text stringlengths 199 648k | id stringlengths 47 47 | dump stringclasses 1 value | url stringlengths 14 419 | file_path stringlengths 139 140 | language stringclasses 1 value | language_score float64 0.65 1 | token_count int64 50 235k | score float64 2.52 5.34 | int_score int64 3 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
- Accessibility Testing
Accessibility testing for web sites is a service that can provide much more than the standard point-by-point testing techniques of most automated services.
It provides a more detailed analysis of the content and layout of the page elements, yielding optimization procedures for a variety of circumstances that can be used during the development process of a site, site remodeling, or ongoing evaluation and monitoring of an existing site.
Why don't rely on automated accessibility tools?
Several software tools which automatically test a web page, or an entire site, for accessibility guideline conformance have been available for some time.
These programs evaluate compliance with a variety of standards, including those of U.S. Section 508, the British Disability Discrimination Act, among others.
The use of these tools is a very valuable step in assuring that a web site meets these standards, but relying solely on their evaluation, neglecting to perform a "manual" check of certain accessibility aspects, can result in circumstances that may exclude some portions of the public from a site.
The Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has this to say about manual evaluation:
Examine page selection using relevant checkpoints from the Checklist of Checkpoints for Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0.
Note relevant can mean: checkpoints that cannot be evaluated by automatic or semiautomatic tools; checkpoints that actually apply to the site (e.g. if site contains no audio content, skip those); and, as a minimum, those checkpoints that apply to the level of conformance you are evaluating.
Why perform real users testing?
Involving persons with disabilities in the evaluation process provides a much greater understanding of the accessibility issues of a web site, and allows us to implement accessibility solutions which have shown real-world practicality.
Internet users with disabilities provide valuable guidance during the development of a web site, but this alone does not determine the level of a site's accessibility.
Read what the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) says about involving real users in web accessibility evaluation.-
Notice:This article was written by John Britsios, Web Architect & Senior SEO Consultant here at Webnauts Net and SEO Workers - Expert SEO Company.
It may be reproduced on a web site, CD-ROM, e-zine, book, magazine, etc. so long permission is received from Webnauts Net and the authors names are included in full, and, if the reproduction is by electronic media, a link back to this web site is included. | <urn:uuid:610824ca-42d3-47fa-a74a-bcb05c59fceb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.webnauts.net/accessibility-testing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902223 | 539 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Wednesday, December 28, 2011
One of the biggest drawbacks to successfully transforming education and enhancing student learning is a persistent but mistaken idea that visual thinking is not as important to human learning, thinking and communicating as are reading, writing and mathematics.
Many people maintain a mistaken idea about the role of visual perception in human learning. For example, many people mistakenly think watching a movie or looking at a picture is a passive activity while reading is more active. Students are often admonished for watching "too much" TV, movies, videos, video games or other images but are seldom told they are reading too much. This is because of a story we have mistakenly told ourselves that the brain is more active when reading than when looking at something. This is a bad story that has held back learning for generations.
Current scientific evidence shows that rather than being a passive state, perception is an active process fueled by predictions and expectations about our environment. Memory is a fundamental component in the way our brain generates expectations and predictions that precede perceptual experience.
Recently, researchers in the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford showed how Long Term Memory optimizes perception by varying brain states associated with anticipation of spatial localization in the visual field by devising a method for integrating memory and attention. The scientists used fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to trace a neural network involving a number of areas of the brain likely to be active in the predictive use of memory in the visual cortex (the occipital lobe shown in dark blue on left).
Click on the heading above to read about the research showing how long term memory and perception are intertwined. | <urn:uuid:81d21bcd-10a1-4c20-a880-47aeea537763> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://anddesignmagazine.blogspot.com/2011/12/perception-is-powerful-activity.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945208 | 328 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The two villages up to The Domesday Book
Domesday Book entry for Colewic (source: Abraham Farley's edition of Domesday Book, 1783).
The village was in fact two village or settlements, until about the middle of the 12th century, when one was made into a Manor or Park. The area of the old Parish of Colwick which is now inside the Nottingham City boundary was known as Over Colwick, and the remainder was first called Taynes Land or East Colwick, and later Nether Colwick.
Godwin or Godric, tenant of Danegeld, held a manor at Colwick (presumably Over Colwick) before the Conquest, rated at 7 bovates, land for one plough in demesne, 7 villiens and 6 bordars having 3 ploughs. There is a priest and a church, 2 serfs and 1 mill worth 5s., half a fishery, 30 acres of meadow and 15 acres of underwood. Under Godwin, the homestead was contained within a timber enclosure, surrounded by a moat. The buildings also would have been made of timber. This is at the beginning of the 11th century.
At the time of the Domesday Conquest (1086), Over Colwick was held by Waleraun, tenant of William de Peverill. The Domesday Book states, “There was a church there and a water-mill by the Trent side, and attached to the manor were the important rights of a free fishery. More dwelt seven villeins and six bordars in addition to a priest and two serfs or servants.” This means that about 80 people were living there at this time, and it was stated to have been worth 40s. per year at Domesday, but only 20s. in Edward the Confessor’s time.
Nether Colwick at this time was held by Aluric who had three bovates of land and Buga who had two, making five in all. They held this in the King’s name along with two carucates, one sokeman on one bovate, and six villeins and one bordar with two carucates. There was 31 acres of meadow and a small wood of eight acres. Population of this village is also estimated to have been about 80.
Sometime between Waleraun, and the de Colwick family coming into being, the village of Over Colwick disappears and takes the shape of a family estate, with the church belonging to the big house and quite possibly standing inside the moat. It is now listed as one of the “Lost Villages of Nottinghamshire” and classed as a merged or migrated village, and it is quite possible that the villagers were forced to move when the de Colwick’s enclosed the park with hedge and ditch in the 13th century. | <urn:uuid:b52e14ea-f4ce-4d3c-8d47-f00c9d8733bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nottshistory.org.uk/books/colwick/colwick2.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984777 | 610 | 3 | 3 |
Great Lakes Warships 1812-1815
When war broke out in 1812, neither the United States Navy nor the Royal Navy had more than a token force on the Great Lakes. However, once the shooting started, it sparked a ship-building arms race that continued throughout the war. This book examines the design and development of the warships built upon the lakes during the war, emphasising their differences from their salt-water contemporaries. It then goes onto cover their operational use as they were pitted against each other in a number of clashes on the lakes that often saw ships captured, re-crewed, and thrown back against their pervious owners. Released in 2012 to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the outbreak of the war, this is a timely look at a small, freshwater naval war.
Are there errors or omissions in this product information? Got corrections? Let us know at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Product Reviews (0)
Monsters in unusual (but not unrelated) professions,
Eldritch Poisoner PFS rules check,
The Line between Disruptive and RP,
Do wee need to max our stats? It's a necessity or minmax idea?,
Readied actions: swift, move or free after standard,
Another Random though experiment from TCG: Would you be a lich?,
Reskin a Monster!, | <urn:uuid:17456f4a-4efc-491c-93a3-f758d79862ef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://paizo.com/products/btpy8phm?Great-Lakes-Warships-18121815 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939797 | 278 | 2.671875 | 3 |
For the many baby boomers who end up selling their homes and happily moving into apartment buildings or not-so-happily into nursing homes, the specter of bed bug infestations is a reality. Chicago came in as #1 in the U.S. in its rate of overall bed bug reports in 2012.
Guesstimates as to why bed bugs have become such a huge problem in the U.S. include the fact that more people travel and unwittingly bring them home, as well as the lack of understanding of how to prevent infestations and to deal with them when they start. It's a nasty problem you don't want to encounter.
Previous bed bug control methods always featured chemicals like insecticides, some of which the little critters were becoming immune to. I'm happy to report these yucky bugs may be on their way out. Researchers at a New York university have invented a material that uses nanotechnology to stop bed bugs. It contains millions of teeny tiny fibers that actually trap the bed bugs' feet. They can't move, which means they can't feed on your blood or get together to procreate. The nanomaterial is much denser than anything we make sheets and pillowcases out of, and the bugs just can't pass through it.
Visit the City of Chicago website for more information about bed bugs. But remember this new invention is on the way. Hurray! I hope they hurry and get it on the market. Maybe we won't have to use toxic chemicals - and maybe never have to worry about bed bugs again. | <urn:uuid:48515443-e1ae-4b68-84b9-0275920c7b24> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.examiner.com/article/new-non-chemical-nanotech-solution-to-chicago-s-bed-bug-problem | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978646 | 322 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Physics researchers try new approach for simulating supernovas
Two researchers want to bridge the gap between what is known about exploding stars and the remnants left behind thousands of years later. So they’re trying something new—using SNSPH, a complex computer code developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Sangwook Park, an assistant professor of physics, and Carola Ellinger, a post-doctoral researcher, presented their research this week on “3-D Simulations of Supernovae into the Young Remnant Phase” at the national meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Long Beach, Calif. Their oral presentation focuses on first efforts to use SNSPH, a parallel 3-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics code written in 2005, to create 3-D simulations of a core-collapse supernova evolving into remnants.
“There are a lot of numerical simulations for the explosion of the supernova and a lot of simulations of the blast wave expanding into interstellar medium, but there was no useful work connecting the two, even though the physics are connected,” Dr. Park says. “Now, we are using the most appropriate program we know to do that.”
Read more about simulating supernovas.
Seek alternate routes during closing of railroad crossings
Plan for railroad crossing closures while Union Pacific improves tracks through Arlington.
Railroad crossings between Division and Abram streets at Bowen Road, Davis Drive, Cooper Street, Center Street, Mesquite Street, Collins Street, and Stadium Drive will be closed Wednesday, Jan. 16-Thursday, Jan. 24. A public meeting will be held at 6 p.m. Monday, Jan. 14, in the Arlington City Council chambers.
Starting Jan. 16, crossings beginning at Bowen and moving east will close. Davis is expected to close Jan. 17, with Cooper, Center, and Mesquite closing Jan. 18, at which point five railroad crossings will be closed at one time. As the project continues to move east, Union Pacific plans to open Bowen before closing Collins and open Davis before closing Stadium.
Available north-south routes within the city limits are Green Oaks Boulevard, Forest Edge Drive, Fielder Road, West Street, and State Highway 360. West Street starts behind the E.H. Hereford University Center and runs north through downtown Arlington, connecting to Division. Fielder, Forest Edge, and Green Oaks are west of campus. Forest Edge and West Street are smaller streets and are expected to have heavy traffic, according to Arlington Police. The streets pass under low bridges, so be cautious if driving tall vehicles.
The city of Arlington also suggests that drivers use routes outside the city limits, including State Highway 161 and Fort Worth's Loop 820.
W-2 forms available online; note security restrictions
The 2012 W-2 forms are now available on UT Direct.
Note the new reporting requirement for W-2s issued after Jan. 1, 2013.
To claim and print your W-2 at UT Direct, log on, select the claim tab, review instructions, scroll down and click "Yes! I claim my W-2!," choose the download tab at the top, and click "Download My Tax Form." You may choose to open your W-2 to print or save.
If you have not upgraded your UT EID security level, go to one of the departments listed below and show your driver's license or passport. If you have forgotten your password, email one of the departments from your UT Arlington email address.
If you do not claim your 2012 W-2 form on UTDirect by Monday, Jan. 28, Payroll Services will print and mail your unclaimed W-2 to your department on campus if you have an active appointment. Otherwise your unclaimed W-2 will be mailed to your home address.
Email should not be used to transmit sensitive data, such as your W-2, the Information Security Office warns.
Note that if the UT EID is not used within 45 days, it must be re-activated by emailing firstname.lastname@example.org from your UT Arlington email account.
'The Hot Seat in Arlington' comes to campus Jan. 25
State Rep. Diane Patrick, R-Arlington, and state Sen. Kelly Hancock, R-Fort Worth, will be featured in The Texas Tribune’s “The Hot Seat in Arlington” 11:30 a.m.-1 p.m. Friday, Jan. 25, at College Park Center.
This in-depth conversation about the 83rd Legislative Session is part of The Texas Tribune’s series of conversations with prominent elected officials and newsmakers. The moderator is Evan Smith, chief executive officer and editor-in-chief of the nonprofit news organization.
Patrick, a former faculty member in the College of Education and Health Professions, was elected to a fourth term in the Texas House in November. Hancock served in the Texas House since 2006 before being elected to the Texas Senate in November.
The event is free and open to the public. A light lunch will be provided. RSVP at The Texas Tribune.
Khalil Muhammad to speak concerning Martin Luther King Jr.
Khalil Muhammad, director of New York City's Schomber Center for Research in Black Culture, lectures on "What Would Dr. King Do?" at noon Friday, Jan. 18, in Room 108 of University Hall. The lecture is presented by the Center for African American Studies and the Department of History.
Dr. Muhammad, a former professor at Indiana University, wrote The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America, an exploration of how notions of black criminality were crucial to the creation of modern urban centers. Books will be available for purchase at the lecture.
The annual Arlington Martin Luther King Jr. Celebration begins with the Sharing the Dream Banquet at 6:30 p.m. Friday, Jan. 18, at the Bluebonnet Ballroom in the E.H. Hereford University Center. Tickets for the banquet and "An Evening of Spoken Word Slam Poetry" are available at utatickets.com. The slam is at 7:30 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 19, in the Bluebonnet Ballroom. MLK events continue through Monday, Jan. 21.
Submit your nominations for Outstanding Academic Adviser
Know some wise advisers? Nominate them for Outstanding Academic Adviser, which has three categories: professional staff adviser, undergraduate faculty adviser, and graduate faculty adviser. Submit nominations online by Monday, Jan. 28.
UT Arlington has recognized academic advisers who have made a difference in the lives of their students since 1984. Many advisers have been recognized nationally by the National Academic Advising Association for their commitment to helping students succeed.
For information about the nomination process, contact Delene Remmers in the Office of the Provost at 2-2737.
Plots available at Community Garden
Put your green thumb into action with a plots at the Community Garden at UT Arlington, located at 406 Summit Ave., just west of the SWEET Center at the corner of UTA Boulevard and Summit Avenue.
The half-acre garden benefits from the UT Arlington compost site and rainwater harvesting. You can adopt a plot and become a gardener or volunteer to help with the harvest. A portion of harvests is donated to a local food bank. The garden is a combined effort of the Office of Sustainability and the Arlington Parks and Recreation Department.
Former Dallas Cowboy to autograph footballs Monday
Former Dallas Cowboy and current Fox sports analyst Daryl "Moose" Johnston will autograph Smiling Moose Deli footballs as part of the campus restaurant's Welcome Back/Grand Opening celebration 11 a.m.-12:30 p.m. Monday, Jan. 14.
Smiling Moose Deli joins other College Park District restaurants, such as Pie Five Pizza, Coolberry Frozen Yogurt, Digg's Tacos, and Pho Xpress.
Mavs Book Club to review 'American Stories'
"American Stories" is the theme for this month's Mavs Book Club, which meets at noon Friday, Jan. 18, at the Connection Café in the E.H. Hereford University Center.
The books selected from the Muslim Journeys Bookshelf this semester have been organized by themes, and each theme includes five books.
Meetings are open to the UT Arlington community. For more information, see the club's Facebook page.
Get Inspired for a Healthy New Year
It's a brand new year and a perfect time to make a fresh start on achieving the goals that are most important to you. Many New Year's resolutions focus on improving health and wellness. Making a specific, realistic plan for the goals that are most important to you means the changes you make will be more likely to stick. Learn more about how to set yourself up for success as you set your personal goals for the coming year in the January issue of the UT System Health Newsletter.
Customer Service 101
Learn basic customer service skills, including handling difficult customers, making customers the first priority, and improving listening skills. Free. 9-11 a.m., Wednesday, Jan. 16, Room 200, Wetsel Service Center. See a list of HR training classes.
Beginning Cake Decorating
Learn the art of printing and writing, figure piping, drop flowers, and the ever-popular rose. Fee includes required text. Supplies are in addition to course fee. Call 2-2581 for faculty, staff discount fee of $55. 6-9 p.m., Tuesdays, Jan. 22-Feb. 12, Room C100A, Continuing Education Workforce Building. Continuing Education.
Zumba Fitness: Dance the Weight Off
Zumba fuses hypnotic Latin rhythms and easy-to-follow moves to create a dynamic fitness program. No dance experience necessary. Call 2-2581 to receive faculty/staff discount fee of $62.50. 7-8 p.m. Tuesdays, Jan. 22-Feb. 12, location TBA. Continuing Education.
Check out employment opportunities at uta.edu/jobs. Have questions? Call Human Resources/Employment Services at 2-3461 or TDD 2-8139, or email email@example.com. The University of Texas at Arlington is an equal opportunity and affirmative action employer.
First Pitch Banquet features Hunter Pence
Hunter Pence, a member of the World Series champion San Francisco Giants and former Maverick standout, is the featured speaker at the First Pitch Banquet set for 7 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 26, in the Diamond Club at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington.
Tickets for the banquet along with a meet-and-greet with Pence are $100 for adults and $50 for UT Arlington students. Tickets for the banquet only are $40 for adults and $20 for students.
The evening also includes the presentation of the 2012 Southland Conference championship rings. The Mavericks claimed the SLC title and a spot in the NCAA Regionals. Members of the 2013 baseball team and past UT Arlington players also will be in attendance.
Women host UTSA and Texas State
A pair of former Southland Conference opponents come to campus this week for Western Athletic Conference women's basketball games when the Mavericks take on UT San Antonio at 7 p.m. today, Thursday, Jan. 10, and Texas State at 6 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 12, at College Park Center.
The Mavericks are 1-2 in the WAC following a 65-58 loss at Louisiana Tech last Saturday. Kiara Parker led the Mavericks with 14 points in that game while Aron Garcia collected nine rebounds.
Mav men seek to rebound on the road
Trying to end a three-game losing skid, the men's basketball team goes on the road this week to face UT San Antonio at 7 p.m. today, Thursday, Jan. 10, and Texas State at 2 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 12.
The Mavericks lost 55-52 to Louisiana Tech on Saturday at College Park Center, and are 1-2 in the Western Athletic Conference.
Coach Scott Cross' squad returns home next week for games with Seattle at 7 p.m. Thursday, Jan. 17, and Idaho at 7 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 19.
Movin' Mavs at Alabama tournament
The Movin' Mavs wheelchair basketball team participates in the 26th annual Pioneer Classic, sponsored by the Lakeshore Foundation, this weekend in Birmingham, Ala.
Games begin at 9 a.m. Friday, Jan. 11, and continue through Sunday, Jan. 13.
The Movin' Mavs host a college-division tournament with games against Alabama and Illinois on Friday, Jan. 18, at College Park Center.
Indoor track begins season at A&M invitational
Men's and women's track teams open the indoor season in the Texas A&M Invitational at 2 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 12, in College Station.
The Maverick men are led by returning All-Americans Romain Martin and Clayton Vaughn while the women are paced by seniors Shannon Reynolds and DeAndrea Smith.
Read more about the Maverick track teams.
Thursday, Jan. 10
Saturday, Jan. 12
Jiggle Butt Run Women's 5K run and walk begins at Maverick Activities Center. Benefiting SafeHaven of Tarrant County. 9 a.m. JiggleButtRun.com.
Thursday, Jan. 17
Friday, Jan. 18
Wheelchair Basketball Movin' Mavs vs. Alabama. Free. 3 p.m., College Park Center. Also Movin' Mavs vs. Illinois. 7 p.m., College Park Center, and Movin' Mavs vs. Dallas, 1 p.m. Saturday, Jan. 19, Physical Education Building. Movin' Mavs.
Athletics Hall of Honor Pete Carlon, Clay Gould, and Mishael Berger join the Athletics Hall of Honor along with the 1990 and 1992 Southland Conference champion baseball teams. $50 (RSVP and payment due Friday, Jan. 11). Reception 6:30 p.m. followed by buffet dinner and induction ceremony. Grand Ballroom, Arlington Hilton, 2401 E. Lamar. Athletics, 2-0694, firstname.lastname@example.org.
Pearls of the Antilles: Printed Maps of Caribbean Islands A look at maps and how they reflect and shape the history of Caribbean islands. Free. 9 a.m.-5 p.m. Mondays-Saturdays, through Saturday, Feb. 9. Special Collections, sixth floor, Central Library.
Frank Lloyd Wright's Samara: A Mid-Century Dream Home Experience the process of building and living in a home designed by one of America’s greatest architects, Frank Lloyd Wright. $8. 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Tuesdays-Saturdays, 1-5 p.m. Sundays, Arlington Museum of Art, 201 W. Main St., downtown Arlington. Through Sunday, Feb. 17. Architecture.
Planetarium Visit the classic Mayan cities of Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Tikal, and Palenque to discover how the Maya aligned their temples to watch their sky gods and used interlocking calendars to record the past and predict the future in Mayan Prophecies. 6 p.m. Fridays, 2:30 p.m. Saturdays. Planetarium.
(For an expanded list of events, see the UT Arlington Calendar.) | <urn:uuid:f4b35917-0677-4f08-a39c-29ea7a02ecb2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uta.edu/ucomm/internalcommunications/mavwire/2013/jan10.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915047 | 3,232 | 2.8125 | 3 |
The balcony at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tenn., where the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. was standing when he was killed by an assassin’s bullet will be open to the public for the first time.
