latching onto it.
Change is the name of the game in science, according to Gerry Wheeler, the executive director of the National Science Teachers Association.
"Basically, it's a teachable moment for science teachers, because it shows the dynamic nature of science," Wheeler told SPACE.com. He added the NSTA will spread news of the plutoid category to science teachers in the fall.
Elementary school science teacher Lucy Jensen agrees: "Pluto has made it interesting studying our planets this year." She teaches at Joliet Public School in Montana. "Our only problem we now have is buying new material, such as posters, videos, DVDs and game/study materials that need to be updated," she said.
Jensen added that while her fourth-grade students were more upset than the third graders about Pluto's demotion, the parents were the most upset. "It is hard to teach old dogs new tricks, and we like what we know," she said.
"Time has always been taken in the classroom to ponder the origin of Pluto. When Pluto became a dwarf planet, along with Eris and Ceres, it made it easier to explain why an object of Pluto's small stature could be classified," high-school teacher Milman said. "Now we will just need to teach them more new definitions."
Milman added that "dwarf planets" is an easier term for students to grasp compared with plutoids. "Objects of Pluto, Eris and Ceres' size are too small to be called planets so they were called dwarf planets. That was easier for the students to understand," she said.
Yet many students are still unaware of the change made in 2006.
"My fourth graders still consider Pluto a planet," said Bev Grueber, a science teacher at North Bend Elementary in Nebraska. "We do extensive oral reports on the planets to meet a state standard, and everyone jumps for joy when they get Pluto. Last year, I left Pluto out of the draw and they asked where it was, so they still consider it a planet regardless of what the space scientists tell us the definition of that planet is."
Aram Friedman, who founded Ansible Technologies Ltd. in New Jersey, travels to schools to teach about astronomy using a portable planetarium. In a typical fifth-grade class, he teaches students the features of the inner planets and the outer planets. Pluto, he says, doesn't fit into those categories. That makes sense to kids.
Many science textbooks have only recently caught up with the dwarf planet concept.
For publisher McGraw Hill Education, the 2008 elementary and secondary school science textbooks describe Pluto as a dwarf planet.
Middle schools with the current Holt Science and Technology textbooks would see Pluto defined as a dwarf planet. McDougal Littell Science took a slightly different approach.
"We didn't say how many planets there were, so we didn't have to make a lot of changes. We explained, historically, that it had been classified as a planet when it was discovered," said Dan Rogers, vice president and director of Holt McDougal's science and health product development.
McDougal's teacher's edition included a detailed explanation of Pluto's dwarf planet status.
"One of the reasons we were cautious is because we thought the whole thing was unresolved and was going to change again," Rogers said. "We're in the process of developing a brand new program, a new set of books."
In "Traveler's Guide to the Solar System," an astronomy book published in 2007 for kids age 8 to 10, the author notes, "Earth is the third of nine planets (some say eight, some say ten, but nine is kind of traditional), orbiting our local star, the Sun."
Starry Night, astronomy software that includes educational resources, refers to Pluto as a dwarf planet, according to content director Pedro Braganca. (Starry Night is a division of Imaginova Corp., which also owns SPACE.com.)
And soon, educational publishers may need to re-update material. Word has it astronomers are vowing to pursue a reinstatement of Pluto as a planet. | <urn:uuid:803c5a76-e917-44a8-a240-ded36d6a8eb9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.space.com/5527-pluto-identity-crisis-hits-classrooms-bookstores.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972686 | 1,704 | 3 | 3 |
Technology and nature to become indistinguishable, New Scientist writes:
Computers made from living cells, anyone? Two groups of researchers have independently built the first biological analogue of the transistor. It should make it easier to create gadgets out of living cells, such as biosensors that detect polluted water.
Drew Endy at Stanford University and colleagues have designed a transistor-like device that controls the movement of an enzyme called RNA polymerase along a strand of DNA, just as electrical transistors control the flow of current through a circuit. Because combinations of transistors can carry out computations, this should make it possible to build living gadgets with integrated control circuitry.
A similar device has been built by Timothy Lu and colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Such devices will be key building blocks in cellular machines, says Paul Freemont at Imperial College London, who was not involved in either study.
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- Lab Is Missing 2,000 Vials Of The Deadly SARS Virus - Apr 19, 2014
- Essential Vitamin B3 May Have Arrived From Space On Meteorites - Apr 18, 2014 | <urn:uuid:9be424c7-2e4c-4545-a1df-d40ae743037c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://disinfo.com/2013/04/researchers-create-basis-for-computers-made-from-living-biological-cells/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917464 | 256 | 3.140625 | 3 |
School Nutrition Standards School meals are healthy meals that are required to meet the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. To receive federal reimbursements, school meal programs must offer “reimbursable” meals that meet strict federal nutrition standards. These standards, also referred to as “the meal pattern,” require schools to offer students the right balance of fruits, vegetables, low-fat or fat-free milk, whole grains and lean protein with every meal.Updated School Meal Standards: The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 (HHFKA) required the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to update these nutrition standards for the first time in 15 years. The new regulations, effective beginning in 2012, require cafeterias to offer more fruit, vegetables and whole grains and limit sodium, calories and unhealthy fat in every school meal. Click here for details on school lunch and breakfast standards. New Snack Standards: To ensure all foods and beverages sold in school during the school day are healthy choices, HHFKA also required USDA to create nutrition standards for foods and beverages sold in competition to reimbursable meals. These “competitive foods” are sold in vending machines, snack bars and a la carte lines. In June 2013, USDA issued the “Smart Snacks in School” interim final rule establishing these standards, which took effect July 1, 2014. Click here for details on the competitive foods rule. | <urn:uuid:a5274b23-8fb4-4332-a6b9-4554ae309ebc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://schoolnutrition.org/AboutSchoolMeals/SchoolNutritionStandards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949191 | 292 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Nov 18, 2013 - By Randy TuckerThere are fewer of them in our collective minds than there used to be.
If you were to ask your parents, grandparents or anyone else in the generation that survived the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and World War II to identify the significance of the following dates, most if not all could rattle off the events of these days as if they occurred this morning. Try these on for size: Dec. 7, April 12, June 6 and Sept. 2.
If you answered Pearl Harbor, the death of FDR, the "D-Day" Normandy Invasion and VJ Day, you're either an astute student of history, or you lived through these times.
Living through the seminal events of our history provides a unique viewpoint to the people, places and things that made these days ones of great importance.
In lists of the top 10 events in American history the past gradually recedes to popular culture in a less-than-complimentary statement about Americans and our limited ability to remember the past.
A recent top 10 list contained the killing of Osama Bin Laden (do you know that date?) and the Sept. 11 terror attacks in prominent rank but didn't mention Pearl Harbor, Gettysburg, Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson or George Washington in their polling.
Perhaps it's the constant droning of "We will never forget..." touted in commercials for commemorative coins, wall hangings and statues sold by hucksters, along with extremes in the media lauding us to always remember, remember, remember...
On the note of memory, one of the two greatest historical events in our collective lifetimes came 50 years ago next week.It's nearly impossible for me to imagine a half century has come and gone since the fateful shots were fired at Dealey Plaza in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963.
America lost its innocence on that mild Texas afternoon. As a nation, we've never regained it.
I was a first-grader at Gosnell Elementary School just a mile or so off the front gate of Blytheville Air Force Base in northeast Arkansas that Friday. As a just-turned-7-year old, I couldn't understand why all the teachers and the junior high and high school girls were crying.
We were loaded on the bus just an hour or so after lunch and taken home.Two teen-age girls who lived next door explained to me that President Kennedy had been shot.
My mom was upset when I walked in from the bus ride. My dad was called back to the base immediately, on alert.
At the time no one knew if the shooting was a precursor to a Soviet attack or some other act of war. It had been just 13 months since the air base went through the gut-wrenching tension of the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Saturday was disappointing for a kid in the pre-network cartoon era when it was the only day dedicated to children. No Bugs Bunny, no Huckleberry Hound, no Snaggle Puss. Just a constant flow of news from our old black-and-white television as one talking head after another lamented the loss of our president and speculated about the murder.
The speculation hasn't diminished over the last 50 years and would seem to have increased exponentially in our present conspiracy-ridden society.
The events of Nov. 22, 1963, are forever etched in the American psyche. Sadly, however, if you were to ask a teen=ager today to tell you something about President John F. Kennedy it wouldn't be his speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in June 1963 with the famous phrase, "Ich bin ein Berliner" or his speech at Rice University in 1962 challenging America to go to the moon, "Not because (these things) are easy, but because they are hard." Or even, his quarantine of Cuba that prevented World War III. Kids today would be quick to respond "He got shot," or "He had an affair with Marilyn Monroe."
We've lost something as a nation when our national heroes are poked, prodded and investigated in attempts to destroy, discredit or deny their ability to lead.
July 20, 1969, will be forever tied to Nov. 22, 1963. It was President Kennedy that challenged us to go to the moon and his influence over Congress funded the moon shot that succeeded in the summer of '69.
The explosion of the space shuttle Challenger on Jan. 26, 1986, was another turning point, albeit one that ended the romanticism of the earlier space age and erased another vestige of optimism for the future in our generation.
The children of Generation X and Generation Next have just Sept. 11, 2001, to lay claim to as the seminal event of their lives.
The individualistic nature of news, music and entertainment brought on by the digital age has created a nation that steadily grows apart. We all received the news of the three shots from the Texas School Book Depository building at the same time, and most of us watched as Walter Cronkite removed his glasses, his resonant voice beginning to shake as he said, "From Dallas, Texas, the flash -- apparently official -- President Kennedy died at 1 p.m. Central Standard Time, 2 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, some 38 minutes ago."
A half century is gone, and I can still hear his voice.
Editor's note: Staff writer Randy Tucker is a retired educator. He farms in rural Riverton.
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view a plan
Students study the geography, politics, and people of Afghanistan in this lesson
Title – Afghanistan Study
By – Rick Robbins
Primary Subject – Social Studies
Secondary Subjects –
Grade Level – 9
Notes to teachers:
This assignment requires Internet access for each team of students,
a hard copy map of Afghanistan for each team (excellent maps may be obtained at National Geographic.com), and coloring pencils or markers.
National Geography Standards addressed in this lesson:
How to Use Mental Maps to Organize Information About People, Places, and Environments in a Spatial Context
The Physical and Human Characteristics of Places
The Characteristics, Distribution, and Migration of Human Population on Earth’s Surface
How the Forces of Cooperation and Conflict Among People Influence the Division and Control of Earth’s Surface
This assignment capitalizes on the excellent coverage of the refugee plight in Afghanistan that was posted by The National Geographic at their web site.
During the progress of the assignment, I carried out a teacher directed discussion of the charts. I created a composite chart on the board of information provided by students for six or seven countries. We then compared the profile of life in Afghanistan to other nations chosen by the students.
Several students found this discussion to be of great use when the time came to create their summaries.
In the original lesson I included some current events material drawn from the BBC coverage of the plight of the Afghan refugees. I have deleted those materials from these copies. Should you choose to include such information, you could certainly find abundant materials on the BBC web site.
Feel free to cut and paste this file as will be beneficial for your classroom!
A Study of Afghanistan
This study of Afghanistan will look at the interplay of the physical geography, the politics and the people of the country.
Your work for this assignment should include the following:
1. The life expectancy and mortality chart.
2. Your summary of the data in the chart.
3. Your hypothetical diary entry of a refugee.
4. The composite map of Afghanistan showing population movements from the drought and from the war.
6. Your summary of the population movements.
E-Mail Rick Robbins ! | <urn:uuid:c483f9ad-e4f8-4b68-9fee-db95e64e5b7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://lessonplanspage.com/ssafghanistanstudy-geogpoliticspeople9-htm/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.891127 | 455 | 3.984375 | 4 |
It is difficult to figure out the behaviors of an animal that lived thousands—or millions—of years ago when all you have are its fossilized bones, even when there are plenty of them, as there are for the sabertooth cat (Smilodon fatalis). Scientists have to be creative.
Chris Carbon of the Zoological Society of London and others (reporting in the journal Biology Letters) did just this when they asked: Was the sabertooth cat more like the social lion... (below, from the National Zoo)
... or was it like most other modern cats that live solitary lives (below, my friend's cat Motley)?
The scientists used the abundance of bones found at the La Brea tar seeps to estimate the relative abundance of sabertooth cats and other carnivores during the Late Pleistocene. The tar seeps trapped herbivores and the carnivores that came to eat them. Similar modern data came from playback experiments in modern Africa in which the sounds of distressed prey were broadcast to attract carnivores; social carnivores are lured in larger numbers than solitary ones in these experiments.
According to both of these estimates, the numbers “represent competitive, potentially dangerous encounters where multiple predators are lured by dying herbivores. Consequently, in both records predatory mammals and birds far outnumber herbivores,” the scientists explain in their paper.
The playback experiments show that social animals—lions, spotted hyenas and jackals—were the most common, whereas solitary species were rare. In the La Brea record, the “presumably social” dire wolf comprised half of individuals found and the sabertooth a third. Known solitary species were rare, nicely matching the playbacks.
The answer to the question, then, is that sabertooth cats were likely more like lions. Though they did have much bigger teeth.
(Photo Credits: Postdlf via Wikipedia (fossil skeleton from the National Museum of Natural History); Jesse Cohen, National Zoological Park (lion); Sarah Zielinski (Motley)) | <urn:uuid:fc260b84-42ac-407e-9666-943eedbc1579> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/sabertooth-cat-more-like-a-lion-or-a-house-cat-2422840/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936648 | 425 | 3.71875 | 4 |
What is the longest word ever to appear in print in English? There's a lot of confusion and misinformation on the subject. But when I set out to write about the periodic table, I was hopeful I would get to the bottom of this mystery. Why? Because all the contenders for the longest word are chemistry terms. More specifically, carbon-based chemistry terms.
Carbon settled into a tough spot on the periodic table. To feel satisfied and content, elements need full "sets" of electrons in their outer shell. (Think of a shell as a storage container for electrons.) Elements can either steal electrons from other atoms to accumulate a full set or else shed electrons to get down to a full set. The number of electrons that constitutes a full set differs slightly from element to element; for carbon, a full set is eight electrons in its outer shell. But carbon has only four electrons in its outer shell, which means it needs to steal four other electrons to acquire a full set. Or it could fob its four electrons off on some other atom. For various reasons, both are almost impossible tasks, which leaves carbon restless and unsatisfied.
But there is another option—sharing electrons. Basically, two atoms put two or more electrons in between themselves, and each pretends the whole set belongs to it alone. It's not an ideal situation, but it's better than nothing. Carbon often loans its four electrons out to four partners simultaneously, forming bonds in all directions. And that promiscuity is actually carbon's virtue. Sharing electrons in all directions allows it to form rings and chains and complicated structures, like the structures found in living beings.
What does this have to do with the world's longest word? For a time in the 1800s, Germany dominated European science, and most chemists in the mid- and late 1800s wrote and published in German journals. The German language makes compound words like crazy, and it was only natural that this feature rubbed off on chemists when it came time to name their creations. Take proteins. Proteins are chains of amino acids, and the individual amino acids (all of which are carbon-based) have names like serine, taurine, and leucine. If you form a compound from those three, you'd call it seryltaurlyleucine or taurylleucylserine. You can see where this is going. Proteins can be made up of hundreds or even thousands of amino acids, and the names get pretty unwieldy pretty quickly.
For a long time, chemistry reference works published the full names of compounds. A company in Ohio called Chemical Abstracts Service, which prints reference books collectively called Chemical Abstracts, was the best example, dutifully publishing every letter of every long protein discovered through the 1950s. However, around 1965 the company gave up, changing its policy to discourage eye-glazing names that ran for dozens of lines. (I like to think it was a copy editors' revolt—imagine spell-checking these things!) Shorter names became the rule. After 1965, long carbon-based names stop appearing in Chemical Abstracts. So if we adopt a sensible definition of what we're after here—the longest word to appear in an English-language document whose purpose was not to set the record for the longest word ever—then the word almost certainly appeared in Chemical Abstracts around this time, since no one else was publishing words even close to this length.
Now for the confusion. Many sources list a 1,185-letter protein name (C785H1220N212O248S2) from the "tobacco mosaic virus" as the record holder. But there's also a tryptophan protein, a relative of the chemical that people think (wrongly) makes them sleepy when they eat turkey. The tryptophan protein (C1289H2051N343O375S8) runs 1,913 letters, 60 percent longer than the mosaic virus protein, and numerous sources—old editions of Guinness World Records and Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous Words—list tryptophan as the champ. But no source seemed to realize that contradictory answers were out there.
Settling the debate required going back to the original source of the words, the 12-inch-tall bound volumes of Chemical Abstracts. These encyclopedias of chemistry are so voluminous that the Library of Congress dedicates an entire room to just these books, and my search required combing through 10 years' worth of what looked like about eight-point font. I won't bore you (too late?) by describing the many hours it took just to learn how to useChemical Abstracts to look things up and hunt down leads. But eventually, I found the right page and settled on the exhaustive approach—photocopying pages and counting the letters one by one.
I found the name for the tobacco mosaic virus spelled out twice, first in 1964, then in 1966. But in all my searching, I never did locate the full, spelled-out version of the tryptophan molecule. It is mentioned, but only under the name "tryptophan synthetase protein a." So its full name has never appeared in print as far as I can tell, which perhaps explains why Guinness has stopped listing it as the longest word in its recent editions.
To throw in one more twist, I also hunted down the original 1964 tobacco mosaic virus paper that announced its decoding—and discovered it was in German. But Chemical Abstracts is an English-language document, in the fine reference-work tradition of Samuel Johnson and the OED; and it printed the name not toshow off long words but to propagate knowledge, so it counts.
Incidentally, people sometimes wonder why DNA doesn't count as the longest word, since genomes can run for billions of "letters" (AGACTCGATA ...). For one, DNA often doesn't appear in print except in small bites. More important, even if the 3 billion-letter human genome was printed out, it still isn't really a word—try pronouncing it. However contrived and formulaic, the mosaic virus name is speakable. Take a deep breath:
People also wonder what would be the longest word today if Chemical Abstracts had stubbornly kept printing the full names of molecules. Well, there is one protein out there with 34,000 amino acids. Its full name runs 189,819 letters—47 single-spaced pages of a Microsoft Word document. Mercifully, it's known as titin. | <urn:uuid:07bd9d98-5ff4-4262-8d74-a9b71478e8cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/elements/features/2010/blogging_the_periodic_table/carbon_the_source_of_lifeand_of_the_longest_word_ever_to_appear_in_print.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931536 | 1,362 | 3.375 | 3 |
Mohammed & Charlemagne Revisited: The Epilogue
by Emmet Scott (April 2012)
We have seen that, irrespective of what happened in Europe, Graeco-Roman civilization was terminated very abruptly in the seventh century in its heartlands, in the Near and Middle East, and in North Africa. In these vast territories a new civilization, quite unlike that which had gone before, appeared with surprising rapidity. This new Islamic culture inherited the resources, wealth, and learning of the old one, and was, from the very beginning, at an enormous advantage over the remnant “Roman” lands which yet survived in Europe. The latter continent was still largely rural and, for the most part, “pagan” and tribal. Nonetheless, as we have demonstrated in great detail in the foregoing pages, it was home to a large and growing population, which, in the territories of the former Roman Empire, in Gaul, central Europe, and Spain, was still heavily under the influence of Rome and, more especially, of Byzantium. The loss of the Middle East and North Africa to Islam did, as Pirenne argued, terminate most of the commercial and cultural contacts which had previously existed between those territories and Europe. But it did not impoverish Europe. The latter continent was, by the late sixth century, largely self-sufficient economically. Trade in luxuries such as wines and spices certainly came to an end, as did the cultural and political influence of Byzantine. The great basilicas of the Visigoths and the Merovingians, with their marble columns and brightly-colored mosaics, were replaced – after a somewhat lengthy period of non-construction – by the more somber and smaller structures of the tenth-century Romanesque. Yet on the whole the loss of contact with the East had no terrible economic consequences for the majority of Europe’s peoples. On the contrary, Europe was thrown back on its own resources, and it may well be that the great western tradition of inventiveness and innovation was stimulated into life at this time. There was, however, one product whose loss could not be easily made good, and whose absence had a profound impact on the west – papyrus.
The termination of the papyrus supply to Europe, as a cultural event, cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it has hitherto been radically underestimated. Papyrus, a relatively cheap writing material, had a thousand uses in an urban and mercantile culture. And, as we saw in Chapter 15, it was the material upon which was preserved the vast majority of the learning and thinking of the ancients. The loss of papyrus led inexorably to the loss of the bulk of classical literature – irrespective of the efforts of churchmen to preserve it on parchment. Thus from the mid-seventh century Europe became a largely illiterate society, and the educated and articulate town-dwellers, so typical of classical antiquity, disappeared. From then on, few people other than churchmen (and not all of these) could read and write.
The impact of Islam then, on Europe, was primarily cultural rather than, as Pirenne thought, economic. And, having cut Europe off from the sources of classical learning, Islam now began to exert its on influence on the continent. Here again we need to emphasize something that has hitherto received insufficient attention: namely the fact that Islam’s influence upon medieval Europe was immense. In the years before the arrival of Islam, the predominant cultural influence had been from the East, from Byzantium and the Levant. In the years after, it continued to be from the East; but the East now meant Islam. And the ideas which then began to cross the Mediterranean, from the Middle East and North Africa, were anything but enlightened.
It is of course widely accepted that Islam had a significant cultural and ideological impact upon Europe in the early Middle Ages. Historians, as we saw, tend to focus on science and philosophy. It is well-known, for example, that Muslim scholars, beginning with the Persian Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in the late tenth and early eleventh century, had made extensive commentaries upon the works of Aristotle, which they attempted to integrate, with a very limited degree of success it must be noted, into Islamic thought. In the second half of the twelfth century Avicenna’s work was taken up by the Spanish Muslim Averroes (Ibn Rushd), who made his own commentaries and writings on the Greek philosopher. By that time European scholars were very much aware of Arab learning, and men like John of Salisbury even had agents in Spain procuring Arabic manuscripts, which were then translated into Latin. “Soon the commentaries of Averroes were so well known in Europe,” says one historian, “that he was called ‘the Commentator,’ as Aristotle was called ‘the Philosopher.’” At a slightly earlier stage, Christian Europeans had found their way into Muslim-controlled regions such as Sicily, often in disguise, in order to avail themselves of the scientific and alchemical knowledge of the Saracens. No less a person than Gerbert of Aurillac, the genius of the tenth century, on whom the figure of Faust was based, journeyed into the Muslim territories for this very purpose.
The profound influence exerted by Islam upon the philosophical and theological thinking of Europeans was stressed by Briffault, who noted how, “The exact parallelism between Muslim and Christian theological controversy is too close to be accounted for by the similarity of situation, and the coincidences are too fundamental and numerous to be accepted as no more than coincidence. … The same questions, the same issues which occupied the theological schools of Damascus, were after an interval of a century repeated in identical terms in those of Paris.” Again, “The whole logomacy [of Arab theological debate] passed bodily into Christendom. The catchwords, disputes, vexed questions, methods, systems, conceptions, heresies, apologetics and irenics, were transferred from the mosques to the Sorbonne”
Europeans could not, of course, fail to be impressed by what they found in Islamic Spain and southern Italy. They themselves lived in a relatively backward environment. Crucial technologies began to creep into Europe at this time, often via Jewish traders and scholars, who were, for a while, the only class of people able to safely cross the Christian-Islamic frontiers. To these Jewish travelers, some of whom were physicians, alchemists and mathematicians, Europe almost certainly owes the acquisition of such things as the “Arabic” numeral system, knowledge of alcohol distillation, and probably algebra and a host of other information. “Muhammedan philosophy and theology had, we know, been carried to the Benedictine monasteries through the Jews, and the metropolitan house of Monte Cassino.” The Spanish Jews in particular “supplied Arabic versions of Greek writers to Christendom.” Indeed, so important was the influence of these Jewish traders and scholars that we might even say that, at a crucial moment, the Jews delivered to Europe the knowledge that helped her survive the Muslim onslaught. And we know how Europe later thanked them!
All of the above is well known and denied by no one. Yet, as we saw, Europeans were by no means devoid of their own Greek and Latin texts; and virtually all the classical literature that has survived into modern times did so through the good offices of Christian monks, not Arab philosophers. And, as I will now argue, the real ideological impression of Islam was not the enlightened thinking of Avicenna and Averroes, who were in any case rejected and expelled from the Muslim canon, but the darker thinking found in the Koran and the Haditha: the doctrines of perpetual war against non-believers; of holy deception (taqiyya); of death for apostates and heretics; of judicial torture; of slave and concubine-taking as a legitimate occupation. These were the teachings, and not those of the philosophers, which left an indelible imprint on medieval Europe. And this began right at the beginning.
* * *
The first Islamic (or Koranic) idea to find followers in Europe, and the one most obvious and recognized, was the impulse to iconoclasm, to the destruction of religious imagery and art. Iconoclasm began sometime between 726 and 730 when the Byzantine Emperor Leo III ordered the removal and destruction of all sacred statues and images throughout the Empire. His justification for doing so came from the Old Testament denunciation of idol-worship, yet it is evident that the real inspiration came from Islam.
The question of the Iconoclast episode is one of primary importance. Above all, it has been asked: What could have prompted Byzantine Emperors to go against one of the most fundamental tenets of their faith (the honoring of sacred images) and start destroying these in a manner reminiscent of Oliver Cromwell? Such action can only have been prompted by a crisis of the most profound kind. We have seen that in the early years the advance of Islam seemed unstoppable. The Empire suffered defeat after defeat. Within little more than a decade she had lost all her Middle Eastern possessions outside Anatolia. These included the most prosperous and populous provinces, Egypt and Syria; core areas of the Empire, and part of Imperial territory for seven hundred years. The Empire was experiencing its darkest days; and the fall of Constantinople must surely have seemed imminent. It is precisely crises of such type – those which threaten our very existence – that lead human beings to question fundamentals, to think the previously unthinkable. The Byzantines would have seen their reverses as a sign of divine anger, and a sure indication that they were doing something wrong – something perhaps that their Muslim foes were doing right! A central tenet of Islam is the rejection of images, which are regarded as idols and their honoring condemned as idolatry. No doubt some in Byzantium began to see this as the key.
If this was the psychology behind Byzantine Iconoclasm, then it is clear that Constantinople did not willingly and enthusiastically adopt Islamic thinking. Rather, the success of the new faith from Arabia was such that the Byzantines began to believe that it might enjoy God’s favor. Islamic ideas were therefore considered as a way of resolving a profound crisis. Yet, it is important to remember that, for whatever reason, Islamic ideas were copied. The whole of Christendom, East and West, was threatened by Islam; and, one way or another, ideas derived from Islam itself began to be considered by Christians as an answer to that very crisis.
Iconoclasm caused great divisions within the Empire, and was firmly rejected by the West – creating, it seems, some of the conditions leading to the final break between the Pope and Constantinople. Yet the very fact that a Roman Emperor could introduce a policy so obviously inspired by the beliefs of the Arabs tells us eloquently the extent to which the influence of Islamic ideology now began to make itself felt throughout Europe.
* * *
One of the most outstanding characteristics of the Middle Ages, and one that above all other perhaps differentiates it from classical antiquity, was its theocracy. The Middle Ages were, par excellence, the age of priestly power. In the West, the influence of the Church was immense, reaching much further than it ever had under the Christian Roman Emperors or the Germanic kings of the fifth and sixth centuries. The Papacy now stood in judgment of kings and Emperors, and had the power to choose and depose them. “By me kings reign” was the proud boast of the medieval papacy.
How did this come about? The refounding of the Western Empire under Charlemagne, according to Pirenne, was intimately connected with the rise of Islam and the destruction of Byzantine power. It was also, very consciously, seen as a method of strengthening Western Christendom against the advance of Islam. In years to come, the new Western Empire would be renamed the Holy Roman Empire – a singularly appropriate title, for the Empire represented a symbiotic union, at the heart of Europe, of spiritual and temporal authority. The crowning of the Emperor – for which the inauguration of Charlemagne became the model – was an event loaded with religious significance. These men ruled Dei gratis, and made the Church the main instrument of royal government. The authority of the Western Emperor would henceforth not simply be derived from his own military and economic strength, as it had been under the Caesars and Germanic kings of the fifth and sixth centuries, but ultimately upon the sanction and approval of the Church.
There were several factors in this crucial development. Pirenne, as we saw, noted that, with the decline in literacy in the seventh century – following the closing of the Mediterranean – kings were forced to look to the Church to supply the educated functionaries needed to run the apparatus of the state. Again, the loss of tax revenue after the termination of the Mediterranean trade meant that the position of the monarch was weakened vis a vis the barons and minor aristocrats. These now gained in power and independence. The kings desperately needed a counterbalance to this, and the support of the Church carried great weight indeed. With the Church on their side the kings could – just about – keep the barons under control. But there was necessarily a trade-off. The Church might keep the king on his throne, but it gained in return an unheard-of influence and authority. Eventually the kings of Europe became, quite literally, subordinate to the Pope, who could even, in extreme cases, dethrone them. Everything a medieval ruler did, or proposed to do, he had to do with the sanction of the Church. Even powerful and independent warriors, such as William of Normandy, could only proceed with a project like the invasion of England after gaining papal approval.
The Carolingian and Ottonian Emperors thus laid the foundations of the medieval theocracy; yet in their time (ninth/tenth century), the papacy was still relatively weak. It was to elicit the support of Otto I against his Italian opponents that Pope John XII revived the dignity of Emperor in the West, after it had lapsed again following the death of Charlemagne. Here we see that in the tenth century, supposedly at the end of a 300-year-long Dark Age, there existed conditions remarkably similar to those pertaining in the sixth and early seventh centuries: Germanic kingdoms that were essentially secular in character, where Popes and prelates were subordinate to the monarchs. Yet conditions were changing. Otto I and his successors staffed their administrations with churchmen, who by then clearly had a monopoly on learning and even literacy. The old, Roman world, was very definitely a thing of the past. From this point on, the power of the Church would grow and grow.
Yet even now the Church had to fight for supremacy, a struggle which commenced in the tenth century, with the aid of the Ottonians, and which ended in the eleventh, with papal victory. “They [Church reformers] fought to secure ultimate control of a self-contained, independent, dominant, monarchical Church. Such a contest was a frontal challenge to the old system of the Roman Empire. It was a frontal attack on the kings who presumed that they had inherited the rights of the Roman emperors. It was an indirect attack on the emperor of Constantinople who, in the East, continued to maintain the old system [of secular supremacy] and was now called schismatic for his pains.”
The very peak of the medieval Church’s power came a century later in the age and in the person of Innocent III (1198 – 1216). This man judged between rival Emperors in Germany and had Otto IV deposed. He laid England under an interdict and excommunicated King John for refusing to recognize Stephen Langdon as Archbishop of Canterbury. His two most memorable actions however were the establishment of the Inquisition and the launching of the notorious Albigensian Crusade, which led to the elimination of the Cathar movement. Innocent III then, the most powerful of medieval theocrats, was a proponent of Holy War, and an enforcer of absolute doctrinal conformity. Apostasy under Innocent III became a capital offence. During his time too the other Crusades, against Islam in Spain and in the Middle East, continued to rage.
Ironically, Innocent’s attitude to apostasy and doctrinal conformity – as well as to “Holy War” – is completely in accord with Islamic notions, and we must consider to what extent these extreme positions of the European theocracy derived ultimately from the Islamic one.
Islam itself was, of course, from the very beginning, theocratic in nature. In it, there was no “render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s”. Right from the start, in the person of Muhammad, spiritual and temporal power was united. After Muhammad, under the Caliphs, the same situation pertained. Every Caliph was, first and foremost, a “commander of the faithful”. For all that, we cannot judge that the founding of theocracy in Europe was a result of deliberate imitation of Islamic notions, as was iconoclasm and Holy War. Islam’s contribution to the European theocracy was real enough, but rather more accidental, or rather, inferential As we saw, the impoverishment of Europe and her monarchs caused by Islam’s blockade of the Mediterranean, left them little option but to turn to the Church for support. Also, the fight for the defense of Europe, because of the very nature of the enemy, took on a religious dimension (all faiths gain in strength when faced with opposition), and this too would have increased the power and prestige of the Church.
So, whilst the medieval European theocracy was not the result of direct imitation of Islamic ideas, Islam was still instrumental in giving birth to it. Furthermore, the type of theocracy which took shape in Europe, and some of the underlying ideas associated with it, very definitely derived from Islam.
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From its inception, Islam regarded apostasy and heresy as capital offences, and almost immediately after the death of Muhammad there erupted serious and extremely violent disputes over conflicting claims to the leadership of the movement. Assassination and murder was the order of the day. Even those with no leadership pretensions, but with heterodox views, were subject to violent suppression. The most notorious early example is found in the fate of Mansur Al-Hallaj (858 – 922), the Persian mystic, whose death mimicked that of Christ – though before being crucified Al-Hallaj was first, it is said, blinded and otherwise tortured. And the killing of political and religious opponents, or those who deviated in any way from orthodox Islam, occurred at the very start and was continuous throughout Muslim history. So it was with infidels such as Christians and Jews who, though theoretically dhimmi, or “protected,” were in fact always the subject of violent attack. We know, for example, that in 704 or 705 the caliph Walid (705-715) “assembled the nobles of Armenia in the church of St Gregory in Naxcawan and the church of Xrain on the Araxis, and burned them to death. Others were crucified and decapitated and their wives and children taken into captivity. A violent persecution of Christians in Armenia is recorded from 852 to 855.” There even existed, in Spain and North Africa, at least from the time of the Almohads (early twelfth century), a commission of enquiry, a veritable “inquisition”, for rooting out apostates. We are told that the Jews, who had at this time been forced to accept Islam, formed a mass of “new converts” who nevertheless continued to practice their own religion in secret. But the “Almohad inquisitors, doubting their sincerity, took away their children and raised them as Muslims.”
Medieval Christianity, beginning in the late twelfth/early thirteenth century, adopted the same attitude. Christians now had their own Inquisition for exposing heretics, and the death penalty was now prescribed for such miscreants. The judicial use of torture too, “a novelty in Europe” at the time, became accepted practice. All of these practices were in fact novel in Europe of the eleventh or twelfth century: The barbarous treatment of criminals and dissidents which had been customary in Imperial Rome was phased out during the early Christian centuries. Constantine abolished crucifixion as a form of execution, and attempted to do away with gladiatorial displays. These were finally abolished in the time of Honorius (early fifth century). The condition of slaves was dramatically improved by the Christianization of the Empire, and the Church worked to end the institution entirely – a goal finally accomplished by the eighth or perhaps ninth century. Torture of prisoners, routine in Imperial Rome, was gradually done away with around the same time. Nor is there any evidence, in the early Christian centuries, of the lethal intolerance which characterized the Inquisition. It is true that in the early centuries, the Church was involved in a series of prolonged and bitter disputes over the correct interpretation of Christ’s life and mission. Those who disagreed with the mainstream dogmas, as laid down by various Councils, were decreed to be heretics, and fairly severe condemnation of these people and groups was common: indeed, it was almost endemic. Yet, intemperate as was the language used in these disputes, they rarely turned violent; and even when they did, the violence was on a very small scale and invariably perpetrated by those with no official sanction or approval. And the use of force to enforce orthodoxy was condemned by all the Church Fathers. Thus Lactantius declared that “religion cannot be imposed by force; the matter must be carried on by words rather than by blows, that the will may be affected.” He wrote,
Oh with what an honorable inclination the wretched men go astray! For they are aware that there is nothing among men more excellent than religion, and that this ought to be defended with the whole of our power; but as they are deceived in the matter of religion itself, so also are they in the manner of its defense. For religion is to be defended, not by putting to death, but by dying; not by cruelty, but by patient endurance; not by guilt, but by good faith. … For if you wish to defend religion by bloodshed, and by tortures, and by guilt, it will no longer be defended, but will be polluted and profaned. For nothing is so much a matter of free will as religion; in which, if the mind of the worshipper is disinclined to it, religion is at once taken away, and ceases to exist.
Later, St. John Chrysostom wrote that “it is not right to put a heretic to death, since an implacable war would be brought into the world.” Likewise, St. Augustine was to write of heretics that “it is not their death, but their deliverance from error, that we seek.” In spite of these and many other such admonitions, incidents of violence against heretics did occur; but they were isolated and never approved by Church authorities. Such, for example, was the case with the suppression of the so-called Priscillian Heresy in Spain in the latter years of the fourth and early years of the fifth century. Several followers of Priscillian were put to death, and the sect was persecuted in other ways. Yet the killing of Priscillian and his immediate associates (seven in all) was thoroughly condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities.
The same was true of another, and more famous, case – the murder of Hypatia. This incident, in the early fifth century, has achieved, in some quarters, almost legendary status, and is seen as the example par excellence of Christian bigotry and obscurantism. But from what little we know of it, it is clear that the murder was carried out by a group of lawless fanatics and not by the Church. We should note too that the murder occurred in Egypt, a land with a long tradition of religious fanaticism. During the time of Julius Caesar an Egyptian mob lynched a Roman centurion (an act which could have brought upon them a terrible retribution) for having the temerity to kill a cat. Such isolated acts of fanaticism have occurred in all faiths at all periods of history. Even that most pacifist and tolerant of religious ideologies, Buddhism, is not entirely free of it. So, in itself, the murder of Hypatia cannot tell us much. The Christian writer Socrates Scholasticus, in the fifth century, regarded it as a deplorable act of bigotry, whilst just three centuries later his fellow-countryman John of Nikiu fully approved of the killing. He described Hypatia as “a pagan” who was “devoted to magic” and who had “beguiled many people through Satanic wiles.” What could have produced such a change?
The world we call “medieval” was one in which the reason and humanism of the classical world had to some degree disappeared. Dark fantasies and superstitions became more prominent. Belief in the power of magicians and sorcerers, a belief associated with the most primitive type of mind-set, made a comeback. In the most backward of modern societies we still find perfectly innocent people accused of “witchcraft” and brutally put to death for a crime which they never committed and which does not even exist. By the end of the Middle Ages this mentality had returned to Europe; and in 1487 a papal Bull named malleus maleficarum (“hammer of the witches”) pronounced the death of witches and Satanists. Even in Innocent III’s time the “heretics” of the age, the Cathars and Waldensians, were believed to be under the inspiration of Satan.
Yet Europe, as she emerged from the so-called Dark Age in the tenth century, still bathed in the light of reason and humanitarianism. Thus a tenth century canon of Church Law criticized and condemned the belief among country folk that “certain women” were in the habit of riding out on beasts in the dead of night and crossing great distances before daybreak. According to the canon, anyone who believed this was “beyond doubt an infidel and a pagan.” Somewhat earlier, Saint Agobard, Bishop of Lyons, declared it was not true that witches could call up storms and destroy harvests. Nor could they devour people from within nor kill them with the “evil eye”. “Only a few generations later,” note Colin Wilson and Christopher Evans, “any person who did not believe in night flying and witches as the Church defined them was in danger of being burned as a heretic.” What, ask these two authors, had happened in the intervening years to change the Church’s attitude?
In answer to that question, let us recall how, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries inquisitive young men from northern Europe flocked to Islamic Spain to study the knowledge and learning to be found there. But, as Louis Bertrand remarked, it was not so much the “science” of the Moors that attracted them as the pseudo-science: the alchemy, the astrology and the sorcery. What the Moors taught was a far cry from the learning now so widely praised in the politically-correct textbooks that fill our libraries and bookshops.
Sorcery and alchemy were not the only things learned by the Europeans from the Muslims: they took also ideas directly from the Koran and the Haditha; ideas about how heretics, apostates and sorcerers should be treated. And it is scarcely to be doubted that in establishing his own Inquisition Innocent III was directly imitating the example of the Almohads in Spain, who had set up their own commission for investigating heretics and apostates fifty years earlier.
Innocent III is viewed by the enemies of Christianity as the bête noir, the living embodiment of everything that was and is wrong with Christianity. Yet the fact that his attitudes had Islamic – but not Christian – precedents is never mentioned. And there is another point to consider: Whilst we do not seek to minimize the enormity of Innocent’s actions, we must never forget that in the 12th and 13th centuries the Muslim threat had by no means receded: it remained as potent and dangerous as ever. In such circumstances – indeed, in any war situation – internal dissent (such as the Cathars represented) is liable to be viewed as representing a fifth column working for the enemy. And it is well-known that all wartime dissent is suppressed with a thoroughness and ruthlessness much more severe than would normally be the case. The later Spanish Inquisition, which implemented draconian measures against dissenters in the Iberian Peninsula, must be seen in the same light. The threat of Islam was ever present, and we can be reasonably certain that the severe repression of Muslims at this time was directly attributable to the fear of a renewed Muslim invasion of the Peninsula (by the Ottomans) and the possibility that the native Muslims would form a fifth column in support of the invaders.
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We have found that in the years after 600 classical civilization, which was by then synonymous with Christendom, came into contact with a new force, one that extolled war as a sacred duty, sanctioned the enslavement and killing of non-believers as a religious obligation, sanctioned the judicial use of torture, and provided for the execution of apostates and heretics. All of these attitudes, which, taken together, are surely unique in the religious traditions of mankind, can be traced to the very beginnings of that faith. Far from being manifestations of a degenerate phase of Islam, all of them go back to the founder of the faith himself. Yet, astonishingly enough, this is a religion and an ideology which is still extolled by academics and artists as enlightened and tolerant. Indeed, to this day, there exists a large body of opinion, throughout the Western World, which sees Islam as in every way superior to, and more enlightened than, Christianity.