The National Civil Rights Museum was built around the Lorraine Motel, and people will be able to visit the balcony now that renovations are complete.
King was shot on April 4, 1968, while standing on the balcony with other civil-rights leaders, including the Rev. Jesse Jackson. King was preparing to lead a march of sanitation workers protesting low wages and unsafe working conditions before being hit in the neck by a bullet fired by James Earl Ray. The inspirational leader children now learn about in history class died in the hospital hours later.
Members of the public had previously been able to see the balcony, but were prohibited from standing on it, the Associated Press reported. The balcony will open Nov. 19 with a lift installed for disabled visitors, AP said. An annex with a replica of the boardinghouse where Ray was staying when he shot King will also be open to the public.
The room where King was staying, No. 306, has remained untouched in the almost 45 years since his death. Everything from a rotary phone to messy sheets on the bed to unfinished coffee still sit where they were then, according to Agence France-Presse via The Raw Story.
Continue Reading Below
The assassination came five years after the famous march on Washington where King delivered his legendary “I Have a Dream” speech. He survived multiple previous attempts on his life, including the 1956 bombing of his home, according to the BBC.
After the fatal shooting of King, Jackson told the press about what he had witnessed. “He had just bent over," he said. "I reckon if he had not been standing up, he would have not been hit in the face.”
Lyndon Baines Johnson, then president of the U.S., told the country he was “shocked and saddened” by King’s death: “I ask every citizen to reject the blind violence that has taken Dr. King, who lived by nonviolence.”
Riots in more than 100 cities followed the assassination. Ray, a drifter with a criminal record, was arrested at London’s Heathrow Airport about two months later. | <urn:uuid:f47b8517-a862-4ad3-b529-21a67bd3f46b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.com/balcony-martin-luther-king-jr-was-standing-when-shot-opening-public-mlk-balcony-has-unfinished | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98353 | 487 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Vanderbilt ties to ‘worst submarine tragedy’ 50 years ago
The nuclear submarine USS Thresher was lost with all 129 hands 50 years ago today – April 10, 1963 – more than 200 miles off the New England coast during deep-dive tests. It had just departed Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine after a routine overhaul.
The Thresher was the ultimate attack submarine for its time, designed to hunt and destroy enemy vessels. It had a high-speed hull, the most powerful sonar in existence, special silencing features and advanced weapons, according to dozens of documents and news reports.
It could also dive deeper than any other submarine.
There are two ties to Vanderbilt University: Pat Garner and Steve Krahn. One lost. One a nuclear engineer passionate about keeping the memory of Thresher alive.
Lieutenant Commander Pat Mehaffy Garner perished that day. Garner, only 31, was promoted to that rank a full year ahead of his contemporaries. As Executive Officer, Garner was second in command aboard Thresher. He left behind a widow, Alice Stets Garner, and two daughters, Kathryn and Sarah Beth, of Mystic, Conn.
Garner had been commissioned an ensign through Vanderbilt’s Naval ROTC program after graduation in 1953, and the Memphis native was serving on his third submarine. Prior to his assignment to Thresher, Garner spent four and a half years aboard the submarine USS Skate, and took part in all three of its Arctic expeditions below the ice. While he was aboard, Skate earned two Navy Unit Commendations. Garner was aboard in 1959 when Skate became the first submarine to surface at the North Pole.
Thirty years after the Thresher tragedy Steve Krahn delivered the keynote address at the 1993 Department of Energy’s Standards Conference: The Loss of USS Thresher (SSN593): Lessons for the Development, Implementation, and Use of Standards.
Krahn, professor of the practice of nuclear environmental engineering, said the loss of the Thresher was a watershed event for the U.S. submarine force and it led to significant advances in submarine safety in design, construction and maintenance.
At the time of the conference Krahn was a senior executive staff member of the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board. The DOE had asked the DNFSB to provide a keynote speaker.
“I was selected because I was a submarine-qualified Engineering Duty Officer, who also was nuclear qualified—a rare commodity,” he said. EDO’s are the corps of officers tasked with designing and maintaining Navy ships. Submarine-qualified EDO’s (known as “ED Dolphins”) are a small set of the EDO’s dedicated to the design, construction and repair of nuclear submarines. Very few submarine-qualified EDOs are also nuclear qualified.
Combined with his technical qualifications, Krahn had spent four years leading repair and maintenance on Thresher-class subs: First, as the Nuclear Ship Superintendent (Navy-speak for project manager) on the USS Greenling in 1984 and 1985. Then, as the Senior Ship Superintendent (senior project manager in charge of the entire $140 million overhaul) on the USS GATO from 1985-1987.
“After four years I knew every nook and cranny of the Thresher Class.”
Krahn reviewed the entire Navy and Congressional investigations in preparation for the keynote address. “The speech was exceedingly well received and has lived on in cyberspace,” said Krahn, who continues to study the loss of Thresher and its implications. “It has formed portions of articles I have written for peer-reviewed journals on the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, and I have been requested by NASA and the Sloan School at MIT, among others, to discuss the loss of Thresher and its implications for the management of technology.”
Krahn was associated with the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program throughout a ten-year Navy career as a nuclear engineer in Naval Reactors organization. The Navy’s Commander of the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program also is the Deputy Assistant Secretary for Naval Reactors in the Department of Energy. “It is a joint office and the two titles are often used interchangeably by those of us who served for ‘The Admiral’,” Krahn said.
Krahn was stationed at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard years after the Thresher tragedy. “Every year on April 10 the Portsmouth Chapel bell rings 129 times,” he recalled.
The loss of the Thresher
“Thresher was the lead, or first, boat of a new class of nuclear submarines designed to go significantly deeper than previous classes,” Krahn said. “In July 1962, after nearly a year of record-breaking operations, Thresher returned to Portsmouth for an overhaul. In early April 1963, Thresher’s dock trials were completed and on April 9, Thresher was ready to put to sea.”
Krahn said the submarine was crowded, as is usual for sea trials. “In addition to the normal crew of 108 officers and men, 21 extra personnel from Portsmouth, the Fleet, and several technical contractors were shoe-horned in.” Thresher was headed for a rendezvous with the submarine rescue ship USS Skylark, which would accompany it during trials.
At about nine in the morning on April 10, Thresher signaled “Proceeding to test depth.”
At about 9:13 a.m. Thresher signaled that she was experiencing “minor difficulties,” that the boat had taken a positive angle (the bow was higher than the stern) and that the crew was attempting to blow main ballast tanks.
Krahn said no further intelligible message was received. “Only garbled fragments, in which the words “test depth” were the only discernable phrase.
At 9:18 a.m. – sounds identified by experience Skylark personnel as that of a submarine breaking up.
After further attempts to communicate with Thresher failed, the Fleet announced that the submarine was overdue and presumed missing.
A five-member Navy court heard 120 witnesses and collected 255 exhibits over eight weeks, most of it behind closed doors. Ultimately the evidence filled 1,718 pages bound into 12 secret volumes. In Congress the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy also conducted an investigation, some of it in secret, and issued a nearly 200-page report.
The Navy has declassified some information, but some of it remains secret. Krahn said the depth that submarines can go to is still classified.
He recommends a 1997 article in American Heritage’s Invention and Technology magazine by Dean J. Golembeski, “What Sank The Thresher.” He said anyone who would like to read further about submarines during the Cold War should give Blind Man’s Bluff by Sherry Sontag and Christopher Drew a look, and for story of subs in WWII try Clay Blair’s Silent Service.
Golembeski wrote, “What the investigations discovered, aside from the specifics of the disaster, was a catastrophic failure in the Navy’s basic approach to design, development, and testing. They pointed up a critical need for the creation and implementation of engineering standards that would be strictly observed, especially in the design and construction of complex and technologically sophisticated systems.
“The nuclear submarine was built using tried and true methods and procedures that had worked for decades. But with the adoption of new materials, equipment, and operating conditions, the old ways became suddenly, tragically inadequate.”
SUBSAFE is a direct legacy of the Thresher tragedy, Krahn said. SUBSAFE is the Navy’s nuclear submarine quality assurance and certification program designed to maintain the safety of the fleet. Since the program began in 1963, only one submarine, the non-SUBSAFE-certified USS Scorpion has been lost.
After leaving the Navy, Krahn worked at Perot Systems, which has been awarded a multimillion dollar comprehensive submarine support contract in 2002 by the Naval Sea Systems Command. The program encompassed engineering, management and technical services for the operation and maintenance of Trident strategic submarines and attack submarines; submarine depot maintenance; deep submergence programs; logistics and submarine training systems; and support of submarine safety and quality assurance and non-propulsion electronics system fleet integration and certification.
Krahn left Perot Systems in 2007 and spent three and a half years in nuclear jobs at the Department of Energy, culminating in his appointment as Deputy Assistant Secretary for Safety and Security in the Office of Environmental Management.
Steve Krahn came to Vanderbilt in 2010 to help create nuclear environmental engineering studies. “We started with Introduction to Nuclear and Environmental Engineering (ENVE 285) and we now have four graduate level classes and six Ph.D. candidates.”
A year ago Krahn presented a special topics lecture to civil engineering seniors. In his lecture – Pushing the Boundary of Technology: Lessons from the Loss of the USS Thresher – he cites Admiral Hyman Rickover, called the Father of the Nuclear Navy and an electrical engineer, who testified at the 1963 inquiry:
“I believe the loss of the Thresher should not be viewed solely as the result of failure of a specific braze, weld, system or component, but rather should be considered a consequence of the philosophy of design, construction and inspection that has been permitted in our naval shipbuilding programs. I think it is important that we re-evaluate our present practices where, in the desire to make advancements, we may have forsaken the fundamentals of good engineering.”
“I welcome any opportunity to talk about the Thresher,” Krahn said. “I’m passionate about it.”
Krahn delivered the lecture in April. | <urn:uuid:63624a8a-ad8d-4b91-bceb-a715d2376557> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://engineering.vanderbilt.edu/news/2013/vanderbilt-ties-to-%E2%80%98worst-submarine-tragedy%E2%80%99-50-years-ago/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967441 | 2,090 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Over the last twenty years, my eating habits have become more healthy by choice. After getting pregnant, my focus on delicious and healthy eating became even more important because I wanted to instill good, lifelong habits for my child. So my eyes and ears are always open for new ways to improve my diet and lifestyle.
What Is A Mushroom?
Maybe I should know exactly what a mushroom is since I am advocating eating them every day. According to Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact, there are approximately 14,000 types of mushroom. Other sources cite that there are over 38,000 varieties of mushrooms available with only about 3,000 that are edible.
A mushroom develops from a nodule that is less than two millimeters in diameter. It is a fungus that usually grows above the ground. Photosynthesis does not occur because they are not plants. The texture of a mushroom is best described as fleshy and springy when squeezed lightly. Mushrooms often have a stem, cap and pores under the cap which are all eaten on the non-poisonous varieties.
Why Should We Eat Mushrooms?
I know that the description of a mushroom doesn’t sound very appetizing, but maybe it won’t bother you after I tell you about the health benefits.
Research by Keith Martin and S. Brophy was published in November 2010 entitled, Experimental Biology and Medicine tested the effect mushrooms had on breast cancer cells. Their conclusion was that women who consume 10 grams of mushrooms daily are 64% less likely to develop breast cancer. That is approximately one mushroom a day of any variety!
Mushrooms have a very positive effect on our health. Listed below are a few things that have been discovered about mushrooms:
- reduces cardiovascular disease by lowering blood pressure and cholesterol
- reduces insulin resistance which increases insulin sensitivity
- blocks the growth of cancer tumors
- boosts the immune system
- lowers toxic levels of estrogen hormone
- strong antioxidant properties
- low in sodium, calories and fat
Rather phenomenal isn’t it?
Just imagine the health benefits if you add lemons to the mushrooms while cooking them. Maybe I will postpone my regular recipe for Thursday and show you just how delicious mushrooms can be… | <urn:uuid:9f7eb87e-a9e4-427b-b25a-89b6d9c97515> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theredheadriter.com/2011/10/eat-mushrooms-daily-and-gain-health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957499 | 463 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The Leading eBooks Store Online
3,578,973 members ⚫ 1,187,673 ebooks
New to eBooks.com?Learn more
- Bestsellers - This Week
- Foreign Language Study
- Bestsellers - Last 6 months
- Graphic Books
- Health & Fitness
- Political Science
- Biography & Autobiography
- Psychology & Psychiatry
- Body Mind & Spirit
- House & Home
- Business & Economics
- Children's & Young Adult Fiction
- Juvenile Nonfiction
- Language Arts & Disciplines
- Crafts & Hobbies
- Science Fiction
- Current Events
- Literary Collections
- Literary Criticism
- Literary Fiction
- Social Science
- The Environment
- Sports & Recreation
- Family & Relationships
- Study Aids
- Folklore & Mythology
- Food and Wine
- Performing Arts
- True Crime
- Foreign Language Books
Most popular at the top
- Oxford University Press 1998; US$ 159.99 US$ 137.59
What allows certain individuals and groups to maintain control over the actions and lives of others? Linguistic anthropologist Elizabeth Keating went to the island of Pohnpei, in Micronesia, and studied how people use language and other semiotic codes to reproduce and manipulate status differences. The result is this inside view of how language works... more...
- Aboriginal Studies Press 1988; US$ 26.50
This volume summaries major developments in the social anthropology of Aboriginal studies in the 1960s?80s. It is valuable as an overview of five important and interrelated topics; economy, kinship, gender, religion and law. It also contains stimulating comment and criticism and raised important issues for future research as well as current debate... more...
- Aboriginal Studies Press 1991; US$ 45.00
This book is a classic in the field of Australian Aboriginal Studies. As well as being a comprehensive reference book, covering a wide range of the many traditional societies and cultures that have existed on the Australian continent, it draws together the threads of Aboriginal belief and practice in general terms. more...
- BRILL 2005; US$ 39.00
This book argues that the promulgation of the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework and Communal Land Rights Acts runs the risk of compromising South Africa's democracy. The acts establish traditional councils with land administration powers. These structures are dominated by unelected members. more...
- Aboriginal Studies Press 1992; US$ 22.00
Eighteen Aboriginal men and women of the East Kimberley unveil their life stories as they reminisce about work on cattle stations, horses, wages, drinking, fighting, citizenship, traditional law, kinship, women, marriage and race relations. more...
- Taylor and Francis 2007; US$ 54.95
Bringing together over thirty years of detailed ethnographic research on the Menraq of Malaysia, this fascinating book analyzes and documents the experience of development and modernization in tribal communities. Descendents of hunter-gatherers who have inhabited Southeast Asia for about 40,000 years, the Menraq (also known as Semang or Negritos)... more...
- SAGE India 2008; US$ 65.95
Ethnic Life-worlds in North-East India: An Analysis draws upon the phenomenological. notion of the life-world to understand the culturally-embedded construction of. communities, for whom the lived experience of cultural politics constitutes their. identity. It analyses the cultural and political determinants of ethnic- and identity-oriented. struggles... more...
- Ashgate Publishing Ltd 2012; US$ 149.95
The Anthropology of Morality in Melanesia and Beyond examines how Melanesians experience and deal with moral dilemmas and challenges. Taking Kenelm Burridge?s seminal work as their starting point, the contributors focus upon public situations and types of people that exemplify key ethical contradictions for members of moral communities. While returning... more...
- Temple University Press 2009; US$ 33.95
"...valuable information, ideas, and contrasts." --ChoiceThe legendary Margaret Mead changed Americans' views of themselves by relating information collected from remote peoples to our society--a society that she did not consider necessarily to be the pinnacle of human development. However, Mead and her followers have been criticized for promulgating... more... | <urn:uuid:6d61a2ca-8d58-4a20-9da0-38cf2c2e45e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ebooks.com/subjects/ethnic-groups-and-races-by-region-or-country-ebooks/12168/?page=5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.880246 | 900 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Before moving on to “universal” literature, I would like to introduce an author I greatly appreciate for his extraordinary imagination: H.G. Wells.
You might not know, or remember, his name, but you are surely acquainted with some of his books — later made into successful movies — such as “The Time Machine” and “War of the Worlds”. Here, I am going to write about another fascinating story and a mysterious character, “The Invisible Man”.
H.G. Wells’ books may not be considered “masterpieces” by some, but they are definitely “classic” because — according to French literary critic Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869) — “Classic is an author who has enriched the human mind... or revealed some eternal passion in the heart where all seemed known and discovered.” H.G. Wells shows you how not “all has been discovered.”
H.G. Wells (1866-1946) was an English writer who - thanks to a broken leg that compelled him to stay motionless for some time — when he was just a child — developed a great love for reading in general and for science in particular. Coming from an almost poor family, he succeeded in obtaining a scholarship to the Royal College of Science in London at 18. After graduation, he began teaching science but he soon decided to dedicate himself to writing only. His fame is due to what he called “useful knowledge” — acquired through study — closely joined to his limitless imagination. Together, the two created his “scientific fantasies” that offered his numerous readers the vision of future worlds and exciting possibilities.
“The Invisible Man” was published in 1897 and tells the story of a scientist, Griffin, who was greatly interested in the study of optics. He succeeded in finding a way to change the index of light refraction of a human body into the one of the air. By doing this, no physical mass (which needs light to be refracted, i.e. divided into what we see as colors) can be perceived by the eye. It becomes invisible. Unfortunately Griffin, once he successfully tries the procedure on himself, is unable to reverse it.
He finds refuge in a tiny village in the south of England, an environment the author describes particularly well because it was where he was born and had grown up. Griffin takes residence in the village inn, where he lives hidden in his room, heavily clothed and with a bandaged face any time he has to see someone. His only occupation is his chemical experiments, that he unceasingly carries out in the hope of finding a way to turn back into a “visible” human being. Realizing that he needs someone else’s help, he first finds a tramp, Thomas Marvel who, instead, betrays him. Griffin, in his desperation, threatens to kill him but gets shot. Finding shelter in a house, he meets an old colleague of his, Kemp, to whom he suggests that, by means of his invisibility, they can start a “Reign of Terror” in order to terrorize the nation and gain control. His desire for power has been unleashed! Betrayed by Kemp, too, Griffin is finally caught and killed. While dying, his body ironically regains its visible form.
The idea for this story was taken by a myth mentioned by Greek philosopher Plato (428 BC - 348 BC) in his “Republic”, “The Ring of Gyges”, where a simple shepherd, having found a magic ring in a cave that made one invisible, used such power to commit abominable crimes such as seducing the queen, killing the king and usurping the throne.
Plato, as he usually does in his “dialogues”, has the argument between Socrates and a pupil develop, in order to examine the two possible interpretations of a story or idea. Here the pupil, Glaucon, expounds his opinion about morality. He says that any man, even an excellent one, if put in a situation where he can commit a crime to his benefit with the certitude of not been punished, will perpetrate it. Therefore, he says, morality is not an innate condition, it is only a “social” one, created by the need to be respected by others. Socrates’ objection is that morality and justice do not derive from the rules of society and that a man who accepts to act against his inner “knowing” for his own benefit, enslaves himself to his low appetites. As a consequence, he is unhappy.
I find this argument worth pondering upon. When we take the time to “think”, we sometimes discover answers that are different from the ones we had previously given.
Elsa Franco Al Ghaslan | <urn:uuid:60fe399c-3e4e-45d8-a5a4-e6629a0870e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.arabnews.com/invisible-man-hg-wells | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981739 | 1,013 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Behavior Management Techniques
People who have Alzheimer's disease often pose severe behavior management problems for those who provide care. Since Alzheimer's disease and other dementias attack the brain in different places and at different rates of speed, you will find that each person's behavior is different. But overall, when caring for dementia patients, you will see certain types of behavior problems. You can learn techniques to change behaviors that may be making your job difficult. Most importantly though, these techniques will help you observe and manage patient behaviors as they change over time and will allow you to adapt and change your interactions for the best results.
Demented patients show a variety of different behavioral problems, including (but not limited to) anger, agitation, depression, suspiciousness, paranoia, wandering, sexual inappropriateness, hallucinations, and delusions. All of these behaviors can pose serious difficulties for the person trying to provide care.
What is meant by the term "behavior"? Behavior is an action that you can see and describe. While a behavior might result from an emotion, this section will not be exclusively concerned with emotions, but will concentrate on behavior, or on what you see happening. Because you can see behavior, you can get information about it such as how often does it happen, or, who is around the patient when it happens?
Although you can't yet change the course of the patient's disease or how it will damage the brain, you can change behaviors. Behavior affects the quality of both of your lives. By changing an unpleasant behavior you can increase the quality of life for the patient and make caregiving easier on yourself.
Changing behavior involves the following steps:
A behavior can be considered a "problem" if for some reason it is not suitable or acceptable to you or others. This could mean that the behavior is dangerous to someone (like striking someone), or it damages something (like breaking objects), or it is unpleasant to experience (like yelling or arguing). Sometimes several behavior problems occur at once (the patient yells and strikes out).
Behaviors always occur in three parts. These parts we call A, B, and C.
A is a triggering event (often called an antecedent or cause)
B is the behavior itself
C is the consequence of the behavior (what happens because of the behavior)
As you observe (see and pay attention to) a behavior you will learn to look for these three parts and they will be your key to changing the behavior. Think about the problem and gather information:
Observe and write down your observations about the behavior. It's easiest to work with one behavior at a time, so target just one to watch. Behavior, even in a confused person, results from a cause. Understanding the causes can help you figure out what to do to help.
Once you have identified a behavior, gathered information about it, and viewed the patterns of its occurrence, it is time to see if you can change it by developing an individual plan. A plan that is individualized, designed specifically around the ABC's of a given situation, is likely to be much more effective than one developed generally for everyone.
It is important to set realistic, reachable goals tailored to the individual. Divide your plan and goals into small easy-to-do parts. Be creative.
Changing behaviors can be very hard work so don't forget to reward yourself and the patient for successes, no matter how small. Also, changing behavior is an ongoing process. What was once successful may no longer work over time, so remember to continually evaluate and change your plan as necessary.
Working with behaviors doesn't mean ignoring feelings or emotions. You should focus on the behavior but keep in mind that feelings are often displayed in behavior. As the patient's ability to communicate and understand the world around them gradually declines, a friendly touch, a smile and a reassuring tone may be the only way to communicate to the patient that they are safe and that you care about them.
UW ADRC Director--Murray Raskind, M.D.
UW ADRC Education and Training Director--James Leverenz, M.D.
Last Modified: Friday, 09-Jan-2009 13:34:51 PST | <urn:uuid:0f688e71-5f13-4649-8c5b-6264cdbcd481> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://depts.washington.edu/adrcweb/UnderstandingAD/BehavMang.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938068 | 858 | 3.5 | 4 |
Please, help me
1. Find a square which limited the polar curve r = 7(1- sin(fi)), -pi/6 =< fi =< pi/6.
2. Find a length of the curve y = 2 + ln(x), sqrt(3) =< x =< sqrt(8).
For me these problems have been the most difficult some of them, I began to deal with, but my answers were not correct.
Tell me please, what program would be easier to do the drawings for these tasks. | <urn:uuid:3e34c5b7-c967-485a-ad8f-bff8a82a6c8c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/calculus/95367-application-integral-calculus-2-a.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943217 | 116 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Published on February 20th, 2013 | by ABCUSA0
African American History Month
The following reflection is given by Rev. Dr. Brenda R. Halliburton, National Coordinator for Intercultural Ministries and Black Churches Strategist for the American Baptist Home Mission Societies.
This is a very important year for African Americans! We just celebrated the inauguration of an African-American President for a second term. In addition, this year marks the anniversaries of two pivotal events in the history of African Americans that have shaped our nation – the Emancipation Proclamation, signed in 1863, and the 1963 March on Washington, both of which opened doors for all peoples.
The Emancipation Proclamation set the United States on the path to end slavery. While initially a wartime measure, it freed few slaves but fueled the fire of the enslaved to strike for their freedom. Freedom crusaders like Harriet Tubman were already on the road to black self-emancipation. The action of both Lincoln and the slaves made it clear that the Civil War was, in fact, a struggle between the forces of slavery and emancipation. They stood at the crossroads of the dismantlement of the institutions of human bondage.
In 1963, a century later, America once again stood at a crossroads. On August 28, 1963, hundreds of thousands of Americans, of all nationalities, races and ethnicities, marched to the memorial of Abraham Lincoln, the author of the Emancipation Proclamation, in pursuit of equality and self–determination. It was there that the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered his celebrated “I Have a Dream” speech.
Just as the Emancipation Proclamation recognized the coming end of slavery, the March on Washington announced to the nation that the days of legal segregation in the United Stated were numbered. Again, this year we watched as the nation moved “beyond our old racial wounds,” taking one step closer to what our President refers to as “the path to a more perfect union.”
Today, we celebrate and remember the African Americans that, through their faithfulness to the cause of Christ and commitment to black emancipation, freedom, justice and equality, stepped out on faith and challenged unjust systems. We remember those who helped to change this nation through missions, at the crossroads of freedom and equality.
Statement Adapted from the Association for the Study of African American Life and history at www.asalh.org. | <urn:uuid:a57fab15-4b19-4725-99a8-711a075a800b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abc-usa.org/2013/02/20/african-american-history-month/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953322 | 512 | 3.3125 | 3 |
WASHINGTON, DC — The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) today announced the launch of a website, DOepatents, which allows search and retrieval of information from a collection of more than 20,000 patent records. The database represents a growing collection of patents resulting from R&D supported by DOE and demonstrates the Department’s considerable contribution to scientific progress from the 1940s to the present.
“From helping the blind to see again to identifying hidden weapons through holographic computerized imaging technology, the U.S. Department of Energy has supported and will continue to support research addressing some of the world’s most pressing scientific challenges,” Under Secretary for Science Dr. Raymond L. Orbach said. “Content within DOepatents represents a truly impressive demonstration of DOE research and development and technological innovation.”
Highlighted at DOepatents is a compilation of noteworthy DOE innovations from the past few decades. These technologies have improved quality of life and provided national economic, health and environmental benefits. One such invention is the Artificial Retina, a collaborative research project between DOE national laboratories, universities and the private sector aimed at restoring vision to millions of people blinded by retinal disease. Another invention is the DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s pioneering multi-junction solar cell. A cell based on this design set a world efficiency record in converting sunlight to electricity. The DOepatents database also includes inventions of Nobel Laureates associated with DOE or its predecessors such as Enrico Fermi, Glenn Seaborg and Luis Alvarez, along with other distinguished scientists.
patents consists of bibliographic records, with full text where available via either a PDF file or an HTML link to the record at the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The DOepatents database is updated quarterly with new patent records. The website is updated on a regular basis with news and information about significant and recent inventions. Resource links for inventors are included at the site, as well as Recent Inventions and Patent News pages. DOepatents was developed by the DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI) and may be viewed at http://www.osti.gov/doepatents/.
OSTI, a part of the DOE Office of Science, accelerates discovery by making research results rapidly available to scientists and to the public. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the nation.
Jeff Sherwood, DOE, (202) 586-5806
Cathey Daniels, OSTI, (865) 576-9539 | <urn:uuid:a92fed53-485f-44c9-8435-0fc194f78bc1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://science.energy.gov/news/science-headlines/2007/09-18-07/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913839 | 541 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Join us for a discussion of "Against Our Better Judgment: the hidden history of how the U.S. was used to create Israel" by Alison Weir. The author will read excerpts from her book, discuss a myriad of largely unknown facts about the U.S.-Israel relationship, answer questions, and sign copies of the book.
Soon after WWII, U.S. statesman Dean Acheson warned that creating Israel on land already inhabited by Palestinians would "imperil" both American and all Western interests in the region. Despite warnings such as this one, President Truman supported establishing a Jewish state on land primarily inhabited by Muslims and Christians.
Few Americans today are aware that U.S. support enabled the creation of modern Israel. Even fewer know that U.S. politicians, businessmen, and lobby groups pushed this policy over the forceful objections of top diplomatic and military experts.
Alison Weir, former journalist and author of Against Our Better Judgment, has written extensively on the Middle East conflict and speaks internationally on this issue. She is founder and executive director of If Americans Knew, a think tank that focuses on Israel-Palestine, and president of the Council for the National Interest based in Washington, D.C.
Sponsored by UUSF Peace and Justice Committee | <urn:uuid:7c9a5ae1-a521-48ce-a413-bf92719eb79d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sfstation.com/the-hidden-history-of-how-the-u-s-was-used-to-create-israel-e2123521 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95491 | 260 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Not all interactive elements are created equal in this mild outing to the pond.
For those who draw near this wee body of water, the senses of sound and touch expose the crunch of a log or the sparkly drops splashed by energetic feet. All inhabitants approach for their own purpose; the dragonfly takes a dip, while beavers munch their lunch. The final spread brings in a child's perspective as legs dangle under the surface. Thin ribbed board and Velcro strips add a smidgen of texture, though their placement is not always intuitive or easily manipulated. It's a struggle to grasp the intricate tab to pull the insect's wings, and the crayfish pinchers are simply flimsy, likely to be bitten or pulled off in a single instance. Crisp phrases (“crickety croak,” “snip snip / snap snap”) convey the noises heard at the pond. Simple sentences—“Frogs join in song”—visually integrate themselves into the layout of bluish-green spreads; their curving lines become part of the design.
Not enough consistency in the tactile presentation to warrant a dive down deep. (Board book. 6 mos.-2) | <urn:uuid:82898881-be54-4c7e-bfd3-d4246c255837> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/amy-schimler/splish-splash-schimler/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934599 | 254 | 2.8125 | 3 |
From 3 to 2 million years ago, there was another long period of cool, dry climate in which Africa's forests shrank once more... The changing climate also put pressure on the australopithecines to develop new sources of food. Their diet, to judge by the nature of the microscopic wear on their teeth, was mostly vegetarian until about 2.5 million years ago.
At this time the australopithecines, already adapted to living in open woodland, had evolved two quite different solutions to the problems of survival, according to the evidence of their fossil remains.
One of the two species, known as the robust australopithecines, had developed larger cheek teeth, suitable for eating coarse leaves. The other had emerged with a much more original solution than chewing away at vegetation. It seemed to have decided to try its hand at carnivory. Meat-eating allowed for a smaller gut and furnished the extra nutrition that made possible a larger brain.
This second species is known as Homo habilis. The title of Homo is one it does not clearly deserve since, far from being fully human, it retained its apelike body form and still used the trees as a refuge. But it possessed a striking new adaptation.
The australopithecines had lived for 2.5 million years with brains scarcely bigger than a chimp's, but with habilis the brain at last started to expand. Chimpanzee's brains have a volume of 400 cubic centimeters, compared to the 1,400ccs of the average human brain.
The australopithecine brain size ranged from 400cc to 500cc. The brain volume of the known habilis skulls ranges between 600cc and 800ccs.
For a species to put resources into growing extra neurons is not as obvious an investment as it may seem. Brawn and teeth count a lot in the struggle for survival. Brain cells are greedy consumers of glucose and oxygen. "When costs are taken into account, the rarity of the human evolutionary phenomenon is at last understandable" writes Robert Foley.
It's easier to explain how habilis sustained its larger brain than why it got it.
Brains require a high quality diet to sustain them, such as meat but not vegetation can provide. Meat eating requires less tooth power than does chomping through mounds of vegetation and habilis indeed had smaller teeth.
And habilis appears on the scene at the same time, 2.5 million years ago, as do the first stone tools. If, as it seems likely, habilis was the maker and user of these implements, that would explain its smaller teeth and how it managed to nourish a larger brain; it didn't need large teeth because it was using tools to hunt or scavenge meat, and the richer diet supplied the energy for its greater cognitive capacity. | <urn:uuid:eca68674-efe9-47dd-820a-b64ed182be7c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bullshido.net/forums/printthread.php?t=77724&pp=10&page=13 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970334 | 586 | 3.9375 | 4 |
By Jim McGovern
Nuclear experts know how to design a reactor that, by current standards, can produce a superabundance of energy. What’s missing is enough money and political will to build an experimental commercial plant in the United States.
Known as a traveling wave reactor, this innovative reactor is designed to be safer than conventional nuclear plants because it doesn’t require electricity to run cooling systems to prevent a meltdown.
What’s more, the traveling wave reactor uses uranium waste as its basic fuel, enabling it to run for decades without refueling and alleviating proliferation concerns related to plutonium produced in the spent fuel of conventional light-water reactors. There are 700,000 metric tons of waste uranium, or depleted uranium, in the United States. Depleted uranium is readily available, because it is a waste product of the uranium enrichment process used to make nuclear fuel.
The traveling wave reactor — so-called because the fuel moves slowly through the reactor core in a wave — represents a revolution in nuclear technology, a breakthrough that would enable America to regain its global role as a leader in nuclear energy. Because it burns waste uranium and emits no carbon, the reactor is seen as a highly marketable clean-energy technology that can be used domestically and sold overseas.
Using a traveling wave reactor, an 8-metric-ton canister of depleted uranium could generate 25 million megawatt hours of electricity — enough to power 2.5 million U.S. households for one year. But with the availability of 700,000 metric tons of depleted uranium, the traveling wave reactor would have access to an enormous supply of extremely cheap fuel, a huge advantage over other reactor designs.
Another feature of the traveling wave reactor is that it is convection-cooled, reducing the need for water. This feature has special appeal in parts of the United States and the world where water resources are scarce.
According to TerraPower, a start-up nuclear company based outside of Seattle and funded in large part by computer genius Bill Gates, operation of a traveling wave reactor could be demonstrated in less than 10 years, and it could be producing nuclear-generated power for the electric grid within 15 years. TerraPower is gearing up to develop a prototype of a 500-megawatt traveling wave reactor, but it could also be designed as a small modular reactor similar in size to conventional light-water reactors that have powered nuclear submarines.
Small modular reactors are the future of nuclear power. They are compact, designed to be easier to build and operate than large nuclear plants, with fewer valves, pumps and pipes. A small modular traveling wave reactor could be assembled in a factory and shipped by rail to a nuclear plant site. In contrast to a conventional nuclear plant, a small module could be added one at a time as the need for more electricity arises.
U.S. nuclear-reactor construction has been stalled since the 1970s by reduced demand for electricity as well as by safety concerns and high construction costs. Currently, four large conventional reactors are being built in Georgia and South Carolina, but no others are close to breaking ground in the United States. A robust scale-up of government funding for nuclear research and development can put this country on the path toward building a demonstration traveling wave reactor within a few years.
The Department of Energy has earmarked $457 million for two projects to demonstrate the use of small modular reactors, in which the cost would be shared with private industry. But nothing will happen unless Congress makes the money available. The innovative traveling wave reactor is an investment Congress should not put off. America has an opportunity to strengthen nuclear safety globally, while building the first advanced reactor that burns nuclear waste.
James McGovern is an energy consultant to government and industry. | <urn:uuid:15bf81ef-bea6-42bf-84a9-ab4cd4b13f32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nj.com/times-opinion/index.ssf/2012/12/opinion_small_modular_reactors.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951466 | 763 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Did you know you can access the Native Plant Information Network with your web-enabled smartphone?
Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources
Author(s): Anderson, M. Kat
Publisher: University of California Press
Subject: Useful Plants
Comments: Describes the many ways California's native plants were maintained and used by indigenous Californians.
Last Updated: 2008-10-18
Northeast Midatlantic Southeast Southwest Midwest Rocky Mountain California Northwest Hawaii Canada Mexico Texas | <urn:uuid:1f074248-54f9-4b80-a4cd-74eda69e964c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.wildflower.org/bibliography/show.php?id=1218 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.826631 | 104 | 2.6875 | 3 |
According to a new study using data from the U.S. Geological Survey, 71 million housing units are at high risk when it comes to natural disasters like tornados, earthquakes, or hurricanes. That represents 55 percent of the country's total homes. About 10.6 million are at a very high risk. The report, from RealtyTrac, used historical and predictive data to compile a county-by-county map that shows the likelihood of a county being hit by a devastating hurricane, tornado, or earthquake. "It's fairly obvious from looking at the map that these high-risk areas tend to be places where a lot of people want to live, like along the coast," said Daren Blomquist, vice president at RealtyTrac. However, the highest-risk parts of the country are in what's called "tornado alley" which covers Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and northern Texas. | <urn:uuid:5154add0-677d-4fe6-8bd9-6d260915e6d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thedailybeast.com/cheats/2014/06/20/over-half-of-u-s-homes-at-risk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955238 | 186 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Story: Sri Lankans
In the 1990s a television documentary looked at the plight of two families forced to seek refuge in New Zealand because of the civil war in Sri Lanka. Both the Jayatillekes, who are Sinhalese, and the Mehendrans, who are Tamil, were horrified and saddened by the violence in their home country. In these extracts, first Chandra Jayatilleke and then Tony Mahendran talk about the situation they left behind.
About this item
Top Shelf Productions
Reference: New Zealand: an immigrant nation. From Sri Lanka … with sorrow [videorecording]. Producer, Vincent Burke; director, Anna Cottrell. Wellington: Top Shelf Productions, 1994.
This item has been provided for private study purposes (such as school projects, family and local history research) and any published reproduction (print or electronic) may infringe copyright law. It is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder. | <urn:uuid:1e8e6e47-be3d-446e-a244-2f21658b3f05> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/video/1137/sri-lankans-in-new-zealand | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935464 | 204 | 2.84375 | 3 |
9 October 2014
WASHINGTON, D.C. – One small “hot spot” in the U.S. Southwest is responsible for producing the largest concentration of the greenhouse gas methane seen over the United States – more than triple the standard ground-based estimate — according to a new study of satellite data.
Methane is very efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere and, like carbon dioxide, it contributes to global warming. The hot spot, near the Four Corners intersection of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah, covers only about 6,500 square kilometers (2,500 square miles), or half the size of Connecticut.
In each of the seven years studied from 2003-2009, the area released about 0.59 million metric tons (0.65 million U.S. tons) of methane into the atmosphere. This is almost 3.5 times the estimate for the same area in the European Union’s widely used Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research.
In the study published online today in Geophysical Research Letters, a journal of the American Geophysical Union, researchers used observations made by the European Space Agency’s Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) instrument. SCIAMACHY measured greenhouse gases from 2002 to 2012. The atmospheric hot spot persisted throughout the study period. A ground station in the Total Carbon Column Observing Network, operated by the Department of Energy’s Los Alamos National Laboratory, provided independent validation of the measurement.
To calculate the emissions rate that would be required to produce the observed concentration of methane in the air, the authors performed high-resolution regional simulations using a chemical transport model, which simulates how weather moves and changes airborne chemical compounds.
Research scientist Christian Frankenberg of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, first noticed the Four Corners signal years ago in SCIAMACHY data.
“We didn’t focus on it because we weren’t sure if it was a true signal or an instrument error,” Frankenberg said.
The study’s lead author, Eric Kort of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, noted the study period predates the widespread use of hydraulic fracturing, known as fracking, near the hot spot. This indicates the methane emissions should not be attributed to fracking but instead to leaks in natural gas production and processing equipment in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, which is the most active coalbed methane production area in the country.
Natural gas is 95-98 percent methane. Methane is colorless and odorless, making leaks hard to detect without scientific instruments.
“The results are indicative that emissions from established fossil fuel harvesting techniques are greater than inventoried,” Kort said. “There’s been so much attention on high-volume hydraulic fracturing, but we need to consider the industry as a whole.”
Coalbed methane is gas that lines pores and cracks within coal. In underground coal mines, it is a deadly hazard that causes fatal explosions almost every year as it seeps out of the rock. After the U.S. energy crisis of the 1970s, techniques were invented to extract the methane from the coal and use it for fuel. By 2012, coalbed methane supplied about 8 percent of all natural gas in the United States.
Frankenberg noted that the study demonstrates the unique role space-based measurements can play in monitoring greenhouse gases.
“Satellite data cannot be as accurate as ground-based estimates, but from space, there are no hiding places,” Frankenberg said.
In March 2014 the Obama Administration announced a strategy to reduce methane emissions under its Climate Action Plan. The strategy includes improving the measurement and monitoring of methane emissions and assessing current methane emissions data.
The American Geophysical Union is dedicated to advancing the Earth and space sciences for the benefit of humanity through its scholarly publications, conferences, and outreach programs. AGU is a not-for-profit, professional, scientific organization representing more than 62,000 members in 144 countries. Join our conversation on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and other social media channels.
NASA monitors Earth’s vital signs from land, air and space with a fleet of satellites and ambitious airborne and ground-based observation campaigns. NASA develops new ways to observe and study Earth’s interconnected natural systems with long-term data records and computer analysis tools to better see how our planet is changing. The agency shares this unique knowledge with the global community and works with institutions in the United States and around the world that contribute to understanding and protecting our home planet.
For more information about NASA’s Earth science activities in 2014, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/earthrightnow
Notes for Journalists
Journalists and public information officers (PIOs) of educational and scientific institutions who have registered with AGU can download a PDF copy of this article by clicking on this link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014GL061503/abstract
Or, you may order a copy of the final paper by emailing your request to Nanci Bompey at firstname.lastname@example.org. Please provide your name, the name of your publication, and your phone number.
Neither the paper nor this press release is under embargo.
“Four Corners: the largest US methane anomaly viewed from space”
Eric A. Kort: Atmospheric, Oceanic and Space Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA;
Christian Frankenberg: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA;
Keeley R. Costigan: Earth and Environmental Sciences, Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos, NM, USA;
Rodica Lindenmaier: Earth and Environmental Sciences, Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos, NM, USA; and Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change Division, now at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA;
Manvendra K. Dubey: Earth and Environmental Sciences, Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos, NM, USA;
Debra Wunch: California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
Contact information for the authors:
Eric Kort: +1 (734) 763-8414,email@example.com
Christian Frankenberg: +1 (818) 354-1087, Christian.Frankenberg@jpl.nasa.gov
+1 (202) 777-7524
NASA Headquarters Contact:
+1 (202) 358-0918
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Contact:
+1 (818) 354-0474
University of Michigan Contact:
Nicole Casal Moore
+1 (734) 647-7087 | <urn:uuid:0cb31655-6d41-4ba1-ad66-22927ee50a7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.agu.org/press-release/satellite-data-shows-u-s-methane-hot-spot-bigger-than-expected/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.853565 | 1,432 | 3.390625 | 3 |
A gentle, assured bedtime story.