By around 650 almost half the Christian world was lost to this new and “enlightened” faith; and by 715 the remainder was in serious danger. These events had an enormous impact. The closure of the Mediterranean meant the impoverishment of Western Europe, which was then compelled to improvise as best it could. The lack of papyrus forced the use of the immensely expensive parchment, leading naturally to a serious decline in literacy. The Viking Wars, which the Islamic Invasions elicited, brought enormous disruption also to the northern part of the continent. Desperate for a unifying force that could bring together all the Germanic kingdoms of the West for the defense of Christendom, the Western Empire was re-established, and Constantinople, fighting for her very survival, could do little about it.
Western culture changed radically. For the first time, Christians began to think in terms of Holy War, and the whole theology of the faith went into a sate of flux. This great transformation began in the years after 650, and the phenomenon we call “Crusading” began, properly speaking, in southern Italy and more especially Spain, during the seventh and eighth centuries, as Christians fought a desperate rearguard action to save what they could from the advancing Saracens. This action was to develop into a protracted struggle that was to last for centuries, and was to have a profound and devastating effect upon European civilization. Above all, it meant, by sheer impact of force and time, the gradual adoption by the Christians of many of the characteristics of their Muslim foes. Thus by the eleventh and twelfth centuries Christian kings in Spain and southern Italy reigned over arabized courts and had adopted typically Muslim (and utterly non-Christian) customs, such as polygamy. The most famous, or infamous, example of this was the Emperor Frederick II, “the baptized sultan of Sicily,” who kept an expensive harem guarded by eunuchs.
As well as this direct influence, there was the barbarizing effect of the continual war into which the whole Mediterranean littoral was now plunged. The arrival of Islam brought to a definitive end the peace of the Mediterranean, the pax Romana that had even survived the fall of Rome. With the appearance of Islam, the Mediterranean was no longer a highway, but a frontier, and a frontier of the most dangerous kind. Piracy, rapine, and slaughter became the norm – for a thousand years! And this is something that has been almost completely overlooked by historians, especially those of northern European extraction. For the latter in particular, the Mediterranean is viewed in the light of classical history. So bewitched have educated Europeans been by the civilizations of Greece and Rome, that they have treated the more recent part of Mediterranean history – over a thousand years of it – as if it never existed. The visitor to Mediterranean lands, perhaps on the Grand Tour, was shown the monuments of the classical world; here Caesar fought a battle, there Anthony brought his fleet, etc.
This distorted and romanticized view of the Mediterranean and its past, which ignored the savagery and fear of the past millennium, was particularly characteristic of those of Anglo-Saxon origin, with whom there was the added problem of religious antagonism. With the reign of Elizabeth I, England became the mortal enemy of Catholic Europe; and the Catholic power of the time was of course Spain. From this point on, English-speaking historians tended to be heavily biased against Catholic Spain and, unsurprisingly, extremely favorable towards Spain’s Muslim enemies, who were romanticized and portrayed as cultured and urbane. It was then that the myth of the “golden age” of the Spanish Caliphate was born – a myth which, as we have seen, still has a very wide circulation.
Yet the reality was quite different: With the Muslim conquest of North Africa and Spain, a reign of terror was to commence that was to last for centuries. The war in Spain dragged on until the fifteenth century. By then, a new front was opened in Italy, as the rising power of the Ottoman Turks, having already engulfed Greece and the Balkans, threatened to penetrate Italy. This danger remained active and alive for the next three centuries, until the Turks were finally beaten back at the gates of Vienna in 1683. In the interim, the Pope was ready to flee from Rome on more than one occasion, as Ottoman fleets scoured the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it seemed that all of central Europe, including Hungary and Austria, was about to be overwhelmed; and though the imminent danger was averted by the victory of John Hunyadi at Belgrade (1456), it was renewed again in the sixteenth century, when an enormous Turkish invasion force was stopped by the Holy League at the naval battle of Lepanto (1571). And it is worth noting here that the Turkish losses at Lepanto, comprising 30,000 men and 200 out of 230 warships, did not prevent them returning the following year with another enormous fleet: Which speaks volumes for their persistence and the perennial nature of the threat they posed. A short time before this, in the 1530s, the Turks had extended their rule westwards along the North African coast as far as Morocco, where they encouraged an intensification of slaving raids against Christian communities in southern Europe. Fleets of Muslim pirates brought devastation to the coastal regions of Italy, Spain, southern France, and Greece. The Christians of the islands, in particular, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics, had to get used to savage pirate raids, bent on rape and pillage.
Hugh Trevor-Roper was at pains to emphasize that the epoch we now call the Renaissance, which we view as an age of artistic and intellectual achievement, as well as exuberant optimism, seemed very different to the inhabitants of Europe at the time. Even as Cortes and Pizarro conquered the vastly wealthy lands of Mexico and Peru in his name, the Emperor Charles V gloomily awaited the dissolution of Christendom. “We set out to conquer worthless new empires beyond the seas,” lamented Busbequius, the Belgian whom the King of the Romans sent as ambassador to the Sultan of Turkey, “and we are losing the heart of Europe.” Christendom, he wrote, subsided precariously by the good will of the king of Persia, whose ambitions in the east continually called the Sultan of Turkey back from his European conquests.
These events had a profound effect on the character of the Christian peoples of the Balkans and of the Mediterranean, a fact which has never been fully appreciated by northern Europeans. From the vantage-point of London or Paris, the Ottomans and the Barbary Pirates do not loom large. From Rome however things looked quite different. Rome, the very seat of the Catholic faith, was on the front line of this never-ending war. Viewed from central Italy, the paranoia of medieval Popes about heresies and internal enemies becomes somewhat more understandable.
And the people of Spain, who held the front line of the bloody boundary for centuries, were transformed. The war against Islam became the raison d’être for many, even most, Spanish kings. It was a perennial project; not an obsession, more like a normal part of life. It was taken for granted that there could never be peace with the Islamic world. How could it be otherwise, when making war against the infidel was a religious duty for every Muslim? Christians had understood this centuries earlier, and it was reiterated in the fourteenth century by the Islamic historian Ibn Khaldun:
In the Muslim community, the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. Therefore, caliphate and royal authority are united [in Islam], so that the person in charge can devote the available strength to both of them [religion and politics] at the same time.
The other groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty to them, save only for purposes of defense. It has thus come about that the person in charge of religious affairs [in other religious groups] is not concerned with power politics at all. [Among them] royal authority comes to those who have it, by accident and in some way that has nothing to do with religion. It comes to them as a necessary result of group feeling, which by its very nature seeks to obtain royal authority, as we have mentioned before, and not because they are under obligation to gain power over other nations, as is the case with Islam. They are merely required to establish their religion among their own [people].
This is why the Israelites after Moses and Joshua remained unconcerned with royal authority for about four hundred years. Their only concern was to establish their religion (1: 473).
Thereafter, there was dissensions among the Christians with regard to their religion and to Christology. They split into groups and sects, which secured the support of various Christian rulers against each other. At different times there appeared different sects. Finally, these sects crystallized into three groups, which constitute the [Christian] sects. Others have no significance. These are the Melchites, the Jacobites, and the Nestorians. We do not think that we should blacken the pages of this book with discussion of their dogmas of unbelief. In general, they are well known. All of them are unbelief. This is clearly stated in the noble Qur’an. [To] discuss or argue those things with them is not up to us. It is [for them to choose between] conversion to Islam, payment of the poll tax, or death.
Ibn Khaldun was a native of Andalusia, but what he wrote about jihad would have been understood by every monarch of Spain, Christian and Moor. Thus for the kings of Castile the survival in the Iberian Peninsula of any region from which Islam could launch attacks was seen as a real and ever present threat, and the reduction of Islamic Spain to the southern strongholds of Andalusia did not make Christians feel any more secure. Now the threat was not from North Africa but from Turkey. The existence of Granada threatened the existence of Christian Spain, for the Ottomans could at any moment use it as a beach-head for a second conquest of the Peninsula. Thus Granada had to be reduced, no matter what the cost. And even after that, the Spaniards did not feel secure. The war against Islam would continue, as it always had. The Ottomans were now threatening Italy and the entire western Mediterranean, Spain herself could be next. Even the voyages of discovery were undertaken with the struggle against Islam in mind. Columbus’ first voyage, for example, had as its object the discovery of a direct route to the East Indies, bypassing Muslim territory, “so as to take Islam in the rear,” says Louis Bertrand, “and to effect an alliance with the Great Khan – a mythical personage who was believed to be the sovereign of all that region, and favourable to the Christian religion …” Bertrand was very insistent on this point, which he emphasized in half a dozen pages. The voyage of discovery was to begin a new phase, he says, in “the Crusade against the Moors which was to be continued by a new and surer route. It was by way of the Indies that Islam was to be dealt a mortal blow.”
So certain was Bertrand of the connection between the exploits of the Conquistadores in the Americas and the war against Islam that he actually describes the conquest of America as the “last Crusade.”
The record of the Conquistadores in the New World needs no repetition here: It is one of cruelty and greed on a truly monumental scale. Yet the habits of the Spaniards here, habits which gave rise to the “Black Legend,” were learned at the school of the Caliphs. In Bertrand’s words: “Lust for gold, bloodthirsty rapacity, the feverish pursuit of hidden treasure, application of torture to the vanquished to wrest the secret of their hiding-places from them – all these barbarous proceedings and all these vices, which the conquistadores were to take to America, they learnt at the school of the caliphs, the emirs, and the Moorish kings.”
Indeed all of the traits associated with the Spaniards, for which they have been roundly criticized by English-speaking historians, can be traced to the contact with Islam.
“The worst characteristic which the Spaniards acquired was the parasitism of the Arabs and the nomad Africans: the custom of living off one’s neighbour’s territory, the raid raised to the level of an institution, marauding and brigandage recognized as the sole means of existence for the man-at-arms. In the same way they went to win their bread in Moorish territory, so the Spaniards later went to win gold and territory in Mexico and Peru.
“They were to introduce there, too, the barbarous, summary practices of the Arabs: putting everything to fire and sword, cutting down fruit-trees, razing crops, devastating whole districts to starve out the enemy and bring them to terms; making slaves everywhere, condemning the population of the conquered countries to forced labour. All these detestable ways the conquistadores learnt from the Arabs.
“For several centuries slavery maintained itself in Christian Spain, as in the Islamic lands. Very certainly, also, it was to the Arabs that the Spaniards owed the intransigence of their fanaticism, the pretension to be, if not the chosen of God, at least the most Catholic nation of Christendom. Philip II, like Abd er Rahman or El Mansour, was Defender of the Faith.
“Finally, it was not without contagion that the Spaniards lived for centuries in contact with a race of men who crucified their enemies and gloried in piling up thousands of severed heads by way of trophies. The cruelty of the Arabs and the Berbers also founded a school in the Peninsula. The ferocity of the emirs and the caliphs who killed their brothers or their sons with their own hands was to be handed on to Pedro the Cruel and Henry of Trastamare, those stranglers under canvas, no better than common assassins.”
One of the most deplored characteristics of medieval Europe was its virulent and frequently violent anti-Semitism. Yet the extreme form of anti-Semitism encountered in Europe during the Middle Ages did not predate the eleventh century. Indeed, the first massacres of Jews in Europe were carried out in Spain by Muslim mobs early in the eleventh century; in 1011 (in Cordoba) and 1066 (in Granada). It is true of course that Christians had a long history of antagonism towards the Jews, one that preceded the appearance of Islam. The antagonism was mutual, and Jewish leaders were in the early centuries as vociferous in their condemnation of Christianity as Christians were of Judaism. Serious violence between the two groups was however uncommon; and the first real pogrom launched by Christians against the Jews in Europe did not happen until the beginning of the First Crusade, in 1096, that is, thirty years after the massacre in Granada. And it seems a virtual certainty that the German mobs who carried out the 1096 massacres learned their hatred in Spain.
From Roman and perhaps even pre-Roman times Spain was home to a very large Jewish community. Following the Islamic conquest of that land in 711, the Jews came under the domination of a faith that was from its inception virulently and violently anti-Jewish. For Muslims the lead was given by none other than their founder, the Prophet Muhammad. It would be superfluous to enumerate the anti-Jewish pronouncements in the Koran and the Haditha, where the Hebrews are portrayed as the craftiest, most persistent and most implacable enemies of Allah. In the Koran (2: 63-66) Allah transforms some Jews who profaned the Sabbath into apes: “Be as apes despicable!” In Koran 5: 59-60, He directs Muhammad to remind the “People of the Book” about “those who incurred the curse of Allah and His wrath, those whom some He transformed into apes and swine, those who worshipped evil.” Again, in 7: 166, we hear of the Sabbath-breaking Jews that “when in their insolence they transgressed (all) prohibitions,” Allah said to them, “Be ye apes, despised and rejected.”
From the same sources we know that Muhammad’s first violent action against the Jews involved the Qaynuqa tribe, who dwelt at Medina, under the protection of the city. Muhammad “seized the occasion of an accidental tumult,” and ordered the Qaynuqa (or Kainoka) to embrace his religion or fight. In the words of Gibbon, “The unequal conflict was terminated in fifteen days; and it was with extreme reluctance that Mahomet yielded to the importunity of his allies and consented to spare the lives of the captives.” (Decline and Fall, Chapter 50) In later attacks on the Jews, the Hebrew captives were not so fortunate.
The most notorious of all Muhammad’s attacks against the Jews was directed at the Banu Quraiza tribe. This community, which dwelt near Medina, was attacked without warning by the Prophet and his men, and, after its defeat, all the males over the age of puberty were beheaded. Some Islamic authorities claim that Muhammad personally participated in the executions. The doomed men and boys, whose numbers are estimated at anything between 500 and 900, were ordered to dig the trench which was to be their communal grave. All of the women and children were enslaved. These deeds are mentioned in the Koran as acts carried out by Allah himself and fully sanctioned by divine approval.
The Massacre of Banu Quraiza was followed soon after by the attack on the Khaybar tribe. On this occasion, the Prophet ordered the torture of a Jewish chieftain to extract information about where he had hidden his treasures. When the treasure was uncovered, the chieftain was beheaded.
What caused Muhammad’s seemingly implacable animosity towards the Jews? According to Gibbon, it was their refusal to recognize him as their long-awaited Messiah that “converted his friendship into an implacable hatred, with which he pursued that unfortunate people to the last moment of his life; and, in the double character of apostle and conqueror, his persecution was extended into both worlds.” (Decline and Fall, Ch. 50)
It is a widely-held fiction that, aside from the Prophet’s persecution of the Jews of Arabia, Muslims in general and Islam as a rule was historically tolerant to this People of the Book, who were generally granted dhimmi (“protected”) status in the Islamic Umma, or community. But dhimmi status, also accorded to Christians, did not, as Bat Ye’or has demonstrated at great length, imply equal rights with Muslims. On the contrary, dhimmis were subject, even at the best of times, to a whole series of discriminatory and humiliating laws and to relentless exploitation. At the worst of times, they could be murdered in the streets without any hope of legal redress. One of the most noxious measures directed against them was the requirement to wear an item or color of clothing by which they could be easily identified: identified for easy exploitation and abuse. Bat Ye’or has shown that this law was enforced in Islam right from the beginning. The violence was not continuous, but the exploitation was, and the pattern of abuse initiated by Muhammad in Arabia in the seventh century was to be repeated throughout history. The first massacres of Jews in Europe, carried out by Muslim mobs in Spain, were preceded by other massacres carried out in North Africa, and clearly formed a continuum with Muhammad’s massacres of that people in Arabia.
There was, however, at times, a semblance of tolerance for both Jews and Christians. It could not have been otherwise. When the Arabs conquered the vast territories of Mesopotamia, Syria, and North Africa during the seventh century, they found themselves a small minority ruling over enormous populations comprising mainly Christians and, to a lesser degree, Jews. As such, they needed to proceed with caution. Like all conquerors, the Arabs were quick to exploit any internal conflicts; and it was in their interests, above all, to divide the Christians from the Jews. This was particularly the case in Spain, where the Jewish population was very large. A united Jewish and Christian front could have proved extremely dangerous, and it was entirely in the interest of the conquerors to sow mistrust and suspicion between these communities. In the words of Bat Ye’or, “The [Arab] invaders knew how to take advantage of the dissensions between local groups in order to impose their own authority, favoring first one and then another, with the intention of weakening and ruining them all through a policy of ‘divide and rule.’”
Jewish communities, both in Spain and elsewhere, tended to be both educated and prosperous. Jewish doctors, scientists and merchants could be usefully employed by any ruling group. And employed they were by the Arabs. Some, such as Ibn Naghrela, rose to positions of great prominence. The international connections of the Jews and their mastery of languages proved invaluable to the new rulers. The Jews frequently found themselves in the role of intermediaries between Muslims and Christians. Yet such favors as they enjoyed was transitory and uncertain. There was never any real security, as the massacres of 1011 and 1066 illustrate only too well. On the other hand, it was entirely in the interests of the Muslims that the Christians believed the Jews were favored. And part of that myth was the notion that “the Jews” had actually assisted the Muslims in their conquest of the country.
The likelihood that this story was true is vanishingly small, especially when we consider the massacres of Jews carried out in Arabia by Muhammad himself just a few decades earlier. No people had better international links than the Jews, a nation of merchants par excellence, and those of Spain would have been very much aware of Muhammad’s behavior long before the first Muslim armies landed on Spanish soil. Nonetheless, the story got out that the Jews had helped the Muslims, and there can be little doubt that this story was fostered by the Muslim invaders themselves, as part of the policy of divide and conquer.
All during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the war for possession of the Iberian Peninsula raged between Christians and Muslims. This conflict was to grow into a real clash of civilizations, as both groups called in the assistance of co-religionists from far and wide. The Shrine of Santiago de Compostela became a rallying symbol for the Christians of the north and for those of France and Germany, who crossed the Pyrenees to join the struggle against Islam. Their Christian allies in Spain already had the conviction that the Jews were secret allies of the Muslims. They were convinced that the Jews had assisted the Muslims in their conquest of the country; and they came into contact with Muslim anti-Semitic attitudes – attitudes which the Christians began to imbibe. It is an acknowledged fact that it was in Spain that the warriors who later joined the First Crusade learnt their antisemitism. In the words of Steven Runciman, “Already in the Spanish wars there had been some inclination on the part of Christian armies to maltreat the Jews.” Runciman notes that at the time of the expedition to Barbastro, in the mid-eleventh century, Pope Alexander II had written to the bishops of Spain to remind them that there was all the difference in the world between Muslims and Jews. The former were irreconcilable enemies of the Christians, but the latter were ready to work for them. However, in Spain “the Jews had enjoyed such favour from the hands of the Moslems that the Christian conquerors could not bring themselves to trust them.” This lack of trust is confirmed by more than one document of the period, several of which are listed by Runciman.
Just over a decade after the Christian knights of France and Germany had helped their co-religionists in Spain to retake the city of Toledo from the Muslims, some of them prepared to set out on the First (official) Crusade. Before they did so, a few of them took part in the mass murder of several thousand Jews in Germany and Bohemia – an atrocity unprecedented in European history.
In view of the fact that these pogroms were committed by warriors some of whom had learned their trade in Spain, and in view of the fact that such atrocities were hitherto unknown in Europe, we may state that there is strong circumstantial evidence to suggest that the Christians had been influenced by Islamic ideas.
To conclude, I am not trying to argue that anti-Semitism did not exist among Christians before the rise of Islam. Obviously it did. Yet the influence of Islam, and the terrible struggle between the two intolerant ideologies of Christianity and Islam which began in the seventh century, had a profoundly detrimental effect upon the Jews; and it was then, and only then, that the virulent and murderous anti-Semitism so characteristic of the Middle Ages entered European life.
* * *
The undoubted negative influence of Islam upon the character and culture of Spain and the other Mediterranean lands should not blind us to the fact that the Christian message was never completely lost nor the church as an institution completely corrupted. Following the rise of the Germanic kingdoms in the fifth century, the church worked hard to uphold the rights of slaves and the peasants against the cupidity and passions of the fierce warrior-class which now ruled Spain, Gaul and Italy. This continued during the period of the Muslim and Viking invasions and afterwards. “The tenth and eleventh centuries saw a struggle between the lords and the church over the rights of these people [the peasants]. The lords wanted to deprive the serfs of all the rights of human beings, to say that they had no souls and to refuse to call their unions marriages.” The church, notes the above writer, won this battle, but not without fierce resistance on the part of the nobles. This struggle on behalf of the poor continued right throughout the Middle Ages and beyond, and we have already noted how the monasteries, for example, provided free medical care, as well as alms and shelter, to the poor and destitute all throughout this epoch. And the church further protected the poor by ensuring the enactment of laws against speculation, such as the fixed price of bread and grain, and the various rules which governed the business of the guilds. Even war was regulated by the church, and medieval conflicts, at least within Europe, were not nearly as violent as many imagine. As Sidney Painter notes; “Even when kings and feudal princes fought supposedly serious wars in the early Middle Ages, they were not bloody. At the great and decisive battle of Lincoln in 1217, where some 600 knights on one side fought 800 on the other, only one knight was killed, and everyone was horrified at the unfortunate accident.”
There is no question that the medieval custom of ransoming important hostages provided an economic motive for this remarkable unwillingness to use lethal force; but it is equally clear that the idea of chivalry, with its strongly Christian overtones, exerted a powerful moderating influence.
Nor should we forget that during the centuries which followed the First Crusade, when we might imagine Christians in Europe to have become thoroughly accustomed to the idea of fighting and killing for Christ, there is much evidence to show that this did not happen. The idea of violence in the name of Christ was, in the words of Jonathan Riley-Smith, “without precedent” when it was first promoted in the eleventh century. “So radical was the notion of devotional war,” says Riley-Smith, that it is surprising that there seem to have been no protests from senior churchmen” Be that as it may, Christians could never be fully at ease with the idea, and enthusiasm for crusading soon waned. Riley-Smith notes that, following the success of the First Crusade, the supply of new recruits immediately dried up, even among those groups and families who had been its strongest supporters. These reverted, instead, to the traditional non-military pilgrimage to the Holy Land. We should note too individual statements like that of the English Franciscan Roger Bacon in the 1260s, who criticized the very idea of Crusading, arguing that such military activities impeded efforts to peacefully convert Muslims. Contrast this with the attitude in Islam, where all warriors who died in the Jihad were “martyrs” and guaranteed an immediate reward of 72 virgins in Paradise. And the contrast is seen very clearly in the words of Gregory Palamas, an Orthodox metropolitan, who was a captive of the Turks in 1354: “ … these infamous people, hated by God and infamous, boast of having got the better of the Romans [Byzantines] by their love of God. … They live by the bow, the sword, and debauchery, finding pleasure in taking slaves, devoting themselves to murder, pillage, spoil … and not only do they commit these crimes, but even – what an aberration – they believe that God approves of them.”
And when the Spaniards began the conquest of the New World, one should not forget that the great majority of the excesses carried out were by individual and unregulated adventurers, over whom the royal and church authorities had little control. Nor should we neglect to mention that it was owing to the enormous and sustained pressure of many humane and courageous churchmen that the custom of enslaving the native inhabitants of the New World was finally abandoned.
Thus it would be a mistake to imagine, amidst the Crusades, the Inquisition, and the colonization of the Americas, that the original spirit and teaching of the Carpenter of Galilee was irretrievably lost. Nonetheless, the violent world in which the church found itself put many strains upon it; and the message of Christ was undeniably diluted.
* * *
The removal of Roman power in the fifth century and the flooding of the western provinces by barbarian armies produced in Europe a revival of the military and warrior spirit which had characterized Rome herself in her earlier days. But the barbarians themselves became “softened” by the settled lives they began to lead in the western provinces and by the influence of the Christian faith. Even newly-arrived hordes, like the Franks and Langobards in the late fifth and sixth centuries, fell under the civilizing spell of Rome and of Christianity; and the fierce customs of the men who, just a generation earlier had dwelt in the forests and wildernesses of Germany, soon began to be softened in the vineyards of Gaul and the olive-groves of Spain. Then, however, early in the seventh century, when the West was about to be re-Romanized, there appeared a new enemy: one that could not be placated and could not be Christianized. To the normal horrors of war the Muslim invaders added a new and dangerous element: religious fanaticism. Here were conquerors intent not only on plunder and enslavement, but also on the extinction or at the very least subjugation of the Christian faith. Against the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the Christians of the west might fight for the possession of their homes and their lands, but such enemies were not intent on the destruction of the Christian religion. Christians were free to worship as they wished; and indeed many of the barbarians showed, from the very start, that they could be influenced by and even converted to the Christian faith.
With the Muslims, this was never an option. These were the “unconvertibles”, men who were driven by their own religious zeal, and who waged war specifically to spread that faith. And this was an enmity that time did not ameliorate: for centuries after the invasions of southern Italy, Spain and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Muslim freebooters scoured the Mediterranean and the coastlands of southern France and Italy, robbing, killing and enslaving. With the arrival of Islam, Mediterranean Europe was never again at peace – not until the early part of the nineteenth century, anyway. Muslim privateers based in North Africa, the Barbary Pirates, terrorized the Mediterranean until after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In the centuries preceding that, Muslim armies, first in the form of the Almoravids and later the Ottomans, launched periodic large-scale invasions of territories in southern Europe; and even when they were not doing so, Muslim pirates and slave-traders were involved in incessant raids against coastal settlements in Spain, southern France, Italy, Dalmatia, Albania, Greece, and all the Mediterranean islands. This activity continued unabated for centuries, and the only analogy that springs to mind is to imagine, in northern Europe, what it would have been like if the Viking raids had lasted a thousand years.
It has been estimated that between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries Muslim pirates based in North Africa captured and enslaved between a million and a million-and-a-quarter Europeans. Although their attacks ranged as far north as Iceland and Norway, the impact was most severe along the Mediterranean coasts of Spain, France and Italy, with large areas of coastline eventually being made uninhabitable by the threat.
The impact of this incessant violence has never, I feel, been either thoroughly studied or fully understood. The Mediterranean coastlands must learn to live in a state of constant alert, with fear never far removed. Populations needed to be ready, at a moment’s notice, with a military response. Fortifications must be built and young men trained in the use of arms. There was the development of a semi-paranoid culture in which killing and being killed was the norm, or at least not unusual. Small wonder that some of these territories, particularly Southern Italy, Sicily, Spain, Corsica, parts of Greece and Albania, would in time develop their own violent and relentless cultures; and that it would be above all in Spain that the Inquisition would find its spiritual home. Small wonder too that it would be from this same land that Holy Warriors would set out, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, to conquer the peoples of the New World for Christ.
It is not true, of course, that Christendom and the Christian Church can be entirely absolved of the guilt for what happened in the decades and centuries that followed the First Crusade. There can be little doubt that some Christian doctrines made their own contribution. The narrow teaching which confined truth and salvation to the Christian community alone cannot have but produced a intolerant and irrational attitude to those of other faiths. In the end, however, it seems that without the continued and incessant violence directed at Christendom by Islam over a period of many centuries, Europe would have developed in a very different way: And it seems certain that the rapacious militarism which characterized Europe from the beginning of the Age of the Crusades would never have appeared
How then, without Islam, would events have unfolded? It is of course impossible to say with certainty, but it seems fairly obvious that the “medieval” world as we now know it would never have appeared. Certainly, the period we now call the Middle Ages would have been a lot less “medieval” and a lot more Roman. It is likely that Byzantium would have continued the process, already well under way in the late sixth century, of raising the cultural level of the West. The break between Rome and Byzantium might not have occurred, or been so acrimonious, and there seems little doubt that Western Europe would have experienced its “Renaissance”, or re-flowering of classical civilization, much earlier; perhaps half a millennium earlier. Indeed, it is likely that by the late seventh century the whole of western Europe would have come to resemble contemporary Byzantium, with expanding cities and a thriving cultural and intellectual life. The Viking raids would not have occurred, or at least would not have been as destructive as they were. There would certainly have been no Crusades, there being no Islam to launch them against. And the lack of Viking and Islamic influence would almost certainly have induced the development in Europe of a more pacific culture. Without Islamic influence it is doubtful if the particularly virulent form of anti-Semitism that characterized Europe from the eleventh century would have arisen. The lack of an external and dangerous enemy like Islam would have hindered the development of the paranoia that gripped Europe over the issue of heretics and “witchcraft”. There would probably have been no Inquisition. And without the Islamic example of slavery, the contact with the natives of the New World, when it came, would have been very different, as would Europe’s relations with the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa.
So much for a world without Islam. But what if Islam had been triumphant? What if Europe had become Muslim in the seventh and eighth centuries? No less a person than Gibbon mused on the likely outcome of an Islamic conquest of France, when he noted that, had such an event transpired, then the whole of western Europe must inevitably have fallen, and the Dean of Oxford would likely then have been expounding the truths of the Koran to a circumcised congregation. Against such “calamities,” noted Gibbon, was Christendom rescued by the victory of Charles Martel at Tours in 732. But an Islamic conquest of Europe would have had far more serious consequences than that. From what we have seen of Islam’s record elsewhere, it is likely that the continent would have entered a Dark Age from which it would never have emerged. If we seek the model for Europe as a whole we might look to Albania or the Caucasus of the nineteenth century. These regions, inhabited by semi-Islamicized tribes, were the theatres of perpetual feuding. A Europe under Islam would have been no different: A backward and greatly under-populated wasteland fought over by Muslim tribal chiefs, conditions which would have persisted right into the present century. There would perchance have remained a few, largely decaying and very small, urban centers, in places like Italy, France and Spain; and these territories would have housed an impoverished and sorely oppressed remnant population of Christians. In Rome the Pope would preside over a miserable and decaying Vatican, whose main monuments, such as the original Saint Peter’s, founded by Constantine, would long ago have been transformed into mosques. In such a Europe the entire heritage of classical civilization would have been forgotten. Of Caesar and his conquests, of Greece with her warriors and philosophers, the modern world would know nothing. The very names would have been lost. No child now would know of Troy or Mycenae, of Marathon or Thermopylae. The history of Egypt too, and all the great civilizations of the Near East, would lie buried in the drifting sands of those lands, forever lost and forgotten.
There would have been no High Middle Ages, with their Gothic cathedrals, no Renaissance, no Enlightenment, and no Age of Science.
The fall of Europe would have had consequences far beyond its shores; and the twenty-first century may have dawned with an Islamic (and underpopulated and impoverished) India threatening the existence of China, which would then likely be the last significant non-Muslim civilization. The wars waged between the two would be pre-modern, and though the two sides might employ primitive firearms and cannons, the sword and the bow would remain the most important weaponry, and rules of engagement would be savage.
But these are all what-ifs. History happened, and what happened cannot be changed. Yet if we are not to repeat the mistakes of the past, it is important that we understand exactly what did happen, and why.
Painter, op cit., p. 303
Briffault, op cit., p. 217
Ibid. p. 219
Ibid. p. 217
Trevor-Roper, op cit., p. 143
Ibid., p. 133
Ibid., p. 137
Muhammad said, “If anyone changes his religion, kill him.” (Bukhari, Vol. 9, book 84, no. 57).
Bat Ye’or, op cit., pp. 60-1
Ibid., p. 61
Trevor-Roper, op cit., p. 159
Lactantius, “The Divine Institutes, in “Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries,” in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 156-7.
John Chrysostom, Homily XLVI, in George Prevost, trans. “The Homilies of St. John Chrysostom” in Philip Schaff, ed. A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Vol. X (Eedermans, Grand Rapids, MI, 1986), p. 288
St Augustine, Letter C, in “Letters of St. Augustine,” in J. G. Cunningham, trans. in A Select Library of the Nicene (etc as above)
Colin Wilson and Christopher Evans, (eds.) Strange but True (Parragon Books, 1995), p. 285
Ibid. p. 285
Bertrand, op cit., p. 76
Trevor-Roper, op cit., p. 147
Ibid., p. 17
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History Vol. 1 (Trans. Franz Rosenthal, Bollingen Series 43: Princeton University Press, 1958), p. 480. Cited from Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi, p. 162
Bertrand, op cit., p. 163
Ibid., p. 159
Ibid., p. 160
Bat Ye’or, op cit., p. 87
Steven Runciman, The History of the Crusades, Vol. 1 (London, 1951), p. 135
Painter, op cit., p. 100
Ibid., p. 119
Jonathan Riley-Smith, “The State of Mind of Crusaders to the East: 1095-1300,” in Jonathan Riley-Smith (ed.) Oxford History of the Crusades, p. 79
Ibid., p. 78
Ibid., pp. 80-2
Alan Forey, “The Military Orders, 1120-1312,” in Jonathan Riley-Smith (ed.) Oxford History of the Crusades, p. 205
Robert Irwin, “Islam and the Crusades: 1096-1699,” in Jonathan Riley-Smith (ed.) Oxford History of the Crusades, p. 251
We should not forget of course that the Conquistadors usually acted without official sanction, and that the Church, often in co-operation with the Spanish Government, worked very hard to control their excesses.
Emmet Scott is a historian specializing in the ancient history of the Near East. Over the past ten years he has turned his attention to Late Antiquity and the declining phase of classical civilization, which he sees as one of the most crucial episodes in the history of western civilization.
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LA JOLLA, CA, November 3, 2010 - For Immediate Release - As babies grow, their brain cells develop from a pool of stem cells--some stem cells continuously divide, replenishing the pool, whereas others morph into mature functioning nerve cells. Now researchers at The Scripps Research Institute have shown that as the newly formed nerve cells start firing electrical signals, this activity slows down stem cell division, emptying out the stem cell pool in favor of nerve cell formation.
The study, published in the November 4 issue of the journal Neuron, shows that brain activity controls the balance between stem cells and mature nerve cells and suggests that abnormal brain activity, as it occurs during seizures, may have long-lasting effects on brain development. The results also have implications for replacing brain cells that are damaged or lost through diseases such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease.
"One implication is that to get brain cells to form you need a period in which brain activity is low followed by a period of higher activity," said Scripps Research Professor Hollis Cline, Ph.D., senior author of the study. "Just having high or low brain activity won't have the same outcome."
Nerve Cell Development 101
During development, stem cells give rise to nerve cells in the central nervous system. During the first stages of development, stem cells divide, each generating two identical daughter stem cells. This process, called proliferation, serves to increase the pool of stem cells. In later stages, stem cell division generates two different types of cells: a daughter stem cell plus a cell that changes into a mature, functioning nerve cell through a process known as differentiation. And once the nervous system approaches the final stages of development, all divisions give rise to nerve cells, leaving only a few stem cells behind.
So how is the switch from mainly stem cell proliferation to mainly nerve cell differentiation controlled in the developing brain?
It is known that in adult brains, brain activity helps new nerve cells form and existing ones survive. That is why older people are often told to keep their brains active by doing crossword puzzles and other exercises. But no one had looked at the connection between brain activity and nerve cell formation in the developing brain.
Activity is the Switch
To look for a possible link, Cline turned to the frog Xenopus laevis. In tadpoles, stem cells in the visual system--the part of the brain that receives and interprets signals from the eyes--continue to proliferate for several days even as brain circuits are starting to form and become functional. The researchers wanted to ask whether the activity by the newly formed circuits had any effect on stem cell proliferation and nerve cell differentiation. "We chose the visual system because we can control the amount of activity in pretty precise ways," noted Cline.
First, Cline and her colleague Research Associate Pranav Sharma, Ph.D., determined that the amount of stem cell proliferation in the visual system decreases as the visual circuits are laid out and become active (from about days 7 to 13 in a tadpole's life). But when the scientists shut off activity in the visual system by keeping some of the tadpoles in darkness for two days, cell proliferation increased and nerve cell differentiation decreased.
These observations suggest that brain activity regulates both stem cell proliferation and nerve cell differentiation, but in opposite ways. As circuits are laid out during development, their activity influences the fate of cells generated through stem cell division, making them stop dividing and mature into nerve cells.
"We have found that a key reason why proliferation slows down during development is that brain activity turns it off," said Cline.
Identifying a Key Regulator
Cline and Sharma also discovered a protein that may hold the key to how brain activity slows down stem cell proliferation.
During visual system development, as stem cell proliferation decreases, they found that the amount of a protein called Musashi1, which is produced by stem cells, also decreases. On the other hand, the tadpoles kept in the dark for two days, whose visual system was not active, had an increase in both stem cell proliferation and an increase in Musashi1 protein levels in the stem cells.
In a series of experiments, Cline and Sharma either shut down or boosted the production of musashi1 in the tadpoles' stem cells. They showed that, in the absence of Musashi1, stem cell proliferation slows down. On the other hand, boosting the amounts of Musashi1 increases stem cell proliferation, even in the later stages of development.
"We knew that musashi1 was a marker for stem cells but no one knew that it was controlled by brain activity," said Cline. The findings suggest that this protein might be used as a way of expanding the stem cell pool in developing brains, and possibly even adult brains.
New Avenues for Therapy
The study by Cline and Sharma shows that proliferation and differentiation are regulated differently by brain activity during development. It is not yet known whether these results apply to the adult brain, which contains a small number of stem cells. If they do, however, one implication is that to promote nerve cell formation, both brain activity and inactivity are necessary.
"You might say do a lot of brain exercises, but if you do not include periods of lower activity you will not have an expanded stem cell pool," noted Cline. "You have to keep the pool replenished."
Another question these findings raise is whether abnormal brain activity, as occurs in seizures, has long-lasting effects on developing brains. "Several studies have shown that there are changes in the brain due to seizures but the results are not consistent," she said. "It's possible that abnormal brain activity would affect differentiation or proliferation."
Cline and Sharma plan to pursue these questions in future studies.
Research for the paper, "Visual activity regulates neural progenitor cells in developing Xenopus CNS through Musashi1," was funded by the National Institutes of Health, Dart Neuroscience LLC, and fellowships from the California Institute of Regenerative Medicine. For more information on the paper, see http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(10)00770-1
About The Scripps Research Institute
The Scripps Research Institute is one of the world's largest independent, non-profit biomedical research organizations, at the forefront of basic biomedical science that seeks to comprehend the most fundamental processes of life. Scripps Research is internationally recognized for its discoveries in immunology, molecular and cellular biology, chemistry, neurosciences, autoimmune, cardiovascular, and infectious diseases, and synthetic vaccine development. An institution that evolved from the Scripps Metabolic Clinic founded by philanthropist Ellen Browning Scripps in 1924, Scripps Research currently employs approximately 3,000 scientists, postdoctoral fellows, scientific and other technicians, doctoral degree graduate students, and administrative and technical support personnel. Headquartered in La Jolla, California, the institute also includes Scripps Florida, whose researchers focus on basic biomedical science, drug discovery, and technology development. Scripps Florida is located in Jupiter, Florida. For more information, see www.scripps.edu | <urn:uuid:5c55baae-816e-42ea-808c-c900fc5517c7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-11/sri-srs110310.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953288 | 1,468 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Questioning Egbert's Edict
John Gillingham challenges an idea, recently presented in History Today, that the Anglo-Saxon King Egbert was responsible for the naming of England.
In an ingenious article in the February issue George T. Beech argued that Egbert, the early ninth-century king of the West Saxons, established a kingdom of England almost 200 years before anyone had previously believed that such a place could have existed. He did this on the basis of the entry for 828 in a work known as the Winchester Annals. According to this entry, after defeating the Mercians in battle at Ellendun, Egbert was crowned king of all Britain in Winchester and then, on that same day, ‘issued an edict that henceforth the island should be called England and that the people, whether Jutes or Saxons, should be called by the common name, English’.
Beech acknowledged that the author of these ‘annals’ was a late 12th-century Winchester monk, but disputed the long-established orthodoxy holding that this passage was a later fabrication made some 350 years after the event. Instead Beech argued that this monk had at his disposal a now lost source, which he calls the lost annals of Winchester (Annales Wintonienses deperditi).
He suggested that the monk was probably ‘simply copying, perhaps literally, a passage he had read in the source from which he was making his compilation’; that the original entry for 828 might even have been written down by a man who may have been ‘a contemporary observer in Winchester‘ and then later ‘incorporated into the now lost chronicles’ (p.43).
That Egbert’s kingdom of England went unnoticed by any later ninth or tenth-century observer Beech explained in terms of a Mercian ‘fight-back’ beginning in the 830s, which meant that Egbert’s achievement turned out to be an extremely ephemeral one. Had Egbert ever issued such an edict then Beech’s explanation for the near invisibility of this embryonic kingdom would be a plausible one. But had he?
There is no doubt that some annalistic compilations were put together long ago that no longer survive today. But in this particular case the claim that the late 12th-century monk (whom Beech chose not to name) was copying from a set of lost Winchester annals is thoroughly implausible. To start with, he gave a very inaccurate description of the surviving ‘Winchester Annals’. It is not, as he wrote, ‘a short, anonymous chronicle with entries from the sixth century to the Norman Conquest’ (p. 38), but rather a set of annals which continues well into the 12th century and, more troublingly, begins more than 2,000 years earlier. What is true is that in the printed edition the annals begin in the sixth century. But, although in his article Beech referred to one of the extant manuscripts (Corpus Christi Cambridge, MS 339), he makes no mention of the fact that in this manuscript the annals go back as far as Brutus, the legendary founder of Britain, who was supposed to have lived long before the birth of Christ and who on this version of history arrived at an island inhabited only by giants (an event dated 1,200 years after the Flood).