History repeats itself, the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce.
This statement by Karl Marx admirably serves two functions: (1) It describes the difference between the two times the teaching of Darwin's theories were put on trial in this country, in Tennessee in 1925 and in Pennsylvania in 2005; (2) Because it is from Karl Marx, it will automatically be rejected, along with the words to follow, by those who judge a statement not by its content but by its source. That is precisely the argument between Darwinism and creationism. Stanley Kramer's "Inherit the Wind" (1960) is a movie about a courtroom battle between those who believe the Bible is literally true and those who believe, as the Spencer Tracy character puts it, that "an idea is a greater monument than a cathedral."
The so-called Monkey Trial of 1925 put a young high school teacher named John T. Scopes on trial for violating a state law, passed the same year, prohibiting the teaching of any theory that denied the biblical account of divine creation. Darwin's theory of evolution was also therefore on trial. Two of the most famous lawyers and orators in the land contested the case. Scopes was defended by the legendary Clarence Darrow, and the prosecution was led by three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. Darrow's expenses were paid by the Baltimore Sun papers, home of the famed journalist H.L. Mencken, who covered the trial with many snorts and guffaws.
In Kramer's film, Darrow becomes Henry Drummond (Spencer Tracy), Bryan is Matthew Harrison Brady (Fredric March), Mencken is E.K. Hornbeck (Gene Kelly), and Scopes is Bertram T. Cates (Dick York). Another major player is the gravel-voiced Harry Morgan, as the judge. So obviously were the characters based on their historical sources that the back of the DVD simply refers to them as "Bryan" and "Darrow," as if their names had not been changed.
Seen 46 years after its release but only a few months after Darwin was once again on trial in Dover, Penn., "Inherit the Wind" is a film that rebukes the past when it might also have feared the future. Beliefs that seemed like ancient history to Kramer have had a surprising resiliency; two recent polls show that 38 percent of American teenagers believe "God created humans pretty much in their present form within the last 10,000 years or so," and 54 percent of American adults doubt that man evolved from earlier species. There is hardly a politician in the land with courage enough to state that they are wrong.
Certainly most of the citizens in the movie's fictional town of Hillsboro, Tenn., believe in the literal truth of Genesis. "There's only one man in this town who thinks at all," Drummond roars, "and he's in jail." The movie casts the battle as a struggle between the followers of a fundamentalist preacher (Claude Akins) and the snowy-haired agnostic Drummond, who believes Darwinism is as "incontrovertible as geometry," as indeed it seems to well over 99 percent of the world's scientists. The preacher's followers descend on the town with tents, a Ferris wheel and a sideshow in which a monkey smokes a cigarette while a barker asks if men came from monkeys. There is a fraught romantic subplot: The defendant York is engaged to Rachel (Donna Anderson), the preacher's daughter. At one point denouncing his daughter as a creature of the devil, the preacher froths so easily that he lacks credibility.
Early scenes in the film are broadly drawn; a parade welcomes Brady to town as the band plays "That Old-Time Religion," and the Baltimore journalist speaks as if he is reading his own copy ("I'm admired for my detestability"). But once the film centers on the courtroom battle between the two old men, it finds a ferocity that is awesome; Brady and Drummond essentially engage in a debate between fundamentalism and the possibility that if God did create the world, he did so in more than six 24-hour days. What is astonishing in this 1960 film is the gutsy way it engages in ideas, pulls no punches in its language, and allows the characters long and impassioned speeches. There are a lot of words here, well-written and spoken, and not condescending to the audience. Both Tracy and March vent an anger and passion through their characters that ventures beyond acting into holy zeal.
I wonder if a film made today would have the nerve to question fundamentalism as bluntly as the Tracy character does. The beliefs he argues against have crept back into view as "creationist science," and it was the notion that this should be offered as an alternative to Darwinism that inspired the 2005 Pennsylvania case. In the movie and in the actual Scopes trial, Bryan was a persuasive orator who proudly defended fundamentalism; his 2005 counterparts carefully distanced themselves from religious advocacy and tried to make their case on the basis of "creationist science." Their presentation was so unpersuasive that Judge John E. Jones III (a Republican appointed by George W. Bush) not only ruled against them but added that they exhibited "striking ignorance" and "breathtaking inanity" and "lied outright under oath."
Central to the case for "alternative" theories is a misunderstanding of what a scientific theory is, and isn't. One thing it cannot do is depend on supernatural elements. That is the role of religious belief. By asking that creationism be given a place beside the theory of evolution, its supporters are asking that their beliefs be given equal standing with the scientific method. That violates the separation of church and state, as Judge Jones ruled; in claiming their science was not faith-based, he said, they lied.
What is surprising, as I watch "Inherit the Wind," is how clearly Tracy's Drummond/Darrow character defines the same argument and persuasively wins it. After his six expert scientific witnesses are not allowed to testify, he boldly calls Brady/Bryan onto the stand as a defense witness. The bombastic Brady is unable to refuse a chance to show off, and Drummond quizzes him on biblical details, more or less destroying his credibility in the process; Brady is finally reduced to agreeing with Bishop Usher that God created the Earth at exactly 9 a.m. on Oct. 23, 4004 BC. One might assume that calling Brady to the stand was a Hollywood gimmick, but no: Darrow really did bring Bryan to the stand and methodically ground him down.
"Inherit the Wind" is typical of the films produced and directed by Stanley Kramer (1913-2001), a liberal who made movies that had opinions and took stands. He was dismissed by some critics for saddling his films with pious messages, for preferring speeches to visual style and cinematic originality, but he stuck to his guns. Although his films like "On the Beach" (1959), "Judgment at Nuremberg" (1961), "Ship of Fools" (1965), "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" (1967) and "Bless the Beasts and Children" (1971) took predictable positions on nuclear war, the Holocaust, interracial marriage and the preservation of species, they blended ideas and entertainment in a persuasive mixture. If his messages were predictable, they were also forthright; some of today's message movies, for example the splendid "Syriana," are so labyrinthine that viewers must sense the message almost by instinct.
Strange, that 46 years after it was made and 81 years after the Scopes trial, it is "Inherit the Wind" among all of Kramer's films that seems most relevant and still generates controversy. Tracy's character of Drummond in particularly seems boldly drawn. There are times when he seems to be veering toward a safe harbor on the religion-vs.-Darwin issue: "What goes on in this town is not necessarily the Christian religion," he says, and one of the witnesses he is not allowed to call is a Christian minister who sees no conflict between evolution and his church.
But Drummond is unswerving in his emotional courtroom scenes, arguing that "fanaticism and ignorance is forever busy, and needs feeding." When he is asked if he finds anything holy, he replies, "The individual human mind. In a child's ability to master the multiplication table, there is more holiness than all your shouted hosannas and holy of holies."
Note especially his final argument to the jury, which he performed in an unbroken shot. In the last scene of the film, Drummond stands in the empty courtroom, picks up a Bible in one hand and Darwin's On the Origin of Species in the other, smiles, claps them together, and packs them both under his arm. How should we take this scene? Has he reconciled the two books, or does he think he'll need them both for the appeal?
The new "Ghostbusters" film brings a battle between distorted nostalgia and the power of a child's imagination.
This message came to me from a reader named Peter Svensland. He and a fr...
FFC Gerardo Valero returns to "The Shawshank Redemption" to investigate how it remains the #1 film on IMDb.
"It was as though this plan had been with him all his life, pondered through the seasons, now in his fifteenth year c... | <urn:uuid:3324702f-90f0-473c-b05e-078f23df8ba9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-inherit-the-wind-1960 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977624 | 1,973 | 2.65625 | 3 |
History of O Canada House: Ewing Buchan’s Icon
O Canada House was built in 1897 and here Ewing Buchan would pen one of the first English versions of Canada’s National Anthem in 1908. A century later in 1997, O Canada House would be awarded the prestigious “City of Vancouver Heritage Award of Honour” for outstanding refurbishment of its Queen Anne-style exterior and lavish interior. Enhance your stay by learning the history of O Canada House:
Ewing Buchan was sent the sheet music to a stirring composition by his brother, Brigadier-General Lawrence Buchan, commander of the garrison at Quebec City. The composition was written 33 years earlier by Calixa Lavallée in anticipation for Quebec’s celebration of St. Jean Baptiste Day. Lawrence was so taken with the music performed for the 300th anniversary of Quebec, and by the Prince of Wales’ (later King George V) praise of it, that he immediately sent a copy west, complete with the original French lyrics.
Ewing, then manager of the Bank of Hamilton in Vancouver, was as smitten with the composition as his brother. Buchan was dissatisfied with the English translation of the French lyrics, however, and decided to write his own starting with a single stanza. Thus, accompanied by his daughter on piano, he began to write his own English version in the parlour of his private residence at 1114 Barclay Street.
Lavalle’s Version (English translation):
O Canada! Our fathers’ land of old
Thy brow is crown’d with leaves of red and gold.
Beneath the shade of the Holy Cross
Thy children own their birth
No stains thy glorious annals gloss
Since valour shield thy hearth.
Almighty God! On thee we call
Defend our rights, forfend this nation’s thrall,
Defend our rights, forfend this nation’s thrall
O Canada, our heritage, our love
Thy worth we praise all other lands above.
From sea to see throughout their length
From Pole to borderland,
At Britain’s side, whate’er betide
Unflinchingly we’ll stand
With hearts we sing, “God save the King”,
Guide then one Empire wide, do we implore,
And prosper Canada from shore to shore.
Ewing, who was vice-president of the Vancouver Canadian Club, debuted his version of the song at a club luncheon meeting at the Hotel Vancouver on February 9, 1910. Promoted by the Vancouver Canada Club, Buchan’s anthem became the most popular patriotic song on the West Coast.
Despite the success of Ewing’s words, however, it was Robert Stanley Weir’s version of “O Canada” that was to become Canada’s National Anthem. Weir, a lawyer and Recorder of the City of Montreal, also wrote his version in 1908. Weir’s song was officially published for the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation in 1927, and eventually became the accepted English version of the Canadian National Anthem.
For more on Vancouver in Ewing Buchan’s era, please watch this 1907 film for a streetcar view of some of Vancouver’s most iconic streets.
For more information about Canada’s National Anthem, please visit National Anthem: O Canada. | <urn:uuid:4c1a0ade-5bd3-46d9-85ac-02daab30a46b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ocanadahouse.com/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956672 | 718 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Hover over each Learning Benefit below for a detailed explanation.
What you need:
- Books with rhymes
What to do:
- Take a picture walk. Before they can read words, young children use picture cues to retell stories. Invite your toddler to describe what is happening in the illustrations of a favorite book. Ask lots of questions to hone his observation skills.
- Make time to rhyme. Distinguishing sounds is an important component of literacy development. Reread a rhyming book a few times so that he can listen to the sound patterns and rhythm of the story. Encourage him to chime in as he learns the story, and to clap when the words rhyme.
- Extend or create a story. This activity encourages creativity, language skills, and such important literary skills as developing a beginning, middle, and end of a story. Read a book and invite him to make up his own story about the main character, create a sequel to the story, or make up his own ending. You can also encourage him to make his own book by drawing a few illustrations.
Recommended Products for Your Child Ages 3-5 | <urn:uuid:613e7649-d522-4931-b95d-81688dff3eeb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scholastic.com/parents/resources/article/reading-activities/ready-to-read | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950278 | 237 | 4.375 | 4 |
Particle spray produced in Cloud chamber?
Reading an article just now, about the possibility of micro black holes being produced in particle collisions inside the Large Hadron Collider when it is running an experiment. I started thinking about the resultant spray of particles inside a cloud chamber, after a stationary particle has been smashed into by a high speed particle coming into the chamber from outside it.
1. These high speed particles originating from outside the cloud chamber, are they cosmic rays from deep space? or are these high speed particles themselves a result of the cascade effect of a cosmic ray collision in the upper atmosphere?
2. My main question really. Am I right in thinking, that if high speed particle collisions inside the cloud chamber can cause such a spray pattern, in the cloud chamber medium (alchohol I think?) Do these same collisions happen inside our own bodies all the time?
This question is in the General Section. Responses must be helpful and on-topic. | <urn:uuid:78e025a5-27dc-49f9-aa14-7501eae8c66e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fluther.com/9329/particle-spray-produced-in-cloud-chamber/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9131 | 196 | 3 | 3 |
PRINCETON, N.J. — In a scientific complex on 88 bucolic acres near here, some astonishingly talented people are advancing a decades-long project to create a sun on Earth. When — not if; when — decades hence they and collaborators around the world succeed, their achievement will be more transformative of human life than any prior scientific achievement.
The Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory’s (PPPL) focus — magnetic fusion research — began at the university in 1951. It was grounded in the earlier work of a European scientist then living in Princeton.
Einstein’s theory that mass could be converted into energy had been demonstrated six years earlier near Alamogordo, N.M., by fission — the splitting of atoms, which released the energy that held the atoms together.
By the 1950s, however, attention was turning to an unimaginably more promising method of releasing energy from transforming matter — the way the sun does, by fusion.
Every second the sun produces a million times more energy than the world consumes in a year. But to “take a sun and put it in a box” — the description of one scientist here — requires developing the new field of plasma physics and solving the most difficult engineering problems in the history of science.
The objective is to create conditions for the controlled release of huge amounts of energy from the fusion of two hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and tritium.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe; Earth’s water contains a virtually inexhaustible supply (10 million million tons) of deuterium, and tritium is “bred” in the fusion plant itself.
The sun is a huge sphere of plasma, which is a hot, electrically charged gas.
The production and confinement of plasma in laboratories is now routine. The task now is to solve the problem of “net energy” — producing more electrical power than is required for the production of it.
Magnets produce a magnetic field sufficient to prevent particles heated beyond the sun’s temperature — more than 100 million degrees Celsius — from hitting the walls of the containment vessel.
Understanding plasma’s behavior requires the assistance of Titan, one of the world’s fastest computers, which is located at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee and can perform more than 17 quadrillion — a million billion — calculations a second.
As in today’s coal-fired power plants, the ultimate object is heat — to turn water into steam that drives generators.
Fusion, however, produces no greenhouse gases, no long-lived nuclear waste and no risk of the sort of runaway reaction that occurred at Fukushima.
Fusion research here and elsewhere is supported by nations with half the world’s population — China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the European Union.
The current domestic spending pace would cost $2.5 billion over 10 years - about one-thirtieth of what may be squandered in California on a 19th-century technology (a train).
By one estimate, to bring about a working fusion reactor in 20 years would cost $30 billion — approximately the cost of one week of U.S. energy consumption.
Given the societal will, commercially feasible production of fusion energy is possible in the lifetimes of most people now living.
The cost of operating the PPPL complex, which a century from now might be designated a historic site, is 0.01 percent of U.S. energy spending. PPPL’s budget is a minuscule fraction of U.S. energy infrastructure investment (power plants, pipelines).
Yet the laboratory, which once had a staff of 1,400, today has only 450.
The Apollo space program was much less technologically demanding and much more accessible to public understanding.
It occurred in the context of U.S.-Soviet competition; it was directly relevant to national security (ballistic missiles; the coin of international prestige); it had a time frame for success — President Kennedy’s pledge to go to the moon in the 1960s — that could hold the public’s attention, and incremental progress (orbital flights) the public could comprehend.
Because the fusion energy program lacks such immediacy, transparency and glamour, it poses a much more difficult test for the political process.
Because of its large scale and long time horizon, the fusion project is a perfect example of a public good the private sector cannot pursue and the public sector should not slight.
Most government revenues now feed the public’s unslakable appetite for transfer payments.
The challenge for today’s political class is to moderate its subservience to this appetite sufficiently to enable the basic science that will earn tomorrow’s gratitude.
George Will’s column appears twice weekly on the Advance editorial pages. His e-mail address is firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:a822ac71-a9e2-46d2-b808-1363428c5570> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.silive.com/opinion/columns/index.ssf/2013/12/us_should_focus_on_fusion_rese.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921164 | 1,018 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Intended for Introduction to US History courses, this book focuses on the relationships that shape and define human identity - cultural, race, gender, class and sectional relations. It shows that politics and the economy do not simply shape, but in turn are shaped by, the lives and cultural values of ordinary men and women.
Back to top
Rent Making a Nation 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Jeanne Boydston. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Prentice Hall.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:e06fb50e-d585-4481-b3d5-4135166196a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/making-a-nation-1st-edition-9780130337719-0130337714?ii=9&trackid=9e93aeb1&omre_ir=0&omre_sp= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920719 | 138 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Arsenic Found in Hundreds of Beer Samples But experts say not to worry By Matt Cantor, Newser User Posted Apr 9, 2013 12:59 PM CDT 19 comments Comments German researchers discovered traces of arsenic in a variety of beer samples. (Shutterstock) (Newser) – The filtering process may make your beer look nice and clear—but it may also be adding traces of arsenic to your booze. Researchers found arsenic in hundreds of samples of the stuff; some had more than 25 parts per billion, more than twice the US standard for water, NPR notes. Still, experts aren't exactly flipping out. "We already knew that," says one. "The levels shouldn't be alarming, because it's the kind of thing you see in dust or air." It may just be more precise testing that's revealing the arsenic, he adds. Beer and wine are often filtered using a mined substance called diatomaceous earth, a powder that comes from the tiny algae fossils and could be the arsenic culprit. "People in general will make positive quality associations with clearer beverages," says a professor. Wine makers, however, have been using diatomaceous earth less because of its silica, which can be harmful to breathe, notes a vintner. | <urn:uuid:30362a42-e798-4a8f-b676-df45b04e776c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newser.com/story/165947/arsenic-found-in-hundreds-of-beer-samples.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953836 | 253 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release February 28, 2013
WOMEN'S HISTORY MONTH, 2013
- - - - - - -
BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
For more than two centuries, our Nation has grown under the simple creed that each of us is created equal. It is a notion that makes America unlike any other place on earth -- a country where no matter where you come from or what you look like, you can go as far as your talents will take you.
Women's History Month is a time to remember those who fought to make that freedom as real for our daughters as for our sons. Written out of the promise of the franchise, they were women who reached up to close the gap between what America was and what it could be. They were driven by a faith that our Union could extend true equality to every citizen willing to claim it. Year after year, visionary women met and marched and mobilized to prove what should have been self-evident. They grew a meeting at Seneca Falls into a movement that touched every community and took on our highest institutions. And after decades of slow, steady, extraordinary progress, women have written equal opportunity into the law again and again, giving generations of girls a future worthy of their potential.
That legacy of change is all around us. Women are nearly half of our Nation's workforce and more than half of our college graduates. But even now, too many women feel the weight of discrimination on their shoulders. They face a pay gap at work, or higher premiums for health insurance, or inadequate options for family leave. These issues affect all of us, and failing to address them holds our country back.
That is why my Administration has made the needs of women and girls a priority since day one -- from signing the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act to helping ensure women are represented among tomorrow's top scientists and engineers. It is why we secured stronger protections and more preventive services for women under the Affordable Care Act. It is why we have fought for greater workplace flexibility, access to capital and training for women-owned businesses, and equal pay for equal work. And it is why we have taken action to reduce violence against women at home and abroad, and to empower women around the world with full political and economic opportunity.
Meeting those challenges will not be easy. But our history shows that when we couple grit and ingenuity with our basic beliefs, there is no barrier we cannot overcome. We can stay true to our founding creed that in America, all things should be possible for all people. That spirit is what called our mothers and grandmothers to fight for a world where no wall or ceiling could keep their daughters from their dreams. And today, as we take on the defining issues of our time, America looks to the next generation of movers and marchers to lead the way.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, BARACK OBAMA, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim March 2013 as Women's History Month. I call upon all Americans to observe this month and to celebrate International Women's Day on March 8, 2013, with appropriate programs, ceremonies, and activities. I also invite all Americans to visit www.WomensHistoryMonth.gov to learn more about the generations of women who have shaped our history.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this twenty-eighth day of February, in the year of our Lord two thousand thirteen, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and thirty-seventh.
# # #
Okay. Well. Broken record is a broken record.
1. He's still batting 1000 on failing to mention reproductive rights.
This is not a small thing, because Women's History in the United States would look very different without reproductive rights, and there are women all over the nation whose personal histories are currently being written and defined by their access to or lack of access to a full spectrum of reproductive options.
It's genuinely laughable to talk about "grit and ingenuity" and then utterly lack the gumption to talk frankly about women's reproductive health because people who will never vote for you and think Women's History Month is a fucking punchline might object.
2. He's also found a WHOLE NEW WAY of defining women relationally (sign the petition!) in a way that disappears large groups of women: "We can stay true to our founding creed that in America, all things should be possible for all people. That spirit is what called our mothers and grandmothers to fight for a world where no wall or ceiling could keep their daughters from their dreams."