Because the entries on the first eight manuscript pages were culled from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s legendary history of the deeds of Britons, H.R. Luard, the Victorian editor of the Winchester Annals, chose not to print anything before the year 519. If Luard had printed the full text, it would have been obvious that this particular 12th-century monk was anything but a mere compiler. On the contrary he was an extraordinarily creative historian, who even out-Geoffreyed Geoffrey of Monmouth by daring to invent a decisive confrontation between King Arthur and Cerdic, the first West Saxon king. The fact that not even the thousands of enthusiasts for the legends of King Arthur seem to know of the supposed struggles between the great British hero-king and the founding father of the West Saxon royal dynasty suggests that the unprinted entries remain largely unread.
The inventive monk in question was in fact Richard of Devizes, already well-known to historians as the author of a chronicle of the early 1190s, described by its modern editor as ‘one of the most amusing products of the Middle Ages’. (I have discussed his bold reinterpretation of Geoffrey of Monmouth in a forthcoming essay, ‘Richard of Devizes and a rising tide of nonsense’ in The Long Twelfth-Century View of the Anglo-Saxon Past, edited by M. Brett and D.A. Woodman.)
In the Winchester Annals, Richard described (in the entries for 499 and 504) how King Arthur granted Hampshire and Somerset to Cerdic, who then gave the name Wessex to his new territory and made his capital at Winchester. The entry for 508 reports that Arthur’s treacherous nephew Modred granted seven more shires (Sussex, Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Devon and Cornwall) to Cerdic, who was then crowned king at Winchester. The entry for 828 (though not commented upon by Beech) takes the manipulation of the past a step further by inventing an ancestor for Egbert not known in any of the earlier West Saxon genealogies – or indeed anywhere else. This was Phillida, a woman whom Richard represented as being in the direct line of descent from Brutus and the crucial link in a dynastic chain linking the British and West Saxon kings. Why make a woman the key figure in a claim of dynastic continuity? Perhaps this is a graceful acknowledgment of the place of Henry II’s mother, the Empress Matilda, in legitimising the rule of the kings of England in his own day.
By the standards of entertainment provided by Richard’s account of the making, naming and legitimising of the kingdom of Wessex his invention of the edict of 828 was very small beer. Even so, that most remarkable Winchester monk might have been amused by the notion of his fanciful creation of Egbert’s England being resurrected in 2013. | <urn:uuid:36c34ab1-72a9-4e36-9b45-4e6d8b6e4138> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.historytoday.com/john-gillingham/questioning-egberts-edict | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972944 | 1,328 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Index of content:
Volume 49, Issue 4, July 2005
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1940640View Description Hide Description
The history of the concentric cylinders apparatus for measuring the shear viscosity of liquids, and its attribution to Maurice Couette, have been explored. Examination of the Nineteenth Century literature has revealed that the concept goes back to Stokes and later Margules, the design and execution of the apparatus, apparently independently, to Perry, Couette, Mallock, and Schwedoff. Mallock’s and Schwedoff’s measurements were the most accurate and were within 1% of the viscosities derived from Poiseuille’s measurements on the basis of no slip at the tube walls and cylinder surfaces.Measurement of fluid viscosity was closely linked to the adoption of the no-slip boundary condition at solid-fluid interfaces.
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1917841View Description Hide Description
In order to test the adaptability of a homogenization scheme originally developed for dry granular media, a micromechanical constitutive law for three-dimensional monodisperse wet foam is developed. The advantage of the homogenization scheme is that it provides a link between the discrete bubble-scale microstructure and the continuum quantities of stress and deformation. Furthermore, the resulting constitutive law is in terms of physical material properties (e.g., fluid viscosity, surface tension, and bubble radius) rather than the more phenomenological parameters, such as power-law indices, etc. Hence, predictions of the continuum model can be, and are, compared directly to experiments and simulations. Many of the general features of foam behavior are reproduced, including small-strain elasticity, dependence on gas fraction, and Bingham plastic type deformation rate dependency. However, the current micromechanical continuum model substantially overestimates the static shear modulus and yield stress of foams in comparison to simulations and experiments. This discrepancy is due to the adoption of a mean-field assumption for the deformation in the current model. It is then argued that future micromechanical continuum models for foams cannot neglect the nonaffine motions associated with bubble rearrangements. Finally, for both foams and granular materials, our study indicates that the uniform deformation assumption is only valid near the critical packing of monodisperse spherical particles.
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1940641View Description Hide Description
This work describes a detailed study of the rheopectic effect in the flow of highly concentrated emulsions at low stresses. Experiments with the shear rate sweep demonstrated that the upward and downward branches of the flow curves coincide above some specific shear rate value. The upward experiments show the existence of the Newtonian part on the flow curve in the low-shear-rate domain, while the effect of yielding is observed in the downward curve. Restoration of the initial structure (and properties) after cessation of loading occurs very quickly. This allows associating the rheopexy with elastic deformations and the relaxation process (observed in frequency dependence of dynamic moduli) with characteristic times of about 0.03 s. Transient processes proceed in the range of shear deformation of the order of several units. Some quantitative measures of the rheopectic behavior are proposed and discussed. Normal stresses are constant in the low shear stress domain, but decrease sharply above the range of rheopectic behavior. The mechanisms of the observed effects are discussed. Temperature is not an important factor in the rheopectic behavior studied in this work.
Characterization of the viscoelastic behavior of complex fluids using the piezoelastic axial vibrator49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1917843View Description Hide Description
The piezoelectric axial vibrator (PAV) is a squeeze-flow rheometer working at frequencies between 1 and . It can be used to measure the storage modulus and the loss modulus of complex fluids in this frequency range. Using polymer solutions with known and it is shown that the PAV gives reliable mechanical spectra for frequencies between 10 and . The measurements done with the PAV are combined with a conventional mechanical rheometer and a set of torsional resonators (, 25, and ) to obtain and between and . Using this combination we present the first analysis of the viscoelasticity of an aqueous suspension of thermosensitive latex particles in this range of frequency. It is demonstrated that the combination of the three devices gives the entire mechanical spectra without resort to the time-temperature superposition principle.
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1917846View Description Hide Description
We describe the use of cleated surfaces on parallel disk tools to quantitatively measure the rheological properties of diverse slip-prone fluids and soft materials. Densely packed protrusions ( cross section of length, apart) penetrate the slip layer, preventing significant flow between cleats. This creates a no-slip boundary below their tips, which serves as the sample gap boundary, in direct analogy to the parallel-plate geometry. This “cleat” geometry suppresses slip without application of significant normal force, imposes well-defined shear to enable absolute measurements and is compatible with small sample volumes. The geometry is validated in steady and oscillatory shear using a series of materials not prone to slip (Newtonian oils and an entangled polymer melt). The advantage of cleated tools over other slip-prevention methods is demonstrated using increasingly challenging materials—an emulsion (mayonnaise), a suspension (peanut butter), and a biological tissue (porcine vitreous humor).
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1940638View Description Hide Description
We describe the linear viscoelastic response of dispersions of droplets of two biphenylcarbonitriles that exhibit both isotropic and liquid crystalline phases, -pentyl-4-biphenylcarbonitrile (5CB) and -octyl-4-biphenylcarbonitrile (8CB), in polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS). The Palierne emulsion model agrees well with the storage modulus data for 8CB in both isotropic and nematic phases, but the model overpredicts the magnitude of the interfacial relaxation in the 5CB dispersion, where the volume fraction of the dispersed phase required to fit the data is substantially smaller than the actual value. Similarly, the interfacial tension of 5CB against PDMS deduced from the Palierne fit shows much less temperature dependence than values measured with pendant drop tensiometry. The 8CB droplets are small, with a narrow size distribution, while the 5CB droplets are considerably larger and have a high degree of polydispersity. The basic mechanics of the Palierne theory appear to be applicable to nematic liquids, at least under conditions where the entropic elasticity is weak relative to the interfacial stress; the data suggest, however, that the theory is not applicable to smectic systems, and it needs to be used with considerable care with large droplets accompanied by a large degree of polydispersity.
49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1940639View Description Hide Description
A dispersion of -octyl-4-biphenylcarbonitrile (8CB) in a polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS) matrix exhibits a rheological response characteristic of a fractalgel when prepared at a temperature at which 8CB exists in the smectic phase. The dispersion remains gel-like throughout the smectic and nematic phases of 8CB, but collapses irreversibly to a fluid-like dispersed droplet morphology at the nematic-isotropic transition. The system appears to be kinetically trapped in one or the other morphology because of a large energy barrier between the bicontinuous gel, which is the stable morphology in the smectic regime, and the dispersed droplet, which is the stable morphology in the nematic regime; the energy barrier results from the homeotropic orientation of 8CB at the PDMS interface. The system thus provides an unusual opportunity to probe the consequences of very different length scales in the minor component in both the smectic and nematic liquid crystalline regimes. One such consequence is a controllable thousandfold change in the storage modulus of the blend.
Morphology development of a polystyrene/polymethylmethacrylate blend during start-up of uniaxial elongational flow49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1940642View Description Hide Description
The morphology development of a polystyrene/polymethylmethacrylate blend has been investigated during uniaxial elongational flow. For this purpose linear conservative dichroismmeasurements are used to gather time-resolved information and scanning electron microscopy is performed on quenched samples. With the former technique the evolution of the dropletdeformation in a semiconcentrated blend is studied in real time, whereas the latter technique was used for imaging individual droplets after the elongation. It is shown that the dropletdeformation is affine for the conditions under investigation and that it is possible to predict the evolution of the dichroism by existing theories and the assumption of affine deformation. It has also been verified whether rheological measurements can be used to deduce morphological information during elongational flow, as this method has been succesfully applied previously in simple shear flow.
On the gap error in parallel plate rheometry that arises from the presence of air when zeroing the gap49(2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.1942501View Description Hide Description
When zeroing the gap between two parallel plates, the squeeze flow of air results in a detectable normal force at a finite height that is misinterpreted in rheometry as an indicator for the zero gap position. This leads to a substantial gap error using well-aligned parallel plates that is accurately predicted using Stefan’s equation for squeeze flow. Minimizing or accounting for this error enables accurate rheological measurements to be performed in torsional flow using the parallel plate geometry at narrow gap heights, thus allowing shear rates of over to be achieved. | <urn:uuid:4951ff8e-39a8-4c7e-b132-e187235b938d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scitation.aip.org/content/sor/journal/jor2/49/4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893956 | 2,240 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Pernicious Anemia risks
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Gastrectomy is the removal of part or all of the stomach. Gastrectomy is used to treat stomach problems that aren't helped by other treatments.
Chronic gastritis occurs when your stomach lining becomes swollen or inflamed. Learn more about its causes and symptoms.
Learn about the lumbar puncture procedure and its risks. | <urn:uuid:5118e9cf-725a-4c84-b9b3-ef61df71dffb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.aarpmedicareplans.com/channel/pernicious-anemia_riskfactors | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924103 | 81 | 2.734375 | 3 |
During a pericardial fluid culture, a small needle is inserted into the chest between the ribs into the pericardium (the thin sac that surrounds the heart) and a small amount of fluid is withdrawn. Samples of the fluid are placed in various culture media in the laboratory, and the media is observed for the growth of microorganisms. The test is performed when an infection of the heart is suspected or when a pericardial effusion is present.
Daniel Levy, MD, Infectious Disease, Maryland Family Care, Lutherville , MD. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc. | <urn:uuid:d4c849e9-e56f-4bfa-895d-8637a1bfe98d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.northside.com/HealthLibrary/?Path=HIE+Multimedia%5C2%5C9731.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941254 | 154 | 3.375 | 3 |
For in-depth information on growing organically, visit the Web site of the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, funded by the Department of Agriculture and managed by the National Center for Appropriate Technology. Although the site is designed to provide information and other technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, extension agents, educators, and others involved in sustainable agriculture in the United States, backyard gardeners will also benefit from the compehensive publications available. The Soils Page includes information on soil management, testing and fertilization, manures, compost, and green manures as well as extensive links.
In a straightforward, practical style, Elizabeth P. Stell presents Secrets to Great Soil: A Grower's Guide to Composting, Mulching, and Creating Healthy, Fertile Soil for Your Garden and Lawn (Storey Books, 1998; $28.95). Lots of line drawings, charts, and sidebar features makes the wealth of infomation in this book readily accessible to both beginning and experienced gardeners. The book not only provides information on the obvious, such as how to identify soil types and how to remedy deficiences, but also has information on hand and power tools plus six different composting methods. | <urn:uuid:e4757c83-cf61-4bde-8991-72a75f030bbb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://garden.org/regional/report/arch/gv/1472 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912007 | 246 | 2.953125 | 3 |
The illustration above at the top of this page lays out all the possible steps from a conversation to an archived disk. I wish it were simpler.
All the links in the chain
Sound from a conversation is recorded, and becomes digital (if it wasn’t already born that way), and then the digital audio file is recorded onto a CD. The steps in the chain follow that general path, but there are variations in the exact equipment used to get you there.
A microphone (or set of microphones) captures the sound and converts it to an electrical signal. The strength of that signal is lower than your standard audio signal (such as, say, what is driven to your earphones from an earphone jack). Microphones (or mics, pronounced “mikes”) come in a dizzying array of offerings, each designed for different recording environments, and to pick up sounds in different ways.
(Usually included in a recorder, but sometimes not.) A preamp is used to boost the microphone’s low signal (called mic level) to the same strength of signal that is used in standard audio equipment (called line level; a headphone port on audio equipment is line level)
Most recording devices, if they take microphone input, have a pre-amp inside of them. Some devices will record audio at line level, and need to have an external preamp. Also, you may read of hear discussion about “quiet preamps”—in that usage, quiet is good. That’s because you don’t want to add noise to the signal at the same time that you boost it from the “quieter” level to line level.
Here are a ton of different options. Magnetic tape (often cassette) to minidisc to digital storage formats—flash memory media (non removable or removable), to internal disk drive (iPods, iRiver, Cowan iAudio, Archos Gmini). Lots to choose from, here. Things to weigh and matters to hem and haw over. (I really wish this part were easier and slam dunk.)
An external device (or external sound card) that converts audio signal from microphone or a recorder into digital format. Plug in a microphone or a tape recorder in one end, plug the other end into your computer. May or may not be necessary, depending on the rest of your setup.
Sometimes your computer is the recorder, other times it is what receives and processes the audio recorded elsewhere. The computer is the place where you’ll burn audio and data CDs of your interviews.
Not all disks are alike. Gold CDs use a substance that is longer lasting than other formats. After going to all this trouble, you want your disk to last, don’t you?
Different audio configurations, explained
That animated illustration shows the different ways to put together an audio recording system. Here’s a bit more explanation of each:
USB Mic + Computer
The shortest route is a USB microphone to a computer. The audio is “born digital” by the time it leaves the microphone, and the computer is the recording device. I guess there’s a pre-amp inside the microphone.
Standard Mic + USB Device + Computer
Use any microphone, plug it into a USB device plugged into a computer. The computer is the recording device.
Standard Mic + Recorder + Computer
Use a microphone plugged into a recorder, and directly transfer audio from the recorder to the computer. This works in two ways:
If the audio is born digital, you transfer the audio from the recorder to the computer using a form of file transfer, usually through a USB connection, though it can be Firewire as well.
If the audio is analog, or you’re doing an analog transfer from the headphone port to your computer’s audio in jack, you’ll be playing the recording on the recorder while simultaneously recording it onto your computer. I’ve used this method with cassette tapes and with older forms of minidisc.
Standard Mic + External Preamp + Recorder + Computer
This is similar to the previous system except that it adds an external preamp. It also happens to be my system setup. I’ve got an audio recording device that records line-line audio—it doesn’t have a mic port—so I have a box with a built-in preamp that works with my recorder.
If it’s got a USB, it’s digital
Just a note about USB. Whatever the device, if it has a USB port to it, then the signal leaving the device through that port is digital. If you’re trying to tell the difference between one kind of thing and another, the plugs and ports are a guide for you: If it has analog plugs (headphone jack or minijack), the signal is analog. If it has USB or Firewire or the flash memory itself, then the data is digital. | <urn:uuid:7d9b2225-e6f3-4484-b6f1-c5cfe9328d8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://familyoralhistory.us/equipment/view/spokenword_to_digital_audio | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923859 | 1,026 | 3.0625 | 3 |
The name used by the Dwarves for their own kind in their own private language, Khuzdul. It derived from the word khuzd, meaning 'a Dwarf', transformed into a plural form. The name 'Khazâd' was not widely used by races other than the Dwarves themselves; to the Elves they were most commonly known as the Naugrim, while Men had their own name for this people, rendered using the English word 'Dwarves'.
Though the Dwarves considered their native Khuzdul tongue a secret matter, not to be shared with outsiders, the name Khazâd at least was not a secret. Indeed it was proudly used in the name of the greatest of their mansions: Khazad-dûm in the Misty Mountains, later known as Moria. The name also became well known through the battle-cry of the Dwarves, Baruk Khazâd! Khazâd aimênu!, meaning 'Axes of the Dwarves! The Dwarves are upon you!'1
From The Lord of the Rings Appendix F I, The Languages and Peoples of the Third Age.
For acknowledgements and references, see the Disclaimer & Bibliography page.
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Original content © copyright Mark Fisher 1998, 2001, 2009, 2015. All rights reserved. For conditions of reuse, see the Site FAQ. | <urn:uuid:b24c49ae-a9c7-40fb-8727-7f09e0114d35> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/k/khazad.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962561 | 291 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Eating hot food in plastic containers can lead to serious health problems - Doctor
Here in Accra, thin plastic bags and styrofoam packs are the preferred containers for take-away food. Whether it is rice, porridge, stew, or banku, roadside food joints and chop bars serve it up hot in this cheap, convenient packaging for thousands of customers every day.
Many of these businesses store the piping hot food in plastic ice chests or reheat it on plastic plates in microwaves to ensure that it is hot when customers buy it.
Bags, microwaves, and ice chests all make it much easier to run a small-time food kiosk, container, or restaurant, but they have a downside as well: when heated, these plastic materials can release damaging chemicals into the food, which can cause diners serious medical complications down the road.
Dr. Andre Kwasi-Kumah, a general practitioner at the Eden Family Hospital, has advised that the harmful agents are not only released at high temperatures; they can also seep into fatty, salty, or acidic foods at room temperature.
He explained that some of these chemicals cause “disruptions in human reproduction which can lead to infertility.”
Furthermore, they are known to “predispose the one eating the food to conditions like diabetes and hypertension.”
He added that if children habitually eat food containing these chemicals, they “may develop these illnesses earlier.”
He suspects that further research will establish a causal link between the increased use of plastic packaging for food and the increasingly early onset of diseases like diabetes in many Ghanaians.
Certain medical researchers have also identified a range of hormone-related developmental issues that can arise in children exposed to these chemicals.
Other researchers anticipate a link between some of these chemicals and cancer. They have observed this link in rats and in some humans as well, but because of the small sample size of human subjects and other difficulties studying carcinogens, the medical community is not yet prepared to state conclusively that these chemicals cause cancer.
Realistically, eating hot food from a plastic bag one time will probably have no effect on a person's health, but those who make a habit out of it may be putting themselves at risk.
There is no set rule on how many times a person can eat food that has touched hot plastic without getting sick. The safest solution is to avoid eating this food whenever possible.
Fortunately, there are ways around this plastic problem. Microwaving food on ceramic or glass plates and serving hot food in paper-based packages or on ceramic or wooden plates will eliminate the risk of ingesting these chemicals.
The price of a ceramic plate may higher than that of a plastic plate, but compared to the long-term financial and emotional costs associated with conditions like diabetes and infertility, it's a small price to pay. | <urn:uuid:e302f829-32c2-4d22-8929-adcf6a8d3755> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.modernghana.com/lifestyle/3733/16/eating-hot-food-in-plastic-containers-can-lead-to-.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95749 | 589 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The concept of Write-once-run-anywhere (known as the Platform independent) is one of the important key feature of java language that makes java as the most powerful language. Not even a single language is idle to this feature but java is more closer to this feature. The programs written on one platform can run on any platform provided the platform must have the JVM.
There are various features that makes the java as a simple language. Programs are easy to write and debug because java does not use the pointers explicitly. It is much harder to write the java programs that can crash the system but we can not say about the other programming languages. Java provides the bug free system due to the strong memory management. It also has the automatic memory allocation and deallocation system.
To be an Object Oriented language, any language must follow at least the four characteristics.
As the languages like Objective C, C++ fulfills the above four characteristics yet they are not fully object oriented languages because they are structured as well as object oriented languages. But in case of java, it is a fully Object Oriented language because object is at the outer most level of data structure in java. No stand alone methods, constants, and variables are there in java. Everything in java is object even the primitive data types can also be converted into object by using the wrapper class.
Java has the strong memory allocation and automatic garbage collection mechanism. It provides the powerful exception handling and type checking mechanism as compare to other programming languages. Compiler checks the program whether there any error and interpreter checks any run time error and makes the system secure from crash. All of the above features makes the java language robust.
The widely used protocols like HTTP and FTP are developed in java. Internet programmers can call functions on these protocols and can get access the files from any remote machine on the internet rather than writing codes on their local system.
The feature Write-once-run-anywhere makes the java language portable provided that the system must have interpreter for the JVM. Java also have the standard data size irrespective of operating system or the processor. These features makes the java as a portable language.
While executing the java program the user can get the required files dynamically from a local drive or from a computer thousands of miles away from the user just by connecting with the Internet.
Java does not use memory pointers explicitly. All the programs in java are run under an area known as the sand box. Security manager determines the accessibility options of a class like reading and writing a file to the local disk. Java uses the public key encryption system to allow the java applications to transmit over the internet in the secure encrypted form. The bytecode Verifier checks the classes after loading.
Java uses native code usage, and lightweight process called threads. In the beginning interpretation of bytecode resulted the performance slow but the advance version of JVM uses the adaptive and just in time compilation technique that improves the performance.
As we all know several features of Java like Secure, Robust, Portable, dynamic etc; you will be more delighted to know another feature of Java which is Multithreaded.
Java is also a Multithreaded programming language. Multithreading means a single program having different threads executing independently at the same time. Multiple threads execute instructions according to the program code in a process or a program. Multithreading works the similar way as multiple processes run on one computer.
Multithreading programming is a very interesting concept in Java. In multithreaded programs not even a single thread disturbs the execution of other thread. Threads are obtained from the pool of available ready to run threads and they run on the system CPUs. This is how Multithreading works in Java which you will soon come to know in details in later chapters.
We all know that Java is an interpreted language as well. With an interpreted language such as Java, programs run directly from the source code.
The interpreter program reads the source code and translates it on the fly into computations. Thus, Java as an interpreted language depends on an interpreter program.
The versatility of being platform independent makes Java to outshine from other languages. The source code to be written and distributed is platform independent.
Another advantage of Java as an interpreted language is its error debugging quality. Due to this any error occurring in the program gets traced. This is how it is different to work with Java.
The term architectural neutral seems to be weird, but yes Java is an architectural neutral language as well. The growing popularity of networks makes developers think distributed. In the world of network it is essential that the applications must be able to migrate easily to different computer systems. Not only to computer systems but to a wide variety of hardware architecture and Operating system architectures as well. The Java compiler does this by generating byte code instructions, to be easily interpreted on any machine and to be easily translated into native machine code on the fly. The compiler generates an architecture-neutral object file format to enable a Java application to execute anywhere on the network and then the compiled code is executed on many processors, given the presence of the Java runtime system. Hence Java was designed to support applications on network. This feature of Java has thrived the programming language.
Posted on: February 25, 2008 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles | <urn:uuid:cdc4deef-35ce-4769-bb71-b93914eeab02> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://roseindia.net/java/java-introduction/java-features.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929651 | 1,090 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Despite a generally favourable global food outlook, some 34 countries around the world are experiencing severe food shortages.
In southern Africa, with anticipated reduced harvests this year following sharp falls last year, the food outlook for several countries in 2002/03 is very unfavourable. Severe food shortages are already affecting Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Lesotho. Their Governments have appealed to the international community for food assistance. The food supply situation is also tight in southern provinces of Mozambique and in Swaziland. In Angola, over one million internally displaced people continue to receive emergency food aid. Presently there are six FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Missions to the various countries in the subregion, whose findings will be available in late May 2002. In eastern Africa, despite improved cereal harvests in 2001/2002 in most parts, the effects of earlier devastating droughts and past or ongoing conflicts continue to undermine the food security of an estimated 11 million people. In Eritrea, nearly 1.3 million people continue to depend on emergency food assistance due to past conflicts and drought. In Ethiopia, despite a bumper harvest in 2001, some 5.2 million people are estimated to be facing severe food shortages. In Kenya, overall food supply has improved following favourable rains except in the northern and eastern pastoral areas, where large numbers of people still depend on food assistance. In Somalia, despite a better second season cereal crop, up to 500 000 people are threatened by severe food shortages. In Sudan, food supply is generally adequate following the good main 2001 season cereal crop, but large numbers of people in southern and western regions depend on emergency food assistance due to crop failures and civil strife. In Tanzania and Uganda the food supply situation is generally stable, but there are localized food shortages. In western Africa, the food supply situation has improved in Burkina Faso, Chad and Niger following significantly better harvests compared to the previous year. Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea continue to require international food assistance due to past or ongoing civil strife. In Mauritania, the food supply situation is tight following a poor harvest. In central Africa, the food situation is satisfactory, except in the Democratic Republic of Congo, (DRC) where production is continually disrupted by the long-running civil war, and in the Republic of Congo where a resurgence of fighting has caused renewed population displacement. In Burundi, despite an improvement in the food supply situation, food assistance continues to be necessary for over 400 000 internally displaced people.
In Asia, emergency food assistance continues to be required in DPR Korea. Against a need of 610 000 tonnes of cereals and other food, only 275 000 tonnes are presently available and the WFP emergency food pipeline will dry up early in the third quarter of 2002, if donor support is not immediately forthcoming. Food assistance is also needed in Mongolia, where pastoralists remain highly food insecure after another harsh winter with additional losses of animals. In Pakistan, vulnerable people in the drought affected provinces of Balochistan and Sindh and refugees continue to require emergency food assistance, as do drought victims in southern parts of Sri Lanka. Inadequate precipitation and water availability in the CIS of the Central Asian region are likely to result in tight food supply in some countries. The worst affected countries where extra emergency food assistance may be required are Armenia, Georgia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Last year only Tajikistan and Uzbekistan required emergency food assistance for nearly 2 million people.
In the Near East, favourable weather conditions in most countries have improved prospects for winter grains, about to be harvested. However, the food situation in Afghanistan remains grave, notwithstanding the relative calm and improved delivery of food assistance. Years of civil strife and successive severe droughts have exposed millions of people to extreme hardship. In addition, a devastating earthquake in northern parts in late March resulted in hundreds of deaths and large numbers of people were left homeless. The current serious invasion of locusts, reckoned to be the worst in over 30 years, can only make the food situation even worse. In Iraq and Jordan, despite recent good rains, successive years of drought have left some sections of the population in need of assistance. The food situation in the West Bank and Gaza Strip also gives cause for serious concern following alarming deterioration due to escalation of violence. In Central America and the Caribbean, the food supply situation remains tight in several areas in El Salvador and Guatemala. The situation is aggravated by the crisis affecting the important coffee industry due to the dramatic fall in international prices. In South America, food assistance is being provided to the internally displaced people in Colombia, as a result of civil strife. In Europe, refugees, the vulnerable and internally displaced population in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and in Chechnya in the Russian Federation continue to require emergency food assistance.
1/ This updates information published in the April 2002 issue of Foodcrops and Shortages. Countries facing exceptional food emergencies are underlined. | <urn:uuid:69d291a2-5d73-4a9a-a440-1d42323bb435> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y6668e/Y6668e05.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937844 | 1,002 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Department of Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel
Received: 05 Apr 2011 – Published in Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.: 23 May 2011
Abstract. The interaction between breezes and synoptic gradient winds, and surface friction increase in transition from sea to land can create persistent convergence zones nearby coastlines. The low level convergence of moist air promotes the dynamical and microphysical processes responsible for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Revised: 11 Dec 2011 – Accepted: 12 Dec 2011 – Published: 21 Dec 2011
Our work focuses on the winter seasons of 1998–2011 in the Eastern Mediterranean. During the winter the Mediterranean sea is usually warmer than the adjacent land, resulting in frequent occurrence of land breeze that opposes the common synoptic winds. Using rain-rate vertical profiles from the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of average hydrometeor mass in clouds as a function of the distance from coastlines.
Results show that coastlines in the Eastern Mediterranean are indeed favored areas for precipitation formation. The intra-seasonal and diurnal changes in the distribution of hydrometeor mass indicate that the land breeze may likely be the main responsible mechanism behind our results.
Heiblum, R. H., Koren, I., and Altaratz, O.: Analyzing coastal precipitation using TRMM observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 13201-13217, doi:10.5194/acp-11-13201-2011, 2011. | <urn:uuid:2f42f17f-6e24-49b8-ab2e-5a56b2582a45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/13201/2011/acp-11-13201-2011.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.828235 | 324 | 2.921875 | 3 |
By Pat Ford - Executive Director, Save our Wild Salmon
This Saturday, on September 17th, America celebrates a national achievement on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State: removal of the two Elwha River dams. This is the largest dam removal project in the world, ever. The Glines Canyon dam on the Elwha at 210 feet marks the highest dam ever removed as well. Learn more about the Elwha project.
An exciting new video was released this week about the Elwha project by Andy Maser courtesy of American Rivers and American Whitewater:
Year of the River: Episode 1 from Andy Maser on Vimeo.
Elwha River restoration will restore one of the west coast’s legendary salmon rivers, which once produced five separate salmon species, including Chinook salmon up to 50 pounds (by some accounts, even up to 100 pounds). It will restore a cultural and economic heritage for the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, a vital food source for Puget Sound’s endangered orca whales, and a world-class scenic and recreational attraction. River restoration is also creating hundreds of jobs, with more to come as salmon recover. And, after years of conflict, restoration is occurring collaboratively, via agreements that provide replacement power for local businesses and additional community benefits. Credit for this runs from local people, to Washington elected leaders, all the way to the White House and Congress. And the rewards will flow as widely.
The restoration has another dimension at well: it will teach us scientific, engineering, economic, and community lessons we can apply to other rivers. Every river is different, and therefore every river restoration proposal must be judged on its individual merits. The Elwha project is applying lessons from earlier dam removals, and similar learning will come from it.
Our coalition’s fishing, business and conservation groups support restoring the lower Snake River a few hundred miles east of the Elwha. The Elwha project will offer lessons for the lower Snake River in many areas, but I’ll note three of importance -- salmon response, economic impact, and collaboration:
- Wild salmon have responded quickly and positively to every major dam removal done so far on a salmon river; quick adaptability is in their DNA. The Elwha will provide the best lessons yet in how fast various species respond. This is important for the lower Snake, where five species of salmon and steelhead will be affected.
- Local economic benefit to Tribal and non-Tribal communities was not a primary motivator behind the Elwha campaign, but it has become a critical and closely watched feature of the project. While the rural areas around the lower Snake have different dynamics from the communities near the Elwha, the importance of jobs is just as critical.
- After much conflict over two decades, the Elwha project finally came together due to collaborations in which all parties got something important to their future. No doubt a collaborative process for the lower Snake will look very different, but the same principles can be applied for the farmers, fishermen, energy users, communities, and businesses involved.
The recent U.S. District Court verdict found the government’s Columbia and Snake River salmon plan illegal for the third straight time. It ordered a new and full evaluation of restoring the Lower Snake River by removing its four dams. That official evaluation should apply relevant lessons from the Elwha. But more important is the people’s evaluation – people on the west coast, and across America – that will occur at the same time. We are confident people will apply the lessons and spirit of the Elwha achievement to the Snake River. | <urn:uuid:e2a68c1b-3625-4b97-a814-46d82586ea31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://saveourwildsalmon.blogspot.com/2011/09/elwha-project-lessons-for-lower-snake.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942454 | 749 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Graphene’s negative environmental impacts
May 1, 2014
Researchers at the University of California, Riverside Bourns College of Engineering have found graphene oxide nanoparticles are very mobile in lakes or streams and likely to cause negative environmental impacts if released.
Graphene oxide* nanoparticles are an oxidized form of graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms prized for its strength, conductivity and flexibility. Applications for graphene include everything from cell phones and tablet computers to biomedical devices and solar panels.
The use of graphene and other carbon-based nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, are growing rapidly. At the same time, recent studies have suggested graphene oxide may be toxic to humans.
As production of these nanomaterials increase, it is important for regulators, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, to understand their potential environmental impacts, said Jacob D. Lanphere, a UC Riverside graduate student who co-authored a just-published paper about the transport of graphene oxide nanoparticles in ground and surface water environments.
“To our knowledge, there is no current information regarding the concentration of graphene oxide nanoparticles present in the environment; however, as the research and development of graphene oxide nanoparticles increases, portions of these materials will inevitably end up in aqueous environments,” the researchers state in a paper published in a special issue of the journal Environmental Engineering Science.
“The situation today is similar to where we were with chemicals and pharmaceuticals 30 years ago,” Lanphere said. “We just don’t know much about what happens when these engineered nanomaterials get into the ground or water. So we have to be proactive so we have the data available to promote sustainable applications of this technology in the future.”
The research was performed in the lab of Sharon L. Walker, an associate professor and the John Babbage Chair in Environmental Engineering at UC Riverside. Walker’s lab is one of only a few in the country studying the environmental impact of graphene oxide. The research focused on understanding graphene oxide nanoparticles’ stability, or how well they hold together, and movement in groundwater versus surface water.
- In groundwater, which typically has a higher degree of hardness and a lower concentration of natural organic matter, the graphene oxide nanoparticles tended to become less stable and eventually settle out or be removed in subsurface environments.
- In surface waters, where there is more organic material and less hardness, the nanoparticles remained stable and moved farther, especially in the subsurface layers of the water bodies.
- Graphene oxide nanoparticles, despite being nearly flat, as opposed to spherical, like many other engineered nanoparticles, follow the same theories of stability and transport.
The research is supported by Lanphere’s National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship; a NSF grant received by the UC Center for Environmental Implications for Nanotechnology, of which Walker is a member; and an NSF Career Award and U.S. Department of Agriculture Hispanic Serving Institution grant, both received by Walker.
* UPDATE May 1, 2014: According to Lanphere in an email to KurzweilAI:
Graphene oxide is the oxidized form of graphene that has undergone extreme conditions (e.g., exposure to highly concentrated sulfuric acid, high temperatures, ultra sonication) during its synthesis process. This results in oxygen functional (e.g., carbonyl, carboxyl, hydroxyl) groups being present on the surface and basal planes of the graphene oxide flakes. These oxygen functional groups result in the material being more stable than graphene and also more toxic. The main difference between GO and graphene is the functional groups on GO allow for the further derivitization of the surface of GO therefore allowing for additional chemical modification. GO can be deposited on additional substrates for thin conductive films where the surface can be tuned to facilitate other desired interactions to be used in sensors (e.g., heavy metal detecting sensors), electrodes, or even biomedical applications to name a few. Graphene on the other hand is not very stable and has many potential applications in the field of electrochemistry. In addition, GO has been proposed to be the precursor for bulk production of graphene based products. GO will therefore be used to synthesize graphene based hybrids or composite materials. Therefore their are two ways that GO can be introduced into the environment 1. Through primary applications (sensors, electrodes, etc) and 2. secondary applications (precursors material in graphene production and hybrid materials). For more information please read the following journal article: Chen, D.; Feng, H. B.; Li, J. H. Graphene Oxide: Preparation, Functionalization, and Electrochemical Applications. Chemical Reviews. 2012, 112 (11), 6027-6053.
Abstract of Environmental Engineering Science paper
The effects of groundwater and surface water constituents (i.e., natural organic matter [NOM] and the presence of a complex assortment of ions) on graphene oxide nanoparticles (GONPs) were investigated to provide additional insight into the factors contributing to fate and the mechanisms involved in their transport in soil, groundwater, and surface water environments. The stability and transport of GONPs was investigated using dynamic light scattering, electrokinetic characterization, and packed bed column experiments. Stability results showed that the hydrodynamic diameter of the GONPs at a similar ionic strength (2.1±1.1 mM) was 10 times greater in groundwater environments compared with surface water and NaCl and MgCl2 suspensions. Transport results confirmed that in groundwater, GONPs are less stable and are more likely to be removed during transport in porous media. In surface water and MgCl2 and NaCl suspensions, the relative recovery was 94%±3% indicating that GONPs will be very mobile in surface waters. Additional experiments were carried out in monovalent (KCl) and divalent (CaCl2) salts across an environmentally relevant concentration range (0.1–10 mg/L) of NOM using Suwannee River humic acid. Overall, the transport and stability of GONPs was increased in the presence of NOM. This study confirms that planar “carbonaceous-oxide” materials follow traditional theory for stability and transport, both due to their response to ionic strength, valence, and NOM presence and is the first to look at GONP transport across a wide range of representative conditions found in surface and groundwater environments. | <urn:uuid:bf9b5d8a-1b06-4369-8db4-fc571e2cf44d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kurzweilai.net/graphenes-negative-environmental-impacts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94531 | 1,342 | 3.0625 | 3 |
New EPA rules require Indiana reduce its carbon emissions at least 28 percent by 2030. How that's done is left largely up to the state.
Duke Energy plans to build 11 miles of power lines in West Terre Haute to replace power that is currently being generated at its Wabash River plant.
Indianapolis Power and Light plans to replace its current coal-fired power plant near Martinsville with a new natural gas plant.
Indiana Power And Light Company says its dependence on coal will fall to 44 percent by 2017 as it switches to natural gas.
Environmentalists say the energy efficiency programs could help the state meet new EPA requirements aimed at cutting carbon emissions.
A Sierra Club report indicates 16 coal plants in Indiana are discharging toxic metals into rivers.
Renewable energy advocates want Indiana University to follow the lead of 19 other campuses that plan to close their coal power plants.
Indiana ranks particularly high in chromium and nickel. Energy companies say they are taking steps to decrease their emissions. | <urn:uuid:e3eb064b-c28f-4d7b-ac4a-95fd88306dc7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://indianapublicmedia.org/news/tag/power-plant/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940049 | 204 | 3.015625 | 3 |
To win a presidential election, a candidate must be a good speaker. There is no room at the top for someone who can’t express his thoughts in an eloquent and inspirational manner. EducationWorld decided to take a look at presidential speeches and come up with a definitive list of the 10 most important. Here you’ll find not necessarily the 10 best orators, but certainly the most impactful, memorable and inspiring addresses given by a U.S. president.
#10 Ronald Reagan’s ‘Evil Empire’ Speech (1983) – While U.S. and Soviet tensions were already high, Reagan's March 8, 1983 speech to the National Association of Evangelicals in Orlando, FL took them to another level. His referring to the Soviet Union as an evil empire is considered the verbal personification of the escalation of the Cold War. In the short term, it prompted Soviet leaders to claim the U.S. was nothing more than an imperialist state seeking to dominate the world, and led to NATO nuclear missiles being deployed in Western Europe. In the long term, those missiles were used as bargaining chips in arms talks which led to the first-ever nuclear reduction treaty.
#9 Teddy Roosevelt’s Address to the Minnesota State Fair (1901) – Most noted for his use of the phrase “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” this understated advice from an unimportant speech goes to the very heart of one of the most dominating personalities ever to hold the office of president. It’s almost ironic that he uttered those words only 12 days before the assassination of President McKinley, an event that thrust Roosevelt into the office. There are few, even today, who aren’t familiar with that line.
#8 Woodrow Wilson’s War Message to Congress (1917) – In a time when Isolationism was an accepted foreign policy, Wilson took a stand to right what he viewed to be a terrible wrong. While other countries involved in “The Great War” were battling for territorial boundaries, U.S. involvement was purely ideological. This was the case that Wilson put forth to Congress, and this is why the U.S. joined the Allies against Germany.
#7 LBJ’s Civil Rights Address to Congress (1965) – In the wake of the deadly police violence that took place in Selema, AL only a week prior, Lyndon B. Johnson addressed all of Congress in an effort to quell the simmering racial tensions in America. Johnson called for true equality and for the end of violence. Most notably, the President used the words “We shall overcome,” a phrase that, until that moment, was associated mainly with African-American leaders struggling to gain equality. The expression has since become a rallying cry for all Americans seeking equal rights.
#6 George W. Bush’s Bullhorn Speech (2001) - This speech is unique to this list, as it is the only one that was not a prepared address. Standing among the still-smoldering ashes of the World Trade Center, George W. Bush grabbed a bullhorn, humbly issued thanks, and boldly issued a warning. When one person in the crowd shouted that he couldn’t hear the President’s words, Bush replied, “I can hear you! The rest of the world hears you! And the people -- and the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon!” In the two-plus minutes he spoke, Bush summed up the entire range of emotions felt by everyone in America following the Sept. 11, 2001 attack, and reassured them that we were going to fight back.
#5 JFK’s Inaugural Address (1961) – As with all truly great speeches, this address is best known for one line: “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.” What often gets overlooked, however, is that this speech embodies a cultural shift taking place in America. Here we have a young, dynamic leader calling on a generation to become leaders as well.
#4 FDR’s War Message to Congress (1941) – In the vein of the “Bullhorn Speech,” but more in more polished form, Roosevelt calls out an enemy that attacked without provocation. Literally the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the President asks a still-stunned Congress to declare war and join the Allied force. In the decades since World War II popular phrases like “Remember the Arizona” have mostly been forgotten. December 7, 1941 is still a date that lives in infamy, however.
#3 Barack Obama’s Victory Speech (2008) – This is the one speech on our list that is less about the words being spoken. This speech ranks highly because of who was speaking. For the first time in America’s history, an African-American was addressing the nation after winning the office of president. It was only 150 years prior that someone with Obama’s background may have suffered at the hands of a slave owner. Now he held our nation’s highest office. This was the moment when the idea that anyone could be president became a reality.
#2 Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (1863) – Arguably the most famous speech on this list, The Gettysburg Address serves as a seminal moment in U.S. history. Standing on the same ground where Union and Confederate soldiers died, Lincoln evoked the ideas of equality that the Founding Fathers envisioned and for which civil rights leaders would fight. He referred to the end of the Civil War as a new birth of freedom, while bringing all Americans together. Half thumbing his nose at the defeated South, half reassuring the North that the country will heal, his final remark that a “government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth” resonates to this day.
#1 George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) – It seems fitting that the top spot on our list goes to our first and greatest president. Although he never presented the address orally, Washington’s farewell address eloquently lays out his vision for the future of the country he helped create. The fact that he was stepping aside set the precedent for the two-term limit we have today.
It is ironic that Washington warns against many of the political traps America has fallen into over 200 years later.
In his address, Washington makes the argument that the two-party system is dangerous, claiming, “It serves to distract the Public Councils and enfeeble the Public Administration....agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one....against another.”
With respect to federal debt, Washington advises frugality, saying, “Cherish public credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible...avoiding likewise the accumulation of debt....bear in mind, that towards the payments of debts there must be Revenue, that to have Revenue there must be taxes; that no taxes can be devised, which are not...inconvenient and unpleasant."
The brilliant military leader also warns against the amassing of an overly powerful military, advising “Avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which, under any form of government, are inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to Republican Liberty.”
This address literally set the stage for all presidential speeches that followed. | <urn:uuid:64ae95b8-2de0-45e2-a8e6-0edbcdf0f652> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationworld.com/content/a_curr/top_10_presidential_speeches | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966214 | 1,567 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The quote you trotted out talks about the Emperor Justinian NOT the Emperor Constantine. Constantine was a sun worshiper that converted to Christianity because it suited his political needs. Actually the Byzantine emperors provided state funding and support to ALL religious sects in the empire up until the reign of JUSTINIAN. The emperor Justinian was the first Byzantine emperor to adopt Christianity as the sole religion of the Byzantine Empire and to actively promote the destruction of non-Christian places of worship and their replacement with Christian churches (he did this in order to re-unify the East and West Byzantine Empires under a single political and religious system). He enacted these laws against ALL non-Christian religions, not just the Jews.rory wrote:I love Nemo "the Jews left in A.D. 70" like it was a stroll, the Judaeans (and historically use this term) were defeated by the Romans and a large part of the population enslaved. And yes there was a diaspora.
Actually Judaeans were equal citizens under the law during the Roman Empire until Constantine I the first Christian emperor came to the throne. Here is a nice paragraph from Fordham University in NY (Jesuit Institution)The real significance of Roman law for the Jew and his history is that it exerted a profound influence on subsequent Christian and even Muslim legislation. The second-class status of citizenship of the Jew, as crystallized in the Justinian code, was thus entrenched in the medieval world, and under the influence of the Church the disabilities imposed upon him received religious sanction and relegated him even to lower levels.
As for the Semites, well, you do realise that Palestinians are Semites too? Right? The state of Israel is anti-Semitic because it works actively against the needs of all Semitic people in order to benefit its political and economic elites. To be opposed to the current mode of functioning of the state of Israel is to be pro-Semitic. | <urn:uuid:62fd9632-a910-4d90-b693-2521599cf7f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dharmawheel.net/viewtopic.php?f=47&t=16133&start=20 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970832 | 392 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The word Buzzard is derived, through the French busard, from the Latin buteo, and according to Newton should perhaps properly be restricted to the common Buzzard (Buteo Buteo) of western Europe, but as a matter of fact it is applied, at least as a book name, to the entire group under consideration. In North America, however, where the Black and Turkey Vultures are almost always denominated “Buzzards,” this name is rarely if ever applied to the members of the present subfamily, these being called “Hawks,” with some distinguishing prefix, as ” Red-tailed,” “Swainson’s,” ” Red-shouldered,” etc. The Buzzards, when the name is applied in the broad sense as standing for this whole group, embrace several genera and a large number of species, of medium-sized or some of them large birds, of heavy, compact build and rather sluggish habits as compared with many of the other diurnal birds of prey. They bear the reputation of being more or less cowardly and pusillanimous in disposition. More than a century ago Gilbert White wrote : ” The Buzzard is a dastardly bird, and beaten not only by the Raven, but even by the Carrion Crow.” This may apply to the species of which it was said, but it is not wholly applicable to the New World representatives, for, while they may lack the snap and vim evinced by the Falcons, they are by no means without courage and spirit.
The genus Buteo, which may be recognized as typical of the subfamily, is a large group of some thirty-three forms, no less than twenty-two of which are natives of the New World. The remainder are widely distributed in the Old World, except in the Indian and Malay provinces, and Australasia and Oceanica, where they are unknown. They have the heavy, robust build characteristic of the group, with the bill of small or moderate size, the culmen, which is curved from the cere, with the commissure nearly straight and exhibiting no evidence of a tooth. The wings are always ample and long, the third to fifth quills longest, with the first three or four emarginated on the inner webs, while the tail is of moderate length and rounded at the end. The tarsus is rather long, naked or nearly so, and covered with scales, while the toes are short but provided with strong claws.
The Buzzards have usually been placed next the Eagles, with which they have many points in common, but they differ, among other things, in assuming, it is said, the adult plumage after the first moult, whereas it takes several years for the Eagles to attain full plumage. But despite this lack of a series of immature plumages in the Buteos, there is abundant variation in their coloration, since distinctly light, rufous, and melanistic (black) forms are found in several species, in some instances these differences being so marked as to have resulted in their being regarded as distinct species. In general the Buzzards feed on mice and other small mammals, snakes, frogs, lizards, large insects, and an occasional bird, usually an injured or sickly one, and some of the American species have the more or less deserved reputation of helping themselves in the poultry yard. | <urn:uuid:80f3a9a4-bca6-4856-9509-5476dc7c08fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://birds.yodelout.com/birds-the-buzzards-or-buzzard-hawks-subfamily-buteoninoe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975006 | 708 | 3.34375 | 3 |
The Obama Administration has announced a plan for the creation of a new national Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) Master Teacher Corps made up of the nation’s finest STEM subject educators. The STEM Master Teacher Corps will launch with 50 exceptional teachers established in 50 sites and will be expanded to 10,000 Master Teachers over a four year period.
President Obama said, “If America is going to compete for the jobs and industries of tomorrow, we need to make sure our children are getting the best education possible. Teachers matter, and great teachers deserve our support.”
The selected teachers will make a multi-year commitment to the Corps and will received an annual stipend of $20,000 on top of their base salary in return for their expertise, leadership and service. The STEM Master Teacher Corps will be launched with $1 billion from the President’s 2013 budget request.
The Obama Administration has also announced that the President would be dedicating $100 million of the existing Teacher Incentive Fund to helping school districts establish career ladders that identify, develop, and leverage highly effective STEM teachers.
Today’s announcements align with the President’s belief that excellent STEM teaching requires both deep content knowledge and strong teaching skills, and his strong leadership in working to improve STEM education
There is an application deadline of July 27 and over 30 school districts across America have already expressed interest in competing for this funding.
The plans are an acceptance of a recent recommendation by the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) which called for a national STEM Master Teacher Corps to identify and help retain the nation’s most talented STEM teachers by building a community of practice among them and raising their profile.
In order to ensure America’s students are prepared for success in an increasingly competitive global economy, we must do more to ensure that teaching is highly respected and supported as a profession, and that accomplished, effective teachers are guiding students’ learning in every classroom. The Obama Administration’s 2013 budget includes a new, $5 billion program – the RESPECT Project, which stands for Recognizing Educational Success, Professional Excellence, and Collaborative Teaching
Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, White House Domestic Policy Council Director Cecilia Muñoz, White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Director Dr. John Holdren, and PCAST Co-Chair Dr. Eric Lander will meet with outstanding math and science teachers at the White House to discuss efforts to build up the STEM education profession. | <urn:uuid:d0281a9c-ae51-4962-b464-ca3274a6d32b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationnews.org/education-policy-and-politics/obama-administration-announces-stem-master-teacher-corps/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941826 | 515 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Foundation Data Sets and Products
Sixty-seven of these ATLAS buoys, moored across the tropical Pacific, transmit oceanographic and meteorological data to shore in real-time via the Argos satellite system. Together they produce a foundation NOAA data set that enables forecasters to predict the global climate phenomenon known as El Niño.
Nautical Charts…Tide Predictions…Weather Forecasts and Warnings…Flood Forecasts and Warnings…Search and Rescue Satellite-aided Tracking (SARSAT)…Global Positioning…Tsunami Warnings…U.S. Drought Monitor…Climate Prediction…Harmful Algal Bloom Bulletins…
National Spatial Reference System…Significant Event Satellite Imagery…Fishery Stock Assessments…The Fishery Bulletin…National Water Level Observation Network…Coastwatch…World Ocean Database…Menhaden Biostatistical Data Set…Northeast Fisheries Bottom Trawl Survey Time Series Data Set…NOAA Weather Radio-All Hazards…Computer-aided Management of Emergency Operations (oil spill model)…Climate Models…Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide Record…Mussel Watch…Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Array…..Environmental Sensitivity Index Maps…Space Environment Forecasts… The list of NOAA data sets and products goes on and on!
Deploying bongo nets for the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI). The CalCOFI data set represents the longest (1949-present) and most complete (more than 50,000 sampling stations) time series of oceanographic and larval fish data in the world.
We in the NOAA family take enormous pride in the array of products and services that we offer our fellow Americans and all peoples around the globe. Creating them requires huge amounts of underlying data. Without these data, products and services like weather forecasts and warnings, nautical charts, the National Spatial Reference System, fisheries management, harmful algal bloom warnings, climate outlook, and a host of others would be impossible. Some of the data sets and products that we develop and maintain are so fundamental that they define us as an organization.
Those that we honor here as the NOAA Top Ten in 2007, our 200th anniversary year, epitomize the meaning of the term ‘foundation.’ They are pillars of longevity, backbones of Earth science infrastructure, the bedrock of weather forecasts and warnings, underpinnings of fishery science, and keystones to solving the most challenging climate questions of our time. The National Spatial Reference System, Nautical Charts, Weather Observations, and The Fish Collection reach back to the 19th century. The Fish Collection, Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide Record, Tropical Ocean Atmosphere Array, and World Ocean Database are global in scope and significance. NOAA’s Coast Survey intertwines information from a staggering 14,000 shoreline maps, 160 years of tide observations, 11,500 hydrographic surveys, 76 million depth soundings, and more than one million geodetic positions to maintain its suite of more than 1,100 nautical charts!
Today more than 11,000 volunteers nationwide take daily weather observations that are the foundation of numerous products of NOAA’s National Weather Service such as snow depth maps, long-term drought index, and crop moisture index.
These Top Ten Products and Data Sets are models of steadfastness and commitment. They reflect the same qualities in NOAA, and we are honored to be part of an organization that holds these values. So now we invite the entire NOAA family, the American public, and people from around the world to learn more about some of our most important and most enduring work:
- The Fish Collection (1856–present): is of great historical value as a window to early expeditions and voyages of discovery. It is also taxonomically significant, containing about 20,000 of the 28,000 species of fishes worldwide.
- Mauna Loa Carbon Dioxide Record (1958–present): is the longest continuous record of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, the chief greenhouse gas responsible for global climate warming. It is often called the most important geophysical record on Earth.
- Mussel Watch (1960s–present): is the longest continuous contaminant monitoring program in U.S. coastal waters. Its data set includes contaminant concentrations in sediments, oysters, and mussels monitored at 300 sites around the country for over 100 organic and inorganic pollutants.
- National Spatial Reference System (1816–present): is the complete set of survey marks or reference points that surveyors use as starting points to ensure accurate and consistent surveys across the nation.
- Nautical Charts (data collection: 1816–present; chart production: 1844-present): is a suite of over 1,100 charts that depict coastlines, islands, rivers, harbors, and features of navigational interest such as water depth, hazards, and aids to navigation. Charts are constructed by combining information from shoreline mapping, tide observations, depth soundings, and geodetic positioning.
- NOAA Weather Radio (1950s–present): is the primary and official source of weather data, forecasts, and life-threatening weather warnings for the United States.
- Regional Fisheries Data Sets (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, 1949–present; Biostatistical Menhaden Surveys, 1952–present; Northeast Bottom Trawl Surveys, 1963–present): are the backbone of NOAA Fisheries scientific research and conservation decisions.
- Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Array (1985–present): is a network of deep-ocean buoys at 67 sites in the equatorial Pacific Ocean that collect ocean and atmospheric data to predict the global climate phenomenon known as El Niño.
- Weather Observations (1890–present): are daily reports on air temperature, precipitation, and other weather factors such as snow depth, river levels, and soil temperature from volunteers around the nation in NOAA’s Cooperative Observer Network.
- World Ocean Database (1961–present): is the world’s largest collection of vertical profile data of ocean characteristics available internationally without restriction. It contains data for 28 ocean variables in 11 distinct data sets.
And now for our honorable mentions... | <urn:uuid:ef5de94a-1b6f-4e71-8366-0b16501564b4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/datasets/welcome.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.854393 | 1,283 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Raising Your Own Geckos
Published 20th February 2007
Raising your own geckos can be very fun and rewarding. If you have decided that you want to breed geckos the first thing you will need to do is to prepare adequate housing. Of course you will need to obtain a male and at least one female.
Unless you a very experienced with geckos it is very difficult to determine their sex until they are about three months old. The exact age varies as individual geckos grow and develop at different rates. Males can be identified by the development of hemipenes which will appear as bulges at the base of it's tail. The male will also have a row of preanal pores just above the tail. As the male gets older these characteristics will become much easier to recognize.
The breeding season for geckos is dependent primarily upon length of daylight and temperature. When daylight hours increase to more 12 and the temperature warms up to above 80 degrees Fahrenheit your geckos will be ready to breed.
In nature, the female will usually lay her eggs in clutches of two at a time about every three or four weeks during the summer months. In captivity, with proper lighting and temperature control, your gecko may lay eggs year round.
The sex of the baby geckos can be affected by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated. If you would like to have all females you will want to keep the temperature at a constant 80 to 81 degrees. For males keep the temperature range at 87 to 88 degrees. If you would prefer to have both males and females keep the incubation temperature at 85 degrees.
You will know when she is ready to lay eggs because you will be able to actually see the eggs through her skin. Geckos often refuse to eat when they are just about ready to lay their eggs, so if this occurs don't worry, it's completely natural. Once she has laid her eggs she will be very hungry so feed her well. Calcium is very important at this time as she has exhausted quite a bit in forming the eggs. It is also a good idea to separate her from the male until she has had time to regain her strength. A good indicator of her health is her tail which needs to be healthy looking and fat.
She may dig a hole in which to lay the eggs or the eggs may be "glued" to the glass wall of the aquarium or other surface. Normally, the eggs will be ready to hatch in about two to three months, but this may vary according to the temperature and humidity.
Do not be alarmed if the babies do not try to eat at first. Hatchlings generally will not eat for about the first week or until the first time that they shed. You may want to keep them separated from each other for the first month or two to avoid tail loss from being bitten by their mates. If you do decide to keep them together be sure to keep a close eye on them in case one is prone to biting the other. Either way make sure that they are all eating well once they do begin to feed. | <urn:uuid:c28d0ce0-5425-40f8-b35c-b1195b9f8918> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geckosuk.com/articles/raising-your-own-geckos.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979353 | 637 | 2.53125 | 3 |
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Quality of Life in Long-Term Care provides long-term care professionals and persons responsible for training staff at long-term care facilities with guidelines for developing a quality of life that enables elderly persons, even those physically or mentally challenged, to achieve life satisfaction and to live with dignity. Readers learn of concepts and methods for implementing change through staff training, a supportive management style, the development of appropriate activities, and the ongoing evaluation of outcomes. While the focus of Quality of Life in Long-Term Care is on the psychosocial aspects of long-term care, Authors Dorothy Coons and Nancy Mace also recognize and emphasize the need for excellent medical care and a therapeutic physical environment. They give administrators very specific examples of ways to develop a quality of life that enables even the very impaired to live with dignity. In helping long-term care facility administrators and staff trainers, the authors show how to support staff development so the staff becomes friends and therapists, rather than simply caretakers. The training methods presented provide ways to help staff better understand and empathize with elderly residents. Readers will find that these effective staff training and management practices help to greatly reduce staff turnover.Chapters in Quality of Life in Long-Term Care describe facilities which provide individuality, opportunities for choice, social stimulation, and continuity of lifestyle for elderly people who live in retirement homes, nursing homes, or special dementia units. These examples are from facilities which have brought about change despite limitations including financial problems, structural restrictions, and staffing problems. Other topics covered which help long-term care facility administration and staff provide a superior quality of life for their residents include:
criteria for creating a health fostering and therapeutic environment in long-term care settings
management styles and methods that help staff achieve success
specific training topics and methods to help staff understand the needs of the elderly
activities and opportunities that can enrich long-term care environments
an instrument designed to measure quality of lifeHealth care specialists; long-term care facility administrators; nurses; occupational, activity, and recreational therapists; designers and developers of special dementia units; policy planners in long-term care; and academicians in gerontology and long-term care will refer to Quality of Life in Long-Term Care repeatedly as they strive to provide residents with a good quality of life and a nurturing environment.
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Please visit Help Page for Questions
regarding ISBN / ISBN-10 / ISBN10, ISBN-13 / ISBN13, EAN / EAN-13, and Amazon | <urn:uuid:36b2d63e-e727-4c74-a026-f008a8095003> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.alldiscountbooks.net/_0789060396_i_.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925556 | 926 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance
Sexually transmitted disease surveillance monitors and analyzes data on syphilis, gonorrhea and chlamydia. Data collected include, but are not limited to, demographic, geographic and disease/condition-specific information.
Accurate identification and timely reporting are integral parts of successful disease control, enabling public health agencies to:
- Identify contacts who may be infected or other individuals at risk for infection,
- Determine the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted disease(s) in a specific area of the state,
- Assist physicians and clinics in evaluating illnesses in their patients and communities and,
- Assist the public in making better decisions regarding their health and lifestyle.
Successful sexually transmitted disease surveillance enhances control efforts, such as identifying changes in disease trends that may indicate increased incidence, and developing prevention/intervention strategies and policies to stem spread of disease. | <urn:uuid:142653a3-142c-4e49-b4d7-c507bb4dac7e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://health.mo.gov/data/stdsurveillance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.907978 | 181 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The lightest exoplanet yet discovered ? only about twice the mass of Earth ? has been detected, astronomers announced today.
"With only 1.9 Earth-masses, it is the least massive exoplanet ever detected and is, very likely, a rocky planet,"said Xavier Bonfils of Grenoble Observatory in France, a member of the team that made the discovery, which was announced at the European Week of Astronomy and Space Science at the University of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom.
The planet was found in the famous system Gliese 581 and has been dubbed "Gliese 581 e." It was detected using the low-mass-exoplanet hunter HARPS spectrograph attached to the 3.6-metre ESO telescope at La Silla, Chile.
Measurements with the telescope also helped to refine the orbit of the new planet's solar system sibling, a planet called Gliese 581 d, placing it well within the habitable zone, where liquid water oceans could exist.
"The holy grail of current exoplanet research is the detection of a rocky, Earth-like planet in the ?habitable zone? ? a region around the host star with the right conditions for water to be liquid on a planet?s surface," said Michel Mayor from the Geneva Observatory, who led the European team that made the finding.
Planet Gliese 581 e orbits its host star ? located only 20.5 light-years away in the constellation Libra ? in just 3.15 days. Being so close to its host star, the planet is not in the habitable zone.
With the discovery of Gliese 581 e, the planetary system now has four known planets, with masses of about 1.9 Earth-masses (planet e), 16 Earth-masses (planet b), 5 Earth-masses (planet c), and 7 Earth-masses (planet d).
"Gliese 581 d, which orbits the host star in 66.8 days, is probably too massive to be made only of rocky material, but we can speculate that it is an icy planet that has migrated closer to the star," said team member Stephane Udry of Geneva University in Switzerland. ??D? could even be covered by a large and deep ocean ? it is the first serious 'water world' candidate.?
Low-mass red dwarf stars such as Gliese 581 are potentially fruitful hunting grounds for low-mass exoplanets in the habitable zone. The gravitational pull of orbiting exoplanets introduces a slight wobble to the star's motion. Because the habitable zone of cool stars like Gliese 581 is so close to the star, the planets within this zone exert a stronger pull, and so the wobble of the star is more pronounced, though detecting the signal is still a challenge.
Over the last two decades, scientists have spotted more than 300 extrasolar planets circling other stars in our Milky Way galaxy. Most of these planets have been about the size of Jupiter or larger.
"It is amazing to see how far we have come since we discovered the first exoplanet around a normal star in 1995 ? the one around 51 Pegasi,? said Mayor, who helped find that planet. ?The mass of Gliese 581 e is 80 times less than that of 51 Pegasi b. This is tremendous progress in just 14 years."
The team plans to continue looking for Earth-like, rocky planets around other stars.
?With similar observing conditions an Earth-like planet located in the middle of the habitable zone of a red dwarf star could be detectable,? Bonfils said. ?The hunt continues.?
And HARPS isn't the only instrument looking for low-mass, Earth-like planets. NASA's new Kepler space telescope will also be peering through the galaxy in search of smaller alien worlds. It was launched on March 6 and sent back its first images last Thursday.
- Video ? Kepler: Hunting Alien Earths
- Top 10 Most Intriguing Extrasolar Planets
- Video ? Planet Hunter | <urn:uuid:639a8cd2-67ef-4a8c-b596-0383fa0f01ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.space.com/6600-lightest-exoplanet-discovered.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941498 | 845 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Vocaloid is a vocal synthesizer program developed by Yamaha corporation. The goal is to take samples of a human voice, and string them together to 'sing' using a computer. Yamaha is already the world's largest manufacturer of musical instruments, sound and audio equipment. Ranging from traditional strings, woodwinds, percussion and brass to keyboard synthesizers and much more.
System/User locale to Japanese. You can do this using the installer disk that came with your windows XP. If you bought your computer with XP pre-installed you should still have gotten an installation disc with it in the box. Just a fair warning, part A of the article will require a reboot, part B probably won't.
"Examples of system locale usage:
A German user wants to run a non-Unicode Japanese application that was designed for Japanese Windows 95. The user has to select Japanese as the system locale to do this. Note: Non-Unicode German applications will not run flawlessly anymore. German umlauts will not be displayed correctly.
The same German user wants to type Japanese text in a non-Unicode German application. The user selects Japanese as the system locale. Note: Non-Unicode German applications will not run flawlessly anymore. German umlauts will not be displayed correctly.
An Arabic user wants to type Arabic, French, and English in a non-Unicode Arabic application. The user should choose one of the Arabic system locales." | <urn:uuid:f53f95a6-f1b6-46e7-b913-6badde43fa4d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://sites.google.com/site/mikumikubeat/vocaloid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931434 | 304 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Details/Information for Canadian Forces (CF) Operation CORDON
CF Overseas Operations have most often operated within the construct of an international mandate. As such, the International Information is presented first in order to provide the context of the Canadian Operation (displayed second). Eventually, all rotations associated with the particular Canadian operation will also be displayed.
International Operation Name: United Nations Operation in Somalia I
International Mission Name: United Nations Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I)
Mandating Organization: United Nations
Region Name: Africa
Mission Date: 4/24/1992 - 4/30/1993
UNOSOM I was established by Security Council Resolution 751 (1992) of 24 April 1992 to monitor the ceasefire in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia; to provide protection and security for United Nations personnel, equipment and supplies at the seaports and airports in Mogadishu; and to escort deliveries of humanitarian supplies from there to distribution centres in the city and its immediate environs.
On 28 August 1992, UNOSOM I's mandate and strength were expanded by Security Council Resolution 775 (1992) to enable it to protect humanitarian convoys and distribution centres throughout Somalia.
On 3 December 1992, after the situation in Somalia had further deteriorated, the Security Council, by Resolution 794 (1992), authorized member states to form the Unified Task Force (UNITAF) to establish a safe environment for the delivery of humanitarian assistance. UNITAF worked in coordination with UNOSOM I to secure major population centres and ensure that humanitarian assistance was delivered and distributed.
The independent state of Somalia was created in 1960 following the merger of the former colonies of Italian and British Somaliland. A democratic form of government was put in place at that time, but the power of traditional Somali clans remained strong. In the end, the democratic system established at the time of independence failed to survive as General Siad Barre led a successful military coup in 1969.
By 1988 there was widespread dissatisfaction with Barre’s government. The Somali National Movement (SNM) launched a guerrilla campaign but was defeated. The next year, however, two new resistance groups were formed: the United Somali Congress (USC), led by Muhamad Faarah Aideed and Ali Mahdi, and the Somali Patriotic Movement. They, along with remnants of the SNM as well as other clan-based groupings gradually took over much of the country. Barre was finally overthrown on 27 January 1991 by the sheer weight of the opposition, but his opponents could barely be said to be working together. The SNM immediately declared an independent republic in the north; the USC split into two rival factions; and although the capital, Mogadishu, suffered the most, soon clan was fighting clan throughout most of the country.
The result was a humanitarian crisis of huge proportions, one made worse by the legacy of three years of drought in the area between 1985 and 1989. One million Somalis were said to be refugees in neighbouring countries, while perhaps as many as 4.5 million Somalis still in the country were in danger of malnutrition or starvation. Despite the obvious risks – Somalia was by now violently anarchic – the United Nations, Red Cross, and other non-governmental humanitarian aid organizations all did what they could to deliver assistance.
For its part, the UN Security Council had already called for a ceasefire, and with the support of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the Secretary General authorized a mission to help bring one about. The mission succeeded in late March, with the result that on 24 April 1992 the Security Council adopted Resolution 751 to establish a UN operation in Somalia to observe the peace and the delivery of humanitarian aid. Fifty unarmed UN military observers (UNMOs) arrived on 5 July, and within a month Aideed and Mahdi agreed to the deployment of a UN security force of some 500 soldiers. Pakistan agreed to provide these personnel, the first of whom arrived on 14 September, but despite the ceasefire and the Aideed/Mahdi agreement, clan-based factional fighting continued, not only in and around Mogadishu but also in the countryside, where heavily armed bandits were stealing humanitarian and relief supplies.
Responding to what it saw, the UN Security Council agreed to increase UNOSOM’s strength from 500 to 3,500 security personnel and to add three logistics units, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Looting became more widespread and violent; harbours and airports were attacked; ships were shelled; and both money and supplies were being extorted from the aid agencies to guarantee the safety of their workers. At times, even the UN troops in Mogadishu were attacked and their vehicles and weapons stolen.
Reacting to the chaos, on 3 December 1992 the Security Council passed Resolution 794 authorizing member states to use “all necessary means to establish as soon as possible a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia”. UNOSOM, in short, had become a Chapter VII operation, but it would no longer be the only military organization in the country. On 9 December, the first elements of the United States-led Unified Task Force (UNITAF) arrived in Mogadishu. UNITAF quickly expanded its operations to other major relief centres to establish a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian aid. While UNOSOM, for its part, continued to be responsible for humanitarian assistance and the political aspects of the UN’s Somalia operations, the two missions would henceforth attempt to co-ordinate their activities until the end of their mandates: 30 April in the case of UNOSOM, and 4 May for UNITAF.
Canadian Forces (CF) Information (CORDON)
Date: 9/4/1992 - 4/30/1993
CF Mission/Operation Notes:
Whether Canada should participate in UNOSOM was a matter of considerable debate in Ottawa, primarily because its mandate seemed too vague and the security situation too fragile for what was supposed to be a Chapter VI, or peaceful, operation. But given indications that the UN might sanction more robust rules, on 4 September 1992 a warning order was issued detailing the Canadian Airborne Regiment as the Canadian Forces main contribution to UNOSOM, with HMCS Preserver and Hercules aircraft in support. However, on 4 December, Canada changed its offer: the Airborne Regiment would go to UNITAF rather than UNOSOM, and only a few staff officers would be provided to the latter. These were the only Canadians to participate in UNOSOM 1. | <urn:uuid:d516ccb3-3752-4875-9aab-ee7404f16e06> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/od-bdo/di-ri-eng.asp?IntlOpId=297&CdnOpId=357 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967708 | 1,341 | 2.8125 | 3 |
This colourful bird with a red cap occurs in most of the forested areas of Canada that are east of the Rocky Mountains, and is one of the few species of migratory woodpeckers that occur in this country. The species gets its common name from the yellowish wash of colour across its chest, belly and back. The males have a very distinct red patch on the throat, while the same area in the females is white.
These woodpeckers feed, to a great extent, on sap and cambium (inner bark) which they obtain by drilling holes in the trunks of trees. These peculiar holes indicate the presence of Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers in the area. Insects are also part of this bird's diet and are captured, as is the sap, by means of a long, rough tongue. Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers range in size from 18 to 22 cm (7 to 9 in.). Their wingspan is 34 to 40 cm (13 to 16 in.). | <urn:uuid:0413c324-931b-4eb4-82c4-e75f5b38cdf6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nature.ca/notebooks/english/sapsuck.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967156 | 207 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Each of the 51 printable Mystery State work sheets presents five clues to the identity of one of the 50 U.S. states or the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.). Students use the clues to help them identify that place.
Click for a PDF (portable document format) printable version.
Click for an answer key for the 51 Mystery State work sheets.
Clue 1: This place was named after Christopher Columbus.
Clue 2: This place is divided into four quadrants: northwest, southwest, northeast, and southeast.
Clue 3: Its local government functions as a state, county, and city government.
Clue 4: British troops burned parts of this place in 1814.
Clue 5: It became the nation's capital in 1800. | <urn:uuid:ce3f2519-b353-472f-9e79-9aed48c47187> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/state/state047.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911295 | 163 | 3.0625 | 3 |
This week I learned why the temperature is kept so cold in hospitals. In the mid 1800s there was a dominant idea that bad air quality caused disease. Therefore in order to treat sickness, an American physician and humanitarian, John Gorrie, built a refrigerator with the purpose of cooling air. Gorrie's refrigerator produced ice which he suspended from the ceiling in a basin.
Strange how an idea can stick with us over all these years.
While we are on the subject of ice I have recently been studying ice cubes for a project that I am working on. Specifically, I was researching the white flakes that can be found at the bottom of a glass of ice water after the ice has melted. I found that that as the ice cubes melt they precipitate white flakes, commonly known as "floaters". They are calcium carbonate, which is present in many water supplies and is completely harmless in small quantities.
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but high consumption can be hazardous.
An interesting characteristic of commercially made ice cubes is that they are completely clear, lacking the clouding found in the center of domestically made ice cubes. As it turns out, cloudy ice cubes result when water is frozen quickly, or ice is allowed to form on the surface of the water.
When water is cooled to its freezing point, and ice starts to form, dissolved gases can no longer stay in solution and come out as microscopic bubbles. However, as ice floats in water, once there is enough ice to form a layer on the surface, the ice layer traps all bubbles within the ice cube. Ice-makers use a flowing source of water to make ice with cooling elements at the bottom, allowing the bubbles to be washed away from the top as the cube grows.
Ice Cube Trays
In the winter of 1928, Lloyd Groff Copeman was collecting sap for maple syrup on his farm. As he walked through the woods, he noticed that the ice flaked off of his rubber boots and an idea came to him. After studying this phenomenon he designed and patented different types of ice cube trays. The first was a metal tray with rubber separators, a metal tray with individual rubber cups, and even a tray made completely of rubber.
The first flexible stainless steel, all-metal ice cube tray was created by Guy L. Tinkham in 1933. The tray bent sideways to remove the ice cubes. | <urn:uuid:873eefb3-d3d1-4b54-a966-4c49c1e2127f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thisweekilearned.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-are-hospitals-cold.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971923 | 569 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Trojans are a very special form of malicious software that are designed to destroy your system files as opposed to Worm attacks which are designed to annoy you with pop ups or file duplication. Trojans tend to take the form of legitimate software packages and it’s typically too late by the time you find out you’ve been affected. Here are 5 reasons to stay clear:
- They steal your identity. Keyloggers are forms of Trojans. What they do is keep a record of whatever you strike on your keyboard. By doing so, it very likely that your username and password for various sites will be captured compromising your accounts by giving the attacker access. This is called identity theft and once your identity is stolen the attacker can personate you and harm your reputation. For instance, the attacker might send malicious URLs to your friends via email or social networks in order to get them infected as well.
- They can manipulate your requests. The man in the browser attack uses a Trojan to complete the attack. This type of attack is very popular especially in the banking sector where there are a lot of monetary transactions. The trojan will manipulate the total amount and destination account after the user confirms the transaction.
- They make you a part of their big project. Trojans are also used by hackers to perform DDOS attacks. DDOS attacks are a form of attack where the victim is flooded with hundreds of thousands, or even millions of traffic connections until the server is unable to handle the load and goes offline or is forced to disable security features. This does not mean that those DDOS hackers will invest into buying millions of computer to do so, rather they plant Trojans into your computer and make you their DDOS minions. Indirectly, you are part of their big project.
- They are difficult to detect. Unlike most computer threats, Trojans are much harder to detect and sometimes can’t be detected at all. They lie dormant for the most part only waking when there is something important for them to do. For example, Keyloggers will not log your keystrokes all the time but will only start logging them when you access an online banking or other secure site.
- They can gain control of your computer. Trojans allow hackers to take control over the victim’s computer allowing them to take pictures using their web cam, disable the mouse, keyboard or even restart the computer.
Trojan should not be taken lightly. You should at least get yourself an antivirus solution and scan your computer frequently to avoid such venomous infection.
About the Author: Alan Tay is a software engineer who specializes in digital security. He is also the author who runs IT Security Column, a IT Security blog where he mostly writes about computer security tips and security software reviews. | <urn:uuid:a9fd3680-4a95-42d8-8b15-b1f1de0b683e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.spamfighter.com/malware-2/5-reasons-why-trojan-is-such-a-dangerous-threat.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955537 | 573 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Last week the summer forest fires ravaged many areas of Greece including the island of Chios. Chios is home to mastiha also known as mastic and unfortunately the fires destroyed almost 30% of the rare and difficult to cultivate, mastiha trees. But why is mastiha so special?
Mastiha is basically resin from the mastiha trees and appears in drops (see photo). While these mastiha trees may grow in other areas in the Mediterranean and produce resin, only the Chios trees produce the mastiha “tears” that have the characteristic aroma, taste and health benefits. Mastiha from Chios also is a P.D.O. (Protected Designation of Origin) product, which means that its name (and reputation) is protected and only mastiha from Chios can carry this name.
Historically there have been many references about the healing qualities of mastiha, in recent years research confirms that mastiha does in fact have beneficial qualities. One of the most important findings is that mastiha can work against Helicobacter pylori, a bacteria in the stomach, considered the main cause for gastric ulcers. It also has been found to have antimicrobial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-Crohn and anti-cancer activity. For this reason mastiha is not only used in food and drink, but also in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry.
How to use Mastiha
Well for one you can take a few crystals and chew them, they will become gum and freshen your breath. In fact, the word mastiha in Greek was used to mean chewing gum.
For cooking, many consider it a spice and you can use ground mastiha (or even the whole crystals) and add it to your recipe. Some ideas: add to bread, cookies, jams, cake, meatballs, shrimp. You only need small amounts, just a few crystals. When you grind the mastiha crystals, preferably in a mortar, make sure you grind it with salt or sugar to avoid having the powder stick together.
If you are not much of a cook you can find several products including dips, olives, olive oil, mastiha oil, chocolates, savory snacks, marmalades, fruit preserves, even pasta. The Chios Mastiha Growers Association has developed a chain of stores called Mastiha Shop that carries a wide variety of traditional but also innovative mastiha products. They have shops around Greece but also in New York City, Paris and Jeddah. But even if you are not able to visit those shops, you can find mastiha online and in local Greek stores, just make sure it has the seal that shows that it is genuine mastiha from Chios. | <urn:uuid:acf9ec5e-2229-4b9f-97d8-084167a274db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.olivetomato.com/chios-mastiha-a-very-special-greek-ingredient/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960453 | 584 | 2.625 | 3 |
Shallots look like small brown onions and have a flavor that’s milder and sweeter than an onion and less harsh than garlic. Like garlic, shallots are composed of multiple cloves—usually 2—under a thin, papery skin, and their flesh usually has a pale-purple color. A standard ingredient in French cooking, shallots are frequently added to vinaigrettes and added to a variety of soups, stews, and sauces (notably, béarnaise).
To slice a shallot, first remove the loose skin from the stem end (not the root end) with a paring knife. Cut the shallot in half lengthwise, through the root. Then put each half on your cutting board, cut side down, and slice thinly.
To dice a shallot, cut it in half lengthwise and place each half on your cutting board, cut side down. Pinching a shallot half firmly with 1 hand, use your knife to make horizontal slices of desired thickness, starting at the bottom and working your way up. Do not cut all the way through to the root. Then, cutting down the shallot vertically, make slices of the desired thickness along the length of the shallot—again, being sure not to cut through the root. Finally, cut slices of desired thickness across the shallot, working from the stem end toward the root.
VIDEO: Knife Skills: Chopping
VIDEO: Knife Skills: Dicing | <urn:uuid:9764294c-db2c-45f8-849e-3bad745da13b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/tools-test-kitchen/article/shallots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910406 | 304 | 2.859375 | 3 |
PNPTC HABITAT PROGRAM
The Point No Point Treaty Council’s Habitat Program is focused on taking care of healthy and functional nearshore and freshwater habitats, facilitating the restoration of degraded areas and undertaking research to identify and understand the organisms that live within these habitats. Treaty Rights and habitat protection and restoration are intimately tied to each other and the Habitat Program biologists work with the regulatory agencies that manage areas within our member Tribes Usual and Accustomed fishing areas and historic hunting areas. Our staff works with the federal, state and local governments in order to support the PNPTC goal of protecting, preserving and restoring natural resources and to further protect the Tribal Treaty Rights that are at risk. Our department focuses on:
|1) RESEARCH||3) REGULATORY REVIEW||5) SSHIAP|
|2) RECOVERY||4) PNPTC GIS||6) MEMBER TRIBES|
The Point No Point Treaty Council has been actively involved with research in different areas of the watersheds that affect our member Tribes.
The PNPTC undertook a four-county wide riparian vegetation land cover project (Kitsap, Clallam, Jefferson, and Mason) that was funded through the US EPA because riparian corridors along marine shorelines, rivers, and floodplains provide important ecological functions for salmonid species and other wildlife, including shade, large woody debris and other organic inputs, and dispersal of food to adjacent water bodies. Additional ecological functions include water storage, flood attenuation, absorption of sediments and contaminants to help protect water quality, and nutrient exchange. The protection and restoration of riverine floodplain habitat is fundamental to the recovery of federally listed salmonid populations in the Puget Sound region. The data viewer for this project can be found here:
A project description can be found downloaded here:
The Point No Point Treaty Area is home to four federally protected salmon/trout species Hood Canal summer chum, Puget Sound chinook, Puget Sound steelhead and Coastal Puget Sound bull trout. All are listed as “threatened” under the federal Endangered Species Act(ESA). The Treaty Council has participated in developing comprehensive recovery plans for Hood Canal summer chum and Puget Sound Chinook. Included in these plans are strategies and actions that address harvest management, habitat protection and restoration, and hatchery management.
Hood Canal summer chum originate entirely within streams of the Point No Point Treaty Area. The tribal and state co-managers (including the Treaty Council) developed a Hood Canal Summer Chum Conservation Initiative that addressed harvest, hatchery and habitat management of the summer chum and released it in April 2000. Subsequently, a Hood Canal summer chum recovery plan was developed by the Hood Canal Coordinating Council, based in part on the Initiative, but also with additional input from the co-managers and from local land management jurisdictions and other interested parties. This recovery plan was approved in 2007 by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) as required under the ESA. A larger effort involving all of Puget Sound was undertaken to develop the Puget Sound chinook recovery plan. The Treaty Council and its tribes participated in this planning process as well, specifically addressing the chinook populations within the Point No Point Treaty area. This recovery plan was approved by the NMFS in 2007. Additionally, a complete recovery plan for Puget Sound steelhead is in process. A harvest management plan has been drafted by the Puget Sound tribal and state co-managers and is under review with the NMFS.
The Treaty Council and its member tribes have helped manage the recovery of ESA-listed fish species, not only by participating in salmon recovery planning but by taking other actions as we; eliminate fisheries directed at summer chum and chinook, and adjust fisheries directed at other salmon stocks whose run timing overlaps summer chum and chinook stocks, to avoid incidental harvests; participate in hatchery supplementation program planning to help recover or restore the federally listed populations; revise existing programs for non-listed species to reduce potential impacts on listed fish; participate in land use management processes to protect habitat, such as critical area ordinance and shoreline master program updates; work with all interested groups – from federal entities to local grassroots efforts to develop salmon habitat restoration projects for listed and non-listed species. These efforts run from small culvert replacement projects that open up high-quality spawning habitat for returning salmon, to mapping projects that specify where marine habitat has been lost and how best to recover it.