I do not have children. I will never be anyone's mother, nor anyone's grandmother. My contributions to Women's History are not less valuable because I am not fighting this fight for my daughters.
This is also not a small thing, because Women's History in the United States would look very different if women who have chosen not to or cannot parent did not participate in feminism, not because we're special fucking snowflakes who Do Feminism Better, but because there are millions of us, and our contributions deserve recognition, too.
"All things should be possible for all people." I agree. It is possible to stop defining women exclusively by their relationship to other people, Mr. President. I invite you to give it a try. | <urn:uuid:e13a3bed-2a54-4b49-86b5-423892281fa4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shakesville.com/2013/03/presidential-proclamation-womens.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965399 | 1,122 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Children who have access to the federal food stamp program — now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) — in the earliest years of their lives have better health and economic outcomes later in life depending on their gender, according to a new academic study of the government safety net by professors Hilary Hoynes, Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach, and Douglas Almond.
Across genders, children whose mothers had access to food stamps during pregnancy and in their earliest years were less likely to have long-term health problems like diabetes, obesity, and high blood pressure in adulthood. Women who had similar access, meanwhile, are more likely to become economically self-sufficient as adults, the study found:
We find that access to food stamps in utero and in early childhood leads to significant reductions in metabolic syndrome conditions (obesity, high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes) in adulthood and, for women, increases in economic self-sufficiency (increases in educational attainment, earnings, income, and decreases in welfare participation).
Because nutrition is especially important for long-term development early in life, the positive effects of food stamps are especially strong for children who benefit from the program before birth and up to the age of five. The long-term developmental effects begin to subside after that age, though there are still obvious positive nutritional effects for children who remain on the program after that.
The food stamp program is especially vital in times of economic downturn or famine, the researchers wrote, since children can be exposed to lower food levels that jeopardize future development. Food stamp enrollment in the United States grew to 15 million households in 2011, according to government figures released Wednesday. The program’s growth during and after the Great Recession has come under the scrutiny of budget-cutters in Congress, even as it helps keep millions of Americans out of poverty each year. | <urn:uuid:d7d877cc-0356-447b-b5b0-f3492cd4b5b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thinkprogress.org/economy/2012/11/28/1252281/food-stamps-better-outcomes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970315 | 377 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Development of a nervous tissue construct for
Top: Neurons are plated on two membranes and a
neural network (black) is formed.
Bottom panels: Movement of a block attached to
one membrane (yellow) via a computer controlled microstepper motor
system divides the culture and progressively separates the halves.
As the microstepper motor moves the top membrane, the portion of
the axonal bundles crossing between the top and bottom membranes
is extended inducing stretch growth of the axon bundles. These cultures
are then embedded in collagen and rolled into a tube that facilitates
removal from the device. This construct is then transplanted to
bridge spinal cord lesions.
Image Credit: Douglas H. Smith, MD, University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine | <urn:uuid:a6fafdc5-0cfb-4d41-a5d2-52efa92d23b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/feb06/axonspnrpr_photo.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.840067 | 158 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Kindergarten games get your child to build a foundation for math, reading, and more! These kindergarten games help your kid practice a variety of subjects in a way that's fun and engaging. Use ABC balloons to familiarize your child with letters, play outdoor games to help your child learn to follow directions, or practice number recognition with indoor hopscotch. All kids will learn from these kindergarten games, but kinesthetic learners, or children who learn through actions, will benefit most from learning through play. Try these kindergarten games with your five- or six-year-olds to experience the fun of learning! Check out our Free Online Kindergarten Games
before you leave. | <urn:uuid:8dee2b34-98fd-4393-a8c7-79b53d7a3a93> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/activity/kindergarten/games/?page=5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927762 | 138 | 2.6875 | 3 |
26 Dec 2013:
Solar Activity Not a Major
Factor in Climate Change, Study Finds
Solar activity has had minimal impact on climate over the past millennium, new research
from the United Kingdom indicates. The findings counter the long-held view that periodic fluctuations in the sun's energy output have led to lengthy periods of warm or cold weather in the past. Looking at climate records from the Northern Hemisphere over the past 1,000 years, the scientists found that greenhouse gases have been the primary drivers of climate change since about 1900. Volcanic activity, which adds particles to the atmosphere that block sunlight, dominated climate patterns until roughly 1800, the study found. "Until now, the influence of the sun on past climate has been poorly understood," said Andrew Schurer of the University of Edinburgh and lead author of the study, which was published in Nature Geoscience
. "We hope that our new discoveries will help improve our understanding of how temperatures have changed over the past few centuries, and improve predictions for how they might develop in future." | <urn:uuid:9f0194b0-2281-4991-a3f0-c9680dc781c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://e360.yale.edu/mobile/digest.msp?id=4034 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947468 | 210 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Simple Definition of ensemble
: a group of people or things that make up a complete unit (such as a musical group, a group of actors or dancers, or a set of clothes)
Full Definition of ensemble
: a group producing a single effect: as a : concerted music of two or more parts b : a complete costume of harmonizing or complementary clothing and accessories c (1) : the musicians engaged in the performance of a musical ensemble (2) : a group of supporting players, singers, or dancers; especially : corps de ballet
Examples of ensemble in a sentence
We went to listen to a new jazz ensemble.
She wore an elegant three-piece ensemble.
The actor performed an ensemble piece.
Origin and Etymology of ensemble
French, from ensemble together, from Old French, from Latin insimul at the same time, from in- + simul at the same time — more at same
First Known Use: 1750
Definition of ensemble
: emphasizing the roles of all performers as a whole rather than a star performance <ensemble acting>
First Known Use of ensemble
ENSEMBLE Defined for Kids
Definition of ensemble for Students
: a group of people or things making up a complete unit <a musical ensemble> <She wore a three-piece ensemble.>
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up ensemble? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:9c6e9dfd-8322-4c96-b37c-4d59274bca2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ensemble | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893506 | 299 | 3.578125 | 4 |
BABYLON NEVER CONQUERED EGYPT
Emotion based mindsets include: optimism & pessimism, faith & cynicism.
The Bible never says Nebuchadnezzar the Second (hereafter Neb-2) conquered Egypt. The idea Neb-2 conquered Egypt would never have been considered a serious historical possibility, but for 4 facts:
- Jeremiah & Ezekiel both predicted that Neb-2 would conquer Egypt.
- Jeremiah & Ezekiel are both considered true prophets.
- According to Deut. 18:22, true prophets are never wrong about a prediction.
- a. Jesus said (Mat 5:18) "One jot or one tittle shall in no way pass from the law until all be fulfilled."
b. Paul said (2Tim 3:16) "All scripture is given by inspiration of God,"
Both of these verses are erroneously interpreted by many Christians as meaning the entire Bible contains no errors.
If you disagree with the preceding statement, the rest of this essay will be irrelevant to you, because you will be judging all historical evidence by its conformity to the Bible. This makes you literally not worth talking to outside of the company of others who do the same. Such Christians to try to muddy historical evidence that contradicts the Bible. e.g. One proposed that there were two Nebuchadnezzars, the second being Cambyses: http://www.biblestudyguide.org/comment/calvin/comm_vol24/htm/xiii.ii.htm
(Actually there were two Nebs, but the first ruled Babylon c.1124-1104BC.) This essay is based on the assumption that the historical parts of the Bible should be judged for accuracy by the same rules as any other ancient historical document.
If Neb-2 had conquered Egypt, it would have been his greatest conquest in the minds of everyone at the time. Not only would he and his Babylonian successors have left record of it, but other historians of the time and later would have referred to it, as they did to the actual conquest of Egypt by the Persian, Cambyses-2, 37 years after Neb-2's death.
Below is a historical timeline of relevant & semi-relevant events following conventionally accepted dates (approximations in some cases). The most relevant events are in RED. After the timeline are some references to the real conquest of Egypt in the most ancient sources.
|605 Jun||NEB-2, co-king of Babylon with father Nabopolassar, 606-5, allies with Medes & Syrians. Attacks NECHO-2 near CARCHEMISH. Heavy loses both sides.
Egyptians flee south in disorder.
NEB-2 burns Carchemish, chases Necho-2 down coast.
|605||DAMASCUS & all SYRIA, under NECHO-2 from 609, taken by NEB-2. Under Babylon until 541.|
|605||PALESTINE, under NECHO-2 from 609, taken by NEB-2. Under Babylon until 588.|
|605||JEREMIAH (25:1) gets word from God. JUDAH was warned & didn't repent. Therefore NEB-2 will come.
70 years captivity to follow.
|NEB-2, co-king of Babylon with father Nabopolassar, 606-5, halts at border of EGYPT. Turns to deal with Egyptian vassal, JEHOIAKIM. Conquers JUDAH. Robs TEMPLE.|
|605||JEREMIAH (36:1) dictates scroll to BARUCH. Summarize all prophesies against Judah from days of Josiah. Tells Baruch to read it in Temple court on next fast day.|
|NABOPOLASSAR, Chaldean King of Babylon, from 626, DIES.
Son, NEB-2 sole rule until 562.
Quickly returns to BABYLON across Arabian desert.
|605||1st DEPORTATION to BABYLON, (Dan 1:2) Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah taken.|
|NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, CROWNED in BABYLON. First official year begins April 2, 604.|
|604||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, secures recognition as king from all formerly Assyrian towns.
PHOENICIA, ASKELON, & JUDAH hold out.
|604||JEHOIAKIM, King of Judah 608-597, hopes for help from EGYPT.
Asks advice of JEREMIAH.
|604 May-Jun||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, returns to PHOENICIA to get tribute from PHOENICIA, ASKELON, & JUDAH.
Marches victoriously until Nov.
|603||JERUSALEM besieged by NEB-2.|
|603||JEHOIAKIM, King of Judah 608-597, besieged by NEB-2, quits hoping for aid from Necho-2. Submits to NEB-2 & become vassal.
Siege of Jerusalem lifted until 597.
|601||NECHO-2, 2nd PHARAOH of 26th dyn 609-595, severely defeats NEB-2 at border of EGYPT.|
|601||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, returns to Babylon to rest & re-equip army.|
|c.599||JEHOIAKIM, King of Judah 608-597, ignores warning of JEREMIAH.
Allies with NECHO-2. Rebels against NEB-2.
|599||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, campaigns against Arabs of SYRIA.|
|598 Dec||LACHISH destroyed by NEB-2.|
|597 Jan||JERUSALEM besieged by NEB-2 until Mar 16.|
|JEHOIAKIM, King of Judah from 608, either abdicates to son JEHOIACHIN (age 8 or 18), or makes JEHOIACHIN co-king.
JEHOIACHIN reigns to Apr 22.
|JERUSALEM besieged by NEB-2 from Jan., FALLS.|
|597||2nd DEPORTATION to BABYLON: 10,000 taken including EZEKIEL. Officers, craftsmen, & smiths taken, leaving only poor people.|
|JEHOIACHIN, King of Judah from Feb, & mother & wives & son Jeconiah DEPORTED to Babylon by NEB-2. Imprisoned until 561.
His uncle, Mattaniah, age 21, is appointed king by Neb-2 until 586. Mattaniah changes name to ZEDEKIAH.
|597||Jeremiah chapter 24|
|595||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, subdues palace revolt.|
|595||NECHO-2, 2nd PHARAOH of 26th dyn from 609, ENDS.
PSAMTIK-2 succeeds to 588.
|590||PSAMTIK-2, 3rd PHARAOH of 26th dyn 595-88, send naval expedition to Phoenicia to harass NEB-2.|
|588||JEREMIAH (34:1) tells ZEDEKIAH Jerusalem shall fall to NEB-2 & burn.
ZEDEKIAH will see Neb-2 & be taken to Babylon & die in peace.
|588||PSAMTIK-2, 3rd PHARAOH of 26th dyn from 595, DIES.
Young & belligerent son HOPHRA succeeds to 569.
|588||HOPHRA, 4th PHARAOH of 26th dyn 588-69, sends naval expedition to subjugate Phoenicia. Takes Sidon.|
|588||HOPHRA, 4th PHARAOH of 26th dyn 588-69, invades PALESTINE. Makes anti-Babylonian alliance with many including ZEDEKIAH. Drives Babylonian troops from Jerusalem.|
|588||JEREMIAH (37:11) Travels from Jerusalem to Benjamin. ARRESTED on charge of collaborating with Babylonians. Brought before princes of Judah. IMPRISONED in house of Jonathan the scribe.|
|588||ZEDEKIAH, King of Judah 597-86, rebels against NEB-2.|
|588||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, besieges JERUSALEM until 586.|
|588||ZEDEKIAH, King of Judah 597-86, takes JEREMIAH from prison at house of Jonathan. Asks for word from God.
JEREMIAH gives same reply. JEREMIAH imprisoned again, this time in court of the prison.
|EZEKIEL (29:1) 5th vision. Prophesy against EGYPT because of their pride. EGYPT to have 40 years desolation.|
|EZEKIEL (30:20) 6th vision. BABYLON to conquer EGYPT.
EGYPT to be broken & scattered.
|587||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, leaves NEBUZARADAN in charge of siege at Jerusalem with instructions to keep JEREMIAH unharmed. Goes to besiege RIBLAH, Lebanon.|
|587||(Jer 38:4) Princes of Judah go to ZEDEKIAH. Ask permission to kill JEREMIAH because he weakens the soldiers.
ZEDEKIAH gives permission.
Princes of Judah throw JEREMIAH in dungeon of Malachijah.
|EZEKIEL (31:1) 7th vision: Rebukes PHARAOH for pride.
EGYPT shall be brought down like Assyria.
|EZEKIEL (26:1) 8th vision. NEB-2 to conquer TYRE.
TYRE to be scraped clean.
|586||(Jer 38:7) EBED MELECH, Ethiopian eunuch, asks ZEDEKIAH permission to remove JEREMIAH from dungeon.
ZEDEKIAH agrees & gives him 30 men.
EBED MELECH takes JEREMIAH back to prison court.
|586||(Jer 38:14) ZEDEKIAH, King of Judah 597-86, summons JEREMIAH to temple.
JEREMIAH repeats same message.
ZEDEKIAH orders JEREMIAH to tell princes of Judah that JER begged not to be sent back to dungeon of Malachijah.
|586||(Jer 52:6) JERUSALEM famine. No more bread.|
|JERUSALEM, besieged from 588, FALLS to NEBUZARADAN.
ZEDEKIAH flees to Jericho. Captured.
|586 July||JEREMIAH (39:11, 40:1) removed from prison court by Babylonian officers, taken in chains to detention camp at Ramah.|
|586 July||JEREMIAH (51:59) at RAMAH, writes scroll (Babylon shall be destroyed & desolate.). Gives scroll to SERIAH ben Neriah, tells him to take it to Babylon & read it, then tie it to a rock & throw it in Euphrates.|
|TEMPLE at JERUSALEM DESTROYED by Nebuzaradan.|
|586||(Jer 39:8, 52:29) 3rd DEPORTATION to BABYLON: 832 taken.
Poor people left to be vine dressers & husbandmen.
|586||(Jer 39:8, 52:29) DEPORTATION to RIBLAH by Nebuzaradan. Includes; ZEDEKIAH, High Priest SERIAH ben Azariah & son JOZADAK, 2nd Priest ZEPHANIAH, Prince SERIAH ben Neriah, GEDALIAH ben Ahikam|
|586||(Jer 39) at RIBLAH: NEB-2 kills sons of ZEDEKIAH before him. Blinds ZEDEKIAH, & sends him to Babylon.
Appoints GEDALIAH ben Ahikam governor of Judah.
|586||GEDALIAH, gov. of Judah 586, returns to MIZPAH. Encourages submission to Babylon.|
|586||JEREMIAH (Jer 40) released from detention at RAMAH by Nebuzaradan. Goes to MIZPAH & joins GEDALIAH.|
|586||BABYLON: 3rd DEPORTATION arrives. Tells Jews of fall of Jerusalem.|
|586/5||(Jer 40:14) ISHMAEL ben Nethaniah, (related to royalty of Judah) intrigues with BAALIS, King of Ammon. Plots to kill GEDALIAH.|
|EZEKIEL (32) Receives word of YHWH against PHARAOH. (32:11) "The sword of the king of Babylon will come against you."
(32:12) "They will shatter the pride of Egypt, and all her hordes will be overthrown."
But it doesn't specifically say the Babylonians will do it.
|EZEKIEL (32:17) more lamentation for EGYPT
"Son of man, wail for the hordes of Egypt and consign to the earth below both her and the daughters of mighty nations, with those who go down to the pit. 19 Say to them, 'Are you more favored than others? Go down and be laid among the uncircumcised.' 20 They will fall among those killed by the sword. The sword is drawn; let her be dragged off with all her hordes. 21 From within the grave the mighty leaders will say of Egypt and her allies, 'They have come down and they lie with the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword."
|SOLAR ECLIPSE predicted by Thales.
EUSEBIUS of Caesarea says this happens in the 8th or 12th year of HOPHRA, which conflicts with modern research, which puts in his 3rd year.
|585 Sep/Oct||(Jer 41) GEDALIAH, gov. of Judah 586, at MIZPAH, KILLED by ISHMAEL ben Nethaniah, who also kills the Jews & Chaldeans with him. ISHMAEL gathers captives to take them to Ammonites.|
|585||(Jer 41:11) ISHMAEL ben Nethaniah, overtaken at GIBEON by JOHANAN ben Kareh & pro-Babylonian Jews. Flees with 8 men to Ammonites.|
|585||(Jer 42) JOHANAN ben Kareh & remnant of Jews ask JEREMIAH for direction from God & swear to obey it.
10 days later JEREMIAH gets instructions, tells remnant of Jews to stay in Judah & not fear the Babylonians. Remnant of Jews don't believe JEREMIAH & decide to flee to EGYPT.
|585||JOHANAN ben Kareh & remnant of Jews & JEREMIAH go to EGYPT, stay at TAHPHANES in delta.|
|585||(Jer 43:8) In Tahpanhes the word of the LORD came to Jeremiah: 9 "While the Jews are watching, take some large stones with you and bury them in clay in the brick pavement at the entrance to Pharaoh's palace in Tahpanhes. 10 Then say to them, 'This is what the LORD Almighty, the God of Israel, says: I will send for my servant Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and I will set his throne over these stones I have buried here; he will spread his royal canopy above them. 11 He will come and attack Egypt, bringing death to those destined for death, captivity to those destined for captivity, and the sword to those destined for the sword. 12 He will set fire to the temples of the gods of Egypt; he will burn their temples and take their gods captive. As a shepherd wraps his garment around him, so will he wrap Egypt around himself and depart from there unscathed. 13 There in the temple of the sun in Egypt he will demolish the sacred pillars and will burn down the temples of the gods of Egypt.'"
(Jer 44:30) This is what the LORD says: 'I am going to hand Pharaoh Hophra king of Egypt over to his enemies who seek his life, just as I handed Zedekiah king of Judah over to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, the enemy who was seeking his life.' "
Note that the verse names the pharaoh, HOPHRA, who is not the one who was named in the fragment below, which records Neb-2 making war on Egypt.
|583||ARCESILAUS-1, Greek King of Cyrene from 600, DIES.
Son, Battus-2 succeeds to 560.
|582||(Jer 52:30) 4th DEPORTATION to BABYLON: 745 captives|
|580||CYRUS-1, King of ANSHAN at SUSA, vassal of Medes, from 600, ENDS.
Son, CAMBYSES-1 succeeds to 559.
|573||TYRE, besieged by NEB-2 from 586, SURRENDERS. ITTOBAAL, King of Tyre, surrenders. Mainland TYRE is under Babylon until 539. Everything of value has been moved to ISLAND, which remains independent until taken by ALEX-3 in 332.|
|EZEKIEL (29:17) VISION: Son of man, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon drove his army in a hard campaign against Tyre; every head was rubbed bare and every shoulder made raw. Yet he and his army got no reward from the campaign he led against Tyre. 19 Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am going to give Egypt to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and he will carry off its wealth. He will loot and plunder the land as pay for his army. 20 I have given him Egypt as a reward for his efforts because he and his army did it for me, declares the Sovereign LORD.|
|571||EZEKIEL (30:10) I will also make the multitude of Egypt to cease by the hand of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon. (11) He and his people with him, the terrible of nations, shall be brought to destroy the land; and they shall draw their swords against Egypt, and fill the land with the slain.|
|570||HOPHRA, 4th PHARAOH of 26th dyn 588-69, at request of natives of Cyrene, sends large army to evict Greeks. Disastrously DEFEATED at Well of Thetis in Irasa. Few return.|
|c.570||According to JOSEPHUS (Ant X-IX-7), NEB-2 invaded EGYPT at this time and killed the king. This is likely a misunderstanding of the events of 570-66.|
|c.570||Vizir AHMOSE proclaimed king by army in opposition to Hophra.|
|c.570||HOPHRA deposed, flees north to Babylonians in Levant until 567. Vizir AHMOSE-II usurps until 526.|
|569||Egyptian troops rebel against Ahmose-II.|
|568||BABYLONIAN TROOPS INVADE EGYPT.
Only one piece of evidence exits for this: Babylonian Chronicle BM 33041.