The Treaty Council participates in reviewing many kinds of regulatory documents. Our staff was involved in reviewing the updated Shoreline Master Programs for Clallam County, Jefferson County, Mason County and Kitsap County.
The PNPTC also participates in the Inter-Agency Review Team, that has a primary purpose for reviewing potential development projects so that they meet no net loss of aquatic resource functions by using a newly developed voluntary mechanism for those projects that require compensatory habitat mitigation for unavoidable impacts authorized by the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251) and/or other federal, state, tribal, or local regulations through an in-lieu fee program. This program is run through the Hood Canal Coordinating Council and can be found here: http://hccc.wa.gov/In+Lieu+Fee+Mitigation+Program/default.aspx
More information about our member tribes can be found here: | <urn:uuid:052d13d5-fb30-4ab1-8bc6-aa0ba15799ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pnptc.org/Habitat.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932535 | 1,123 | 2.609375 | 3 |
(Vulpes vulpes)Now that snow is on the ground most everywhere in Maine it’s a good time to look for animal tracks of all types including that of the Red Fox . Tracks of the fox can often be found along the edges of fields and forest. A fox print is about 1.5 to 2 inches long with hair marks often visible between the toes. Foxes walk in a straight line (as opposed to dogs who tend to wander). The front paw is always next to the rear paw print.
Red foxes generally hunt at night by themselves covering as many as five miles in a single outing in search of food. They can often be found on the edge of fields hunting for mice, one of their favorite foods, but they will eat whatever they can find, dead or alive. Like a cat, they pounce on their prey. To aid them in their hunting they have a strong sense of hearing and smell. They can hear a mouse squeak up to 150 yards away.
Female foxes, or vixen, give birth to a litter of three to eight pups in an underground den. They are born blind and do not open their eyes for a few days to a week. The mother nurses the pups for the first few weeks after which time they eat meat the parents bring to the den. The pups can become food to eagles and bobcats and other meat eaters if mother is careless.
Full grown Red foxes are small, usually weighing less than 15 pounds. The fur is not actually red but more of a brown, silver or yellowish-red color. Look for them and their tracks this winter as you walk, snowshoe and ski through Maine. | <urn:uuid:229d1f6a-df72-4712-b571-31037ad62636> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mainerivers.org/river-life/red-fox/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979155 | 350 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Solid programming language
Zotonic is programmed in Erlang, a language made for fast, non-stop, fault-tolerant applications. Ideal to build high load, never break websites in.
Erlang is fast becoming a popular language for web infrastructure. You see it mentioned and used more and more where scaling, multiprocessing and distributed programming are needed.
It is the most used language for distributed databases, it is used for the facebook chat system and you see it at many other places.
And from now on you will see it used for the front end of web sites as well.
And Erlang is a very easy language to learn and program in. You will like it, dive in!
Want to know more? Read the Erlang white paper.
You can read our long answer to this question.
The short answer is that we got frustrated to wait for a HTML page when our computer could resize images, run photoshop, render a movie and whatnot. All in the same time we were still waiting for our tiny HTML page.
We had to make a better CMS. One that grows with the hardware. One that scales with the amount of cores. And one that doesn’t need to reinterpret its code and go search for the database on every single request.
A new CMS that serves more pages per Watt.
The methods are long running processes, multi-threading, caching and localization of data.
The programming language that has proven to do that all is Erlang. And it is also functional, which is fun because it makes coding easier, faster and less error prone. | <urn:uuid:e4c4e324-ef38-450d-99e5-a0fac073381c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://zotonic.com/page/619/solid-programming-language | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934751 | 334 | 2.625 | 3 |
Please explain the symbolism involved in the Saint-Gaudens design on the U.S. $20 gold?
The intended symbolism of the design is to show the Goddess of Liberty holding the Torch of Knowledge with one foot placed on the Rock of Truth, while behind her the Sun of Righteousness is rising.
Would you please explain the purpose and use of a touchstone?
The touchstone was a very valuable tool back in the days before accurate methods of assaying were developed. The touchstone was a piece of rock upon which pieces of bullion of a known fineness were rubbed, leaving a streak of the metal. Then the coin or other object to be tested was rubbed on the stone, and the two streaks were compared to match the fineness. In the hands of an expert the touchstone was claimed to be accurate to less than 1 percent, or 0.010 fine.
When did they first begin offering “processed” 1943 steel cents to the hobby?
As nearly as I can determine, there were no advertised offers of processed or “reprocessed” coins before about 1962, although it is quite possible that smaller quantities were processed locally before any large-scale advertising was done. The method involved stripping and replating the zinc on the steel core, so they are actually altered coins.
In an old magazine I saw an ad for Jefferson nickels sold with “shaved” or“unshaved” chin. What’s the explanation?
I suspect your source is from the 1960s when anything and everything out of the ordinary on a coin had a nickname and a corresponding price. In this instance, the “unshaved” design was from a worn die with a roughened surface from contact with the abrasive nickel alloy. Value over face, now that we know more about minting – zero.
An old catalog that I found lists the 1955 dimes as “speculative.” What does that mean?
The speculative label was a warning that was attached to the 1955 dimes struck at all three of the mints before the exact mintages were known. For several reasons, including the knowledge that the San Francisco Mint was being shut down, a large number of speculators were hoarding the dimes. If all of the coins were dumped back on the market, the prices would have collapsed.
Was all of the Mint’s tremendous hoard of silver dollars stored at the Treasury Department?
The vaults at the Denver Mint had also been used to store the coins and when heavy distribution began in the early 1960s, several Texas banks were supplied with bags of uncirculated 1886, 1888 and 1889 dollars from Denver.
How many proof Peace dollars were struck?
Walter Breen lists two satin finish and five matte proofs for 1921, and another five matte proofs for 1922. The exact mintage figures are unknown, and there are conflicting guesses.
What is a “keg-rubbed” coin?
Keg-rubbed is an obsolete term that old-timers in the hobby might remember. Referring to an earlier form of bag marks, the rubs resulted from the transport of kegs of coins – the common method of handling them in bulk – in the early 1800s. | <urn:uuid:6e36bb77-26bd-46c1-9cbf-7a72af0b67ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.numismaticnews.net/article/symbols-abound-on-saint-gaudens-20 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978309 | 682 | 2.828125 | 3 |
books - inside (and/or) out
The design of books, book covers and/or illustrations for books involves taking the time to understand the material that is going to be published.
Care has been taken in each of these projects to figure out how to present the information to the intended audience. The organization and layout; the typeface(s) (a.k.a. font), styles and sizes; and the image creation and selection are part of this. On some books it has also involved editing the content and text.
Designing books, like any other products, has to do with balancing the quality of the design with the budget, as printing books is very costly and it is difficult to make a return on the investment. The size, print quality, number of pages and whether the book is full color, partial color, or completely black/white are all part of the design process and thinking. Thus, there can a lot of back and forth between author and designer.
Another compromise that needs to occur is in fitting the content (text and images) into a format. For example, in the Making Machines book, the exercises are each given two pages and one image. The content thus had to be edited in order to fit that format. | <urn:uuid:44923ee3-f5ef-48da-aa3c-5c851d627c76> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ioanacolor.com/GRAPHIC-books/books.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969038 | 256 | 2.90625 | 3 |
A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America
Skeletons found at Masada by Yigael Yadin between 1963 and 1965 and later given a state burial by the Israeli government were not those of Jewish patriots but Roman soldiers, says Joseph Zias of Jerusalem's Rockefeller Museum.
The claim that the skeletons were those of the Jewish fighters who defended Masada against the Romans in A.D. 70 has long been questioned. Yadin's photographs of the remains in situ seem to show far fewer than the 25 skeletons officially reported. Furthermore, Yadin confirmed in 1982 that pig bones were found with the human ones. Since the zealots of Masada would not have buried their dead with the bones of an unclean animal, some scholars suggested that the remains were those of Christians who inhabited Masada in Byzantine times.
The bones are not available for examination, so Zias carbon-dated textiles found with them. The tests date the burial site to the time of the Jewish revolt, but Zias notes that Romans sacrificed pigs at burials. He concludes that the skeletons may well be the remains of soldiers from the Roman garrison that occupied Masada after the Jewish rebellion was surpressed. Zias says that Yadin had doubts about the identification of the skeletons, but that pressure from Israeli political leaders to connect the bones with the Masada legend led him to acquiesce to the state funeral. | <urn:uuid:cfaa926a-368c-4084-9966-205154e712db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archive.archaeology.org/9711/newsbriefs/masada.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00094-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973177 | 283 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Each and every day, Americans collectively fart between 2.5 and 6.3 billion times, unloading up to 466.7 million liters of gas into the atmosphere. Approximately 99% of an "anal gas evacuation" is composed of odorless gases, mostly hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane, along with smaller amounts of nitrogen and oxygen. The remaining 1% of compounds grant the fart its notorious scent. Hydrogen sulfide is the chief culprit.
A fart's life begins with food. After entering your mouth and traveling down the esophagus, a meal makes its way to the stomach to be digested and, soon after, the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed. Some dregs, however, survive the acidic gauntlet and continue to the next leg of the journey: the large intestine. There, what began as a meal for you becomes a feast for resident bacteria. They ferment the leftover food, releasing gas in the process, gas which must be expelled.
Flatulence's omnipresence, smell, sound, and social stigma make it a frequently explored topic in popular culture. Men gathered around restaurant feasts of beer, buffalo wings, and nachos perform much of the experimentation and discussion. Scientists' contributions, while noteworthy, pale in comparison. Sure, they've calculated the average volume of a fart (between 5 and 375 millileters), identified two strains of bacteria to make beans "flatulence-free," and documented the causes of extreme flatulence, but they haven't characterized the magnificence and grandeur of a fart's flammability with anywhere near the precision of the common man equipped with a camera and a YouTube account.
With two new papers, one published in the journal Gut in June 2013, and the other just published to Neurogastroenterology and Motility, Spanish researcher Fernando Azpiroz takes the attention off of fart jokes (at least temporarily) and bolsters our scientific knowledge on passing gas.
Most recently, he tested how two different diets affected flatulence. For the longest time, experts have been recommending foods to reduce gassiness, but surprisingly, there actually hasn't been a study conducted that gauges how eating those foods affects the frequency of farting.
Until now, that is.
Azpiroz assigned a group of 15 subjects to a low-flatulence diet restricted to foods like meat, fish, fowl, eggs; lettuce, tomatoes, avocado, olives; rice, gluten-free bread, rice bread; dairy products; strained orange juice, berries; and sugar, chocolate, coffee, wine, vinegar, oil. He assigned 15 more subjects to a Mediterranean diet of 2-3 portions of meat, fowl, fish, or eggs; two portions of vegetables, salad or legumes; four portions of bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, or cereals; two portions of dairy products; two portions of fruit; and three portions of oil or butter. Subjects consumed their diets for seven days and used a counter to register "every passage of anal gas."
Azpiroz found that the low-flatulence diet reduced subjects' incidents of farting by 54%, while the Mediterranean diet reduced them by 28%. The low-flatulence diet offered a statistically significant improvement over subjects' base diet, but not over the Mediterranean diet. While the result wasn't a completely undisputed victory for so-called low-flatulence foods, Azpiroz noted that they do appear to be beneficial.
"In patients with gas-related symptoms, a low-flatulogenic diet produces immediate beneficial effects with digestive, cognitive, and emotive dimensions," he said. In other words, subjects reported that they felt better.
Last June, Azpiroz teamed up with 15 other doctors and researchers to examine which of the bacteria inhabiting our large intestine, if any, correlate to increased frequency of farting. Bacteroides uniformis, Bacteroides ovatus and Parabacteoides distasonis were indicted, though no causal mechanism has yet been found linking them to the smelly crimes.
Such an examination is likely needed. A cursory Google search on the treatments for flatulence yields a range of recommendations, from diets, to probiotics, to woo. Most lack sufficient scientific substantiation, or any at all. If researchers could pinpoint the gut flora's role in farting, future treatment strategies may be revealed. | <urn:uuid:4f1f907e-7732-4b4d-bea1-bf018958fd85> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.realclearscience.com/blog/2014/02/heres_what_we_just_learned_about_farting.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936271 | 908 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Decorate your lawn or garden with ornamental grasses to achieve a free-flowing, modern feel in your outdoor spaces.
This design uses ornamental grasses to form a stunning composition of colorful, fluffy seed heads and architectural foliage and is easily achieved in the smallest of sunny borders. The tall Stipa and Miscanthus grasses add upright structure at the back of the plan while the beautiful pinkish seed heads of Pennisetum alopecuroides provide the eye-catching focus in the center. The contrasting colors of the blue Elymus and the golden Hakonechloa bring a range of color to the design. You will need approximately 10-by-15-foot space to grow these plants. These grasses, which are best-suited for a contemporary garden, prefer free-draining soil and full sun to partial shade.
- 2 Stipa calamagrostis plants
- 2 Miscanthus sinensis plants
- 2 Pennisetum alopecuroides plants
- 3 Hakonechloa macra plants
- 1 Elymus magellanicus plants
- Planting soil
- Gardening rake
- Gardening hose
- Pruning shears
- Turn over the soil, and rake it level. Lay down landscape fabric to prevent weeds from germinating, and cut slits where the plants are to be slotted. The Stipa calamagrostis and the Miscanthus sinensis "Zebrinus" are the tallest plants, so position these toward the back, 20 inches apart.
- Place the others in the foreground, about 8 inches apart. Cover any visible landscape fabric with gravel. Water regularly in the first year until the grasses are established.
- They are deciduous but can be left over winter to provide structure and wildlife interest and should then be cut back in February. This design is relatively low-maintenance since grasses require no deadheading, pruning or staking, while the landscape fabric will help to smother weeds. | <urn:uuid:2a60791e-d19a-403d-9fca-d1645a04fc46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.goerie.com/grasses-add-garden-beauty | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.846074 | 419 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Some students from Imperial College London have developed an open source game named Pong. In this game, you have to blink your eyes when you think it is appropriate to hit.
According to the students,
This revolutionary game could allow people with severe physical disabilities to become ‘gamers’ for the first time.
To play the game, the player needs to wear special glasses containing infrared light and webcam. This helps in recording eye movements. The webcam is connected to a computer where synchronization is carried out between player’s eye movement and the game.
According to the team’s supervisor from the Department of Bioengineering ICL,
The game that they’ve developed is quite simple, but we think it has enormous potential, particularly because it doesn’t need lots of expensive equipment… We hope it could ultimately provide entertainment options for people who have very little movement. In future, people might be able to blink to turn pages in an electronic book, or switch on their favorite song, with the roll of an eye | <urn:uuid:a044e52e-70f4-4c57-9d98-6686b363245f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://techie-buzz.com/gadgets-news/play-computer-games-just-with-the-blink-of-your-eye.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966861 | 212 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Created By The Mercury 7 Astronauts
Edgar D. Mitchell explored the moon’s hilly Fra Mauro region with Alan B. Shepard during the 1971 Apollo 14 mission.
Mitchell was born September 17, 1930, in Hereford, Texas. He received a Bachelor of Science in industrial management from Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1952; a Bachelor of Science in aeronautical engineering from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School in 1961, and a Doctorate of Science in aeronautics/astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1964.
He entered the Navy in 1952 and was commissioned an ensign a year later. He completed flight training in July 1954 and was assigned to Patrol Squadron 29 deployed to Okinawa. Assigned to Heavy Attack Squadron Two in 1957, he flew off the aircraft carriers USS Bon Homme Richard and USS Ticonderoga. He later served as a research pilot with Air Development Squadron Five and as chief of Project Management Division of the Navy Field Office for the Manned Orbiting Laboratory project.
Mitchell was selected as a NASA astronaut in April 1966 after graduating first in his class from the Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School, where he was both a student and an instructor.
His only space assignment was a Lunar Module pilot for Apollo 14, a 10-day lunar exploration flight that lifted off January 31, 1971. His crewmates were Commander Alan Shepard and Command Module pilot Stuart Roosa. On February 5, Shepard and Mitchell landed their Lunar Module “Antares” in the Fra Mauro highlands while Roosa orbited overhead in “Kitty Hawk.” During 33 hours on the surface, Shepard and Mitchell made two outside excursions during which they set up a nuclear-powered science station, collected 92 pounds of moon rocks and gathered deep-down soil samples by driving core tubes into the surface. The blastoff from the moon was routine and they linked up with Roosa for a safe trip back to Earth.
Mitchell long had an interest in extra-sensory perception and during the moon flight he conducted ESP experiments with a friend in Chicago. Following the Apollo program, he retired from NASA and from the Navy as a captain and founded the Institute of Noetic Sciences in an effort to integrate various scientific disciplines into the study of human consciousness. He has written several books, including the 1996 “The Way of the Explorers,” which addresses the latest research in this field. Mitchell serves on the Board of Directors of the Astronaut Scholarship Foundation.
He passed away at age of 85 on February 4, 2016.
Edgar Mitchell was inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame on October 4, 1997. | <urn:uuid:22ef465a-8f32-48e6-87e8-946c20a3f0fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://astronautscholarship.org/Astronauts/edgar-d-mitchell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964519 | 553 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The theory was put forward by Robert Ferguson in an article for the December 2009 issue of BBC History Magazine. His book, The Hammer and the Cross: A New History of the Vikings, was also published in November.
Starting in the 790s, Viking ships began raiding throughout Western Europe and the British Isles, often targeting monasteries. Ferguson points out that peaceful contacts between the Norse peoples and Christian societies, such as trading with each other. He therefore asks why did the Viking attacks begin when they did?
But with the accession of Charlemagne in 771, the Carolingians began to implement a new program of converting their pagan and neighbors and promoting Christianity. Charlemagne launched numerous invasions of the Saxon peoples led by Widukind.
In a podcast interview, Ferguson adds the goals of Charlemagne were to force the Saxons "to abandon their culture, political system, beliefs and everything, and make them part Christians and part of his empire."
Ferguson notes an episode of "ethnic-cleansing:" when, in 782, Charlemangne's armies forcibly baptised and then executed 4,500 Saxon captives at Verden, a town close to Denmark. The Danes would have been well aware of what was happening with the Saxons anyways, as Widukind was married to sister of the Danish king, Sigfrid, and often took refuge in Denmark to escape the Carolingians.
Considering the situation, Ferguson writes, "Should the Vikings simply wait for Charlemagne's armies to arrive and set about the task? Or should they fight to defend their culture?"
But the Norse could not fight the Carolingian military directly - instead they went after soft-targets, such as monasteries, which were symbols of the growing Christian encroachment. Ferguson says, "everything points to a hatred that goes beyond just robbers who just wanted money."
The article goes on to describe these early Viking attacks, and how their raids expanded throughout Europe, with Viking kingdoms developing on the British Isles and elsewhere.
Several other explanations have been put forward for Viking violence, such as innovations in shipbuilding which encouraged piracy, and overpopulation in Scandinavia, which forced many of its people to leave their homeland in search of fortune.
You also can download this ebooks:Lincoln Order Of Neuromancers - Apikorsus An Essay On The Diverse Practices Of Chaos Magick
Scott Cunningham - Wicca A Guide For The Solitary Practitioner
Scott Cunningham - Living Wicca A Further Guide For The Solitary Practitioner
Tags: basic techniques magic pagan police take asatru part asatru thor magic wyrd fehu rune poetic saeundar hinns yule islands magic theory practice guide angelical mythologies persecutions | <urn:uuid:65a4961e-ce33-49d4-8022-3851acd2e2a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://porai-odinist.livejournal.com/42483.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952091 | 580 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Scooters, Mopeds, Etc... in Iowa
Mopeds and scooters offer affordable and convenient transportation for Iowa residents. However, it's important to be aware of Iowa's special rules and regulations regarding these vehicles.
In Iowa, a moped is a vehicle that has a seat for the use of the rider and is designed to travel on not more than 3 wheels. They are not capable traveling over 30 MPH on level ground unassisted by human power.
Drivers 14 Through 15
A moped license is required. If you are 14 through 15 years old. you will also have to pass a approved moped education course before you can apply for a license.
- Complete a moped rider education course approved by the Iowa Department of Transportation.
- Pass the same knowledge test required for a driver's permit.
- Pass a vision test.
- Pass a skills test (this depends on the discretion of the examiner).
Contact your nearest driver's license station for information on courses in your area.
Drivers 16 Through 17
You only need a permit if you don't have, at the minimum, an intermediate license. To apply for a permit, follow the same steps as described in the Drivers 14 through 15 years old. category above.
Drivers Over 18
If you're 18 years old or older and already have a currently valid driver license, you do not need to complete any additional licensing requirements in order to operate a moped. If, however, you don't have a license, you must apply for a moped permit.
Iowa Moped Rules of the Road
When operating a moped on Iowa roads, you are expected to obey all traffic laws if you wish to avoid receiving a traffic ticket.
In addition, you must remember the following regulations:
- A moped is required to display a flag that is 30 square inches and at least 5 feet from the ground to increase the vehicle's visibility while on Iowa roads.
- It is against the law to carry a passenger on your moped.
- When operating a moped, you cannot carry a package that prevents you from having both hands on the handlebars at all times.
Electric- or gas-powered scooters that resemble long skateboards with handlebars, a motor, and a seat are popular among teenagers and young adults.
Unfortunately, the Iowa Department of Transportation states that the vast majority of these vehicles do not meet the requirements for vehicle registration. This means that they can not be legally operated on public streets and most bike trails. In some locations, it may also be illegal to operate this type of vehicle on city sidewalks.
Some scooters are considered to be a type of motorcycle. Some have their engines located to the forward of the seat and affixed directly to the frame. | <urn:uuid:de4815f2-e368-4866-8c32-052c516b7bd4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmv.org/ia-iowa/other-types.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944413 | 571 | 2.6875 | 3 |
A recent report prepared by the Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety (“AHAS”), calls on the elected officials of all fifty states to adopt 15 basic traffic safety laws that the AHAS maintains have the potential to save thousands of lives and billions of dollars each year.
According to the report, states that adopt the laws will benefit by reducing the number of preventable deaths and injuries due to traffic accidents, save on medical and work loss costs such as Medicaid, hospitalization, emergency responders and law enforcement, and qualify for federal grants designed to encourage enactment of traffic safety programs. The release also contains a report card grading each state’s efforts to adopt the proposed laws.
Fourteen states and the District of Columbia received “green” ratings, indicating significant advancement toward adopting all of the recommended laws. Six states received a “red” rating, indicating poor performance due to a dangerous lack of basic traffic safety laws. Florida was one of thirty states to receive a “yellow” rating, indicating that a “moderately positive performance but with numerous gaps still in [its] highway
According to the report, Florida saw 2,398 traffic fatalities in 2011 and suffered an average annual economic cost due to motor vehicle accidents of $14.4 billion. So which recommended traffic laws is Florida missing?
Booster seats for all children through age seven. According to the report, motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death for children age five and older, causing 194 deaths in children ages four to seven died in 2011. The Partners for Child Passenger Safety estimates that booster seats reduce the risk of injury to children ages four through seven in a motor vehicle accident by 59%.
All motorcyclists are required to wear a helmet. Florida law permits motorcyclists over twenty-one years old to ride their bike without a helmet as long as they have insurance coverage of at least $10,000.
Graduated Drivers License (GDL) Programs. GDL programs are designed to gradually introduce teens to driving by “phasing in” different driving privileges over time. Each of the following is considered one of the 15 proposed laws:
a Minimum age of sixteen to obtain a learner’s permit.
b Stronger restrictions on conditions under which teens can drive at night.
c Restrictions on when and how many passengers a teen can have in a vehicle.
d Restrictions prohibiting teens from talking on cell phones while driving.
Installation of ignition interlock device for all drunk-driving offenders.
Ban on texting-while-driving for all drivers. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration reported that there were 3,331 fatalities in distraction-affected crashes in 2011. According to a 2009 study by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, text messaging while driving increased the risk of an accident by 23.2 times.
The Miami accident attorneys at Gerson and Schwartz, P.A. appreciate the efforts of the AHAS to reduce the number of motor vehicle accidents occurring across America. However, it is important for all motorists to remember that they have legal options should they be involved in a motor vehicle accident.
Our Miami, Florida personal injury attorneys have extensive experience representing individuals who have been injured by careless and negligent drivers. If you or someone you know has been injured in auto accident, or car crash, contact our legal team online | <urn:uuid:84edba59-0100-49c7-83c5-01db30dd4c4d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.miamiinjurylawyerblog.com/2013/02/new_report_finds_florida_traff.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960268 | 683 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Problem: Work is making you miserable. Your boss is a mean little man with a clip-on tie and a rub-on tan and he’s got you running round the office like a dog around a track. Your coworkers unironically say things like “hump day” and “working hard, or hardly working?” If you could just spend a few less hours every week staring at the grey, sad walls of your cubicle and a few more hours with the people you love, or finally taking tap-dancing lessons, you’d be happy.
In the Journal of Happiness Studies, Robert Rudolf of Korea University in Seoul looked at the effects of the Korean Five-Day Working Reform, when South Korea instituted a policy to remove Saturdays from the workweek and reduce working hours from 44 to 40 a week.
Methodology: The Five-Day Working Policy was implemented in 2004—this study analyzes data from the annual Korean Labor and Income Panel Study for 1998 to 2008, on the job satisfaction and life satisfaction of workers and their families. Before 2004, most people who worked were at their jobs 41 or more hours a week, with significant numbers working more than 60 hours a week. After 2004, most people were working between 41 and 50 hours a week—the number working more than 60 hours a week reduced by 4.8 percent for women and by 7.9 percent for men.
Rudolf also takes into account the effect of gender roles on happiness. In South Korea, women often voluntarily stay home from work, and men are still expected to be the main breadwinners, so women tend to be happier when not working at all than men are. | <urn:uuid:2e57a63e-bcd6-4d34-b62b-1829be6581c2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.govexec.com/excellence/promising-practices/2013/08/study-less-time-office-doesnt-make-people-happier/69401/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963031 | 347 | 2.625 | 3 |
West Virginia was “born of a nation divided”. It was originally the western part of Virginia but at the onset of the Civil War the eastern and western sides of the state began to argue over secession from the union. The eastern half wanted to secede and become part of the Confederate States of America while the western half remained loyal.
Western Virginia became the area for the first campaign of the Civil War. Both sides knew the value of western Virginia because of the railroads, farming, and mining potentials of the area so Union General George B. McClellan ordered the Department of Ohio to cross the Ohio River and secure western Virginia for the union. Through many battles the union finally succeeded and West Virginia became a state in 1863 (this is the only permanent map change that resulted from the Civil War).
West Virginia has been known for the Hatfield and McCoy feud that ran along the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky in the late 1800s as well as the disputes within the coal mining industry in the early 1900s. The railroads, mining, and farming that fueled the fight over this land did become prosperous, not only for West Virginia, but for the nation as a whole.
Today, West Virginia is one of the greenest, most beautiful states. Anyone who enjoys nature will enjoy driving through this state. Not only have the people of West Virginia preserved the beauty of the mountains, they have also preserved their history.
I-64 runs along the upper part of the southern region. This area is host to Sandstone Mountain, the Hatfield and McCoy Trail, Civil War Trail, and the Coal Heritage Trail. Sandstone Mountain rises to 2765 feet and overlooks spectacular mountain views. The Hatfield and McCoy Trail spans 500 miles with Native American culture, history of the historic feud, as well as a visit to the Hatfield cemetery where a life-size marble statue of “Devil Anse” stands. The Coal Heritage Trail is where the Upper Big Branch Miners’ Memorial is found.
For the sports minded there are more than a dozen state parks where there is swimming, hiking, hunting, biking, caving, skiing, and golfing. There is class I – V rafting in the rivers and off-road riding for all levels across the trails. No matter the outdoor sport, it can be found in the hills of West Virginia, or simply just drive through. The beauty and majesty of the area across I-64 is breathtaking. | <urn:uuid:5084f4ba-810f-421d-b47a-756d679af581> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.examiner.com/article/wild-and-wonderful-i-64-west-virginia?cid=rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964545 | 505 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Hurricane Katrina was a Category 5 storm that struck the east coast of the United States on August 29, 2005 and caused catastrophic damage, particularly along the coastlines of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. Most notably, levees that separated New Orleans from Lake Pontchartrain were breached by surging waters, resulting in a devastating flood that engulfed about 80 percent of the city. All told, Katrina was responsible for more than 1,800 deaths and approximately $90 billion in damages, making it the costliest hurricane in American history.
The storm took on strong political undercurrents when critics of George W. Bush publicly impugned the President for demonstrating poor leadership by having failed to mobilize rescue operations quickly enough during the disaster. They attributed this purported failure to the racism, misplaced priorities, and anti-environmental policies of the Bush administration.
The RESOURCES column located on the right side of this page contains links to articles, essays, books, and videos that explore such topics as:
claims that Katrina's ferocity was the result of Bush administration policies vis a vis the environment;
charges that racism played a role in slowing the federal government's response to the disaster;
how local political leaders, rather than the federal government, failed to proactively relocate area residents to safe havens; and
how the longstanding policies of the environmentalist Left had prevented the victimized region from taking adequate measures to prepare for a catastrophe such as Katrina. | <urn:uuid:53b555a1-738d-48ef-b70a-e69b58a9f7e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/guideDesc.asp?catid=155&type=issue | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961121 | 291 | 3.25 | 3 |
Humanism and Science
The reader has become acquainted with various points of view relating to a problem which in one manner or another is of concern to every thoughtful person in our time. The reader has become participant in this discussion. One does not have to be a philosopher to note the essential differences in approaching a resolution of the problem at hand. We will also make an attempt, without pretensions of providing a final answer, to express our own opinion.
Of primary importance is a formulation of the essential aspect of the problem grappled with by each of the authors in this book despite the obvious differences separating them. This is important because it may sometimes seem that various approaches to the question simply signify discussions concerning various sides or aspects, but not (often opposing) means of resolving one and the same question. This one and the same question must be constantly borne in mind in as concise and sharp a formulation as possible. Only then can it be decided, following the arguments presented by the authors, which path points towards a solution, and which to a dead end. Otherwise we will be left with the impression that each approach contains partial glimpses of the truth and, equally, that each contains biases as well as mistakes. But the truth was never born of a simple summation of "various" aspects or through the unification of differing points of view.
What is in fact this question which so disturbs everyone? Can it be formulated in such a way that each disputant will recognize in it the object of his own reflections? Indeed, to state the question properly is to be well on the way to a solution. Therefore an authentic theoretical argument always begins with the theoretical formulation of the problem.
It is best when agreement on this point is reached front the very beginningat the very least this agreement must be arrived at. Otherwise the formulation of the topic under dispute will remain insufficiently precisely articulated. The attempt must be made to bring the problem to the level of a contradiction, for every authentic problem, we are taught by the dialectic, must appear before the mind in the form of an intense and unresolved contradiction, in the form of an antinomy.
If for the time being we leave aside the purely theoretical ways of expressing the problem and approach it in a form comprehensible without requiring debilitating definitions and explanations, such an approach will permit us to evaluate each of the theoretical formulations provided.
What is the substance of this real and vital problem troubling each of us, which each of us has recognized to one degree or another and articulated in a more or less clear fashion?
Each of us has been aware almost literally from the time of our childhood of the dissonance between the conclusions of the mind and the dictates of the heart, of the frequent conflict between the voice of the conscience and calculations of our reason. Each of us knows that sometimes "circumstances" provide an act which stands in contradiction to our conscience, to our sense of kindness and of decency; we are familiar with the opposite, when the desire to do a "good deed" is overwhelmed by the force of "circumstances". Sometimes we prefer to submit to these circumstances, at other times we act "unwisely" but "nobly", entertaining no illusions of success. . . .
It is clear that we perceive such a contradiction as dissonance and divarication bringing neither peace of mind nor the tranquil carrying out of one's business. This conflict of motives, between "the mind's reflections coldly noted, the bitter insights of the heart" is not, of course, an insidious invention on the part of advocates of philosophical dualism. It is (whether to better or worse) the stuff of reality, the centre of our lives and thoughts.
Our planet, alas, is poorly prepared to grant happiness, Circumstances as they stand at present on earth are such that one can find no automatic guide to action which will coincide to the last detail with our inbred desire to bring about the well‑being and happiness of all on earth. The very "circumstances" surrounding our actions are contradictory. Often we must do somebody harm in order to do a good deed for another, and vice versa.
Given this situation is it possible to locate a universal principle, a general formula guaranteeing faultless decision‑making?
It is conceivable, of course, to decide once and for all to pursue unwaveringly the "voice of the conscience", the "dictates of the heart" and the "striving for good". One may decide to follow the principles of absolute and uncompromising honesty, ingenuousness and directness, regardless of considerations of other people and other facts and despite the cautions set forth by reason in its account of the pertinent circumstances. One can, on the other hand, rely solely upon reason, upon a sober calculation and estimation of all circumstances, upon the mathematically rigorous mind, placing unwavering trust in this mindboth when its conclusions accord with direct moral intuition and when they run in contrary directions.
Which of these principles is preferable, which is the more correct?
Will one risk the choice between these two, particularly after having read this book from cover to cover? It may be concluded with certainty from the preceding chapters, that each of the suggested solutions contains a certain logic and that each, in its rigorous purity, is abstract to an identical degree. In other words, from a more sophisticated point of view, the risk is unreasonable.
In point of fact the first solution attracts by virtue of its nobility of morals, often celebrated in the great art of the world. Don Quixote, Prince Myshkin in Dostoevsky’s Idiot, Siegfried (Der Ring des Nibelungen). . . . But the position is a martyr's lot. Moreover the martyr here is not only the protagonist, but also the principles themselves. Nobility of sentiment devoid of rationality and refracted through the prism of "circumstances" sometimes emerges as a caricature and sometimes a tragedy. Abstract, that is to say, alien to reason and calculationnoble sentiment inevitably leads to self‑denial and even suicide. One can find moral comfort here, but the truly noble simpleton, as a rule, serves—unbeknownst to himself and unwittinglyas a convenient tool of evil and torment in the web of insidious circumstances.
No less insidious in terms of consequences is the opposite solution. The habit of giving preference to the rigorously mathematical calculation or estimate of all circumstances (when the circumstances are repugnant to the conscience) leads, in the final result, to moral collapse. All is well and good when the calculations are flawless. But since it is in the end impossible to take fully into account all of an endless stream of dialectically interwoven circumstances, sooner or later, the calculating human being is bound to make a miscalculation, in so doing committing a moral transgression, passed by in the process as something inessential.
The dialectical "self‑negation" (that is to say "suicide" of the given principle and its bearer) in a subjective sense, to be sure, endures even worse. For a miscalculation together with a criminal act against the elementary norms of decency leads to a result perceived, among other things, as moral retribution . . . as the collapse, the total crushing of the personality.
Indeed it is one matterthe magnificent internal demise of Don Quixote, and quite anotherthe suicide, dictated by horror and self‑repugnance, of Smerdyakov (one of the protagonists in Dostoevsky's Brothers Karamazov). The mind, flouting the elementary demands of morality, ends up as a stupid fraud, a fraudulent ignoramus, recognizing this intolerableboth for the "mind" and for the "conscience"state, to which it has brought itself by virtues of its principles. . . . Trust was placed in an abstract principle, but the trust was betrayed.
Don Quixoteis an easier case. Those "circumstances" which he didn't take into accountand had no desire to include in his calculationsproved to be the stronger. A sad state of affairs, but what can you do? Don Quixote will live on, however, in the grateful memories of all those who sooner or later will in fact remake "circumstances".
Such an outcome is easier, although it is nevertheless not the most pleasant. The outcome for Socrates, the outcome for Giordano Bruno.
There, on the other side we have Smerdyakov, Rudolf Hess, Julius Streicher.
Thus, if there is to be a defeat the first type is preferable, although one-sided and helpless before the crush of circumstances, then at least justified by its nobility of principle.
But both lead to defeat, to demise, to dialectical self-negation. A more optimistic exit must be sought.
* * *
From the Marxist point of view a full solution to the problem may be found solely by "making the circumstances humane", organizing the entire network of circumstances so that the problem itself disappears, so that no one ever has to choose between the demands of the "conscience" and the dictates of "reason"so that circumstances themselves dictate (and the "mind" perceive) activity and deeds, in conformity with the interests of all other people.
The totality of social relations, social "circumstances" organized on the basis of this principle, is called communism. Communism in this sense is the only possible, only conceivable, theoretically valid and complete solution to the problem given formulation in this book. But the relations between science and morality are only one, only a partial expression of the fundamental problem of our agethe communist transformation of all social relations between humans. Only on the basis of a solution to this problem will we find, in the end, a solution to the conflict between impartial science, purged of all "sentiments", and of humanism. There is no other solution. Without the overarching solution our conflict will become more and more acute, the two polar principles will diverge even more widely and fall into sharper cleavage.
The capitalist system has only such a prospect: the exacerbation of the problemantinomy between the demands of humaneness, on the one hand, and cold‑blooded calculation, alien to authentic scientific humanism, on the other hand. The culture of the bourgeois capitalist system divides inexorably along these two lines, both identically catastrophic for the fact of civilization. These two poles are counterposed in long-established and crystallized images.
One is “abstract humanism". Noble. but powerless before the “force of circumstances” and condemned to the fate of a lamb before the slaughter, the intellectuals in the West are inclined to support this pole. At times this position degenerates into flowery phrases and senseless chatter. At other times it instigates one to an aesthetically‑tainted anarchism, to revolt. Sometimes it forces one to lend an ear to the solution offered by the long-range prospects of communism.
The other pole is "scientism" (also quite widespread in the West), that is the decisive rejection of all humanistic principles, termed as "unscientific sentiments”, as poetry and fiction". Scientism is the humanist emasculation of the scientific spirit, turned into a new God, a new Moloch, to whom, if he so desires, must be sacrificed tens, thousands, millions, and even hundreds of millions of people.
This new absolute spiritthe “scientific spirit" at all costshas long had its priests. One of them stated with satisfaction, upon hearing the news of the destruction of Hiroshima: "What a magnificent experiment in physics!"
Given the preservation of such a world of "circumstances” organized on the basis of private property and the principle of competition there is no solution.
The only solution, according to Marx and Lenin, is the struggle of all working people (both manual and intellectual labour) for the establishment of those conditions on earth guaranteeing the disappearance of the "cursed problem" itself, of the tragic polarization of spiritual culture into two hostile campsthe dehumanized "scientific spirit" and the humanism of Don Quixote, devoid of a scientific foundation. Specifically we refer to the fight to eliminate the sphere of private property and to establish communism.
* * *
The authors of the given book derive their standpoints from this Marxist premise. Not one of them poses the problem in an adolescent fashion: "What is better, scientism or abstract humanism?" or, "What is worse, 'the unreasoning conscience' or the 'unscrupulous mind'?" We all understand that both of them are unacceptable, that is to say "worse".
All of the authors take the stance that high moral standards in human relations (that is to say, humanitarianism) can triumph on the earth only with the aid and support of science, and conversely, that science can develop along the path of universal‑historical discoveries only if it is oriented to the well‑being of all, if it consistently marks its course with the compass of humanitarianism. All of the authors of the present work propose a reasoned morality or, in other words. the moral development of the mind.
All of the authors understand well that the primary task of the socialist system, as noted in the CPSU Programme, consists in the education of peopleboth scientists and laymenin the spirit of the harmonious development of both the scientific intellect and the highest moral principles, in the spirit of unity. The combination in each and every human of these two equally important elements of spiritual culture, is a task yet to be completed. How can this task be accomplished more rapidly and conscientiously? How can the vestiges of the antinomy of "mind" and "conscience" left to us as the legacy of the bourgeois‑capitalist order be eliminated more swiftly and completely?
The authors have also tried to come to grips with this problem. In terms of the goal of the argument they are not in disagreement. The differences to be observed concern the means to the end. They may be described as various shadings of an approach to the resolution of a given problem: how can the "reasoning conscience" or "conscientious reason" be more faithfully fostered in each and every human? The alternatives: the humanistically‑oriented scientific judgment or a rationally acting humanism, a humanized scientific spirit or a scientifically infused humanitarianism. These alternatives are, in the end result, one and the same. The authors are in agreement on this point, we find no source of dispute.
But perhaps, given this agreement, there is nothing to hold the reader's interest, no serious disagreement?
Perhaps both groups of writers (and it's not difficult to note that each of them is pulled to one of the two poles, each pole demonstrating the same argument) have drawn the links of their arguments from different premises. Some wish to resolve the task by means of the "humanization of scientific thought", wish to furnish the cold theoretical intellect with a "value orientation". Others, on the contrary, wish to equip humanitarian strivings with the strength of scientific insight and the might of the theoretical intellect, to provide humanitarianism with a "scientific rigging". Both groups accomplish a good deed in the process. He who lacks a scientific background should be provided with the essentials, he who lacks a moral framework, should be encouraged above all in moral relations (not ignoring, of course, a scientific education). In the one instance science must be imparted in a morally "cultivated" soil, in the othermoral principles must be inculcated in a scientifically literate mind. Both poles of the theoretical setting are thus justified, correct and good, but in different respects.
Is not the dispute itself resolved, may it not be said that "what the philosophers are arguing about" in the given instance is a false contradiction?