"In the 37th year of Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, he went to Mizraim [Egypt] to make war. AMASIS, King of Mizraim, collected [his army] and marched and spread abroad."
Note that the fragment names the pharaoh, AMASIS (AHMOSE), not Hophra (Apries) who fled to the Babylonians.
|567||AHMOSE-II asks and receives Ionian mercenaries of Cyrene for help against Babylonians.|
|c.567||HOPHRA, now working for Babylonians with Babylonian army, attacks AHMOSE-II, and routs his Ionian mercenaries.|
|c.566||AHMOSE-II defeats Babylonian invasion of Egypt. Former pharaoh Hophra is captured by Egyptians. Sources conflict on whether he is executed or allowed to live. No further Babylonian attempts on Egypt are recorded.|
|566 ± 3||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, INSANE according to Dan 4:31.
His own inscriptions show a 4 year suspension of interest in state affairs.
|565||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, 605-562, builds defensive wall north of BABYLON (against Medes?).|
|562||NEB-2, Chaldean King of Babylon, from 605, DIES.|
|561||AMEL MARDUK (Evil Merodach) son of Neb-2, becomes 3rd Chaldean King of Babylon to 560.|
|JEHOIACHIN, former king of JUDAH in 597, imprisoned from 597, RELEASED by AMEL MARDUK, allowed to eat at his table.|
|560 Aug||AMEL MARDUK, son of Neb-2, 3rd Chaldean King of Babylon from 560, KILLED by son-in-law of Neb-2, NERIGLISSAR.|
|560||DAPHNAE, Greek trading port in east delta of Egypt, ABANDONED. Greeks forced out by AHMOSE-2.|
|560||BATTUS-2 Greek King of CYRENE from 583, DIES.
Son ARCESILAUS-2 succeeds to 550.
|c.560||CYPRUS, independent from c.669, taken by AHMOSE-2. Under EGYPT until 525. Governed by EUELTHON of Salamis.|
|559||CAMBYSES-1, King of ANSHAN at SUSA, vassal of Medes, from 580, ENDS.
Son, CYRUS-2 succeeds to 530.
|550||CYRUS-2, King of ANSHAN 559-530, INVADES MEDIA at head of coalition.|
|550||Median troops mutiny.|
|550||ASTYAGES, Acheminid King of MEDIA from 585, delivered to CYRUS-2, taken to SUSA.|
|550||ECBATANA, capital of MEDIA, easily falls to CYRUS-2. Under PERSIA until 330.|
|550||CYRUS-2, King of ANSHAN 559-530, becomes 1st King of MEDO-PERSIA until 530.
Capital remains at SUSA.
|550||ARMENIA, under Medes from 612, conquered by CYRUS-2. Under Persians until 331.|
|550||ANTI-CYRUS-2 policy adopted by Sparta, Lydia, Babylonia, Egypt, & others.|
|550||ARCESILAUS-2, Greek King of CYRENE from 560, STRANGLED by Learchus.
Son, BATTUS-3 succeeds to 530.
|547||CYRUS-2, 1st King of MEDO-PERSIA 550-30, begin operation against BABYLONIA. Takes part of eastern ASSYRIA.|
|c.544||AHMOSE-2, 5th PHARAOH of 26th dyn 569-26, marries LADICE, dau of BATTUS-3, King of Cyrene 550-30|
|541||SYRIA, under Babylon from 605, acquired by CYRUS-2, by bribery & propaganda.|
|539||BELSHAZAR, son of Nabonidus, CO-REGENT of BABYLON from 553, KILLED.|
|539 Nov||BABYLON, under Chaldeans from 626, FALLS to CYRUS-2, who becomes King with consent of population.
BABYLON under MEDO-PERSIA until 331.
|538||CYRUS-2, 1st King of MEDO-PERSIA 550-30, sends detachment to occupy JERUALEM.|
|538||CYRUS's DECREE: JEW exiles may return to JUDAH under Persian satrap SHESHBAZZAR.|
|538||Mainland TYRE, under Babylon from 573, voluntarily comes under MEDO-PERSIA until 333.|
|530||BATTUS-3, Greek King of CYRENE from 550, DIES.
Son, ARCESILAUS-3 succeeds to 515.
|530||CYRUS-2, son of Cambyses-1, 1st King of MEDO-PERSIA from 550, KILLED fighting Massagetae of Asia near Aral Sea.|
|529||CAMBYSES-2, son of Cyrus-2, becomes 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA until 522.|
|526||AHMOSE-2, 5th PHARAOH of 26th dyn from 569, DIES.
Son, PSAMTIK-3 succeeds to 525.
|525||CYPRUS, under Egypt from 560, taken by CAMBYSES-2. Under MEDO-PERIA to 479.|
|525||CAMBYSES-2, 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA 529-22, begins expedition against EGYPT until 522. Orders POLYCRATES of Samos to assist.|
|525||CAMBYSES-2, 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA 529-22, CONQUERS LOWER EGYPT at MEMPHIS. HELIOPOLIS holds out for a while.
Persian domination begins until 404.
|525||PSAMTIK-3, 6th PHARAOH of 26th dyn. from 526, CAPTURED at Memphis. 26th Dynasty ENDS.|
|525||CAMBYSES-2, 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA 529-22, follows father's example in respecting local religion. Entitles himself "Son of Ra." Consults oracles. Visits sanctuaries. Prostrates himself before image of NEITH (& possibly others). Restores former traditions.|
|525 May||CAMBYSES-2 recognized as King of EGYPT. ANNEXES EGYPT.|
|525||ARCESILAUS-3, Greek king of CYRENE 530-15, submits to CAMBYSES-2.
CYRENE under Persia until 476.
|525||LIBYA submits to CAMBYSES-2.|
|524||CAMBYSES-2, 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA 529-22, intends to take Carthage. Marches west. Stopped by sandstorm. Turns back.
Phoenician sailors refuse to fight.
|523||THEBES, capital of UPPER EGYPT, taken by CAMBYSES-2.|
|523||CAMBYSES-2 plans to INVADE ETHIOPIA according to Herodotus, but this is not likely because Egypt was not pacified.|
|523 fall||PSAMTIK-3, former PHARAOH, organizes revolt in LOWER EGYPT.|
|523 fall||CAMBYSES-2, in UPPER EGYPT, learns of PSAMTIK-3 REVOLT. Returns to LOWER EGYPT. Takes bloody revenge.|
|523||PSAMTIK-3, former PHARAOH, taken to SUSA in chains.|
|522 Mar||GAUMATA, a Magian, claim to be SMERDIS, bro of CAMBYES-2, seizes SUSA while CAMBYSES is in EGYPT. Rules until Sept.|
|522||CAMBYSES-2 in LOWER EGYPT, learn of insurrection of GAUMATA. Rushes north.|
|522||CAMBYSES-2 arrives at MEMPHIS. Finds people celebrating new APIS. Mortally wounds the sacred bull & has the priests flogged. Raids tombs & disturbs mummies.|
|522||CAMBYSES-2 destroys Egyptian temples at ELEPHANTINE, but spares Jewish temple. Leaves ARYANDES satrap in charge of Egypt & garrison at ELEPHANTINE. Goes north.
ARYANDES governs @ 25 years.
|522||CAMBYSES-2, 2nd King of MEDO-PERSIA from 529, DIES at Damascus. (or possibly Haran or Ecbatanna).
General DARIUS-1 succeeds to 486.
Unlike any supposed conquest by NEB-2, the conquest of Egypt by CAMBYSES-2 is well attested.
We possess the autobiography of the admiral of the Egyptian fleet, Wedjahor-Resne. It is written on a small statue now in the Vatican Museums in Rome. After the conquest of Egypt, Wedjahor-Resne was Cambyses' right-hand man.
"The great king of all foreign countries Cambyses came to Egypt, taking the foreigners of every foreign country with him. When he had taken possession of the entire country, they settled themselves down therein, and he was made great sovereign of Egypt and great king of all foreign countries. His Majesty appointed me his chief physician and caused me to stay with him in my quality of companion and director of the palace, and ordered me to compose his titulary, his name as king of Upper and Lower Egypt."
In an inscription on the statue of Udjadhorresnet, a Saite priest and doctor, as well as a former naval officer, we learn that Cambyses II was prepared to work with and promote native Egyptians to assist in government, and that he showed at least some respect for Egyptian religion:
"I let His Majesty know the greatness of Sais, that it is the seat of Neith-the-Great, mother who bore Re and inaugurated birth when birth had not yet been...I made a petition to the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Cambyses, about all the foreigners who dwelled in the temple of Neith, in order to have them expelled from it., so as to let the temple of Neith be in all its splendor, as it had been before. His Majesty commanded to expel all the foreigners who dwelled in the temple of Neith, to demolish all their houses and all their unclean things that were in the temple.
When they had carried all their personal belongings outside the wall of the temple, His Majesty commanded to cleanse the temple of Neith and to return all its personnel to it...and the hour-priests of the temple. His Majesty commanded to give divine offerings to Neith-the-Great, the mother of god, and to the great gods of Sais, as it had been before. His Majesty knew the greatness of Sais, that it is a city of all the gods, who dwell there on their seats forever."
Herodotus (who, to my knowledge, never mentions Nebuchadnezzar by name) describes his Hanging Gardens, but never mentions him in relation to Egypt, though Herodotus does talk about pharaohs Necho, Hophra, Ahmose, & Psamtik. [Necos, Apries, Amasis, & Psammis] and of course, Cambyses.
Herodotus notes how the Persians easily entered Egypt across the desert. They were advised by the defecting mercenary general, Phanes of Halicarnassus, to employ the Bedouins as guides. However, Phanes had left his two sons in Egypt. We are told that for his treachery, as the armies of the Persians and the mercenary army of the Egyptians met, his sons were bought out in front of the Egyptian army where they could be seen by their father, and there throats were slit over a large bowl. Afterwards, Herodotus tells us that water and wine were added to the contents of the bowl and drunk by every man in the Egyptian force.
"When Cambyses had entered the palace of Amasis, he gave command to take the corpse of Amasis out of his burial-place. When this had been done, he ordered [his courtiers] to scourge it and pluck out the hair and stab it, and to dishonor it in every other possible way. When they had done this too, they were wearied out, for the corpse was embalmed and held out against the violence and did not fall to pieces. Cambyses gave command to consume it with fire, a thing that was not permitted by his own religion. The Persians hold fire to be a god and to consume corpses with fire is by no means according to the Persian or Egyptian custom."
MANETHO lists the pharaohs of the 26th dynasty, then cites the Persians as the 27th dynasty.
"Cambyses reigned over his own kingdom, Persia, five years, and then over Egypt one year."
According to king, Darius I's BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, Cambyses, before going to Egypt, had secretly killed his brother, Bardiya, whom Herodotus called Smerdis. The murdered prince was, however, impersonated by Gaumata the Magian, who in March 522 seized the Achaemenid throne. Cambyses, on his return from Egypt, heard of the revolt in Syria, where he died in the summer of 522, either by his own hand or as the result of an accident.
(10) King Darius says: The following is what was done by me after I became king. A son of Cyrus, named Cambyses, one of our dynasty, was king here before me. That Cambyses had a brother, Smerdis by name, of the same mother and the same father as Cambyses. Afterwards, Cambyses slew this Smerdis. When Cambyses slew Smerdis, it was not known unto the people that Smerdis was slain. Thereupon Cambyses went to Egypt. When Cambyses had departed into Egypt, the people became hostile, and the lie multiplied in the land, even in Persia and Media, and in the other provinces.
A Jewish document from 407 BC known as 'The Demotic Chronicle' speaks of Cambyses destroying all the temples of the Egyptian gods.
Greek geographer STRABO of Amasia visited Thebes in 24 BC and saw the ruins of several temples said (by local priests) to have been destroyed by Cambyses.
If Jeremiah & Ezekiel were wrong about this, does that make them false prophets? Yes, according to Deut. 18:22. Would they not have been denounced for it, if they had been proven wrong? Only if the Jews of the time cared enough about it. But after recently having their entire country conquered, and being uprooted, chances are they were less concerned with technical correctness than with comfort & consolation, which Ezekiel provided with promises of future pie in the sky. And technically Jeremiah & Ezekiel did correctly predict Jerusalem's fall to Neb-2. After Egypt actually was conquered by the people who occupied Babylonia, Jeremiah & Ezekiel could easily have been forgiven for being just a little off. In fact, Cambyses' conquest of Egypt probably vindicated Jeremiah & Ezekiel in the minds of most contemporary Jews.
If your faith in God is inextricably tied to faith in inerrant scripture, then you have the right to believe Neb-2 conquered Egypt c.570BC, and cross off the historical evidence as flawed or insufficient. But if you want to talk history, don't muddle the issue by attacking disassociated statements in ancient documents that are not necessarily correct. Hardly any statements in ancient documents are necessarily correct. The best a historian can do is to create the most likely scenario that accounts for all of the evidence that he knows of at the time. So either present a coherent counter-timeline that better satisfies all the known evidence, or admit that you can't. | <urn:uuid:35bc4b89-6680-4f7a-922f-2e2ccf435a5e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sanityquestpublishing.com/essays/BabEgypt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91593 | 8,101 | 2.75 | 3 |
Landmark Book Gives Voice and Visibility to the Transgender Community
BY RYAN HOWE | When she was 12 years old, Laura Erickson-Schroth picked up her mom’s copy of “Our Bodies, Ourselves.” She flipped through the pages, entranced by what she was reading. The book — which took a radical stance (for 1973) on women’s bodies, sexuality, and rights, was filled with stories from women of all walks of life and backgrounds. It spoke to the self-proclaimed tomboy.
“I was always kind of dressing like a boy and playing sports, so gender was something that was always present in my life,” Erickson-Schroth said. “I was always being told what to do for gendered reasons, and reading this book with so many women breaking the stereotypes, it just stuck with me.”
“Our Bodies, Ourselves” continued to influence Erickson-Schroth through her teenage years and into adulthood. Five years ago, the idea that women should be telling their own stories led her to start a project that would give transgender and gender non-conforming people an outlet to share their own stories, and educate readers on trans issues.
The result, “Trans Bodies, Trans Selves,” was released by Oxford University Press on May 20.
Taking her cue from “Our Bodies, Ourselves,” Erickson-Schroth wanted to produce something with voices from every part of the trans community and share trans health information with the public.
“In ‘Our Bodies, Ourselves’ I was captivated not only by the quotes from hundreds of women, but the way they challenged the medical world’s monopoly on knowledge about women’s bodies,” Erickson-Schroth said. “That’s what we did with our book.”
Reading as part educational, part memoir, part picture book, “Trans Bodies, Tran Selves” prides itself on being a book that is not meant to be flipped through from cover to cover. It is to be referenced, and picked up and put down at different times, Erickson-Schroth explained.
Complete with a glossary defining different terms used in the trans community and an introductory chapter providing an overview of terminology and concepts that will help readers delve into the rest of the book, the project is first and foremost an educational tool for the trans community, allies, and doctors.
Another goal was to share as many viewpoints and personal stories as possible. The contributing authors come from multiple backgrounds with expertise in law, health, culture, and policy. Quotes from more than 3,000 people appear scattered through the chapters.
When Erickson-Schroth studied at Middlebury College in Vermont from 1999 to 2003, trans issues weren’t something that was on people’s minds. It wasn’t until after she graduated that some of her friends came out as trans, she started meeting other trans people, and getting trans patients in medical school, that it became more present in her life. She quickly started noticing a disconnect between health providers and trans people.
“Health providers were either hostile or uneducated about trans issues,” she said. “But trans people saw health providers as gatekeepers because that was their role for a really long time.”
With information scattered all over the web, Erickson-Schroth and her team sought to compile all of the essential material into a book covering health issues, employment, social transition, and community building.
Psychotherapist and trans activist Laura Jacobs got involved with the project two years ago, when she met Erickson-Schroth while doing similar public speaking and activism.
Jacobs contributed a few excerpts and helped edit the book — but to her, it was much more than that. “Trans Bodies, Trans Selves” is providing a resource that she didn’t have growing up. Jacobs recalls that in the ’70s and ’80s there wasn’t much out there about trans issues except for scandalous stuff and porn. “To see this piece of work created is so incredible,” she said.
When she transitioned in the early 90s, it was still difficult for Jacobs to find literature on trans issues. Even with the few books she could find in the library, and sneak out between other books, or find on the Internet, she was still left with very stigmatized information.
She continued to look for information, or role models, or resources to help better her knowledge of the physical aspect or the stigma issues. So to be a part of something that put a lot of the information in one place really spoke to her.
“I have been working in the community for years, and this is the first book that really is geared toward educating the community and allies on a number of issues without it being written in an academic or medical way,” Jacobs said. “A high school student could pick this up and follow it.”
Jacobs not only contributed to the book, but is also continuing the work of the project as she serves on the board of trustees for the Trans Bodies, Trans Selves nonprofit organization (see transbodies.com). The board is currently raising money to help get the book into the hands of those who can’t afford it, or who need it most. They are also working on spreading the word about the book, and gathering more stories for future editions.
Although the book incorporates thousands of trans identifying people, the goal is to get more people from outside the U.S. and Canada to tell their stories. The estimated date for the next book release is 2020.
“Right now we are working on getting the first issue to as many people as possible,” Jacobs said. “What’s really wonderful about [the book], is that we got so many people to contribute. Every chapter is incorporating a different person’s perspective.”
Erickson-Schroth hopes “Trans Bodies, Trans Selves” catches on like the book it was modeled after, and can continue to publish updates as time goes on. On the back cover of 1973’s “Our Bodies, Ourselves,” are the books last words: “Please share this book with others.”
“That’s still the most important message I can share with people,” Erickson-Schroth said. “Spread the word. Share this book with everyone.” | <urn:uuid:eb0367f2-4660-4aff-97ae-dca80eb44d74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://chelseanow.com/2014/06/landmark-book-gives-voice-and-visibility-to-the-transgender-community/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975685 | 1,380 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Picture a telescope orbiting in space, and your mind probably flies to the Hubble Space Telescope. At roughly 43 feet long and weighing 25,000 pounds, its footprint is the size of a small house and it’s just a little shy of the weight of a subway car. But not all satellite telescopes are behemoths–one launched yesterday from India, designed and developed by the Space Flight Laboratory of the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, is roughly the size of a cooler you’d bring to a picnic.
The telescope is part of the Bright Target Explorer (BRITE) mission, an effort designed to observe stars and record changes in their brightness over time. Launched into orbit above the masking effects of our atmosphere, the telescope and its simultaneously launched twin will focus on the brightest stars–such as those in well-known constellations like Orion and the Big Dipper–looking for pulsations and reverberations in brightness that indicate spots on a star, a planet or another celestial object crossing its orbit, or flickering energy intensities within the star itself. These flickers, called “starquakes,” give clues to the composition and internal structure of stars.
BRITE's telescopes are nanosatellites, meaning that they weigh less than ten kilograms. At seven kilograms–about as heavy as a large bowling ball–and measuring 20 centimeters on each side, they are the smallest telescopes in orbit. The cubic satellites did not require a dedicated rocket to get there–these hitched a ride on India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. Future launches of similar twin nanosatellites will help BRITE to become a satellite constellation that scans the sky for different wavelengths of light pulsing from stars.
Nanosatellites, part of a recent trend to conduct space-based science at low cost and with fast results, “can be developed quickly, by a small team and at a cost that is within reach of many universities, small companies and other organizations,” said Cordell Grant, manager of satellite systems for the Space Flight Laboratory, in a statement. “A nano-satellite can take anywhere from six months to a few years to develop and test,” he added. In contrast, Hubble took more than 12 years to design and construct before it launched with space shuttle Discovery in 1990.
But nanosatellites aren’t the only kind of small satellites out there. Here are some other tiny orbiters:
First launched on the last flight of Endeavour, sprites–also called femtosatellites–look about the size of a postage stamp. Developed by Cornell University scientists, these satellites are in interplanetary space collecting data about chemistry, radiation and particle impacts. Lead engineer Mason Peck, now a chief technologist at NASA, told the Cornell University Chronicle that “Their small size allows them to travel like space dust.” He added, “Blown by solar winds, they can ‘sail’ to distant locations without fuel.”
The grapefruit-sized CubeSat, a type of picosatellite, measures 10 centimeters on each side. “I got a 4-inch beanie baby box and tacked on some solar cells to see how many would fit on the surface,” Bob Twiggs, the satellite’s lead designer, told Space.com. “I had enough voltage for what I needed so I decided that would be the size.” Developed in 1999 with the help of Jordi Puig-Suari of California Polytechnic State University, along with students at Stanford University while Twigg was a professor there, CubeSats are now the go-to small satellite. They appeal to universities–at roughly $65,ooo to $80,000 a pop, they can fit within research budgets, allowing students the opportunity to design and build a research satellite.
Some, like GeneSat-1 provides life support for bacterium and are aimed at helping scientists learn more about how spaceflight affects the human body. Another–SwissCube-1–examines nightglow in Earth’s atmosphere. Launched alongside BRITE, the STRaND-1–a string of 3 CubeSats stacked together–is the first smartphone-powered satellite ever launched into space. The Android phone that serves as the device’s brain will run apps that will photograph its orbit, monitor the Earth’s magnetic field, and–perhaps most exciting–will allow people to upload videos of themselves screaming to test whether sounds broadcasted in space can be heard by the satellite playing them. Other CubeSats in development will assist researchers understand space weather, phenomena that could short out the other satellites that orbit Earth.