It would seem so. It would seem that the antinomy has disappeared and turned out to be "a contradiction in different relations". In other words, each side is correct in relation to one object (to that category of people which it had in mind) and incorrect in relation to another. If this be so, the reader may put aside the book in peace and call a halt to the inquiry. The contradiction has proven to be a formal, verbal one. Let those who derive pleasure from this type of problem continue the dispute.
Nevertheless, let us look somewhat more closely at the issue. In the fine print of the given formal contradiction can we not find something more essential?
Thus, the first solution: add a dose of science to humanitarianism.
The second: humanize the sciences, direct them toward humanitarian, noble goals and "values".
Let us try to clarify the premises implicit in each of these propositions, accepted without reflection as given. Will we not find concealed an authentically, rather than merely verbal dialectical contradiction in these premises?
The first solution, stressing the scientific "outfitting" of the human psyche (of both scientists and laymen) proceeds from the tacit presupposition that the majority of people are already sufficiently developed in a moral sense that it remains only to provide them with the apparatus of scientific notions or “literacy” to implement the previously stated goal.
The second, on the contrary, proposes that in relation to science people (or at least people engaged in the scientific disciplines) have already reached the summit and that if something is found lacking, this something is a clear and indisputable "scale of values", a certain moral (or, strictly speaking, ethical) regulator. Arming the scientist with a scale of "value orientation" we will put everything in order, and science will begin to bring exclusively well‑being and happiness to humankind; catastrophe and harm will be forever excluded. . . .
Is the reader satisfied with such a solution?
We fear each solution has only an extremely limited range of application. Such is the case, for example, with the morally irreproachable, ethically attractive, but unfortunately semi-literate person; and such is the case with the "academician" who has pulled himself up to the moral level of a Hottentot. Are there really such cases? Alas, yes. But, as luck would have it, they are rare birds, just as are all "pure" extremes. The two strategies (and the theories underlying them) mentioned above are perhaps applicable in these cases. Infrequency is not the only point here; these personages themselves are terminal cases. The ambulance of theory arrived on the scene much too late in this case.
The highly refined scientific mind inculcated in a human being with the moral level of the primitive psyche, can hardly be transformed into a human an humane mind (particularly through the inculcation of “value categories”). On the other hand, for the morally proper, good, honest and selfless person lacking a higher education, it is probably too late to encourage a scientific and theoretical intellect of the first order.
A theoretical understanding of the relationship existing between "the scientific spirit" and "morality" cannot be concerned, therefore, with these exclusive situations, nor must it orient itself upon them. A theoretical understanding can be gained only through the analysis of mass phenomena and must be sufficient to resolve instances and problems occurring on a large scale. If this be so, then each of the solutions presented in a schematic fashion above to the problem as a whole, may be judged imperfect.
Of course, one must try to foster in each and every human both of these qualitiesto develop his theoretical intellect without forgetting about his moral upbringing, about the encouragement of his humanitarian inclinations. But such a correct practical "solution" does not speak to our point: are these elements of an authentic spiritual culture connected internally, in essence? Perhaps there are variousto be sure, of identical importancebut nevertheless mutually independent and autonomously cultivated means with which an individual can carry on relationships with the world about and with other people.
If this be so, then science is an objective picture of the world absolutely shorn of any and all "sentiments". This picture is both socio‑historical and naturalistic, and must be thoroughly cleansed of the slightest admixture of the "subjectively human". It portrays the world about us as such and teaches us of our own biological structuredemonstrating how the world and life as such contrived independently of our consciousness, will, sympathies and antipathies, desires and strivings. Concerning the question of how to dispose of the world, of the use we make of our scientific and theoretical knowledge of the environment, this, if we pursue the reasoning of such an interpretation of the scientific spirit, is a question of another order. To rephrase it, is a question of the moral "values" we wish to foster in the human being. But "values" interpret not that which is, but that which should be. We are more accurately, in the realm of ideals and dreams, be they elevated or mean, noble or selfish. At any rate, we are dealing with criteria providing a subjective evaluation of purely objective circumstances, things, situations and events which have been described by science.
In its classically clear and consistent form such a relationship between "pure reason" and the "voice of the conscience", as between two equally important but principally heterogeneous modes of perceiving the world of phenomena, is presented in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
Science impartially describes that which is; theoretical reason in its "pure" state has neither the right nor the resources to judge whether something is "good" or "bad" from the point of view of the “well‑being of the human species”, of its “self‑perfection”. Precisely for this reason Kant considered that “pure reason” must be supplemented by an absolutely independent and autonomous moral regulator, the "categorical imperative" which can be neither scientifically proven nor refuted. This categorical imperative must be accepted on faith. Without blind faith in this moral regulator "pure" (scientific-theoretical) reason can serve both good and evil with equal ease; of and by itself it is capable of any action and neutral in the struggle between good and evil. In actuality this signifies: a halter of moral restrictions must be fitted to scientific reflection. Such a halter will help to guide science and direct its inquiries.
It is not difficult to observe that for Kant the theoretical solution to the question posed by the relationship between "pure" and "practical" reason, that is to say, between science and the "voice of the conscience"the "moral regulator"is given sufficient definition. Kant does not simply argue that the "intellect" (verstand) and the "conscience" (the scientific and moral aspects of the human psyche) are of equal importance, mutually complementary, and, in isolation, inadequate modes of orientation to the world on the part of the individual. If Kant had confined himself to this, he would have been uttering trivial bits of worldly wisdom, against which no one would have bothered to object. Each individual (providing of course that he is not an inveterate scoundrel or an impenetrable thickhead) constantly tries to correlate his thoughts and deeds, both with the conclusions of the intellect and the demands of morality. The problem cannot be pinpointed here.
It arises rather when the intellect and morals (science and morality) conflict with an unresolvable antinomy, when they require of the individual diametrically opposite decisions. In such instances Kant grants the right for an unconditional verdict, for a final decision concerning that which is correct or incorrect from a superior point of viewprecisely to moral principle. For Kant theoretically this position is founded on the judgment that the intellect (theoretical reason) is fundamentally incapable of taking fully into account the interminable succession of conditions bearing upon the resolution of a task, that the "voice of the conscience" by some miraculous means is in fact capable of grasping in an integral fashion, immediately and without analytical digging into the details, the full picture of this unending sequence. Therefore if reason collides with the voice of the conscience this indicates that the former has left something essential out of account which in the end result, having emerged from the shadows of the unknown, will overturn its calculations.
Therefore the categorical imperative moral principle is placed over science by Kant as an absolutely independent of its considerations, and fully autonomous criterion of a higher truth. In turn the development of science is dependent upon its dictates. This further signifies that science (the intellect) is proclaimed a means of implementing moral ends, a mode for the concretization (embodiment) of moral principles.
This may be concretely presented in the following manner: if "pure reason" (science) has arrived at a state of antinomy, that is to say, if two theories, two schools, or two conceptions emerge, each as logical as its opponent, and each as well founded in terms of the given contemporary state of knowledge as the other, the decision on which is correct and which incorrect will be left not to science (for it is incapable of finding an exit from this unpleasant situation) but rather to ethics. The latter would demonstrate which of the two mutually exclusive theories is to be supported and developed further and which to be prohibited as ill‑intentioned.
The arbiter, furthermore, renders a peremptory judgment and in such disputes between scholars becomes what might be called a priest of morality judging science from without.
Could it be, however, that the problem is solved in precisely the opposite manner? Perhaps science should not be declared the handmaid of ethics (the form of realizing moral strivings); on the contrary, morals should become the means for inculcating scientifically demonstrated principles of behaviour, that is to say, science should be granted the right to guide morality. In such a case morality becomes a form of the psyche derivative of "pure reason". Here morality, both by essence and by origin, is identified with science, only expressed in the language of imperative (rather than declarative) statements.
Let us say that science has established that "human nature" bears specific features. Ethics translates this fact in the following manner: "You are human, therefore you must do this and that". Ethics in such a case would be distinguished from scientific reflection in an exclusively linguistic manner, by the exclusively imperative form of the sentence giving expression to those very same truths established by science. Ethics here will become a form of realization of a scientific approach.
This alternative is also a theoretical one, not a "from that, follows this". It is easy to observe that it stands in direct opposition to the Kantian solution. In the latter ethics directs the development of science, in the former science directs the development of ethics and of morality. At first glance such a solution seems more reasonable than that preferred by Kant. Scientists are more inclined to accept the second alternative. Perhaps we may also rest our case on it?
The advantages of such a solution are indisputable. They represent the advantages held by the scientific spirit over blind faith in the force of moral "values", in the strength of "the good", in the triumph of "mankind's well‑being", as well as other noble but, as a result of their abstractness, ambiguous reference points. Indeed both "the good" and the "well-being of humanity" can be interpreted variously. Here after all begins the very same dialectic that we find in the sphere of “pure reason” . . . .
Nevertheless it seems to us that this solution is not so infallible, despite the fact that it is closer to the truth than are Kant's proposals. One's suspicions are aroused from the fact that this solution represents the mirror opposite of Kant's. They bear the same similarities and differences that we find between a photographic negative and positive. In one scientific thought evolves in the direction suggested by ethics, in the other, morality is constructed and refurbished to correspond with the instructions given "according to science".
The latter would be a wonderful solution, but only under the condition that the notion (science) were an absolute one in terms of infallibility, to repeat, free of error. To put it briefly the scientific notion would have to possess all those qualities of divine perfection ascribed to it by Plato and Hegel respectively. The Hegelian "Absolute Idea" in substance, is nothing but the "deified scientific notion" to which is given all the attributes of God.
Science is a wonderful thing; we hope the reader does not entertain the suspicion that we hold it in disrespect. The "deification of science " (deification of the notion), as any deification, is another matter. It (of course not science itself, but its authorized representatives) begins to imagine itself the creator not only of morals, but also of law, of political systems, of wide‑scale historical events, of cities, temples, statues, in general of all human history. The "deified notion'' begins to look upon history as upon its own work, its own creation; an "empirical world" brought about by its omnipotence and creative power. If we follow this train of thought, historical man in his deeds and affairs realizes, often quite unwittingly, the designs of the "Absolute Idea", that is to say, of the deified (under such a name) logic of scientific‑theoretical reflection.
If the absolute notion proclaims through its priests that man has completed his service to the absolute and that it has decided to create a perfected instrument to embody its will, let us say a "thinking machine", an artificial intellect with capabilities exceeding those of the human brain, then humans will be obliged to submit unconditionally to the command of the absolute and lead themselves to the sacrifice, recognizing their imperfection, fallibility and biologically imposed limitations. Such is the logic of the position we have outlined carried to its conclusion.
It must be added that the Hegelian variant of a deified notion or logical idea was nevertheless more humane than the newest deity on the altar (the worship of the cybernetic‑mathematical notion). With Hegel God-Logos specifically granted men the right to act as instruments of self-cognition and self‑awareness, "objectification" and "de‑objectification". Heinrich Heine came to the conclusion, on the basis of conversations with Hegel himself that his philosophy points to a humanitarian proposition: man is in fact the only God, at on least on earth. Man as a thinking being is the God of this world.
The human guided by logic is the creator of history and its fully empowered "steward". He must be handed the reins of government over human affairs. It is precisely he, the dialectically thinking theoretician who from this point on must be the high priest of Godthat is, of the self‑impelled Absolute Idea. Hegel's God is the God of the theoretician who believes in the strength of the Idea, that is, of the logical scheme imposed upon the development of science. Still it is a God, with all the ensuing undesirable consequences for mankind.
The more man relinquishes to God, the less he leaves for himself. The more God appropriates, the more is "alienated" from the living human being. Further, the "alienated" (i.e., the deified) reason signifies on the other hand the "alienated" (including the spheres of reason, sciencethe Idea) man. With the deification of science we have (just as in Hegelian philosophy) a mystified inversion of their actual relations. To be precise: man created and continues to create science, but then it turns out that it is not science that serves the well‑being and happiness of mankind, but quite the opposite. Mankind is being enlisted in the service of science and is becoming the obedient executor and even slave of its despotic design. This is well and good when the design is authentically scientific (veritas in the highest sense of the word). But if this be not the case?
Science, once deified, becomes not only despotic and intolerant, but also quite incapable of self‑criticism. It goes without saying that we refer not to science itself, for in and of itself it is devoid of consciousness and will, but rather to its plenipotentiary, individual and sometimes quite authoritative scientists. Indeed they speak out not of personal conviction, but in the name of science. People respect science, for this reason the blanket phrase "in the name of science" sometimes conceals the true nature of certain ideas parading under this title but in reality having nothing in common with either humanism or with the authentic scientific spirit.
Things are even worse when a morally inferior person begins to lay down the law in the name of science. When Truman ordered the bomb to be dropped on Hiroshima, this was apparently an inadequate measure for one scientist. He suggested that Hiroshima be destroyed even more “scientifically”, namely, by dropping in advance over the city multi-coloured illuminating rockets. The residents of the city would look up at this curious spectacle, and at precisely this time the atom bomb would explode. The result would be mass blindnessfor the survivors. Thus the "experiment in physics" would be, in his opinion, the more complete and would more succinctly demonstrate to the world the "strength of American science". And those who designed and built Hitler's mobile gas‑chambers were also, after all, scientists. . . .
Of course to dream of preventing similar applications of science by the “moral enlightenment” of such "scientists", by introducing them to a “value orientation centred on the good” and by the propagation of a "scale of moral values"such a dream is worthy only of the very naive humanist.
The idolization of science is a solution no better than that offered by Kant. The power of science must be respected, but in no instance deified.
Neither morality nor science can be the "higher value" in the scale of that which is valuable in human civilization. Morality and science have always been and remain today simply means, tools, instruments, designed by Man for his own use, to augment his mastery over nature, to support measures facilitating human happiness. If science and morality instead begin to support the oppression, crippling, disfiguring and even extermination of living human beings, that is to say, if they are transformed not only into an antipode, but also a deadly enemy of humanism, for the Marxist this testifies above all to the inhuman, anti‑humanist nature of that system of relations between people which so perverts the relations between science, morality and the human being. By "the human being" we have in mind the masses of peoplea body composed of working people, both in the manual and intellectual spheres of labourand not an abstract "humankind in general".
Marxism represents a higher form of humanism, precisely because it rejects idolization (or as is also said, "alienation") of any given institutionalized form of human activity including that of science (in other words, activity of a scientific‑theoretical type, professionally isolated from the majority of human beings: logical reflections, transformed into a profession, into the full‑time occupation of a more or less narrow group of individualsmathematicians and logicians by profession, etc.). This by no means belittles the importance of science or the deep respect accorded to a science founded on the dialectical materialist world outlook, for the latter is the most scientific world view.
This respect excluded the scientistic view on people as "raw material" for scientific research. Scientism is therefore the contemporary form of anti-humanism. From the point of view of Marxism‑Leninism science is in essence (rather than in the distorted and alienated images in which it is often presented in bourgeois society) a form for the realization of humanist goals. Marxist humanism proceeds from the historically matured (and scientifically clarified) requirements for the comprehensive development of the majority (or maximallyall humans without exception) of humans.
This is in fact the substance of communism. From such a point of view science is not a form for the realization of abstract humanist strivings (as with Kant) nor are ethics the form for the realization of the "logical idea" or "notion" (as with Hegel). Both science and ethics (an authentic, humanistically oriented morality or code of morals) represent two forms of consciousness, expressing and realizing one and the samethe concretely and historically understood being of man and of the world of man's life and works. Therefore an authentic science and authentically high level of morality cannot but coincide in their very essence. They cannot stand in juxtaposition.
But what if they coincide only "in essence", but in reality, in the empirical world, often run into conflict with each other?
Here it is by no means admissible to ignore the "moral sentiment" and place one's support wholly behind science regardless of circumstances, as advocates of scientism recommend. Indeed science (not as a whole, that is, not the entirety of scientific knowledge of man and nature, but isolated science, isolated theory) and more precisely, scientists speaking in its name, are capable of erring. If an individual science suddenly advances a conception (with recommendations stemming from this conception) which runs counter to the principles of humanism, then we are fully justified in assuming that in the given instance the ultimate truth may be found in morality, that the given science has gone astray. Here it is useful to submit the infallible Goddess to a critical analysis from the point of view of its own criteria.
Marxist humanism (or, in other words, the Marxist world‑view and logic), locating its reference points in scientific knowledge as a whole has the advantage of being an integral representative of scientific truth in the highest sense. It holds this advantage over any given individual science or theory no matter how marvellously elaborated this science or theory is in a formal sense. Such is the image of truth, accessible for science only in that instance and that sense of the word signifying not a given individual theory but rather the entire scientific-theoretical culture of mankind, the latter understood from a development perspective. In this sense, in this interpretation science and humanism coincide in all their conclusions and formulae. Between an individual science (theory) and humanism a conflict may well arise. To decide this contradiction in favour of the given theory and its "infallible formulae" would be at least incautious. One must initially determine the cause of the conflict.
This is precisely how Frederick Engels depicted the relationship between "scientific accuracy" and "the moral self-consciousness of the mass". He remarked that science could not rely upon arguments derived from morality nor base its propositions on arguments derived from "moral sentiment".
“Marx, therefore, never based his communist demands upon this. . . . But what formally may be economically incorrect may all the same be correct from the point of view of world history. If the moral consciousness of the mass declares an economic fact to be unjust, as it has done in the case of slavery or serf labour, that is a proof that the fact itself has been outlived, that other economic facts have made their appearance, owing to which the former has become unbearable and untenable. Therefore, a very true economic content may be concealed behind the formal economic incorrectness.”
The "moral sentiment of the mass" turns out to be correct in its stance against “strict science” which has not yet succeeded in getting to the heart of the matter precisely because the masses are truly caught in the vise of the contradiction between two categories of stubborn facts. In other words, the "moral sentiment"humanistically‑oriented consciousnessexpresses in the given instance the presence of a real problem which must be resolved both theoretically and practically, the existence of an actual social contradiction, an outlet from which must be sought in a scientific manner.
Therefore it was precisely Karl Marxa man with a developed morality and sensitivity to arguments stemming from the moral consciousness of the masseswho saw an authentic scientific problem where philistine scientists saw cause only for the elaboration of a formally non‑contradictory scheme of concepts. Spotting an authentic scientific problem means travelling half the distance to its solution. Therefore Marx's Capital, though constructed with a strictly scientific scaffolding, is nevertheless invested with a humanistic core, that is to say, a humanistic formulation of the problem and thrust.
The basic moral inspiration underlying Capital is fully and precisely expressed by the thesis of authentic humanism: Man, the living human being, not money, nor machines, nor products or any form of "wealth", is the highest value and the “creator‑subject” of all "alienated" forms. If we were to divest Capital of this "moral" principle, declaring it unscientific, the scientific logic underlying this work of genius would collapse as a whole. Indeed can one give a purely "logical" basis to the thesis that human labour creates value, while the work of the donkey, although it performs exactly the same labour, creates no new value?
* * *
The scientific communism of Marx, Engels and Lenin provides an internal unification for humanism and the scientific spirit which goes to the heart of the matter. This signifies that scientific communism, first of all, finds its reference point in the human being as the highest value; man understood not in an abstract manner but as the actual majority of working people. It finds its orientation in the general and fundamental interests of the working people. Scientific communism, secondly, represents, from beginning to end, a practical and concrete programme for the realization of humanism understood in precisely this sense.
Therefore humanism does not form a special "sub‑system" within Marxism, nor does it represent a separate "scale of values" existing autonomously in relation to the remaining scientific system of concepts.
From this stems as well the Leninist definition of communist ethics and communist morality and its guiding principle: that which serves the building of communist society is moral. We classify as moral that deed, that way of thinking which offers support to this noble cause. Any other understanding of morality and ethics represents without fail a bourgeois lie cleverly masked to one extent or another.
In this connection we note the theoretical untenability of the attempt to create within Marxism a special (autonomous) sub‑system dealing with "moral values". The proposal to supplement scientific communism with a special "scale of moral imperatives", with "humanistic premises" originates as a rule in the West from people who personally sympathize with communism but poorly understand the Marxist‑Leninist solution of the real problem incorporated here.
This problem is particularly acute today because the struggle for authentic humanism, for communism, is precisely a struggle. It is not an easy struggle, not only an ideological struggle, but at times it is even bloody. The latter is carried on against an enemy prepared to carry out the most extreme and inhumane measures. In this struggle the old conflict between the "values of humanism" and the necessity of violating them in the name of this humanism is renewed daily if not hourly. The typical dialectical situation arises in which the authentic humanist (as distinct from the "fair‑weather humanist") is sometimes forced to apply violence against another human. Sometimes circumstances evolve in such a manner that the authentic humanist is compelled to resort to deceit and cunning (for example, during interrogations in fascist torture chambers). Once again this deceit and cunning is applied in the name of humanism, for to tell the truth in such surroundings would be to commit a far more heinous and immoral act than to lie. Here there is no theoretical problem, but merely one of personal stamina, and moral fortitude in the pursuit of high moral principles.
The real and very difficult problem, calling for a clear theoretical solution lies elsewhere. Is it admissible to interpret the formula: "that which serves the victory of communism is moral" to mean that in the name of this great cause "all is permitted", that there are and can be no restrictions of a moral nature imposed here? Or might it be argued that even here not all is "permitted"?
Is there in general a limit beyond which a deviation, forced by extreme circumstances, from the abstract general norms of humaneness in the name of and for the sake of the triumph of a concretely and historically understood humanism is transformed intoin full agreement with the laws of the dialectica crime against the very goal for the sake of which the act was undertaken? To speak more to the point, can this fatal limit be determined, for it always exists somewhere or the other? In actuality this border forms the great divide between the authentic communism of Marx, Engels and Lenin and those "left" doctrines which interpret Marxist moral formula as indicating that "all is permitted". It is one matter to understand that violence and murder are inevitable actions summoned by the extreme circumstances accompanying the deadly battle of the classes, actions to which the revolutionary must resort, recognizing fully their inhumanity. It is quite another matter, to look upon these activities a the optimal, the safest and even the only methods of establishing "happiness" on earth. Both Marx and Lenin morally approved violence only in the most extreme circumstances, and then, only on the minimal scale, that which is absolutely necessary.
Lenin wrote that Communists are opposed to violence against men in general and they resort to coercion only when it is imposed upon them by authentic admirers of violence. The only justification for violence is as a means of opposing violence, as violence against the violent, but not as a means of influencing the will of the majority of the working people.
Therefore Communists are never the initiators of actions such as war or the "export of revolution" at the point of the bayonet. Lenin always categorically and consistently opposed “left” ideas of this type. In his understanding the scientific spirit of communism is always inseparably connected with the principle of humaneness in the direct sense of the word.
This also forms the principal difference between Lenin and those doctrinaires who allow themselves the pleasure of cynically counting up the number of human lives "worth" paying for the victory of world communism. . . . As a rule such calculations in today's world are the occupation of people characterized by primitivity both in terms of theory and in their moral profile.
In order to resolve the problem of uniting high moral standards with a maximum of the scientific spirit, the problem must first of all be viewed in all of the acuity and dialectical complexity which it has acquired in the difficult and tumultuous time we live in. A simple algebraic solution will not do. The problem of the relationship between morality and the scientific spirit has been resolved only in the most general fashion by Marxist philosophy. In concrete situations, on the other hand, it will occur again and again in the foreseeable future; each time it will have a new and unexpected twist. Therefore there can be no simple or ready‑made solution for each individual occurrence of the conflict between the "mind" and the "conscience".
There can be no simple prescription or mathematical formula capable of meeting every occasion. If you run into a conflict of this nature, do not assume that in each instance "science" is correct and "conscience" rubbish, or at best a fairy tale for children. The opposite is no closer to the truth, namely that "moral sentiment" is always correct, that science, if it runs into conflict with the formeris the heartless and brutal "devil" of Ivan Karamazov, engendering types like Smerdyakov. Only through a concrete examination of the causes of the conflict itself may we find a dialectical resolution, that is to say, the wisest and the most humane solution. Only thus may we find, to phrase it in current jargon, the "optimal variant" of correspondence between the demands of the intellect and of the conscience.
To be sure finding a concrete, dialectical unity between the principles of mind and conscience in each instance is not an easy matter. Unfortunately there is no magic wand, there is no simple algorithm, either of a "scientific" or a "moral" nature.
Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy, p. 9.
SOURCE: Ilyenkov, E. “Humanism and Science,” in Science and Morality, translated from the Russian (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), pp. 258-277.
"The Relationship Between Science and Morality (Philosophical Aspects)" by A. Arsenyev
"The Concept of the Ideal" by E. V. Ilyenkov
"The Universal" by E. V. Ilyenkov
"From the Marxist-Leninist Point of View" by E. V. Ilyenkov
"On Trends in the Status of Dialectical Logic: A Brief Study of Lefebvre, Ilyenkov and Wald" by Claude M. J. Braun
Evald Ilyenkov's Philosophy Revisited
Salvaging Soviet Philosophy (1)
Positivism vs Life Philosophy (Lebensphilosophie) Study Guide
Marx and Marxism Web Guide
Science and Morality (book)
and Science" by E. V. Ilyenkov
(this essay in original format)
"Knowledge, Faith and Morality" by E. Solovyov
"Scientific Truth and Moral Good" by O. Drobnitsky
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|Lucille H. Chambers, Trumbull School|
|A lesson for grade 7 designed to teach students to find a percent of a number by multiplying by a fraction or a decimal equivalent to that percent. From the Practical and Applied Math section of a collection of almost 200 single concept lessons by the Science and Mathematics Initiative for Learning Enhancement.|
|Resource Types:||Manipulatives, Lesson Plans and Activities|
© 1994- The Math Forum at NCTM. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:95ab1cd5-1706-4e13-a894-75d6362c6ddd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathforum.org/library/view/8595.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.774676 | 136 | 3.8125 | 4 |
A fairy garden is a garden in a small box, container or window box and is a miniature landscape that is really a three-dimensional work of art. The box contains not only plants, but miniature buildings, outdoor benches, bird houses and anything else that recreates a regular garden in miniature. The purpose is to attract fairies to the garden by using plants they like. Choose plant that are slow growers and easy to trim and keep small. Every plant in a fairy garden has a special use for fairies as well. Plant a small amount in the fairy garden and the rest in the regular garden to make the fairy garden a true miniature of the real one.
Moonlight thyme (Thymus leucotrichus) is one of the most important plants for a fairy garden. Legend has it that fairies hide their babies in the leaves. The plant is hardy in USDA zones 4 to 9. The plant produces tiny, green leaves and clusters of soft-pink flowers that will attract butterflies. Moonlight thyme likes full sun and a well-drained soil.
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) (aka English lavender and true lavender) is used by fairies to make ceremonial wine. The plant likes full sun or partial shade and a moist, well-drained soil. The plant features gray-green to green-purple leaves that turn silver green or gray-bronze in the winter. Blue-purple, lavender, violet-blue, or white-pink flowers bloom from late June through August. Lavender is hardy in USDA zones 5 to 9.
Lily of the Valley
Fairies use lily of the valley flowers (Convallaria majalis) for hats. The plant is hardy in USDA zones 3 to 8 and features white, bell-shaped, sweet smelling flowers that bloom in April. Plant lily of the valley in full or partial shade and a moist soil.
Pansies (Violax wittrockiana) were created by fairies from the blue of the sky, the red of the sunset, the yellow of the sunbeams and the brown of the earth. White, yellow, gold, bronze, deep rose, violet or maroon flowers bloom in the spring along with dark-green leaves. Plant pansies in full sun and a well-drained soil. The flowers are planted as annuals in all of the USDA zones. | <urn:uuid:84282259-32a3-42f5-ab1c-6840aa13ea2e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/116848-plants-fairy-garden.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929367 | 504 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Excerpts from Keats, Tennyson, and Woolf lingered in the air of Boylston Hall’s Fong Auditorium last Tuesday, as a dozen students took part in the English Department’s annual Boylston Prize Competition for Elocution. A boy faltered over the final passage of “The Great Gatsby.” Some paced the room, wracked by their readings, and others stood stock still. While they were placing themselves in a tradition nearly two centuries old, a renewed emphasis on public speaking throughout and beyond Harvard is beginning to lend the contest distinctly modern implications.
Increasingly, the University is stressing the value of public speaking through courses such as Expos 40: A Public Speaking Practicum, as well as initiatives like the Program in Speaking and Learning at the Derek Bok Center. These programs are celebrated as innovative for their incorporation of rhetorical strategies into courses, a skill absent in most Harvard classes. Indeed, the elocution competition is a remnant of a time when elocution was an essential part of a Harvard curriculum—and a reminder that, like most trends, this one is nothing new.
Oratorical skill was part of a Harvard education from the start, with all professors incorporating rhetoric, elocution, and English composition into their courses throughout the 18th century. In 1771, Nicholas Boylston bequeathed 1500 pounds to the University to formally establish a professorship of speaking and oratory. The professor was to “instruct the students of the several classes in the nature, excellence, and acquisition of the important Art of Rhetoric ... or in the theory and practice of writing and speaking well.”
The looming war against England prevented the fulfillment of Boylston’s bequest—at least until the turn of the century, when his nephew, W. Nicholas Boylston, threatened to take legal action against the Harvard Corporation. The trustees suddenly found it easier to appoint the nation’s first professor of rhetoric and oratory, giving the job to John Quincy Adams. In gratitude, the younger Boylston established a fund of $1000 to be awarded as prizes in elocution and to “promote the reputation of Harvard College.”
While the elocution competition has continued up to the present, the scope of the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory gradually broadened to include any scholars particularly renowned in the arts and letters. By the middle of the 20th century, poetic recitation had begun to fall out of favor, according to W. James Simpson, Professor of English and English department chair. In fact, the last two professors holding the title—Seamus Heaney and Jorie Graham—were chosen primarily for their accomplishments as renowned poets rather than for their oratorical achievements.
TO SPEAK, PERCHANCE
Graham did, however, do her part in reuniting the Boylston professorship and prize through her position as one of the judges for this year’s elocution competition. Joining her were Simpson and Michael Shinagel, dean of continuing education and senior lecturer on English.
“It’s pleasurable to listen to a text instead of reading it in silence,” says Simpson, explaining what he sees as the continued importance and relevance of recitation today. “It resonates with you.”
Students can choose to memorize and recite any selection from Greek, Latin, or English literature of up to five minutes in length. Some, such as Oliver D. Strand ’11, were drawn to the rich history of elocution at Harvard in electing which piece to perform.
Strand recited “Over 2,000 Illustrations and a Complete Concordance,” by Elizabeth Bishop. “I heard a story that John Ashbery [’49, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet] read this poem and in the middle of the reading of it burst into tears,” he says. “I wanted to see if I could understand why.”
Strand was one of about half of the participants to refrain from “performing” the piece, focusing on the words and phrases instead of acting out the excerpt. “A lot of the poem’s activity seems to be in your imagination,” he explains. “A lot of it has to do with the rhythms of the piece, all the images associated with them ... I didn’t want to add much on top of that.”
Others, such as Joshua G. Wilson ’13, brought a dramatic focus to their recitations. Wilson chose to recite “Ulysses” by Alfred Tennyson. “More so than my other favorite poems,” he says, “it’s written as though it’s to be spoken.”
To him, this lends itself naturally to a theatrically infused performance. “Our knowledge of who the speaker is should inform how we inflect certain phrases, where we place emphasis,” he states. “The character Ulysses should dramatically inform the performance of an otherwise non-dramatic speech.”
Elise R. Morrison, preceptor for Expos 40 and associate director for speaking instruction at the Derek Bok Center, stresses that while good public speaking is and can be tied to dramatic experience, its significance is much broader. “People across the board are seeing the value of giving students practice and careful feedback on how they present themselves,” she says.
Expos 40: Public Speaking Practicum was established three years ago as an effort to create a single course fully devoted to rhetorical skill. “A lot of people were saying, yes there’s a need for public speaking at Harvard, but finding a place to house it was the trick,” says Morrison. She believes the decision to house the class under the Expository Writing program has been effective. In fact, there were 120 applicants for 12 spaces this year—prompting the program leaders to plan to double the sections offered next year.
This surge in interest is part of a larger movement throughout the University in once again recognizing the value of public speaking. Last year rhetoric expert David Zarefsky of Northwestern University was a visiting professor in the English Department. Through Bok Center initiatives, faculty can find ways to incorporate oral communication into courses that are not as focused on public speaking as Expos 40.
“My suspicion is that [this attitude] has changed a bit because of the increase in rhetorical structures that we encounter all the time,” states Morrison. “We’re expressing ourselves in a whole lot of different modalities.”
From Facebook and Twitter to podcasts and YouTube videos, it has never been easier to say something—and be heard—in such a public way. Yet in order to remain effective, stresses Morrison, this upsurge in quantity cannot come at the expense of polish and quality. “The choices we make with our physical and vocal performances,” she says, “lend a lot or detract a lot from our message.”
The groundswell of interest in Expos 40 reflects students’ increasing awareness of the contemporary significance of rhetorical skill, whether at Harvard or after. “More job-related outlets ... are somehow legitimating this thing that is in fact a really old form of expression,” notes Morrison, highlighting the history behind the discipline.
Simpson agrees that the art of elocution should be part of a Harvard education. The recent overhaul of the English Department curriculum did not include a greater emphasis on speaking; however, states Simpson, “I hope that in the years to come this will become a greater priority.”
Ultimately, Simpson returns to purely aesthetic benefits in describing the significance of rhetorical speech—especially the type of memorized recitation that the competition last week called for. “It’s something you can’t take away,” he says. “It becomes part of the ballast of your soul.” | <urn:uuid:b6d4a7fa-29f4-4a65-a4e4-6eb9cc769e79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2011/4/7/speaking-elocution-harvard-public/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960388 | 1,676 | 2.515625 | 3 |
After thirty-three years of deliberation, the FDA tells consumers it’s OK to put toxic substances on their skin, and advises them to avoid natural sunlight!
The US Food and Drug Administration last week issued a final rule on the labeling of sunscreen products. The regulation says that sunscreen products which pass the FDA’s test for protection against both ultraviolent A (UVA) and ultraviolet B (UVB) rays may be labeled as “Broad Spectrum.” Both UVA and UVB radiation contribute to sunburn, skin cancer, and premature skin aging, but sunburn is primarily caused by UVB radiation. Only products that are labeled both as Broad Spectrum with SPF values of 15 or higher may state that they reduce the risk of skin cancer and early skin aging when used as directed.
However, as usual, the FDA is demonizing the sun and cautioning for limited sun exposure. Their press release states, “Most skin cancers are caused by sun exposure. FDA encourages consumers to protect themselves….Not only should consumers regularly apply and reapply sunscreens with Broad Spectrum and SPF 15 or higher, they should also limit sun exposure.”
But limiting your sun exposure can also limit your body’s vitamin D levels, since vitamin D is produced by your skin in response to exposure to natural sunlight. And as we have reported numerous times, vitamin D is essential to maintaining a strong immune system.
It is nearly impossible to get adequate amounts of vitamin D from your diet. Moreover, according to vitamin D expert Michael F. Holick, PhD, MD, professor of Medicine, Physiology, and Biophysics at Boston University School of Medicine, the further you live from the equator, the longer you need to be exposed to the sun (without sunscreen!) in order to generate vitamin D—and people with dark skin pigmentation who live far from the equator may need 20 to 30 times as much exposure to sunlight as fair-skinned people to generate the same amount of vitamin D. That’s why prostate cancer is epidemic among black men—it’s a simple but widespread sunlight deficiency.
Dr. Holick does advise caution so as not to get a sunburn, but says, “The population of the world has been brainwashed by the American Academy of Dermatology and the sunscreen industry for thirty years, with the unrelenting message that you should never be exposed to direct sunlight because it is going to cause serious skin cancer and death. People are really quite surprised by the new message that sensible sun exposure, in moderation, is very important for good health. We should appreciate the sun for its benefits, and not abuse it.”
But sunscreens make it easy to get too much sun, because they inhibit an enzyme in your skin that makes nitric acid. Nitric acid inflames the skin turning it red, so you know when to get out of the sun. By inhibiting this action you could actually stay out longer in the sun than you should.
FDA’s press release further stated that the agency is currently reexamining the safety information available for the active ingredients in most sunscreen products—though it “does not have any reason to believe these products are not safe for consumer use.” The agency also said that despite concerns that nanoparticles in sunscreen might be dangerous, “FDA testing has concluded that they do not penetrate the skin and are therefore safe.”
Given the highly absorptive properties of skin, we find FDA’s position to be the height of absurdity. In fact, during the media briefing, when FDA’s director of the Center for Drug Evaluation was asked whether the nanoparticles in spray on sunscreen was safe considering the added risk that they can be inhaled, she was was unable to answer the question. (That exchange is located at minute 37.51 in the webcast.)
The Environmental Working Group has criticized the FDA for still allowing toxic chemicals like retinyl palmitate and oxybenzone in sunscreen despite scientists’ concerns about their toxicity. Moreover, it has been demonstrably proven that the chemicals commonly used in sunscreens are indeed absorbed through the skin. As Dr. Tatiana Cannell of the Vitamin D Council puts it, “Sunscreens facilitate the skin’s absorption of pesticides. So if you want pesticides to be readily absorbed through your skin, circulate in your blood, go to your internal organs, and be excreted in your urine, wear sunscreens. Or you could take a swig of your Coppertone and chase it with a shot of Deepwoods Off.” | <urn:uuid:72c8dd07-31ec-44ac-b4e8-54e9174563bf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.anh-usa.org/fda-finally-rules-on-sunscreen-safety/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955421 | 955 | 2.703125 | 3 |
JUBILEES, BOOK OF (Τὰ Ἰωβηλαῖα; known also as Little Genesis [ᾙ Κλεινὴ Γένεσις = "Bereshit Zuṭa"]; Apocalypse of Moses; Life of Adam):
Midrashic commentary on the Book of Genesis and on part of the Book of Exodus, in the form of an apocalypse, containing the views, legends, and religious practises of the most rigid Pharisaic (or Hasidæan) school of the time of John Hyrcanus, in whose reign it was written, between 135 and 105
The author of the Book of Jubilees rewrote the history of the Protoplasts, of the Patriarchs, and of the Exodus with the view of inculcating certain principles that found no acceptance afterward in the rabbinical schools; foremost among these are the rules concerning the regulation of the calendar and the festivals. In place of the intercalated calendar, which he condemns in the strongest terms, he proposes a solar calendar consisting of a civil year of 12 months, 8 of 30 days and 4 of 31 days, and an ecclesiastical year of 13 months of 28 days each, so as to make all festivals, except the Day of Atonement, fall on Sunday, and make the Feast of Weeks fall on the 15th of Siwan (Book of Jubilees, i. 1, 26; vi. 22 et seq., 38; xlix. 14; see Epstein in "R. E J." xxii. 10 et seq.; Charles, "The Book of Jubilees," pp. 55 et seq.). His leading idea seems to be that the divine plan of the Messianic kingdom rests upon the exact calculation of the week, the common year, and the "Jubilee" year (i.e., the last year of a cycle of 7 X 7, or 49 years), each being based upon the sacred number seven, and the entire history of Israel and the world being divided into "jubilee" periods (see vi. 35; comp. Lev. xxvi. 34-43 and Targ. Yer. ad loc.; 'Ar. 10b; Seder 'Olam R. xi.; Assumptio Mosis, i. 2; "Samaritan Chronicle," in "Journal Asiatique," 1869, pp. 421 et seq.). As in the Book of Enoch (xlvii. 3, lxxxi. 1, ciii. 2) and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (Levi, 5; Asher, ii. 5), every event, every statute of the Law, and every custom is, for the author, written down on the tablets of heaven (Jubilees, iii. 10, 31; vi. 17; xxiii. 32; xxviii. 6; xxx. 9; et al.); thus social custom and human destiny are alike determined by God's decree. Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 5, § 9, calls this Ἑμαρμένη.Character and Object.
The Book of Jubilees, presenting itself as "the history of the division of the days of the Law, of the events of the years, the year-weeks, and the jubilees of the world" (i. 1, 26, 29; l. 13), claims to be a revelation of God to Moses, given through the Angel of the Presence (i. 27-29 [probably Michael]) in addition to the written Law received by Moses on Mount Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 12); and, while the written Law was to be imparted to all, this was to be the "Cabala," the secret tradition entrusted only to the saints of each generation, to Enoch, Methuselah, Noah, and Shem (ch. vii. 38, x. 14, xxi. 10), then to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Levi, and finally to the priests and scribes of the latter times (ch. xii. 27, xxi. 10, xxv. 7, xxxix. 6, xlv. 16).
Obviously, the chief object of the work is to exalt the Law (and Hasidæan practise) as divinely ordained and fixed from eternity, to extol the institutions of the Sabbath and circumcision as heavenly signs distinguishing Israel from the rest of the nations, and, finally, to draw the sharpest possible lines of demarcation between Israel and the Gentiles—in striking contrast to the practise of the Hellenist party. As does the Book of Chronicles regarding the kings of Judah, the Book of Jubilees omits every Biblical narrative which suggests any blemish in the Patriarchs (see Charles, l.c. Introduction, p. xlviii.), and transfers to Satan and his hosts those acts of God which seem unworthy of Him—such as the tempting of Abraham, the attempt on Moses' life, the hardening of the heart of Pharaoh, and the slaying of the first-born (ch. xvii. 16; xlviii. 2, 17; xlix. 2). The Patriarchs are represented as saintly exemplars of religion and of filial affection. Abraham knew God from his youth, and did not leave his father, Terah, without his consent and blessing (ch. xi. 16 et seq.; xii. 1, 28-31); he married Keturah only after Hagar's death (ch. xix. 11). Jacob, likewise,waited for Isaac's blessing and is represented as being the spiritual heir to Abraham and prompted in all his doings by filial piety and regard (ch. xxii. 10, xxv. 4, xxvii. 9, xxix. 15, xxxv. 9-12); nor does he directly deceive his blind father ("I am thy son," xxxvi. 13 [the word "Esau" being omitted]).The Twenty-two Works of Creation.