It’s interesting to remember that the first satellite–Sputnik-1, launched in 1957–was a 23-inch diameter sphere. These nano-, pico-, and femto-satellites harken back to those roots. But their size, cost, and ability to be developed quickly may make them the most useful satellites of the future. Hopefully they won’t lead to oodles more space junk! | <urn:uuid:46f42dac-51f2-4e2f-90cb-0cbd78eefe46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/small-satellitessome-the-size-of-postage-stampsare-transforming-how-scientists-conduct-space-based-research-28226426/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929732 | 1,062 | 3.828125 | 4 |
On this Page
Diphtheria is an acute, toxin-mediated disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The name of the disease is derived from the Greek diphthera, meaning leather hide. The disease was described in the 5th century BCE by Hippocrates, and epidemics were described in the 6th century AD by Aetius. The bacterium was first observed in diphtheritic membranes by Klebs in 1883 and cultivated by Löffler in 1884. Antitoxin was invented in the late 19th century, and toxoid was developed in the 1920s.
- Greek diphthera (leather hide)
- Recognized by Hippocrates in 5th century BCE
- Epidemics described in 6th century
- C. diphtheriae described by Klebs in 1883
- Toxoid developed in 1920s
- Aerobic gram-positive bacillus
- Toxin production occurs only when C. diphtheriae infected by virus (phage) carrying tox gene
- If isolated, must be distinguished from normal diphtheroid
C. diphtheriae is an aerobic gram-positive bacillus. Toxin production (toxigenicity) occurs only when the bacillus is itself infected (lysogenized) by a specific virus (bacteriophage) carrying the genetic information for the toxin (tox gene). Only toxigenic strains can cause severe disease.
Culture of the organism requires selective media containing tellurite. If isolated, the organism must be distinguished in the laboratory from other Corynebacterium species that normally inhabit the nasopharynx and skin (e.g., diphtheroids).
C. diphtheriae has four biotypes—gravis, intermedius, mitis and belfanti. All strains may produce toxin and can cause severe disease. All isolates of C. diphtheriae should be tested for toxigenicity.
Susceptible persons may acquire toxigenic diphtheria bacilli in the nasopharynx. The organism produces a toxin that inhibits cellular protein synthesis and is responsible for local tissue destruction and pseudomembrane formation. The toxin produced at the site of the membrane is absorbed into the bloodstream and then distributed to the tissues of the body. The toxin is responsible for the major complications of myocarditis and neuritis and can also cause low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) and protein in the urine (proteinuria).
Non-toxin producing strains may cause mild to moderate pharyngitis but are not associated with formation of a pseudomembrane. While rare severe cases have been reported, these may actually have been caused by toxigenic strains that were not detected because of inadequate culture sampling.
Diphtheria Clinical Features
- Incubation period 2-5 days (range, 1-10 days)
- May involve any mucous membrane
- Classified based on site of disease
- anterior nasal
- pharyngeal and tonsillar
Pharyngeal and Tonsillar Diphtheria
- Insidious onset of pharyngitis
- Within 2-3 days membrane forms
- Membrane may cause respiratory obstruction
- Fever usually not high but patient appears toxic
The incubation period of diphtheria is 2-5 days (range, 1-10 days).
Disease can involve almost any mucous membrane. For clinical purposes, it is convenient to classify diphtheria into a number of manifestations, depending on the anatomic site of disease.
Anterior Nasal Diphtheria
The onset of anterior nasal diphtheria is indistinguishable from that of the common cold and is usually characterized by a mucopurulent nasal discharge (containing both mucus and pus) which may become blood-tinged. A white membrane usually forms on the nasal septum. The disease is usually fairly mild because of apparent poor systemic absorption of toxin in this location, and it can be terminated rapidly by diphtheria antitoxin and antibiotic therapy.
Pharyngeal and Tonsillar Diphtheria
The most common sites of diphtheria infection are the pharynx and the tonsils. Infection at these sites is usually associated with substantial systemic absorption of toxin. The onset of pharyngitis is insidious. Early symptoms include malaise, sore throat, anorexia, and low-grade fever (<101°F). Within 2-3 days, a bluish-white membrane forms and extends, varying in size from covering a small patch on the tonsils to covering most of the soft palate. Often by the time a physician is contacted, the membrane is greyish-green, or black if bleeding has occurred. There is a minimal amount of mucosal erythema surrounding the membrane. The pseudomembrane is firmly adherent to the tissue, and forcible attempts to remove it cause bleeding. Extensive pseudomembrane formation may result in respiratory obstruction.
While some patients may recover at this point without treatment, others may develop severe disease. Fever is usually not high, even though the patient may appear quite toxic. Patients with severe disease may develop marked edema of the submandibular areas and the anterior neck along with lymphadenopathy, giving a characteristic “bullneck” appearance. If enough toxin is absorbed, the patient may develop severe prostration, striking pallor, rapid pulse, stupor, and coma, and may even die within 6 to 10 days.
Laryngeal diphtheria can be either an extension of the pharyngeal form or can involve only this site. Symptoms include fever, hoarseness, and a barking cough. The membrane can lead to airway obstruction, coma, and death.
Cutaneous (Skin) Diphtheria
In the United States, cutaneous diphtheria has been most often associated with homeless persons. Skin infections are quite common in the tropics and are probably responsible for the high levels of natural immunity found in these populations. Skin infections may be manifested by a scaling rash or by ulcers with clearly demarcated edges and membrane, but any chronic skin lesion may harbor C. diphtheriae along with other organisms. Generally, the organisms isolated from cases in the United States were nontoxigenic. The severity of the skin disease with toxigenic strains appears to be less than from other sites. Cutaneous diphtheria is no longer reported to the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System in the United States.
Rarely, other sites of involvement include the mucous membranes of the conjunctiva and vulvovaginal area, as well as the external auditory canal.
- Most attributable to toxin
- Severity generally related to extent of local disease
- Most frequent complications are myocarditis and neuritis
- Death occurs in 5%-10%
Most complications of diphtheria, including death, are attributable to effects of the toxin. The severity of the disease and complications are generally related to the extent of local disease. The toxin, when absorbed, affects organs and tissues distant from the site of invasion. The most frequent complications of diphtheria are myocarditis and neuritis.
Myocarditis may present as abnormal cardiac rhythms and can occur early in the course of the illness or weeks later, and can lead to heart failure. If myocarditis occurs early, it is often fatal.
Neuritis most often affects motor nerves and usually resolves completely. Paralysis of the soft palate is most frequent during the third week of illness. Paralysis of eye muscles, limbs, and diaphragm can occur after the fifth week. Secondary pneumonia and respiratory failure may result from diaphragmatic paralysis.
Other complications include otitis media and respiratory insufficiency due to airway obstruction, especially in infants.
The overall case-fatality rate for diphtheria is 5%-10%, with higher death rates (up to 20%) among persons younger than 5 and older than 40 years of age. The case-fatality rate for diphtheria has changed very little during the last 50 years.
Diagnosis of diphtheria is usually made on the basis of clinical presentation since it is imperative to begin presumptive therapy quickly.
Culture of the lesion is done to confirm the diagnosis. It is critical to take a swab of the pharyngeal area, especially any discolored areas, ulcerations, and tonsillar crypts. Culture medium containing tellurite is preferred because it provides a selective advantage for the growth of this organism. If diphtheria bacilli are isolated, they must be tested for toxin production.
A blood agar plate is also inoculated for detection of hemolytic streptococcus. Gram stain and Kenyon stain of material from the membrane itself can be helpful when trying to confirm the clinical diagnosis. The Gram stain may show multiple club-shaped forms that look like Chinese characters. Other Corynebacterium species (diphtheroids) that can normally inhabit the throat may confuse the interpretation of direct stain. However, treatment should be started if clinical diphtheria is suggested, even in the absence of a Gram stain.
In the event that prior antibiotic therapy may have impeded a positive culture in a suspect diphtheria case, three sources of evidence can aid in presumptive diagnosis: 1) a positive polymerase chain reaction test for diphtheria tox genes, or 2) isolation of C. diphtheriae from cultures of specimens from close contacts, or 3) a low nonprotective diphtheria antibody titer (less than 0.1 IU) in serum obtained prior to antitoxin administration. This is done by commercial laboratories and requires several days. To isolate C. diphtheriae from carriers, it is best to inoculate a Löffler or Pai slant with the throat swab. After an incubation period of 18-24 hours, growth from the slant is used to inoculate a medium containing tellurite.
- Produced in horses
- First used in the U.S. in the 1890s
- Used only for treatment of diphtheria
- Neutralizes only unbound toxin
Diphtheria antitoxin, produced in horses, was used for treatment of diphtheria in the United States since the 1890s. It is not indicated for prophylaxis of contacts of diphtheria patients. Since 1997, diphtheria antitoxin has been available only from CDC, through an Investigational New Drug (IND) protocol. Diphtheria antitoxin does not neutralize toxin that is already fixed to tissues, but it will neutralize circulating (unbound) toxin and prevent progression of disease. The patient must be tested for sensitivity before antitoxin is given. Consultation on the use of diphtheria antitoxin is available through the duty officer at the CDC through CDC’s Emergency Operations Center at 770-488-7100.
After a provisional clinical diagnosis is made, appropriate specimens should be obtained for culture and the patient placed in isolation. Persons with suspected diphtheria should be given diphtheria antitoxin and antibiotics in adequate dosage. Respiratory support and airway maintenance should also be administered as needed.
The antibiotics of choice are erythromycin (500 mg four times daily for 14 days) or procaine penicillin G (300,000 units every 12 hours for patients ≤10 kg and 600,000 units every 12 hours for patients >10 kg intramuscularly) until the patient can take oral medicine, followed by oral penicillin V (250 mg four times daily) for a total treatment course of 14 days. The disease is usually not contagious 48 hours after antibiotics are instituted. Elimination of the organism should be documented by two consecutive negative cultures after therapy is completed.
For close contacts, especially household contacts, a diphtheria booster, appropriate for age, should be given. Contacts should also receive antibiotics—benzathine penicillin G (600,000 units for persons younger than 6 years old and 1,200,000 units for those 6 years old and older) or a 7- to 10-day course of oral erythromycin (40 mg/kg/day for children and 1 g/day for adults). For compliance reasons, if surveillance of contacts cannot be maintained, they should receive benzathine penicillin G. Identified carriers in the community should also receive antibiotics. Maintain close surveillance and begin antitoxin at the first signs of illness.
Contacts of cutaneous diphtheria should be treated as described above; however, if the strain is shown to be nontoxigenic, investigation of contacts should be discontinued.
- human carriers
- usually asymptomatic
- skin and fomites rarely
- Temporal pattern
- winter and spring
- without antibiotics, seldom more than 4 weeks
Diphtheria occurs worldwide, particularly in tropical countries. Diphtheria is a rare disease in industrialized countries including the United States. In the United States during the pre-vaccine era, the highest incidence was in the Southeast during the winter.
Human carriers are the reservoir for C. diphtheriae and are usually asymptomatic. In outbreaks, high percentages of children are found to be transient carriers.
Transmission is most often person-to-person spread from the respiratory tract. Rarely, transmission may occur from skin lesions or articles soiled with discharges from lesions of infected persons (fomites).
In temperate areas, diphtheria most frequently occurs during winter and spring.
Transmission may occur as long as virulent bacilli are present in discharges and lesions. The time is variable, but without antibiotics, organisms usually persist 2 weeks or less and seldom more than 4 weeks. Chronic carriers may shed organisms for 6 months or more. Effective antibiotic therapy promptly terminates shedding.
Diphtheria - Age Distribution of Reported Cases, United States
Globally, diphtheria was once a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children. In England and Wales during the 1930s, diphtheria was among the top three causes of death for children younger than 15 years of age. During the 1920s in the United States, 100,000-200,000 cases of diphtheria (140-150 cases per 100,000 population) and 13,000-15,000 deaths were reported each year. In 1921, a total of 206,000 cases and 15,520 deaths were reported. The number of cases gradually declined to about 19,000 in 1945 (15 per 100,000 population). A more rapid decrease began with the widespread use of diphtheria toxoid in the late 1940s.
From 1970 through 1979, an average of 196 cases per year were reported. This included a high proportion of cutaneous cases from an outbreak in Washington State. Beginning in 1980, all cutaneous cases were excluded from reporting. Diphtheria was seen most frequently in Native Americans and persons in lower socioeconomic strata.
From 1980 through 2011, 55 cases of diphtheria were reported in the United States, an average of 1 or 2 per year (range, 0-5 cases per year). Only 5 cases have been reported since 2000.
Of 53 reported cases with known patient age since 1980, 34 (64%) were in persons 20 years of age or older; 41% of cases were among persons 40 years of age or older. Most cases have occurred in unimmunized or inadequately immunized persons. The current age distribution of cases corroborates the finding of inadequate levels of circulating antitoxin in many adults (up to 60% with less than protective levels).
Although diphtheria disease is rare in the United States, it appears that toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae continues to circulate in areas of the country with previously endemic diphtheria. In 1996, 8 isolates of toxigenic C. diphtheriae were obtained from persons in a Native American community in South Dakota. None of the infected persons had classic diphtheria disease, although five had either pharyngitis or tonsillitis. The presence of toxigenic C. diphtheriae in this community is a good reminder for providers not to let down their guard against this organism.
Diphtheria continues to occur in other parts of the world. A major epidemic of diphtheria occurred in countries of the former Soviet Union beginning in 1990. By 1994, the epidemic had affected all 15 Newly Independent States (NIS). More than 157,000 cases and more than 5,000 deaths were reported. In the 6 years from 1990 through 1995, the NIS accounted for more than 90% of all diphtheria cases reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) from the entire world. In some NIS countries, up to 80% of the epidemic diphtheria cases have been among adults. The outbreak and the age distribution of cases are believed to be due to several factors, including a lack of routine immunization of adults in these countries. Globally, reported cases of diphtheria have declined from 11,625 in 2000 to 4,880 cases in 2011.
Minimum Intervals and Ages
- Converted from toxin to toxoid
- 3 or 4 doses plus booster
- booster every 10 years
- approximately 95%
- approximately 10 years
- Should be administered with tetanus toxoid as DTaP, DT, Td, or Tdap
Beginning in the early 1900s, prophylaxis was attempted with toxin-antitoxin mixtures. Toxoid was developed around 1921 but was not widely used until the early 1930s. It was incorporated with tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccine and became routinely used in the 1940s.
Diphtheria toxoid is produced by growing toxigenic C. diphtheriae in liquid medium. The filtrate is incubated with formaldehyde to convert toxin to toxoid and is then adsorbed onto an aluminum salt.
Single-antigen diphtheria toxoid is not available. Diphtheria toxoid is combined with tetanus toxoid as pediatric diphtheria-tetanus toxoid (DT) or adult tetanus-diphtheria (Td), and with both tetanus toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccine as DTaP and Tdap. Diphtheria toxoid is also available as combined DTaP-HepB-IPV (Pediarix) and DTaP-IPV/Hib (Pentacel)—see Pertussis chapter for more information. Pediatric formulations (DT and DTaP) contain a similar amount of tetanus toxoid as adult Td, but contain 3 to 4 times as much diphtheria toxoid. Children younger than 7 years of age should receive either DTaP or pediatric DT. Persons 7 years of age or older should receive the adult formulation (adult Td), even if they have not completed a series of DTaP or pediatric DT. Two brands of Tdap are available—Boostrix (approved for persons 10 years of age or older) and Adacel (approved for persons 10 through 64 years of age). DTaP and Tdap vaccines do not contain thimerosal as a preservative.
Routine DTaP Primary Vaccination Schedule
|Primary 1||2 months||---|
|Primary 2||4 months||4 weeks|
|Primary 3||6 months||4 weeks|
|Primary 4||15-18 months||6 months|
Children Who Receive DT
- The number of doses of DT needed to complete the series depends on the child’s age at the first dose:
- if first dose given at younger than 12 months of age, 4 doses are recommended
- if first dose given at 12 months or older, 3 doses complete the primary series
Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis Booster Doses
- 4 through 6 years of age, before entering school (DTaP)
- 11 or 12 years of age (Tdap)
- Every 10 years thereafter (Td)
Routine Td Schedule for Unvaccinated Persons 7 Years of Age and Older
|Primary 2||4 weeks|
|Primary 3||6 to 12 months|
Booster dose every 10 years
*ACIP recommends that one of these doses (preferably the first) be administered as Tdap
Immunogenicity and Vaccine Efficacy
After a primary series of three properly spaced diphtheria toxoid doses in adults or four doses in infants, a protective level of antitoxin (defined as greater than 0.1 IU of antitoxin/mL) is reached in more than 95%. Diphtheria toxoid has been estimated to have a clinical efficacy of 97%.
DTaP (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine) is the vaccine of choice for children 6 weeks through 6 years of age. The usual schedule is a primary series of 4 doses at 2, 4, 6, and 15-18 months of age. The first, second, and third doses of DTaP should be separated by a minimum of 4 weeks. The fourth dose should follow the third dose by no less than 6 months, and should not be administered before 12 months of age.
If a child has a valid contraindication to pertussis vaccine, pediatric DT should be used to complete the vaccination series. If the child was younger than 12 months old when the first dose of DT was administered (as DTP, DTaP, or DT), the child should receive a total of four primary DT doses. If the child was 12 months of age or older at the time the first dose of DT was administered, three doses (third dose 6-12 months after the second) complete the primary DT series.
If the fourth dose of DT, DTP or DTaP is administered before the fourth birthday, a booster (fifth) dose is recommended at 4 through 6 years of age. The fifth dose is not required if the fourth dose was given on or after the fourth birthday.
Vaccines containing reduced diphtheria (i.e., Td and Tdap) are indicated for children 7 years and older and for adults. A primary series is three or four doses, depending on whether the person has received prior doses of diphtheria-containing vaccine, and the age these doses were administered. The number of doses recommended for children who received one or more doses of DTP, DTaP, or DT before age 7 years is discussed above. For unvaccinated persons 7 years and older (including persons who cannot document prior vaccination), the primary series is three doses. The first two doses should be separated by at least 4 weeks, and the third dose given 6 to 12 months after the second. ACIP recommends that one of these doses (preferably the first) be administered as Tdap. A booster dose of Td should be given every 10 years. Persons who have never received Tdap should be given a dose of Tdap as one of these boosters. Refer to the pertussis chapter for more information about Tdap.
Interruption of the recommended schedule or delay of subsequent doses does not reduce the response to the vaccine when the series is finally completed. There is no need to restart a series regardless of the time elapsed between doses.
Diphtheria disease might not confer immunity. Persons recovering from diphtheria should begin or complete active immunization with diphtheria toxoid during convalescence.
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids Contraindications and Precautions
- Severe allergic reaction to vaccine component or following a prior dose
- Moderate or severe acute illness
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids Adverse Events
- Reports of severe systemic adverse events (urticaria, anophylaxis, neurologic complications) are rare
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids Adverse Reactions
- Local reactions (erythema, induration) are common
- Fever and systemic symptoms not common
- Exaggerated local reactions (Arthus-type) occasionally reported
Persons with a history of a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) to a vaccine component or following a prior dose should not receive additional doses of diphtheria toxoid. Diphtheria toxoid should be deferred for those persons who have moderate or severe acute illness, but persons with minor illness may be vaccinated. Immunosuppression and pregnancy are not contraindications to receiving diphtheria toxoid. See pertussis chapter for additional information on contraindications and precautions to Tdap.
Rarely, severe systemic adverse events, such as generalized urticaria, anaphylaxis, or neurologic complications have been reported following administration of diphtheria toxoid.
Local reactions, generally erythema and induration with or without tenderness, are common after the administration of vaccines containing diphtheria toxoid. Local reactions are usually self-limited and require no therapy. A nodule may be palpable at the injection site for several weeks. Abscess at the site of injection has been reported. Fever and other systemic symptoms are not common.
Exaggerated local (Arthus-type) reactions are occasionally reported following receipt of a diphtheria- or tetanus-containing vaccine. These reactions present as extensive painful swelling, often from shoulder to elbow. They generally begin 2-8 hours after injections and are reported most often in adults, particularly those who have received frequent doses of diphtheria or tetanus toxoid. Persons experiencing these severe reactions usually have very high serum antitoxin levels; they should not be given further routine or emergency booster doses of Td more frequently than every 10 years. Less severe local reactions may occur in persons who have multiple prior boosters.
All diptheria-toxoid containing vaccines should be maintained at refrigerator temperature between 35°F and 46°F (2°C and 8°C). Manufacturer package inserts contain additional information. For complete information on best practices and recommendations please refer to CDC’s Vaccine Storage and Handling Toolkit [4.33 MB, 109 pages].
Immediate action on all highly suspect cases is warranted until they are shown not to be caused by toxigenic C. diphtheriae. The following action should also be taken for any toxigenic C. diphtheriae carriers who are detected.