Israel, the people, stands in closest relation to God, the Father, the Israelites being His beloved children (ch. i. 24 et seq., xix. 29). While all other nations are subject to angels or spirits appointed by Him as the Ruler of the world, Israel is subject only to God (comp. LXX. and Targ. Yer. to Deut. xxxii. 8). As a sign of its union with God, both the Sabbath and circumcision have been given to it, privileges which it shares with the angels (ch. ii. 18-21, xv. 26-27: "The two highest angelic orders have been created thus from the day of their creation"; comp. the passage concerning Adam and the rest of the world's saints [fifteen in number] having been born circumcised, derived from Gen. i. 27—"God created man in his own image" [Ab. R. N. ed. Schechter, p. 153]). Upon Jacob, as the end, the whole Creation is centered (ch. ii. 23, xix. 24-25), and the world's renewal is effected through the Messianic kingdom in Jerusalem (ch. i. 29, iv. 26). Accordingly, the twenty-two works of the six days of Creation are enumerated (ch. ii. 2-22): On the first day—heaven, earth, water, the spirits, the abyss, darkness, and light; on the second—the firmament; on the third—the land, the seas, vegetation, and paradise; on the fourth—sun, moon, and stars; on the fifth—the sea-monsters (Behemoth and Leviathan, "the first things of flesh created by His hands"), the fish, and the birds; on the sixth—the wild and the tame animals, the creeping things, and man; these twenty-two works correspond to the twenty-two generations from Adam to Jacob, as well as to the twenty-two letters of the alphabet and the twenty-two books of Holy Scripture (ch. ii. 23; comp. Midr. Tadshe vi.; Epstein, "Mi-Ḳadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim," 1887, p. xx.; and Charles, l.c. pp. 11, 18).
Especially significant is it that, writing in a time when the Abrahamic rite was spurned by Jews who desired to be one in the arena with the Greeks (ch. xv. 33-34; I Macc. i. 13-15; "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii. 3; Abot iii. 11), the Hasidæan author represents circumcision as ordained in heaven from the beginning of Creation (ch. xv. 25-27), as well as the law regarding the covering of the loins ("gillui 'erwah") as given to Adam and prescribed on the heavenly tables (ch. iii. 31: "not as the Gentiles uncover themselves"). The Sabbath that comes at the close of the twenty-two generations (ch. ii. 23) was also ordained in heaven, and was, therefore, given to no other nation but Israel, to celebrate as it is celebrated by the angels in heaven (ch. ii. 30-31; comp. Sanh. 58b).
Separation from the Gentiles ("perishut" = ἀμιξία, II Macc. xiv. 38) is rendered the fundamental principle of Jewish law and custom. Israel is forbidden to eat, or associate, or intermarry with them, because "they sacrifice to the dead, worship evil spirits, and eat over the graves; because all their ways are unclean, and they will be destroyed from the earth, nor will they be saved on the Day of Judgment" (ch. xxii. 16-22, xxx. 7-10). Especially singled out as cursed and doomed forever in the heavenly tables are those nations with which the Jews came into contact in the time of the Maccabees: the Philistines (ch. xxiv. 28-32; comp. I Macc. v. 68; x. 60, 84, 89; xi. 60-62; xvi. 10); the Idumeans or the sons of Esau (ch. xxvi. 34, xxxviii. 14; comp. "Ant." xiii. 9, § 1; 15, § 4); the Amorites (ch. xxix. 11, xxxiv. 2-9; comp. the notes on Charles, l.c. pp. 200 et seq.). The motive of the writer, however, is not, as Charles says (l.c. Introduction, p. lv.), "hatred and contempt of the Gentiles," but is expressed in the words of the Rabbis ('Ab. Zarah 2b): "God saw that the Gentiles would not observe the Noachian laws, wherefore He outlawed them."The Noachian Laws.
According to Jubilees, vii. 20-29 (comp. Laws, Noachian), Noah enjoined his sons to observe justice, to cover the shame of their flesh, to bless their Creator, to honor father and mother, to love their neighbors, and to refrain from fornication, uncleanness, and all iniquity, for because of these last three things the Flood came upon the earth. Possibly the seven Noachian laws enumerated in Sanh. 56a and Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, viii. 4, were partly misunderstood by the Greek translator. These laws prohibit the following: (1) injustice; (2) blasphemy against God ("birkat ha-shem," a rabbinical euphemism—"blessing of God" instead of "blasphemy"); (3) incest ("gillui 'erwah"); (4) idolatry; (5) murder (comp. Gen. R. xxxi. 6: "ḥamas" [violence] in Gen. vi. 11 includes murder, idolatry, and incest; comp. Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuṭa x.); (6) eating flesh cut from living animals (probably included in the Biblical prohibition in Gen. ix. 4 against eating flesh from which the blood has not been drained; comp. Jubilees, vii. 29); (7) stealing. (For the statement that the men of the Flood were guilty of fornication see Gen. R. xxxi.; and in regard to their going about uncovered see Yalḳ., Job, xxiv. 7.) According to the author, Canaan, the son of Ham, seized by violence the land of Palestine, which belonged, by lot and by mutual agreement sealed by oath, to the sons of Shem; therefore Canaan was cursed by his father, Ham, and by his brothers Cush and Mizraim (ch. x. 29-34), and the Israelites in conquering the land of Canaan simply reclaimed their inheritance. The Garden of Eden, as the dwelling-place of the Lord, fell to Shem. (ch. viii. 18-19, with reference to Gen. ix. 26-27), and the rest of the earth was divided by Noah among his three sons for generations to come (ch. viii.-ix.).
The author aims to trace all religious and social institutions and customs to the most ancient times, in order to give them the highest possible sanction; it may often be inferred that certain practises he mentions were observed in his own time. Thus the law distinguishing between the male and the female in regard to the days of uncleanness for a woman after the birth of a child (Lev. xii. 2-5) is attributed to the fact that Adam was created in the first week and brought into Eden on the fortieth day, whereas Eve was created in the second week and brought into Eden on the eightieth day (ch. iii. 8-14; comp. Midr. Tadshe xv.; Jellinek, "B. H." iii. 178).When Adam went forth from Eden with his nakedness covered, he offered incense to God as a thank-offering at the rising of the sun (obviously a custom practised by the parents when their child thus left the state of infancy).Hebrew the Language of Heaven.
Until Adam left paradise, all creatures, both animals and man, spoke Hebrew, the language of heaven (ch. iii. 28; comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xi. 1, and Shab. 12b). After the overthrow of the Tower of Babel, Hebrew was forgotten on earth until Abraham was taught it again by the angels (ch. xii. 25-26). After the murder by Cain, it was announced and written down on the heavenly tables that both he that committed murder, and he that witnessed it and did not declare it before the tribunal of justice for punishment, should be cursed; wherefore even the angels must declare every sin committed by man (ch. iv. 5-6). Enoch, who was the first man initiated by the angels into the art of writing, and who accordingly wrote down all the secrets of astronomy, of chronology, and of the world's epochs to the end of time, testified against the angels that fell by lusting after the daughters of men; and ever since he was taken to heaven he has been recording the good deeds and the sins of men, and will continue to record them until the Judgment Day (ch. iv. 21-24; comp. Lev. R. xxxiv. 9). Thus all the iniquities of men from the time of the Flood, and all that is done in heaven, earth, or Sheol, are written on the tablets of heaven for final judgment on the Last Day. But in regard to Israel, and Israel only, it was ordained that they should obtain pardon by repenting of their sins once each year—on the Day of Atonement (ch. v. 13-18).
The secret of astrology, divulged by the Heavenly Watchers to men and carved by the latter on rocks, was deciphered by Kainan the son of Arphaxad, whom his father had taught the art of writing (ch. viii. 2-4 ["Nahor" in ch. xi. 8]; comp. "Ant." i. 2, § 3). The distribution of land by lots, that is, by "writings taken out of the bosom," is ascribed to Noah (ch. viii. 11; comp. Prov. xvi. 33); so also is the book on healing herbs and various kinds of medicine for the treatment of sickness, diseases being caused by evil spirits, the host of Satan (ch. x. 7-14; comp. Jellinek, "B. H." iii., pp. xxx. and 155 et seq.). To marry the daughter of the father's brother or sister, or some other kinswoman, while not enjoined by a law, at least seems to be recommended, to judge from the fact that all the pious men mentioned in the Book of Jubilees are represented as following the practise (ch. iv. 15 et seq., xi. 7, et al.; comp. Tobit iv. 12; Judith viii. 1; Gen. R. xviii.; "J. Q. R." v. 406). The command not to give the younger daughter in marriage before the elder is declared to be written on the heavenly tables (ch. xxviii. 6; comp. Gen. xxix. 26), as is also the command not to give one's daughter to a Gentile (ch. xxx. 9) or to commit incest (ch. xxxiii. 10).The Festive Seasons of the Year.
The festive seasons of the year, with the rites connected therewith, are represented as having been instituted either by Noah or by the Patriarchs, though they were written from the beginning in the heavenly tables (ch. vi. 17, 31, 35). There are, first of all, the new moons, not of every month, since the lunar year is denounced by the author, but of the four "teḳufot," or seasons of the solar year, namely, the vernal equinox—the 1st of Nisan; the summer solstice—the 1st of Tammuz; the autumn equinox—the 1st of Tishri; the winter solstice—the 1st of Shebaṭ (ch. vi. 23-25; comp. v. 29-30, xiii. 8, xxiv. 22; comp. Enoch, lxxxv. 2, and the four New-Year's days of the year in R. H. i. 1: the 1st of Nisan, of Elul [perhaps originally Tammuz?], of Tishri, and of Shebaṭ.). "On the 1st of Tishri, Abraham observed the stars, to forecast the rains of the coming seasons" (ch. xii. 16; comp. Lev. R. xx. 4 with regard to the Day of Atonement). On the 1st of Siwan, after the Flood had subsided, Noah made atonement for the earth by offering a kid (comp. Num. xxviii. 15, xxxv. 33), and other kinds of beasts, with the libation of wine and oil and with frankincense (ch. vi. 1-3). Then God made a double covenant with him—first, that blood should no longer be eaten nor the blood of man shed, while the blood of animals should be offered twice daily on the altar for the pardon of men's sins (ch. vi. 4-16; comp. Gen. ix. 4-6; Num. xxviii. 3-8); secondly, that the seasons and festivals of the year should be fixed according to the course of the sun (ch. vi. 23-38; comp. Gen. viii. 22).Feast of Weeks.
But it is especially upon the right observance of the Feast of Weeks that the Book of Jubilees lays stress, following the Sadducean practise in insisting that it be celebrated each year on the first day of the week in literal conformity with the words "the morrow after Sabbath" (ch. vi. 17-22; see Lev. xxiii. 15-16). It was to take place on the 15th of Siwan. It was celebrated in heaven from the days of Creation until God ordained it to Noah. On that day God made the covenant with Abraham between pieces of sacrificial beasts, as mentioned in Gen. xv., while Abraham offered the first-fruits of his tillage with other sacrifices (ch. xiv. 10-20, xv. 1-9; see Charles, l.c. p. 106, notes). Celebrated, also, by Abraham, as the Feast of the Covenant of Circumcision (ch. xv. 3), and by Isaac (who was born on the 15th of Siwan; ch. xvi. 13) and Jacob (ch. xxii. 1, xxix. 6, xliv. 3), the Feast of Weeks was renewed by Moses for all generations as the Feast of the Covenant of Sinai (ch. vi. 19).Tabernacles and Atonement.
The Feast of Tabernacles was first celebrated by Abraham, in booths; it was maintained during seven days, and each day he brought seven rams, seven he-goats, seven kids, and seven sheep, with seven kinds of fragrant substances, rejoicing in the company of his own household and allowing no stranger nor any uncircumcised to partake of his feast; and he made each day seven circuits around the altar, carrying branches of palm-trees and the fruit of golden trees in his hand (thus the Israelites afterward, as evidently in the time of the author of Jubilees, celebrated the feast, wearing wreaths upon their heads; ch. xvi. 1-31; comp. Lev. xxiii. 39-42; but see Suk. iv. 5, and Crown). Jacob, too, celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles in great pomp and with many sacrifices (ch. xxxii. 4); and after the 22d of Tishri had become for him a day of glad tidings, he added the eighth day, Ḥag ha-'Aẓeret (xxxii. 16-29).The Book of Jubilees states also that the Day of Atonement originated in the time of the Patriarchs. It was on the 10th of Tishri that the sons of Jacob sold their brother Joseph and deceived their father by sending him Joseph's coat stained with the blood of a kid; and both Bilhah and Dinah died of grief on hearing of the death of Joseph, so that Jacob mourned three deaths. Thenceforth it was ordained that the children of Israel should afflict themselves on this day each year and bring a young goat as an atoning sacrifice for their sins (ch. xxxiv. 12-19).
Regarding the Passover night, called "lel shimmurim" = "the night of watching" or "of protection" (Ex. xii. 42 [A. V., incorrectly, "a night to be much observed"]), it is stated (ch. xlviii. 15, xlix. 5; comp. Mek. to Ex. xii. 42) that on that night, when all the powers of Satan (Mastema) had been let loose to slay the Egyptians, the angels of heaven bound him (Mastema) and kept him imprisoned until the Israelites reached the Red Sea, in order that he might not accuse them before God for having taken the golden and silver vessels of the Egyptians as payment for their servitude. That night "all Israel was engaged in eating the Pesaḥ and in drinking wine while praising and blessing the Lord, the God of their fathers," therein anticipating the Seder evening of later times, which must have been celebrated in this manner in the time of the author. The meaning of "between the evenings" (Ex. xii. 6) is stated to be "from the third part of the day to the third part of the night" (ch. xlix. 9-12; but comp. Pes. v. 1, and Josephus, "B. J." vi. 9, § 3).
Most striking and valuable, as throwing light on ancient practise, are the observations concerning the Sabbath (ch. xlix. 8-13; comp. ii. 29-30). Doing any of the following things on the Sabbath entails the penalty of death: traveling, by land or sea; buying or selling; drawing water; carrying burdens out of the house; killing or striking; snaring beasts, birds, or fish; fasting or making war; having marital intercourse. All these rigid ordinances of Jubilees (comp. Sanh. 46a) have been observed by the Falashas (see the work on the Sabbath translated by Halévy, "Taazaze Sanbat," in "Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," p. 137, Paris, 1902), the Samaritans (De Sacy, "Notices et Extraits," xii. 175), and the Karaites (see Singer, l.c. pp. 198-199; Charles, l.c. p. 259). The origin of the saying of grace after meals is ascribed to Abraham (ch. xvi. 26) and to Jacob (ch. xlv. 5).The Date of the Book.
While the angelology and demonology, as well as other features, of the book point to the same date as that of the Book of Enoch and of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, there are certain facts presented by the book which warrant the assertion, made by Charles (l.c. Introduction, pp. lviii.-lxvi.), that it was written under John Hyrcanus. It refers to the subjection of the Idumeans (Esau) to the Jewish people as still existing (ch. xxxviii. 14), and to Hellenistic Jews endeavoring to pass as heathen in the athletic games (ch. iii. 30-31, xv. 33-34). The hatred toward the Gentiles and the bitter opposition to intermarriage with them, the legend of the war with the Amorites, Idumeans, and Philistines (ch. xxx. 7-17, xxxiv. 1-9, xxxvii.-xxxviii.), and the warlike spirit pervading the book (ch. xxiii. 12-31), indicate the impression of the great events of the Maccabean wars. On the other hand, the haggadic amplifications and, at times, alterations of the Biblical history, as in the narrative of the war with the Shechemites (ch. xxx.) and the attachment of the death-penalty to infringements of Sabbatical laws, conform to the halakah of the austere Ḥasidim, and are explicable only upon the assumption that they emanated not from the late rabbinical schools, but from the leaders of the ancient Pharisees or Scribes.
Especially noteworthy in this connection is the reservation of the lofty position of high priest and ruler to the tribe of Levi, in reward for its destruction of Shechem (ch. xxx. 14-17, xxxii. 1-3). The Levites are represented as the keepers of the sacred books, and of the secret lore entrusted to them by the saints from of yore (ch. xlv. 16; comp. x. 4). This indicates that the priests and Levites still included among themselves, as in the days of the author of the Book of Chronicles, the men of learning, the masters of the schools, and that these positions were not filled by men from among the people, as was the case in the time of Shammai and Hillel. Nor is the fact to be overlooked that the calendric system proposed by the author of the Book of Jubilees (comp. Enoch, lxxii.-lxxxii.) suggests a time when the calendar and the entire religious life of the Jews was as yet in an unsettled condition, and not fixed by rabbinical authorities.
- Charles, The Book of Jubilees, London, 1902 (where the entire literature is given);
- Littmann, Das Buch der Jubiläen, in Kautzsch, Apokryphen;
- Schürer, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 274. | <urn:uuid:b53329f2-8c41-4279-953e-6e601ffe732d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8944-jubilees-book-of | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950658 | 6,117 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Flames enveloped hundreds of acres of land throughout Central and South Jersey this weekend as prescribed burns are set to control undergrowth and stall future forest fires, but a new bill regulating such burns isn’t getting 100 percent of support from local environmental groups.
Prescribed or controlled burns are often used throughout New Jersey as a tool to keep the undercover of forests under control and to prevent larger fires from destroying habitats and ecosystems later in the summer, according to Larry Hanja, a spokesman for the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.
Throughout March, the fires are set, consuming the groundcover in flames and eating the lush underbrush. In the Pinelands especially, these measures are necessary because the ecosystem there depends on the fires to propagate.
“This is the time of year we like to do these because the weather in our favor,” Hanja said.
There are many reasons managers of wildlife areas and forest land decide to prescribe burns,
Controlling fires in March gets rid of the small, kindling-like burnable material that can cause major forest fires come the dry, hot summer months.
“If you have a lot of tinder on the forest floor a fire can spread to the forest canopy. With dry weather they can join together for a very dangerous situation,” Hanja said.
More than 25 controlled burns took place from Monmouth to Cape May counties this past weekend, including those in the Winslow, Cumberland, Peaslee and Buckshutem Wildlife Management Areas in Gloucester, Cumberland and Salem Counties.
A new bill, sponsored by Assemblyman Ronald S. Dancer, R-12 of Ocean, and Herb Conway Jr., D-7 of Burlington, calls for more controlled fires on both state and privately-owned lands, but some environmentalists are opposed to the measure.
“It’s a useful tool in some areas, to help reduce forest fires and help certain species, but you have to balance everything,” said Jeff Tittel, New Jersey Sierra Club director. “It’s not the cure-all, but it’s not the enemy other.”
The Sierra Club is opposing the new bill because it limits liability in prescribed burn cases, as well as a provision in the legislation that could allow someone to burn someone else’s property if it is adjacent to their own.
“We need stronger standards” Tittel said. “Last year someone got killed by a prescribed burn, should you be limiting that liability?”
Tittel was referencing the case of Jeffrey Scheuerer, a 35-year-old firefighter with the State of New Jersey Forest Fire Service who died last March during a prescribed burn in Hunterdon County.
While thousands of acres are set ablaze in prescribed burns each year, the state currently has no standards for them and no notifications are necessary on lands that aren’t owned by the state. The new legislation would create a certification program for prescribed burn managers and procedures for those burns.
“If you do it in controlled sections and in the course of the season when there isn’t a risk of spreading, you can reduce the risk,” Hanja said.
---Contact staff writer Rebecca Forand at 856-845-3300 or email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:dcf605a7-9aab-404a-ad64-ccdc2db28d66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nj.com/camden/index.ssf/2014/03/setting_fire_to_prevent_fire_prescribed_burns_control_forest_fire_risks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946422 | 697 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Everyone knows that water is an essential component of life and has many healthy benefits, yet the majority of Americans don’t drink enough water on a daily basis. Although the Mayo Clinic suggests drinking anywhere between 72 to 104 ounces of water daily (or more if you exercise), the average American only drinks 32 ounces of water each day.
Drinking water has been shown to boost energy levels, improve concentration and support weight loss. If you’re trying to live a healthy lifestyle and drink more water, here are four fun water facts that will have you reaching for another glass:
- Drinking water can make you smarter. Did you know drinking water can make you smarter? While you may not know it, dehydration can reduce your ability to focus and concentrate on completing mental tasks. In fact, according to a study by the University of East London, a simple glass of water can help boost brain function by 14 percent.
- Moody? Tired? You might just be dehydrated. Water has a bigger impact on our bodies than just quenching our thirst. When we don’t drink enough water, we can quickly become dehydrated, which can have a negative impact on our mood, energy levels and ability to think clearly. Researchers at the University of Connecticut’s Human Performance Laboratory discovered that even mild dehydration can cause people to feel anxious, tense or tired, affecting their ability to perform cognitive tasks and cope with stress throughout the day.
- Drinking water helps you look and feel your best. Want to get in the best shape of your life? Drinking water can help you reach your health and weight loss goals. Not only does it act as a natural appetite suppressant by helping you feel full faster, studies have shown that drinking a glass of cold water when you wake up in the morning can also speed up your metabolism. It even keeps your skin looking young and healthy by helping to reduce fine lines or wrinkles that can be caused by dehydration.
- It can save your heart. Not only does water help you look healthy on the outside, it also protects the most important organ in your body as well—your heart. According to a study over the span of six years, those who drank at least five glasses of water per day were 41 percent less likely to suffer from a heart attack than those who drank two glasses or less each day.
To look, feel and function your best, make sure you drink enough water throughout the day. If drinking water is a challenge for you, check out our other blog posts for helpful tips. You may discover new ways to drink more water that you might not have heard before. | <urn:uuid:de94c524-8c6d-476e-85e4-a7c605ba04cc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.absopure.com/blog/healthy-living/4-healthy-water-facts-will-reaching-another-glass/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963155 | 531 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Dublin's Archbishop Martin praises courage of chaplains aiding rebels during Easter Rising of 1916
March 18, 2016
Archbishop Diarmuid Martin of Dublin paid tribute to the courage of Catholic priests who ministered to the wounded and dying during the Easter Rising of 1916.
At a St. Patrick's Day Mass, the archbishop recalled the bloodshed that occurred at the general post office nearby 100 years ago. He said that rebel leaders "drew courage from their faith to know how to life and face death." He pointed out that even some noted rebels who were estranged from the Church "received the sacraments before their execution."
All comments are moderated. To lighten our editing burden, only current donors are allowed to Sound Off. If you are a donor, log in to see the comment form; otherwise please support our work, and Sound Off! | <urn:uuid:7a09835f-0183-4a10-b9ce-1d2234d66709> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.catholicculture.org/news/headlines/index.cfm?storyid=27828 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962684 | 175 | 2.78125 | 3 |
|Macbeth Navigator Home||Theme Index|
The witches show us what the unnatural looks like. "What are these / So wither'd and so wild in their attire, / That look not like the inhabitants o' the earth, / And yet are on't?" (1.3.39-42), wonders Banquo when he first sees them. He also tells them, "You should be women, / And yet your beards forbid me to interpret / That you are so" (1.3.45-47). The witches are not fiends that only visit this world. They are inhabitants of this world who look like they should be human, but in them the human form is unnaturally distorted. [Scene Summary]
Later in the scene, after he has received news that he has been named Thane of Cawdor, Macbeth asks himself "why do I yield to that suggestion / Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair / And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, / Against the use of nature?" (1.3.134-137). "Suggestion" means "temptation," so Macbeth is asking himself why he feels himself giving into temptation, especially a temptation that makes his heart race and his hair stand on end. The "use of nature" means the way things usually and naturally are, so Macbeth means that he is not used to feeling this way. It's as though his body is warning him against what his mind is thinking. [Scene Summary]
After Lady Macbeth receives her husband's letter, she is eager to talk him into doing the murder she knows that he has in mind. To prepare herself, she calls upon evil spirits to "Stop up the access and passage to remorse, / That no compunctious visitings of nature / Shake my fell purpose" (1.5.44-46). "Compunctious visitings of nature" are the messages of our natural human conscience, which tell us that we should treat others with kindness and consideration. Lady Macbeth wants to be unnatural, so that she can be "fell," deadly. In the next breath, she calls upon those evil spirits -- the "murdering ministers" -- to "Come to my woman's breasts, / And take my milk for gall, you murdering ministers, / Wherever in your sightless substances [invisible bodies] / You wait on nature's mischief!" (1.5.47-50). "Take my milk for gall" means "take my milk away and put gall in its place," and "wait on" means "assist," not just "wait for," so she seems confident that somewhere in nature there are demons with the power to make nature itself unnatural. [Scene Summary]
Just before Macbeth murders King Duncan, Banquo is preparing to go to bed, and says to his son, "A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, / And yet I would not sleep: merciful powers, / Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature / Gives way to in repose! (2.1.6-9). Banquo doesn't say just what thoughts are disturbing his sleep, but we can guess that they have to do with the witches' prophecies. He certainly suspects that Macbeth intends evil to King Duncan, and he may also have some doubts about his own ambition or his own safety. In any case, such thoughts of evil are not natural; they are what human nature "gives way to" when we are going to sleep.
After Banquo has gone to bed, Macbeth hallucinates, seeing a bloody dagger in the air, and then he tells himself that it is the time of night for such a hallucination: "Now o'er the one half-world / Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse / The curtain'd sleep" (2.1.49-51). "Nature seems dead" because it's dark and quiet out, but as people fall asleep human nature seems dead, too, and then wicked dreams can take control. [Scene Summary]
As Lady Macbeth waits for Macbeth to murder King Duncan and return to her, she says of the king's grooms, "I have drugg'd their possets, / That death and nature do contend about them, / Whether they live or die" (2.2.6-8). Here she uses the word "nature" in the sense of life, which struggles with death.
Later in the scene, after Macbeth has killed the king, he frets that he has murdered sleep and that he will never sleep again. He speaks of sleep as "great nature's second course, / Chief nourisher in life's feast" (2.2.36-37). The second course of a meal was the main course, not the appetizer or the dessert, and so the "chief nourisher." Macbeth feels that he will never again be nourished by kindly nature. [Scene Summary]
When Macbeth explains why he killed King Duncan's grooms, he describes the horrifying sight of the dead king's body: "And his gash'd stabs look'd like a breach in nature / For ruin's wasteful entrance" (2.3.113-114). Macbeth is lying about his motives, but his sense of horror may be genuine. Perhaps the king's wounds did indeed look like a great, gaping hole in life itself, a hole that lets in death and destruction. [Scene Summary]
Immediately after the scene in which King Duncan's body is discovered, there is a dialogue entirely devoted to the unnaturalness of the night of the murder. Ross is speaking with an Old Man. The Old Man's memories go back seventy years, but nothing he can remember compares to what has happened during this night: "I have seen / Hours dreadful and things strange; but this sore night / Hath trifled former knowings" (2.4.2-4). Ross replies "Ah, good father, / Thou seest, the heavens, as troubled with man's act, / Threaten his bloody stage" (2.4.4-6). The "heavens" are the heavens above, where God lives, and they are also the upper regions of Shakespeare's Globe theater. Ross is saying that the heavens frown angrily ("threaten") as they look down upon man playing his part on the stage of life, which has been made bloody by the murder of King Duncan.
King Duncan should have been honored and loved, so his murder was unnatural, and Ross and the Old Man go on to tell each other of all the unnatural things that have been happening lately. They do not know that Macbeth is the murderer, but as they speak we can see the parallels to Macbeth's unnatural acts.
Ross points out that though the clock says it's time for the sun to shine, it's still dark. Ross thinks that maybe this terrible night is stronger than day, or maybe the day is ashamed to see what has been done in the night. We are reminded that Macbeth wanted a very dark night for the murder, one in which he wouldn't have to look at what he was doing, and he got such a night. Now that night has lingered into the day. The Old Man comments, "'Tis unnatural, / Even like the deed that's done" (2.4.10-11).
The Old Man goes on to say that other unnatural things have been happening, too: "On Tuesday last, / A falcon, towering in her pride of place, / Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and kill'd" (2.4.11-13). The falcon's "pride of place" is the highest point of its flight. And the owl, which usually catches mice on the ground, went up instead of down, and killed a falcon. Also, a falcon is a day creature, and a royal companion, while the owl is an untamable bird of night and death. If things in nature stands for things in human life, King Duncan was the falcon, and Macbeth the owl.
Even worse, King Duncan's horses, "Beauteous and swift, the minions of their race, / Turn'd wild in nature, broke their stalls, flung out, / Contending 'gainst obedience, as they would make / War with mankind." (2.4.15-18) A "minion" is someone's favorite. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth were King Duncan's minions. The King showered them with honors and gifts, but they turned wild and made war on their master.
All of this unnaturalness is self-destructive. In the end, the horses ate each other. At their ends, both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are eaten up from inside, Macbeth by despair and Lady Macbeth by madness.
After the discussion of the unnaturalness of the night, Macduff enters and Ross asks him if it's known who killed King Duncan. Macduff delivers -- probably without believing it -- Macbeth's official version of the story, which is that the king's grooms, bribed by the king's sons, did the murder. Ross then comments, "'Gainst nature still!" (2.4.27). Ross means that it's just as unnatural for the king's servants and sons to turn against him as it is for an owl to kill a hawk or horses to eat one another. [Scene Summary]
Just before he has Banquo murdered, Macbeth justifies the deed to himself by saying that Banquo has "royalty of nature" (3.1.49), and that "under him, / My Genius is rebuked" (3.1.54-55). A man's "Genius" is his guardian spirit, and Macbeth means that he feels that Banquo is naturally superior to him. Later in the scene, as Macbeth is giving the murderers a kind of pep talk, he points out that every dog and every man has different characteristics, "According to the gift which bounteous nature / Hath in him closed" (3.1.97-98). In both of these statements there is a sense that an individual's nature is a given, something determined by nature in general. [Scene Summary]
After he has arranged for the murder of his friend Banquo, Macbeth tells his wife that he is determined to do everything it takes to secure his position as king. He says that he will "let the frame of things disjoint [fall apart], both the worlds [heaven and earth] suffer" (3.2.16), rather than continue to "sleep / In the affliction of these terrible dreams / That shake us nightly" (3.2.17-19). This is an implicit admission that he knows what he's doing is against both heaven and nature.
A little later Macbeth reminds his wife that they are in danger because Banquo and Fleance still live. She answers, "But in them nature's copy's not eterne" (3.2.38). "Eterne" means "eternal," and "nature's copy" is nature's copyhold, the lease on life that we all receive when we are born. We all die sometime or other, so none of us has an eternal lease on this life, and Macbeth is glad of it, because it means that Banquo and Fleance can be killed. [Scene Summary]
Although Fleance escaped, First Murderer assures Macbeth that Banquo is dead, saying, "safe in a ditch he bides, / With twenty trenched gashes on his head / The least a death to nature" (3.4.25-27). He means that even the smallest of Banquo's wounds would be enough to kill anyone. Using the word "nature" in another sense, Macbeth replies, "Thanks for that / There the grown serpent lies; the worm [Fleance] that's fled / Hath nature that in time will venom breed, / No teeth for the present" (3.4.29-30).
A little later, when Banquo's Ghost appears and then disappears, Macbeth tries to justify himself. He says that men have been killing men for a long time, since before there were even laws against it: "Blood hath been shed ere now, i' the olden time, / Ere human statute purged the gentle weal" (3.4.74-75). It's a natural thing to shed blood; what's not natural is that now the dead "rise again, / With twenty mortal murders on their crowns, / And push us from our stools" (3.4.81).
At the end of the same scene, after the appearance of Banquo's Ghost has broken up Macbeth's feast and made Macbeth half-crazy, his wife says to him, "You lack the season of all natures, sleep" (3.4.140). A "season" is a preservative; she means that everyone needs sleep, and that his problem is just a lack of sleep. But his human nature has been so twisted by his crimes that he can no longer sleep. [Scene Summary]
When Macbeth goes to the witches to learn his fate, he requires answers to his questions, even if it means that winds knock down churches, waves swallow ships, crops are lost, or palaces and pyramids crumble into nothing. He demands that, "though the treasure / Of nature's germains tumble all together, / Even till destruction sicken, answer me" (4.1.60). "Nature's germains" are the seeds of all nature (we might call them "the building blocks of life"), and "destruction" is imagined as a person that would destroy so much that it would become sick of itself. In short, Macbeth wants his answers, even if it means that nature will turn unnatural.
Later in the scene, after Macbeth hears the prophecy that he shall never be defeated until Birnam wood come to Dunsinane, he tells himself that the prophecy means that "high-placed Macbeth / Shall live the lease of nature, pay his breath / To time and mortal custom" (4.1.100). A simpler way to say it is that Macbeth is sure that he will live out his life and die in his bed, but Macbeth's way of saying it may remind us that he canceled Banquo's "lease of nature," and that he expects to get the benefits of nature by unnatural means. [Scene Summary]
When Ross informs Lady Macduff that her husband has fled to England, the lady is both fearful and angry. She exclaims, "He loves us not; / He wants [lacks] the natural touch: for the poor wren, / The most diminutive of birds, will fight, / Her young ones in her nest, against the owl" (4.2.11). Her bird metaphor shows that she knows that Macduff, by himself, wouldn't have much of a chance against Macbeth and all the powers a king can command. In such a fight Macduff would be the wren and Macbeth the owl, the bird of night and death. Even so, she's angry with her husband because she wants him with her. In her mind, the natural thing for him to do is stay and protect her and their children. [Scene Summary]
When Malcolm tests Macduff's intentions , Macduff protests that he is not treacherous, but Malcolm answers that Macbeth is treacherous and that A good and virtuous nature may recoil / In an imperial charge" (4.3.19-20). He means that under pressure from a king, a good man may not be able to live up to his own virtuous nature. [Scene Summary]
When Lady Macbeth's waiting-gentlewoman tells a doctor of the lady's sleepwalking, the doctor comments, A great perturbation in nature, to receive at once the benefit of sleep, and do the effects of watching!" (5.1.10). ("Watching" means staying awake.) Near the end of the scene, after Lady Macbeth says things that implicate her in the murder of King Duncan, the doctor guesses at the reason for her "great perturbation in nature": Foul whisperings are abroad: unnatural deeds / Do breed unnatural troubles: infected minds / To their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets: / More needs she the divine than the physician" (5.1.71-74). [Scene Summary]
|Macbeth Navigator Home||Theme Index| | <urn:uuid:40a7c5f5-f405-449c-8c11-cfc9aa3ba393> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://shakespeare-navigators.com/macbeth/Nature.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97142 | 3,518 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Square of an Odd Number
Date: 11/12/2002 at 09:18:54 From: James Terris Subject: Divisibility Is this true or false? The square of any odd number can be represented in the form 8n+1, where n is a whole number. I think the answer is true, but I can't think of a formula to prove it.
Date: 11/12/2002 at 10:11:50 From: Doctor Ian Subject: Re: Divisibility Hi James, This is interesting! Thanks for asking this question. Any odd number can be represented as (2k+1), where k is any integer. So the square of an odd number is (2k+1)^2 = 4k^2 + 4k + 1 Let's _assume_ that there is some n such that 4k^2 + 4k + 1 = 8n + 1 Of course, we can subtract 1 from each side to get 4k^2 + 4k = 8n And we can divide both sides by 4 to get k^2 + k = 2n k(k+1) = 2n So now what does this equation say? It says that if we multiply two consecutive numbers, we get an even number. Which is true, since one of those numbers is going to be even. Does this help? - Doctor Ian, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
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Last week at SeaWorld Park in Orlando, Florida, veteran trainer Dawn Brancheau died after traumatic injuries were inflicted by a 22-foot, 12,000-pound orca named Tilikum. The whale grabbed her ponytail and pulled her into the water during a live performance in front of spectators. No one can say for certain why this attack occurred, but Danny Groves, of the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS) says, “These tragic events are a reminder that orcas are wild, strong, and often unpredictable animals.”
The recent attack has animal advocates across the country voicing their opposition to keeping orcas in captivity. Dr Andrew Foote, an expert on wild orcas from the University of Aberdeen, U.K., says, “They are highly social animals that tend to live in cohesive groups, so it’s quite an artificial environment to capture them and put them in a small area.” Experts say that killer whales travel more than 100 miles per day, so to keep them confined in a small area is the equivalent of a human being forced to live in a bathtub.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) stated on its Web site: “The only thing that people learn from visiting a SeaWorld theme park is how miserable life is for animals held there. Children see mere shadows of animals, defeated beings who are not behaving as they should and cannot do what nature intended for them. And these parks teach all the wrong lessons: that it is acceptable to imprison animals; to deprive them of freedom of movement and thought; to forbid them the chance to establish their natural territory and explore; to breed and separate them as we, not they, please; and to let them go insane from loneliness.”
It’s hard to argue that there’s anything “natural” about the way the orcas and dolphins are living at SeaWorld. These are intelligent, social animals that are confined to small tanks where the reverberations from their own sonar bounce off the walls, which orca experts say can drive some of them insane. Some claim that many of these animals were violently captured from their homes and once they enter the circus world, common training methods include withholding food and isolation if they refuse to perform.
Putting aside beliefs on holding orcas in captivity, one question has yet to be answered—what should happen to Tilikum? As far as I can see it, there are only three options. One option is to prevent trainers from working closely with Tilikum and allow him to remain as part of the show, but with no physical interaction.
Another option would be to euthanize him. According to the Huffington Post, the American Family Association, a religious right group, is urging that Tilikum be put down, preferably by stoning. Citing Tilly’s history of violent altercations, the group is slamming SeaWorld for not listening to Scripture in how to deal with the animal. Whether you’re religious or not, stoning seems a bit extreme.
The third option to deal with Tilikum, which most animal rights advocates support, is to release him back into the wild. The WDCS has repeatedly called for captive whales to be returned, mostly because captivity appears to drastically reduce their life expectancy. But unfortunately, it’s not that easy. The 1993 movie Free Willy was based on the orca named Keiko, who was captured in the wild in 1979 and brought into captivity when he was just two-years-old. Pressure from the public eventually caused his release back into the wild in 2000. According to reports, Keiko rarely interacted with wild orcas, never integrated into a wild pod, and struggled to learn how to hunt. Even though his trainers tried to break his need for human contact, he kept following his trainers’ boat. Keiko eventually died, still semi-captive in 2003.
Tilikum was captured close to 30 years ago near Iceland and is one of the most valuable animals at SeaWorld, fathering 13 calves. He is currently the largest orca in captivity. Even though Tilikum has now been linked with three deaths, SeaWorld Parks and Entertainment President Jim Atchison said last week that Tilikum will remain an “active, contributing member of the team,” in part because the killer whale show is big business at SeaWorld. Although federal and state wildlife statutes cover the care and handling of captive animals, Florida fish and wildlife laws do not require an owner to euthanize a captive animal after a fatal attack. Surprisingly, I had to explain to a friend of mine (who shall remain nameless) that the whale would not actually have to stand trial.
My hope is that this unfortunate incident might lead to a well thought-out discussion on phasing out these marine parks. Once you see these animals in the wild, it’s difficult to theorize they are leading comparable lives in captivity. As far as Tilikum is concerned, release into the wild could prove difficult as he doesn’t have any viable teeth remaining. Representatives from PETA maintain that SeaWorld should provide a “coastal refuge” for Tilikum, where the killer whale could live as close as possible to its natural habitat. However, SeaWorld stands by their statement that they will continue to use Tilikum, “…who delights audiences with outsized splashes…” in their performances. Personally, I believe that if SeaWorld insists on using orcas and other large animals as a way to make money, they should be required to set aside some of their large profits to build and maintain “retirement sanctuaries” for these animals, if they cannot be reintroduced into the wild. I’m curious to hear what readers think. Please voice your comments online about what you think should happen to Tilikum. | <urn:uuid:35b47342-78fd-4c2b-80bd-e25fd41ffc82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.com/news/2010/mar/05/free-tilly/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971589 | 1,220 | 2.59375 | 3 |
If you look at terrific, the origin is rather obvious. The form, or morphology, of the word gives it away, although from its meaning you would never guess where it comes from. Terrific is from the Latin terrificus, meaning frightening. Despite it coming from classical Latin, terrific doesn’t enter English use until the early modern era. The first writer known to use it is John Milton in his 1667 Paradise Lost. Milton uses it in the sense of frightening as he describes the creation and lists many of the animals that God has created:
The Serpent suttl’st Beast of all the field,
Of huge extent somtimes, with brazen Eyes
And hairie Main terrific, though to thee
Not noxious, but obedient at thy call. (7.495–98)
A serpent with a hairy mane? One would think that Milton wasn’t a very good zoologist, but this line is probably an allusion to Virgil and the Aeneid, the epic poem about the founding of Rome, which describes the two serpents which devour the priest Laocoön and his two sons as having iubaeque sanguineae superant undas (and blood-red crests that top the waves, 2.206–07). We don’t see this “frightening” sense of terrific much anymore; the modern sense has scared it away.
The modern sense of terrific meaning great or marvelous is a much more recent development. In the mid-eighteenth century the word began to be used to mean large or excessive. In a 1743 translation of Horace’s odes, Matthew Tower described the giant Porphryion as “of terrific size,” which could be interpreted as meaning terrifying and awe-inspiring and also as of great size. And within a few decades in his 1798 satirical poem The Literary Census, Thomas Dutton could mean only of great size when he writes of pamphleteer William Cobbett, “I am struck with admiration at the terrific sublimity of his genius.”
By the latter half of the nineteenth century, this sense of great size had come to mean simply great or excellent. An 1871 advertisement in the Athenaeum magazine could say:
The last lines of the first ballad are simply terrific,—something entirely different to what any English author would dream of, much less put on paper.
And by the next century Denis Mackail’s 1930 novel The Young Livingstones could contain this exchange:
“Thanks awfully,” said Rex. “That’ll be ripping.”
“Fine!” said Derek Yardley. “Great! Terrific!”
In the space of three-hundred years, terrific had moved from a Latinate description of awe-inspiring terror with allusions to Virgil to become a rippingly informal word.
“terrific, adj. and n.,” Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, September 2011.
Copyright 1997-2016, by David Wilton | <urn:uuid:72950833-7d95-4b66-959e-53e72d94f7de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/more/1978/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958694 | 642 | 2.984375 | 3 |
A few weeks ago, the EPA released its Sustainable Design and Green Building Toolkit for Local Governments. The Toolkit:
is designed to assist local governments in identifying and removing permitting barriers to sustainable design and green building practices. It provides a resource for communities interested in conducting their own internal evaluation of how local codes/ordinances either facilitate or impede a sustainable built environment, including the design, construction, renovation, and operation and maintenance of a building and its immediate site.
The toolkit can be downloaded here.
The Toolkit was developed by EPA Region 4, and we are very excited to have Karen Bandhauer, an Environmental Scientist at EPA Region 4 for an interview about the Toolkit.
GBLB: Why did you develop the Toolkit?
KB: The Toolkit was the result of a relationship between the EPA and Roswell, GA. The city approached EPA wanting to develop green, protect natural resources and provide resources for its residents. The Roswell representatives told us that there had been some innovative projects that came into their permitting pipeline, and had run into permitting problems because of green features. They realized they were creating barriers to projects that they wanted to have in their community. The asked us whether we could help them create some resources to help communities identify the barriers in their codes to developing green. Some funding became available through the internal EPA innovation work group, about $50,000 in seed money for innovative projects. This project was put forward as an innovation project in 2008 by Region 4. That got it started. The project ended up being a partnership with Smart Growth and Green Building at [EPA] headquarters.
GBLB: What does the Toolkit contain?
KB: The Toolkit has three parts: an assessment guide that allows users to tak a look at their codes and ordinances under the categories of the LEED process [sustainable sites , water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, indoor air quality, materials & resources]. The assessment tool identifies objective and rationale for each category, and then questions for communities to identify gaps in the current regulatory system, then a list of potential tools and techniques [for addressing those gaps].
There is also an assessment tool—green, yellow and red—to determine how well the community is promoting each practice. Green is where the tactic is either mandatory or incentivized, yellow is where the practice is typically allowed, and red is where the practice is hampered or prohibited [by the current regulations].
There is aslo a resource guide attached to each section which has tools, information and case studies. The resource guide has a compendium of policy tools, best practices and other materials. In some cases it might be an example of a community that has put in a model ordinance, it might be an example of a best management practice guide or a green roof technical specifications. It allows the user to get a good sensse of the existing information in the field without having to spend a lot of time searching around for it.
The last section is a guide for developing an action plan. We had not originally envisioned this section for the project, but the City of Roswell gave us feedback that they wanted advice on next steps. This is a step by step guide for changing the regulatory environment. It helps communities identify things they need to look for and address if they want to implement the changes to their regulations.
GBLB: What are some of the barriers that play out in communities?
KB: A lot are the ones you hear about, and some are community specific. One of the things that we heard about was barriers in the code to installing waterless urinals, reuse of greywater. Others were “unintended consequences”—some communities prohibit groundwater wells which prohibit geothermal. Or specific ordinances which require tree planting, but if there is a drought, there might be issues better addressed by native planting. Or street widths, which [were put in place for fire safety] but might matter in terms of building sustainable communities.
Other barriers are institutional or process oriented—specific to historical legacies like union involvement. We wanted to walk [communities] through from their environmental objective to how they could implement codes and ordinances to achieve those objectives. We tried to flip it—here’s the outcome you are trying to achieve, here are things that you can do through your permitting process to try and achieve them.
In no way is EPA trying to tell localities how to do their permitting process, but to give them resources to help them look at their codes and ordinances, and save some time and money in the process.
GBLB: Who is the intended audience?
KB: Local government officials, and it could also be useful for developers and other private entities who are looking to develop green projects. We hope it will provide a resource for communities to bring their codes and ordinances in line with sustainable policy efforts.
GBLB: What is the status of the Roswell project?
We have completed the pilot project, and they have provided excellent feedback.
In addition, we held a Lean Kaizan event in Roswell [to identify potential efficiencies] in their land disturbance permitting process. If they wanted to incentivize a specific thing, communities can identify process improvements, allowing them to provide incentives without taxing additional resources. Roswell is continuing to work on that. We are going to work with them over time to promote the project as well as improve it.
GBLB: Have they made any changes to their code yet?
KB: Not yet. Now that the Toolkit is done and the Lean project is done, we will see where they want to take it. | <urn:uuid:3cc1559a-2066-48d8-873e-8affd24fb35a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.greenbuildinglawblog.com/articles/regulating-green/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960467 | 1,143 | 3 | 3 |
Oh, what a feeling - dancing on the ceiling!Ever wondered how flies are able to walk on the ceiling without falling off? Scientists at the Max Planck Institute in Stuttgart (Germany) are investigating this James Bond-style ability of insects to hang upside down from a ceiling. In the future such knowledge could lead to the design of tiny machines that mimic this phenomenon of nature.
The team led by Stanislav Gorb used optical sensors to measure the forces applied by each leg of a fly whilst walking freely on a smooth ceiling. They found that the best attachment force occurred when at least one leg from each side of the fly's body was in contact with the surface. These principles were then proven using artificial polymer tape to simulate the adhesive pads found on the feet of insects.
"Walking on a ceiling is very different from normal walking because the gravity tends to pull an inverted insect away instead of pressing it to the surface", explains Dr Gorb. "Our results, in combination with the knowledge on the microstructure of pads, provide important inspiration for mimicking locomotion of wall and ceiling walking machines, which use micropatterned polymer feet for generating adhesion".
Dr Gorb will be presenting his results at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Experimental Biology on Wednesday 5th April [session A7].
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:b7dbba0b-0a0b-465a-93bd-4c49900886dc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2006-04/sfeb-owa040306.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00149-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923061 | 301 | 3.34375 | 3 |
E. Cobham Brewer 18101897. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 1898.
BRITISH. Iron rings were used for money by the ancient Britons, and Segonax, a petty king under Cassivelân, is the first whose head was impressed on the coin. Gold, silver, and copper coins were struck by Cunobelin.
The ROMANS introduced their own coins into the island.
The oldest ANGLO-SAXON coin was the sceatta (pl. sceatt), sixth century. In the reign of Ethelbert, King of Kent, money accounts were kept in pounds, mancuses, shillings, and pence. One of the last being equal to about 3 pence of our money. 5 pence = one scilling, 30 scillings one manca or mancus, and 40 one pound. Mancuses were in gold and silver also.
The NORMANS introduced pence with a cross so deeply impressed that the coin could be broken either into two or four parts, hence the terms half-pence and fourthings.
The Angel, a gold coin (7s. 6d.), was introduced by Edward IV., and had a figure of Michael slaying the dragon.
The Bawbee first came into use in the reign of James VI. of Scotland. (French, bas-billon, base copper coin.)
The Carlus (20s.) was a gold coin of the reign of Charles I.
The Crown (5s.) was first issued in 1553. Crowns and half-crowns are still in common circulation.
English Dollars (4s. 6d.) were introduced in 1798.
Florins, a gold coin (6s.), were issued by Edward III.; but the silver florin (2s.) in 1849.
The Guinea (a gold coin = 21s.) was first issued in 1717; but a gold coin so-called, of the value of 30s., was issued in 1673, reduced in 1696 to 22s.
Our Sovereign was first issued in 1816, but there were coins so called in the reigns of Henry I. (worth 22s.), Edward VI. (from 24s. to 30s.).
Shillings of the present value date from 1503; pence made of bronze in
1862, but copper pence were coined in 1620, half-pence and farthings in 1665. | <urn:uuid:4f4d9951-6589-4204-8a54-b210000b03c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartleby.com/81/3828.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977507 | 520 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Parts cleaning is like mowing the lawn: Nobody wants to do it, but it must be done. And while you’re at it, you might as well do it right by being efficient and economical. Using the best equipment for the job is essential.
Therefore, when thinking about parts cleaning, vapor degreasing is one option worth looking into. Vapor degreasing is an environmentally friendly way to clean parts because safe solvents are used during the process, or in some applications, no chemicals at all. Sometimes the steam or vapor produced by the system is enough to clean the parts.
The method of vapor degreasing is effective because the cleaning process is fast, requiring a small amount of labor; oils, grease and other soils are removed efficiently; many vapor degreasing machines don’t take up much shop floor space; parts cleaned with this type of system dry quickly; and often, the solvents used can be recovered and recycled.
The process begins with a heat source boiling the liquid solvent (or water). At this point, the liquid produces very hot, heavy vapors, which are then cooled by condenser coils. Because the solvent vapors are heavier than air, they push the air above the vapor line on to the parts and equipment to be cleaned. Condensation dissolves the greases and oils on the parts and flushes them away.
Vapor degreasing uses a fraction of the energy of most other cleaning processes. Compared with aqueous systems, a vapor degreaser typically uses one-fifth the energy for heat up and one-seventh the amount for drying.
To learn more about vapor degreasing and its applications, read A Closer Look at Vapor Degreasing Technology. Still Valuable offers information on the evolution of vapor degreasing and why it’s still the process of choice for some applications.blog comments powered by Disqus | <urn:uuid:d3db440b-d99e-45bd-8280-367ecf26eeca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/parts-cleaning-with-vapor-degreasing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935071 | 391 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Measles – contagious – preventable
Web (PDF: 229k)
print-ready (PDF: 1.1m)
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Measles, a severe illness caused by a virus, results in high fever, runny nose, cough, inflammation of the eyelid and a rash. It damages many parts of the body (damage to the cells lining the nose and throat cause the runny nose and sore throat, for example). Measles also weakens the immune system for months, leading frequently to ear infections and pneumonia. Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) occurs in about 1 out of every 1000 cases, often resulting in brain damage. In rare cases, measles can trigger the development of a fatal brain disease called SSPE that develops years after the attack of measles.
The measles virus is highly contagious. Outbreaks in North America occur periodically in under-immunized populations. It is important to have the full series of immunization in childhood.
Measles – mumps – rubella (MMR)
Adults born in 1970 or later: 1 dose, except travellers to destinations outside of North America, health care workers, students in post-secondary educational settings, and military personnel: 2 doses, at least 4 weeks apart. Adults born before 1970 can be assumed to have acquired natural immunity to measles and mumps and do not need MMR vaccination, except non-immune military personnel or health care workers (2 doses, at least 4 weeks apart), non-immune travellers (1 dose), non-immune students in post-secondary educational settings (consider 1 dose). Rubella-susceptible adults, regardless of age: 1 dose.
— Excerpt from:
Guide. Evergreen edition.
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cig-gci/p01-12-eng.php#t7-ftc (external link)
Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian Immunization Guide. Evergreen edition. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cig-gci/index-eng.php (external link)
Canadian Paediatric Society. Caring for Kids. http://www.caringforkids.cps.ca/handouts/immunization-index (external link)
- Before 1954 – In the pre-vaccine era, large epidemics occurred every 2 to 3 years. Almost everyone got measles. Every year in Canada, measles was responsible for 50 to 75 deaths, 5000 hospital admissions and 400 cases of encephalitis. The estimated annual cost of measles was over $70 million (1985 dollars).
- 1954–63 – The measles virus was isolated and a vaccine was developed.
- Since 1963– The number of cases has fallen by over 99% (from about 350,000 per year before 1963 to less than 2000 per year in 1995.)
- 1995 – 2362 cases of measles were reported in Canada, leading to the eventual introduction of a “two-dose immunization” regimen. All provinces and territories also launched “catch-up” vaccination campaigns except New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.
- 1996 – The catch-up campaigns stopped three outbreaks developing in early 1996, resulting in only 327 cases reported in Canada for the year.
- 1997 – Through an “importation.”* a measles epidemic started in British Columbia among students attending Simon Fraser University, spreading through the province. It primarily affected individuals aged 19 to 29 years.
- New Brunswick was the last province to introduce a “two-dose” immunization schedule.
- Since 1998 – Canada has had national, active measles surveillance in place since 1998. All provinces and territories report confirmed cases of measles weekly to the Public Health Agency of Canada who in turn report weekly to the Pan American Health Organization.
* “Importation” is defined as when a case has travelled from another country 7 to 21 days prior to the onset of rash and for whom there was no local exposure to measles. | <urn:uuid:cff1f01c-4210-4077-ba19-759b29cb6fb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.immunize.ca/en/diseases-vaccines/measles.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912295 | 859 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Got milk? That's not just an advertising slogan. It's a legitimate question. Milk and other calcium-rich foods are an important part of a bone-healthy lifestyle that can not only reduce the risk of fractures as you get older, but may also protect against certain cancers.
Many people have also taken to popping calciumsupplements as a preventive measure against disease. But can they really help?
A recent report published in the Harvard Health Letter shows no connection between high calcium intake...
The two go hand in hand: if you don't get enough D, it won't matter how much calcium you get, because your bones can't absorb it properly. But if you don't get enough calcium, there's nothing for the vitamin D to help your bones absorb.
The National Academy of Sciences has developed recommendations for how much calcium and vitamin D you need at every age:
Young children 1-3 years old should get 700 milligrams (mg) of calcium a day.
Children 4-8 years old should get 1,000 mg per day.
Teenagers should get 1,300 mg of calcium a day.
Adults up to age 70 should get 1,000 mg per day. Women 51 and over should get 1,200 mg/day.
Women and men 71 and over should get 1,200 mg per day.
To "unlock" that calcium, the National Academy of Sciences recommends 600 international units (IU) of vitamin D per day from age 1 through age 70 and 800 IU after age 70. But some experts are now saying we need even more vitamin D.
Some osteoporosis experts say that we should be getting 800 to 1,200 IU of vitamin D per day. This is particularly important, because the primary source of natural vitamin D -- exposure to sunlight -- carries the potential risk of skin cancer. As more of us slather on sunscreen and stay in the shade, we need to make sure we get enough vitamin D from other sources.
To find out how much vitamin D you personally need, consider a blood test for vitamin D (25-hydroxy vitamin D) from your doctor. It measures how much vitamin D is in your body.
Experts think that vitamin D may do more to protect you from osteoporosis than only helping you absorb calcium.
"Particularly in older individuals, vitamin D deficiency makes you more likely to fall down," says Ethel Siris, director of the Toni Stabile Osteoporosis Center at Columbia University Medical Center. "If you get enough vitamin D, you not only improve your calcium, but you're less likely to fall and get a fracture." | <urn:uuid:f06cbac4-59c9-44ad-9799-a165f957af9a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/guide/nutrition-osteoporosis-eat-boost-bone-health | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937225 | 542 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Perhaps it would help if I tried a more specific example...
Say I have a User. The User is an entity on my system. I'll use a Class to represent that user. The Class will be the blueprint that describes things about the user.
Since each User is different, I can't just use the same Class for every user. I need to make a copy of it that is specific to my User... this is called an Instance.
When you do user = User.new, you're creating a new instance of the User object. This is often referred to as a constructor. (the 'new' method does a bunch of things behind the scenes to prepare the class for later use.)
However, that example is kind of confusing, so let's make it easier to follow. How about
homer = User.new
bart = User.new
both 'homer' and 'bart' are variables that now represent object instances. Assuming that a user had an email address, we would now access that from our variables.
email = homer.email
So to answer your question...
obj = Object.new
obj = variable name and representation of the object instance
= = Assignment operator
Object = class name
. = operator for calling a method in Ruby
new = Class method for Object which initializes a new instance and returns that instance | <urn:uuid:57aff69f-1759-4ce7-945b-1f15e5acebc1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archive.railsforum.com/viewtopic.php?pid=9299 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957447 | 281 | 3.625 | 4 |
FLAGS • EIGHTEENTH CENTURY-1918
The Austro-Hungarian Army (as it was known after the constitutional reforms of 1867 that established the Dual Monarchy) had many peculiar features that reflected the polyglot and somewhat ramshackle character of the state it served. In the first place, there was not really one army but three: the Imperial and Royal (Kaiserlich und Königlich or K.u.K.) Army, the Austrian Imperial Royal (Kaiserlich Königlich or K.K.) Landwehr, and the Royal Hungarian (Königlich Ungarisch or K.U.) Honvéd. The Austrian Crown Lands and the Kingdom of Hungary maintained the K.u.K. Army jointly, but the Landwehr and Honvéd were separately financed and administered in peacetime. The only common theme was allegiance to the House of Habsburg.
The Austro-Hungarian Army was also, like the Dual Monarchy itself, a medley of nationalities. This caused numerous problems, particularly in the area of language. Since regiments were organized along "national" lines, a career Army officer often found it necessary to learn three, four or even six languages in addition to his native tongue. The majority of officers were German Austrians and most of the rest were Hungarians, while many of the troops they commanded were Croats, Czechs, Bosnian Muslims, Poles, Slovaks, etc.—a situation hardly calculated to foster organizational cohesion. Then too, the reliability of a given unit often depended on which enemy it was fighting. During World War I, for instance, Croat troops generally fought harder against Italy, the "hereditary enemy," than they did against the Russians.
Still, the Austro-Hungarian Army gave a better account of itself between 1914 and 1918 than many people—including the Dual Monarchy's German allies—expected. On the Eastern Front huge losses gradually eroded the Army's battle capacity, and by 1917 it was operating as a mere auxiliary of the German Army, often under direct German command. On the Italian Front, however, the Austro-Hungarian Army, though always outnumbered, fended off no fewer than eleven Italian offensives. Then in 1917, with a reinforcement of German divisions, it launched a counteroffensive that very nearly knocked Italy out of the war. But the defeat of Germany in 1918 spelled the doom of the Dual Monarchy and the final disintegration of its faithful Army.
The war flag of Austria-Hungary was the black-yellow Reichfarben flag (black and yellow being the Habsburg livery colors), and it was used as such from the eighteenth century to 1918. Rank flags for general officers were introduced after 1867, being based on the 1853-74 rank flag for admirals. There were four general officer ranks in 1914: Field Marshal (Feldmarschall), General, Lieutenant-General and Major-General. (Full generals added the name of their parent arm of service to their rank title: General of Infantry or General of Cavalry, with the old title Feldzeugmeister—Master General of Ordnance—for artillery generals.) Stars corresponding to rank were placed on the basic flag, except that the Habsburg arms replaced the stars for a full general serving as Chief of the General Staff or commander-in-chief of the field forces. In peacetime, only the Emperor held field marshal's rank, so that no flag for this rank was necessary. Two versions of the Imperial Standard are illustrated; note the border of black-yellow and red-white triangles, these being the Habsburg and Austrian colors respectively.
In 1915, the new rank of Colonel-General (Generaloberst) was instituted, and by 1918 a number of generals had been made field marshals. It is uncertain if new rank flags reflecting these changes were authorized; if so, they may have been similar to those introduced in 1915 for naval flag officers.
Flag Proportions: The Austro-Hungarian Reichfarben flag had 2:3 proportions. Imperial banners were square and Army rank flags were made slightly rectangular.
Nineteenth Century •
Late Nineteenth Century-1918
ARMY RANK FLAGS
Left: GENERAL (General
der Infantrie, General der Kavallerie or Feldzeugmeister)
Right: LIEUTENANT-GENERAL (Feldmarschalleutnant)
BACK to AUSTRIA Page | <urn:uuid:78b014f4-8747-4b2b-a5ec-8bb1b563822d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tmg110.tripod.com/austria3.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958147 | 935 | 3.75 | 4 |
How we change what others think, feel, believe and do
Extraversion vs. Introversion
Extraversion and Introversion are one of the preferences used in the Jungian Type Inventory. The naming is unfortunately a bit archaic as extraversion is not about being loud and introversion is not about being shy. It is about where people get their energy and motivation from: other people or within themselves.
The energy of extraverts is outward, towards people and things. They need a lot of stimulation and often express emotions. They get their motivation from other people.
Their often want to change the world (rather than think about it). Extraverts like variety, action and achievement. They do well at school but may find University more difficult.
Their attitude is often relaxed and confident. They are understandable and accessible. They tend to act first and think later.
At work, they seeks variety and action and like working with other people. They prefer work that has breadth rather than depth.
Introverts may see them as being shallow and pushy.
The energy of introverts is inward toward concepts and ideas. They need little external stimulation - and in fact they can easily be over-stimulated. it is possible that they focus more on their inner worlds because they suffer from sensory overload if they spend too much time outside and focusing on other people. They thus bottle up their own emotions, which can explode if pushed too far.
Rather than trying to change the world, they just want to understand it. They think deeply about things and often do better at University than they did at school.
Their attitude is reserved and questioning and they can seem subtle and
impenetrable. They tend to think before they act.
Extraverts may see them as egocentric and passive.
There is a view that introverts may act as they do because they are more easily overwhelmed by external stimuli, as opposed to extraverts who have a higher basic stimulation threshold and need the more visceral external stimulation to avoid boredom.
And the big | <urn:uuid:b616f676-1d13-4a45-b7ad-84e545edd54a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://changingminds.org/explanations/preferences/extravert_introvert.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974274 | 413 | 3.03125 | 3 |
I think I might be Transgender!
Some young men and young women don't feel that their body configuration is congruent with the gender they are. Some say they felt like they were born in the wrong body. It can seem like the end of the world. Well, good news…it’s not. You can live a happy and fulfilled life.
The definition of transgender keeps changing over time. What we are going to talk about here are people born in a boy’s body who are sure they are girls and people born into a girl’s body who are sure they are boys.
You might have known you didn't feel that gender congruency as long as you can remember. Maybe you’re just realizing that now. Either way, it is important for you to know you are not alone.
Gender and sex are not the same thing. Sex is between your legs, gender is between your ears. So, this can get very confusing very quickly. You may be really a girl, but born into a boy’s body and like boys. This means you might look gay to the rest of the world when actually you are heterosexual. Don’t get hung up on labels, just be as true to yourself as you can be.
This is one of the hard questions. Some people know from as far back as they can remember. Some people ‘grow into it.’ Part of the process of transitioning (changing from your gender assigned at birth to your true gender) involves seeing a therapist. So, if you are confused about all of this, find a therapist familiar with the transgender community and who is familiar with the Benjamin Standard. S/he can help you sort it all out.
The important thing is, you are definitely not alone. Transgender people are in every walk of life. Today, we are scientists, artists, lawyers, teachers, doctors, mechanics, fast food workers, store clerks and engineers. We are Black, White, Asian, Hispanic, Jewish, Catholic, Baptist, rich, poor, and well…you get the picture! We are everywhere you look. A recent study estimates that there are about 700,000 transgender people in the U.S.
Yes, you are normal. Transgender people have existed in all cultures across time. Other, older cultures had mechanisms that allowed their transgender people to fit into the life of their society.
Because of prejudice, many people push away these feelings. But, it’s normal and healthy to be yourself, whether you’re transgender or not. What’s really important is that we learn to like ourselves.
This can be really scary. Depending on where you live, there may be support groups in your area for LGBT youth. There may be adult transgender organizations that are set up to support youth. If such groups are not available to you, the internet may well be your only connection to other people like yourself. Please remember the internet safety rules so that you don’t become a victim of violence or abuse.
Because of prejudice, some people don’t accept transgender people. Transgender people suffer from discrimination and violence. People tend to hate or fear what they don’t understand, and many people don’t understand being transgender. That’s why so many organizations are working for transgender rights.
Coming out is the process of accepting yourself as a trans person and figuring out how open you want to be about your gender identity with other people.
While it can be important for other people to know about us, it is more important that we use good judgment about telling. Some friends may tell other people without your permission. Family members can be the most difficult people to tell. Even though some families are very supportive, some trans youth have been kicked out of their homes when their parents found out. Only you can decide whether or not to tell your family and choose the right time.
It’s important to have someone with whom to talk. Maybe there’s a guidance counselor at your school, or in a local youth or counseling agency, that you can trust. It’s important to have someone to talk to because it’s not healthy for young people to have to keep secret such an important part of their self.
Young people wonder, will I ever have sex? Of course you will, but don’t rush into it! IT is never easy to hear that we should ‘take things slowly.’ Or ‘wait until we are older.’ However, when it comes to sex, these ideas can apply.
It is completely normal for you to think about finding an outlet for your sexual feelings. During our teen years we are frequently preoccupied with sexual thoughts and fantasies. The notion of actually having sex with another person may scare you. That’s okay. It’s the same for a lot of us, especially the first time.
Most importantly, you should only decide to have sex when you feel ready. You’ll know when it’s time for you. Never let yourself be pressured into it. If s/he cares enough about you to share themselves sexually, s/he should care enough to wait until you are ready.
Here things can get complicated. The information we are going to share here is based on you genitals, not your gender identity.
All of us should know about HIV, the virus that causes AIDS – how it’s transmitted and how we can prevent ourselves from becoming infected. You and your partner should iscuss your risk factors for HIV infection and decide what, if any, safer sex methods you should use.
People at risk are those who:
To help reduce the risk of contracting HIV:
Sex is a serious topic. It’s one to consider with maturity and armed with knowledge.
Most big cities, even some smaller ones, have programs like Hatch Youth. Google "LGBT youth" or "GLBT youth" and the name of your city and see what pops up.
Maybe your high school or college campus has a Gay-Straight Alliance (GSA) or support group. You might have to ask a teacher or student you really trust to get more information on this. If there isn't one, consider starting one! GLSEN has lots of GSA resources on their website.
Look for a LGBT newspaper or magazine in your area to see what youth organizations and events you can attend. You'll most likely find these in coffee shops, bookstores, restaurants and other businesses in or near the "gay part of town," though every city has a pre-dominantly LGBT neighborhood.
Be careful when trying to connect online. Not everyone is who they say they are. If you decide to meet up with someone you met online, meet in a public place where there are plenty of other people. NEVER agree to meet someone at their home or in an unfamiliar place. If you are minor (under 18), NEVER trust an adult stranger who chats with you privately or wants to meet you. What they are doing may be illegal, and it is dangerous to you! | <urn:uuid:c392230d-d19a-454c-affa-9a82d937b2d4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hatchyouth.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=62 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973098 | 1,462 | 2.515625 | 3 |
- Table View
- List View
Every Early Years setting strives to create a calm and positive atmosphere, where children can thrive and develop as successful and confident learners. By asking you to reflect on how the ethos, practice and general approach in your setting impacts on the behaviour of both children and adults, the book suggests sensible ways to achieve an exciting and stimulating environment for all From an award-winning author team, there is down-to-earth advice, a number of common-sense solutions and all the essential information you will need to develop the best sort of setting, where everyone supports one another. Chapters offer guidance on: - creating an enabling environment for all - developing a team-based approach - considering the whole child - working with parents and other professionals - observing and assessing behaviour - sharing good practice. There are also: - case studies of children between 0 to 5 years - sample policies - lots of photocopiable material, on the accompanying CD-Rom. Suitable for all Early Years students and practitioners, the book is an encouraging read that will inspire and help you to improve behaviour in your class or setting.
From the New York Times bestselling author of Miss Brooks Loves Books! (and I don't) comes a gentle bedtime book that includes a proven relaxation technique parents can use to help their little ones go to sleep after an exciting day. The sun has set and dinner is done, but Fiona is still excited about the day and is not at all ready for bed. So her mom helps her settle down with their nightly ritual of sending each part of her--from her toes to her nose--off to sleep. As Fiona relaxes her body, she recalls a marvelous day at the beach where feet were for stomping in the waves, legs were for running after cousins, tummy was for holding strawberries, and arms were for catching beach balls. And bit by bit, memory by memory, Fiona slips from a great day into a good night. Barbara Bottner and Maggie Smith create an action-packed day to remember and provide parents with a wonderful technique for helping their own busy little ones drift peacefully off to sleep.
Maggie Smith's rhythmic, occasionally rhyming text brings us through a busy day with baby. We count up from one to ten as baby gets out of the bath, gets dressed, has a meal, and heads outside with mom to play. Then we count down again from ten to one as baby notices flowers and birds, splashes in puddles, plays with puppies, and gets dirty enough . . . to need another bath.The illustrations are bright and busy and filled with things to look at and count. And each spread has a number line on the side with the number of things to be counted on that page highlighted to help youngsters count up to ten and back down again to one.One Naked Baby is a perfect blend of counting book and story that children will want to hear and look at again and again.From the Hardcover edition.
When Miss Goose announces that the library is going to close forever, Raccoon and his friends spring into action. Where will they get the help they need to save their beloved library? In books, of course!This cheery tale from ever-popular author Eve Bunting shows how important libraries are to every community. Facing a dilemma that is all too common in our human world today, the adorable animal denizens of Buttercup Meadow confront it with an inspiring blend of ingenuity, teamwork, and imagination.Bright, playful illustrations enhance the light treatment of this serious subject, in a story that celebrates the value of books in everyone's lives.
Paisley has been sitting on the shelf at Big & Little Toys too long. He's seen other animals come and go, but somehow he's never found his perfect match. And so, taking matters into his own hands, Paisley sets off on a quest to find the special someone he knows is out there for him. He braves many perils in his search, but his intrepid determination is rewarded when he finds the girl of his dreams at last. Well, that's the way Paisley tells the story. Maggie Smith's wonderfully warm and touchable pictures tell a different tale. In truth, Paisley is mistakenly thrown away, tossed about, and then left in the lost and found at Lolly's Laundry, where a curious little girl happily discovers him. But when Pearl and Paisley get together, it doesn't matter who found who--they are a perfect match. Children will laugh at Paisley's almost-true telling of his tale and will readily understand his need to feel like he's in control. Sure to melt your heart, this is a love story that celebrates the power of a positive outlook. From the Hardcover edition.
At Penelope Pig's sleepover party, six pigs in pj's eat pizza and pasta, pound a pinata, pin the tail on the pony, prance to piano, and then form a precarious pyramid--collapsing, of course, into a sqealing pig pile! Maggie Smith combines rollicking rhymes and infectious alliterations to make a perfectly pleasing book filled with fun and the letter P. And while there are scads of P words in the text, the art has even more--the pictures are filled with more than 75 objects beginning with the letter P for young readers to find. The playful pictures also introduce other preschool concepts, such as colors, shapes, patterns, and counting. Pigs in Pajamas offers a fun way to get preschoolers thinking about language and building their vocabularies. Party on, Penelope Pig!
'The number of two-year-olds entering our settings has been increasing over the last few years, and with the government set to continue with the expansion of free places, more and more practitioners will be caring for children in this age range for the first time. For those who still think in terms of the 'terrible twos', this book serves as a vital and urgent wake-up call. Whether experienced professional or someone starting out on an early years career, it has a great deal to recommend it. ' - Neil Henty, Editor and Associate Publisher, The Early Years Educator Do you want to know how best to provide for two year olds in your setting? Do you need effective guidance and advice on how to achieve this? This is an unmissable guide to working with two year olds, offering practical tips and tools to support practitioners, professionals and lecturers in meeting the unique set of needs of this age group. Written by two experienced early years' professionals this resource covers all aspects of provision and best practice for successfully working with two year olds, including key concerns such as: the completion of the Two Year Progress Check transitions into a setting child development formative and summative assessment effective learning environments working with parents. All this plus charts, pro forma, activities and training materials as well as further reading and access to websites, providing you with all you need to respond to the needs of two year olds with confidence. Chris Dukes and Maggie Smith (www.earlymatters.co.uk) are both Area SENCOs in London and experienced trainers and authors in the Early Years.
Making sure that young children with special educational needs have the right support is a top priority for all early years settings, but spotting additional needs can be tricky. This book is the ultimate resource for busy practitioners who want good, clear advice on what to look for and how to set up the necessary provision. From an award-winning author team, the advice contained here will empower you, and give you the confidence to identify and plan for the needs of every child in your care. Topics discussed in chapters are as follows: - observation and assessment of needs - physical development, and how to spot problems - communication, language and literacy, and how to spot difficulties - personal, social and emotional development, in line with the holistic child emphasis of the EYFS There are also: - case studies of children between 0 to 5 years - sample policies - lots of photocopiable material, on the CD-Rom that comes with the book Suitable for all early years students and practitioners, this book reminds the reader that all children require additional support at some stage, and that providing it is an essential part of good practice.
Select your format based upon: 1) how you want to read your book, and 2) compatibility with your reading tool. To learn more about using Bookshare with your device, visit the Help Center.
Here is an overview of the specialized formats that Bookshare offers its members with links that go to the Help Center for more information.
- Bookshare Web Reader - a customized reading tool for Bookshare members offering all the features of DAISY with a single click of the "Read Now" link.
- DAISY (Digital Accessible Information System) - a digital book file format. DAISY books from Bookshare are DAISY 3.0 text files that work with just about every type of access technology that reads text. Books that contain images will have the download option of ‘DAISY Text with Images’.
- BRF (Braille Refreshable Format) - digital Braille for use with refreshable Braille devices and Braille embossers.
- MP3 (Mpeg audio layer 3) - Provides audio only with no text. These books are created with a text-to-speech engine and spoken by Kendra, a high quality synthetic voice from Ivona. Any device that supports MP3 playback is compatible.
- DAISY Audio - Similar to the Daisy 3.0 option above; however, this option uses MP3 files created with our text-to-speech engine that utilizes Ivonas Kendra voice. This format will work with Daisy Audio compatible players such as Victor Reader Stream and Read2Go. | <urn:uuid:c4db05b7-b91d-4421-9b22-f6987589db79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.bookshare.org/browse/author?key=Maggie%20Smith | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951066 | 2,019 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
A color image is a picture displayed in color by a computerized device on an attached or separate display screen. By contrast, black-and-white images and gray-scale images are pictures displayed only in black and white or in gray tones. A color image can exist in a variety of different file formats that determine how it is presented and stored. For color images to be displayed properly, the computerized device must possess or be attached to a display apparatus, such as a monitor, that is capable of showing the required colors. Changes in the file format and in the device used to display the image can cause subtle differences in the appearance of the image's colors.
Color image files contain information about the color of each of the image's pixels. The manner in which color information for each pixel is stored can be compared to coordinates in three or more dimensions. One common method of indicating a given color, for instance, involves stating a value for the "intensity" of red, green, and blue in a color image. The combination of these colors can be used to generate a broad spectrum of different colors, so specifying the particular combination of the three is often sufficient for indicating the exact color of a pixel. Another common coordinate-based color system is "HSL," or hue-saturation-lightness, in which different values for hue, saturation, and lightness are used to generate the necessary colors.
The quality of different color image formats can vary dramatically based on size, compression, and a variety of other factors. A certain amount of disk space is necessary for storing the color information of each pixel. A high-quality color image, then, usually has a large file size, as each pixel contains a substantial amount of color information. Small, low-quality images are sufficient for most purposes, but they might contain small irregularities and imperfections that suggest a small file size and limited image quality.
People use color images in many different settings. Most computer user interfaces are displayed in color and constantly require the generation of color images. It is almost impossible to browse the Internet without encountering a color image somewhere, whether in the form of advertisements or actual web content. Some jobs and research projects involve the development, processing, and study of high-quality color images. Such images often have very large file sizes, as subtle differences in the arrangements and densities of pixels of different colors can be quite important.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:fbdbffbd-c8bf-4271-b545-01ecaf908e71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-color-image.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904223 | 545 | 3.8125 | 4 |
X-band communication is the primary means of communication between the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the 34-meter-diameter (112-foot) Deep Space Network antennas in California, Spain, and Australia.
The X-band communication system on the orbiter uses a 3-meter-diameter (10-foot) high-gain antenna and a 100-watt X-band radio traveling wave tube amplifier to transmit signals to Earth. Each of these devices is more than twice as powerful as those used by most Mars missions. As a result, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is able to send data back to Earth more than 10 times faster than previous missions.
At its maximum distance from Earth of about 250 million miles, the orbiter sends data at a rate of at least 500 kilobits per second. At closer ranges, the signal strength is greater, making higher data rates possible. For several months when Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is at its closest range of about 60 million miles, the orbiter sends data to Earth at 3 to 4 megabits per second. That is several times greater than a cable modem or DSL internet connection at home.
During the science phase, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter schedules 8 hours of transmission time per day on two 34-meter (112-foot) Deep Space Network antennas. Occasionally, the orbiter also requests time on the 70-meter (230-foot) antennas. | <urn:uuid:6d675c5f-38af-44c0-9988-8b2bba6d0e45> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/mission/communications/commxband/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.856272 | 288 | 3.421875 | 3 |
here is my hw assignment. i have absolutely no experience with C. so any help would be appreceated
write a program to calculate the highest and lowest number that can be stored in: a char, an int (signed and unsigned), a short int, a long int. once you have done this look at the include files limits.h and float.h do the values in these files match the ones you calculated?
i really have no idea where to start because this isnt in my book, itwas just assigned to us expected that we know some C. | <urn:uuid:9c8c9f81-cf67-4ee0-b463-821f6693701a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cboard.cprogramming.com/c-programming/78067-very-newb-homework-assignment.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952181 | 117 | 2.6875 | 3 |
An abnormally curved spine is enough of a worry, but some children born with scoliosis carry an extra burden of being unable to breathe properly too. One or two in every 100 patients with congenital scoliosis will have a spine that is so twisted that the chest and rib cage are compressed, preventing the lungs from working or growing normally.
But a new procedure introduced in KK Women’s and Children’s Hospital (KKH) last August spells hope for such patients, said Dr Kevin Lim, a senior consultant at its department of orthopaedic surgery. In the three- to four-hour procedure, a Vertical Expandable Prosthetic Titanium Rib (VEPTR, pronounced “vep-ter”) is fixed to the back of the rib cage to prevent it from collapsing any further. The adjustable titanium rod is curved to fit the back of the chest and spine. Hooks on both ends of the device are attached to two ribs, or to a rib and the pelvis, or to a rib and the spine.
Three young patients have undergone the procedure at KKH, said Dr Lim, who is the first doctor in the hospital to be trained in it. The youngest, Sririta Phikun, was only 14 months old when she had it done last August, while the other two were two and four years old. The procedure has been used in the United States, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea and Taiwan. Sririta, who turns two next Thursday, had a spine curved in the shape of an “S” when Dr Lim first saw her in 2009. She was only a few months old then. A big part of the curve was in her chest, compressing it severely. Many of her ribs were also fused from birth and some of her vertebrae were only half-formed. With her lungs trapped in such a confined space, their capacity was only 70 per cent that of a normal child, Dr Lim estimated. They would have been unable to grow properly and she would always be unable to exert herself without becoming breathless, he said.
Given her curved spine, she would also be unlikely to top 1.25m by the time she was 20 years old, he added. He separated Sririta’s fused ribs and implanted two rods – one on each side of her body – to hold the ribs apart. Each was about 15 to 20cm long, with one end hooked onto her ribcage and the other to her pelvic bone. Dr Lim said the treatment allows the rib cage to grow larger in volume and a larger chest allows more room for the lungs to expand and grow. A longer, straighter chest would also mitigate the spinal curvature, he said.
Every six to nine months, Sririta will have surgery again, until she is about 13 or 14 years old, to lengthen the rods to “expand the chest a little bit more, allowing for further lung growth”, he said. After that age, she may have spinal fusion surgery to fix her spine in place. The drawback for the VEPTR procedure is its prohibitive cost. Dr Tan Chong Tien, an orthopaedic surgeon at Mount Elizabeth Medical Centre, said he has offered it to three patients, but none chose to proceed because it could cost $50,000.
At KKH, it costs about $25,000 to $40,000. A titanium rod alone costs $15,000 to $50,000. MediShield, the Government’s health-insurance scheme covering serious illnesses, cannot be used to pay for the procedure as the scheme does not cover congenital conditions. But earlier this month, Health Minister Khaw Boon Wan said the Health Ministry is studying the feasibility of extending MediShield to cover more illnesses, including mental and congenital conditions.
Sririta’s father, cargo assistant Kong Kok Keong, 34, had help from the KKH Health Endowment Fund and a private charity to cover more than 85 per cent of the cost of his daughter’s initial surgery and hospitalisation, which came up to about $26,000. KKH declined to reveal how the other two patients paid for their operations. The surgery to lengthen Sririta’s implants cost approximately $1,100.
This was largely covered by Medifund, a national endowment fund to help the needy pay their medical bills. Mr Kong said he was devastated to learn about his younger daughter’s spinal problem, which he had never heard of. He has not revealed all the details of Sririta’s condition to her Thai mother, Ms Tip Phikun, 27, so as not to worry her unduly. Now Sririta will have a shot at growing up more normally, like her sister, who is four years old and healthy. Mr Kong said in Mandarin: “Surgery is the only way to help Sririta and I’m thankful for KKH’s help.” | <urn:uuid:276ac5e7-8200-4437-9048-a51ca91597e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthxchange.com.sg/News/Pages/Severely-deformed-spine-hinders-toddler-breathing.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978902 | 1,047 | 2.734375 | 3 |
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