- Contact state health department or CDC.
- Obtain appropriate cultures and preliminary clinical and epidemiologic information (including vaccine history).
- Begin early presumptive treatment with antitoxin and antibiotics. Impose strict isolation until at least two cultures are negative 24 hours after antibiotics were discontinued.
- Identify close contacts, especially household members and other persons directly exposed to oral secretions of the patient. Culture all close contacts, regardless of their immunization status. Ideally, culture should be from both throat and nasal swabs. After culture, all contacts should receive antibiotic prophylaxis. Inadequately immunized contacts should receive DTaP/DT/Td/Tdap boosters. If fewer than three doses of diphtheria toxoid have been given, or vaccination history is unknown, an immediate dose of diphtheria toxoid should be given and the primary series completed according to the current schedule. If more than 5 years have elapsed since administration of diphtheria toxoid-containing vaccine, a booster dose should be given. If the most recent dose was within 5 years, no booster is required (see the ACIP’s 1991 Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis: Recommendations for Vaccine Use and Other Preventive Measures for schedule for children younger than 7 years of age). Unimmunized contacts should start a course of DTaP/DT/Td vaccine and be monitored closely for symptoms of diphtheria for 7 days.
- Treat any confirmed carrier with an adequate course of antibiotic, and repeat cultures at a minimum of 2 weeks to ensure eradication of the organism. Persons who continue to harbor the organism after treatment with either penicillin or erythromycin should receive an additional 10-day course of erythromycin and should submit samples for follow-up cultures.
- Treat any contact with antitoxin at the first sign of illness.
The editors thank Dr. Cindy Weinbaum, CDC for her assistance in updating this chapter.
- CDC. Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis: Recommendations for vaccine use and other preventive measures: recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). MMWR 1991;40(No. RR-10):1-28.
- CDC. Pertussis vaccination: use of acellular pertussis vaccines among infants and young children. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR 1997;46 (No. RR-7):1-25.
- CDC. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adolescents: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR 2006;55(No. RR-3):1-34.
- CDC. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adults: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and Recommendation of ACIP, supported by the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), for Use of Tdap Among Health-Care Personnel. MMWR 2006;55(No. RR-17):1-33.
- Farizo KM, Strebel PM, Chen RT, Kimbler A, Cleary TJ, Cochi SL. Fatal respiratory disease due to Corynebacterium diphtheriae: case report and review of guidelines for management, investigation, and control. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:59-68.
- Vitek CR, Wharton M. Diphtheria in the former Soviet Union: reemergence of a pandemic disease. Emerg Infect Dis 1998;4:539-50.
- Vitek CR, Wharton M, Diphtheria toxoid. In Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit, PA, eds. Vaccines. 5th ed. China: Saunders, 2008:139-56.
- Page last reviewed: May 15, 2015
- Page last updated: November 9, 2015
- Content source: | <urn:uuid:263d439d-2d44-4f8f-9542-7fb514b1fc48> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/dip.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916137 | 6,484 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Get Help from Bob Vila
- Give-Aways & Offers
- Monthly Must Do's
- DIY Project Ideas
- Step-by-Step Guides
- Inspirational Photo Galleries
Insulation is a non-structural material used to reduce heat transfer. The most typical forms of insulation available are rigid sheets, flexible blankets, and loose fill. These may be composed of fiberglass or rock wool fibers, cellulose (paper) fibers, and a variety of foams. Specialized insulation, which is intended to reduce solar heat gain or air and water infiltration, is sold in plastic or metallicized-plastic sheets.
Building a Barrier
In theory, insulation is akin to the extra blanket on the bed. Bed or home, the principle is essentially the same: By trapping an unmoving layer of air next to a heat source, heat transfer is reduced and comfort is increased. Reflective insulation, as its name implies, reflects heat back to its source. Typically made of foil, treated paper or plastic film, reflective insulation becomes a radiant barrier when used alone and facing an open space. Reflective barriers can be used under roofing to prevent solar heat gains in warm climates or below floor joists to retain winter heat.
The Value of Insulation
Heat always flows from its source to surrounding cooler areas; insulation is designed to slow this heat transfer. The relative efficiency with which it does so is called the R-value, with R representing insulation’s resistance to heat flow. Manufacturers are required to disclose the R-value of their insulation products, and usually provide this data on the product packaging. If it is not there, ask the seller for a fact sheet containing this information.
R-value is proportional to the insulation’s thickness, and varies depending on the type of insulating material. An inch of fiberglass blanket or batt has an average R-value of 3.2, while the R-value of loose-fill cellulose is about 3.5 per inch. Sprayed-on polyurethane foam tips the scales at an average R-value of 5.9. The overall R-value of a building has a critical impact on home energy consumption. The U.S. Department of Energy reports that an average home spends up to 70 percent of its energy consumption on heating and cooling. Higher home R-values mean greater efficiency as well as comfort.
Keeping air from moving really matters, since even a small draft can reduce insulation’s efficiency. DuPont claims that air infiltration can drop a wall’s insulative value from an installed rating of R-13 to a performance value of R-5. Manufacturers have addressed this problem by offering air infiltration barriers, commonly referred to as house wraps or building wrap, to shield insulation from moving air. These barriers are often designed to combat water infiltration as well, a liability that can seriously impair insulation’s efficiency.
Other products can team with insulation to make the entire building envelope more energy efficient and the conditioned indoor space more livable. These would include products like spray foam sealants, electrical cover plate gaskets, and hot water pipe covers. Doors and windows are obvious partners, but so are their less visible counterparts like caulking and weather-stripping. These energy-saving components can be installed over the weekend and will help boost your home’s overall thermal performance immediately.
Where to Put It
Insulation is usually placed in the interior cavities or on the rough surfaces of the exterior walls, and covered with finish materials such as drywall. Certainly homeowners doing new construction and remodeling work have the greatest number of insulating options, since their buildings are wide open. There are some retrofit insulation products designed for minimal disruption to finished wall or ceiling surfaces in existing homes. | <urn:uuid:80e74686-e32c-4bb6-94a0-b0208068f2cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bobvila.com/articles/303-insulation-101/?bv=ymal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937237 | 778 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Based on research conducted over two decades, this accessible and deeply felt book provides a provocative comparative history of environmentalism in two large ecologically and culturally diverse democracies--India and the United States. Ramachandra Guha takes as his point of departure the dominant environmental philosophies in these two countries--identified as "agrarianism" in India and "wilderness thinking" in the U.S. Proposing an inclusive "social ecology" framework that goes beyond these partisan ideologies, Guha arrives at a richer understanding of controversies over large dams, state forests, wildlife reserves, and more. He offers trenchant critiques of privileged and isolationist proponents of conservation, persuasively arguing for biospheres that care as much for humans as for other species. He also provides profiles of three remarkable environmental thinkers and activists--Lewis Mumford, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, and Madhav Gadgil. Finally, the author asks the fundamental environmental question--how much should a person or country consume?--and explores a range of answers.
Copub: Permanent Black
Back to top
Rent How Much Should a Person Consume? 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Ramachandra Guha. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by University of California Press.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:08c607bf-2134-4a79-b4c0-a8d4285d0713> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/how-much-should-a-person-consume-1st-edition-9780520248052-0520248058 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920561 | 297 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The electrical power subsystem is responsible for generating, storing, and distributing power to the orbiter systems and includes two solar panels and two nickel-hydrogen batteries:
The one and only source of power for Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is sunlight. Mounted on opposite sides of the orbiter and capable of changing position to allow the orbiter to track the Sun continuously (see mechanisms), each solar panel has an area of approximately 10 square meters (107.6 square feet) and contains 3,744 individual solar cells. The solar cells are able to convert more than 26 percent of the Sun's energy directly into electricity (that's very good for solar cells!), and are connected together so that the power they produce is 32 volts, the voltage that most devices on the spacecraft need to operate properly. At Mars, the two panels together produce 1,000 watts of power.
During aerobraking, the solar panels had a special role to play. As the spacecraft skimmed through the upper layers of the martian atmosphere, the large, flat panels acted a little like parachutes to slow the spacecraft down and reduce the size of its orbit.
The friction from the atmosphere passing over the spacecraft during aerobraking heated it up, with the solar arrays heating up most of all. The solar arrays had to be designed to withstand temperatures of almost 200 Celsius (almost 400 degrees Fahrenheit!).
During each two-hour orbit around Mars the spacecraft experiences a "day" and a "night." During the "night," there is no sunlight because the planet is between the orbiter and the Sun, and therefore blocks the Sun's light from reaching the spacecraft. Astronauts on the shuttle experience this kind of pattern when they orbit the Earth.
During the nighttime periods, batteries provide the necessary electrical power. The batteries recharge each "day" (using only part of the electricity produced by the solar cells) and discharge each "night" to keep the spacecraft supplied with electricity.
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter uses two nickel-hydrogen rechargeable batteries, each with an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere-hours -- at 32 volts that's 1,600 watts for one hour. The spacecraft can't use this total capacity, because as a battery discharges its voltage drops. If the voltage ever dropped below about 20 volts the computer would stop functioning -- a very bad thing! So, to be safe, only about 40 percent of the battery capacity is ever planned to be used. | <urn:uuid:3e241e16-eb9c-496f-970e-9caefc04f2e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/mission/spacecraft/parts/electricalpower/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934116 | 500 | 4.21875 | 4 |
Titles by Subject
Family & Relationships
1001 Children's Books You Must Read Before You Grow Up
Written by Julia Eccleshare, Preface by Quentin Blake
About This Book
This is the best and most authoritative guide to classic and contemporary children’s literature today. It is the latest in the best-selling 1001 series, and its informative reviews are the key to differentiating the "must-read" books from all the rest in the realm of children’s books. Whether you are a parent seeking to instill a love of reading in your child, an educator or counselor looking for inspiration, or a young reader with a voracious appetite, this guide to the best writing for children and young adults covers the spectrum of children’s literature. It is organized by age group—from board books to YA novels and all the gradations in between. Each entry features evaluations by a team of international critics complete with beautifully reproduced artwork from the featured title. The beloved classics are here, but the guide also takes a global perspective and includes the increasingly diverse contributions from African American and Latino authors and illustrators—not to mention important books from around the world.
About the Author
Julia Eccleshare is the children’s books editor at The Guardian. She has been a judge for the Branford Boase First Novel Prize and the Whitbread Children’s Book Prize. In 2000 she won the Eleanor Farjohn Award in recognition of her contribution to children’s publishing. Quentin Blake has illustrated over 300 children’s books and has won many awards. He was appointed Britain’s first children’s laureate in 1999 and was made a commander of the British Empire in 2005. | <urn:uuid:1f1bd098-cb28-4dd3-9651-9aa349463ce9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rizzoliusa.com/book.php?isbn=9780789318763 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949222 | 353 | 2.859375 | 3 |
For people with mild to moderate hearing loss, a hearing aid can significantly help communication by amplifying sound. Hearing aids are small electronic, battery-operated devices that collect sounds with a microphone and direct the louder signal into the user's ear.
Hearing aids come in a wide variety of types and styles. Some are small and customized to fit into the ear canal. Others are larger and sit behind the ear. An audiologist (a health professional that specializes in hearing) can help determine which hearing aid is best for you or your child.
Depending on the amount of hearing loss, hearing aids may be worn in one ear (monaural) or both ears (binaural). For children who are learning to listen and talk, using hearing aids in both ears is generally recommended. | <urn:uuid:0fd18d28-8956-4b2b-9016-f6693fe9526c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.agbell.org/Hearing-Aids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951115 | 159 | 3.46875 | 3 |
This course assumes that the students have undergone UG courses in Engineering
Mathematics, Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics and are familiar with
the use of experimentally derived CORRELATIONS for estimating heat/mass transfer
coefficient in a variety of flow situations. The purpose of this course is to justify the basis
and the form of these correlations on the basis of fundamental transport laws governing
The treatment is highly mathematical and, through assignments,
students are expected to formulate and solve problems to derive expressions for the
heat/mass transfer coefficient in different situations. The course will interest students
wishing to embark on a research career in heat/mass transfer.
Definitions of Heat/Mass Transfer Coefficient, Main Flow Classifications,
Transport Equations of Bulk Mass, Momentum, Energy and Sepcies transfer, Boundary
Layer Theory and its approximations, Laminar and Turbulent External boundary layers
with effects of Pressure Gradient, Wall thermal conditions, Viscous dissipation, Wall mass
transfer. Similarity, Integral and Finite-difference solutions of boundary layer equations.
Developing Internal ( ducted ) flows within boundary layer approximations, Fully
developed flows and heat transfer in non-circular ducts, use of superposition techniques.
Turbulent Flows, laminar-turbulent transition, Universal law-of-the wall for smooth and
rough surfaces, mixing-length and 2-equation models, the energy budget for boundary
layer and fully-developed pipe flow.
Approximate theories of Mass Transfer , Stefan-Couette-Reynolds flow models, Applications to Inert mass transfer with and without heat
transfer, Mass transfer with heterogeneous and homogeneous chemical reactions. | <urn:uuid:7dbff6b4-c985-4b2e-8c15-b2d67ffff2e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nptel.ac.in/syllabus/112101002/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.859999 | 370 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Spreading awareness that the human population is in overshoot of the carrying capacity of the planet has led to a number of attempts to calculate what the true carrying capacity might be. My objective here is not to provide another calculation, but to explore some issues that need to be faced to address the question properly.
To start thinking about the problem, I am choosing as a point of reference the global population of about 1 billion that existed in 1800 before the main thrust of the industrial revolution. I choose this number for several reasons. Since that time, humanity has depleted the most easily extracted fossil energy and other nonrenewable materials that made industrial civilization possible. Due to the diminishing resource base, the global industrial economy, while still growing in some places, overall has begun to contract. I see every indication that depletion of strategic materials will continue until they become too scarce for most purposes, and the carrying capacity, at least regarding available energy, is back to where it was in 1800.
As one can see from table 1, the highest technology level at that time included tools, machines and small firearms made of iron and other metals. They were technologies that could be created using available energy sources, and were designed to support human activities using those same energy sources: biomass burning, human and animal power, and wind and flowing water to directly operate machines. In other words, every type of energy came, directly or indirectly, from current sunlight.
Can we therefore expect a return to the population level of the pre-industrial civilization of 1800? Relying mostly on solar energy, human society at that time used only 1/7 the energy that the world uses today. Other factors being equal, available energy is a primary determinant of carrying capacity. So it is reasonable, as access to fossil fuel declines, to consider a likely decline in global population from about 7 billion today to 1/7, or 1 billion, which is about the population in 1800. Based on a requirement of 0.5 ha per capita for an adequate food supply, and significant use of renewable solar energy technologies, Pimentel et al (1994) calculated an optimal carrying capacity of 1-2 billion. However, the question is complicated by a number of issues; these are the subject of the rest of this essay.
Carrying capacity (CC) is an essential concept for thinking in scenarios about a future in which access to key resources is declining. Carrying capacity refers in the first instance not just to a population level; it is the maximum indefinitely supportable ecological load. It is important to view the ecological load in terms of material resource consumption and strain on essential ecosystem services that the existing or desired quality of life requires, often measured in combination as the per capita ecological footprint. So it is first the level of sustainable resource consumption/strain (SRC) that a particular landscape or resource base can support, which in turn determines the mix of population level and per capita resource consumption/strain or ecological footprint. Thus the equation for sustainable resource consumption is
SRC = population × resource consumption/strain per capita
which makes clear that sustainable carrying capacity in terms of the actual number of people it will support depends on the level of individual consumption:
CC (sustainable population) = SRC ÷ resource consumption/strain per capita
As an example, if some people burn more than their share of firewood, others may not survive the winter.
Because the population that a given resource base will support depends in the first instance on the level of material consumption and its distribution, let us suppose an equal distribution, which would support the maximum population for a given resource base. How does that affect our one billion reference point? By 1800 the ecological footprint, both within societies and globally, had been extremely unequal for millennia, and has become more unequal since. So it may seem unrealistic to assume equal distribution of resources. Still, it allows us to consider that under a different resource distribution policy there might have been a higher population than one billion in 1800, and might still be in the future, at least with a more equal distribution of resources.
If our reference point is the beginning of the 19th century, a second question is whether, on average, the global population was already in overshoot at that time. Wood and farmland were still primary strategic resources, and dense populations in Europe and Asia were experiencing repeated crises of famine and wood scarcity. In fact such scarcities had contributed heavily to the demise of numerous civilizations for millennia. This history has led some ecologists to put the beginning of population overshoot soon after the development of agriculture and the rise of civilization itself. An extended exploration of the question is beyond the scope of this essay, but must be an important element in the assessment of carrying capacity.
It is essential to understand that because of delayed effects, populations can persist for a time at levels above CC before experiencing decline. Catton’s notion of phantom CC is useful here. Incorporated in the accompanying graph, it shows how reliance on temporarily available materials like fossil energy, or unsustainably harvested renewables like wood or fish can allow populations to temporarily exceed the sustainable ecological load. The graph shows how this “drawdown” of the resource base steals from the future because it erodes real CC and finally causes population collapse. The temporary success creates the illusion of permanence, whence the term “phantom CC”. An example of temporary success is the estimated tripling of global population since the invention of synthetic fertilizers, due almost entirely to gains in agricultural productivity from those energy-intensive fertilizers. This population increase represents phantom CC because the fertilizer production relies on fossil energy, a temporary resource.
There is another reason that 1800, its population level and material standard of life is a useful reference point. A number of energy scientists have made compelling arguments that the potential of renewable energy to replace fossil fuels is low, a 20% replacement in the most optimistic estimates. They say that the progress to date in producing such renewables as wind and solar electricity is misleading about their potential because it necessitates the continued existence of an industrial base built with yesterday’s cheap energy, but now in inexorable decline. Hence the rising cost of raw materials that would be required to build and maintain alternative energy systems has foreclosed any window of opportunity to create them on a scale necessary to continue the current level of industrial civilization. If we cannot even maintain essential infrastructure like roads and bridges, they claim, how can an economy in permanent contraction afford a new solar-electric transportation system to replace one that is totally dependent on oil? If these arguments are accurate, the energy available to support human society will decline eventually to levels available circa 1800. In that case much of industrialization and the population it supports will disappear.
If the energy available in the future is potentially comparable to energy consumption in 1800, what features of the natural resource base today and in the future are not comparable with the state of the planet and its CC at that time, and may lead to a different assessment of future population? Pre-industrial society already relied on a number of minerals like copper, now more scarce, that will reduce CC compared to 1800. Also, industrial economies have destroyed much of the biological wealth that supported world population two centuries ago. Loss of fisheries, land species populations and biodiversity, and water supplies has been well documented along with the increase in polluted waters and land acreage. It has become clear to scientists that a significant part of that loss is permanent because it has reshaped ecosystems and climatic systems in hard-to-alter ways. All this suggests that once humanity no longer enjoys cheap energy and the crutch of a panoply of energy-intensive technologies that supports phantom CC, a global population of even 1 billion may be unsustainable on the planet’s depleted natural resource base.
The age of industrial exuberance (Catton’s term) has created a vast built environment, much of which will not be usable for its original ends in a lower energy society. Will the leftovers to salvage from that built environment allow a higher CC? Presumably materials like metals, cut stone and glass, not needing mining and processing, would permit higher populations in some locations. The gain from salvage could slow the population decline. It would be temporary however, for according to the law of entropy, nothing is infinitely recyclable.
The accumulation of knowledge in the last two centuries is another part of the industrial heritage to salvage. How might that knowledge positively influence CC? Medical knowledge that requires little energy and other resource-intensive technology, in its application to sanitation for example, has reduced the threat of many diseases that used to limit populations. The Cuban health care system demonstrates that the level of health care, which rivals the US, has more to do with the social structure of that care (doctors living in neighborhoods, making house calls) than with expensive technologies and pharmaceuticals.
Knowledge of ecological systems has made possible the design of extremely low input but highly productive and regenerative agroecosystems, which could raise global CC per acre if they became widespread. Ironically, some of the best examples of these systems have existed for many centuries, before the advent of ecological science. The Aztec chinampas, wet rice-based mixed agriculture in the Pacific rim lands, peri-urban French intensive gardening, and wet meadow-based agriculture in the English lowlands and in riparian communities of colonial New England are some examples.
Where renewable energy can be produced at small scale with simple materials, and where it does not compete with land for food or create significant pollution, knowledge of these systems can add to the total energy supply and potentially boost CC. Small scale biogas production, for example, fits these requirements when it processes manure as part of an integrated small farming system.
In summary, the end of the oil age and industrial civilization as we know it suggests a return to the pre-industrial global population of about one billion. Whether that number represents the world’s carrying capacity in humans, on either the resource base of today or that of 1800, depends on a number of other considerations. Had technological development and resource depletion put humanity into overshoot already in 1800? Since then, how much has continued ecological damage reduced CC? How long will the salvage of leftovers from the built environment of the industrial age maintain population levels? Have we learned enough ecology to potentially manage ecosystems for higher CC than did many pre-industrial civilizations? Does our species have the ability for the long-term, big-picture thinking that management of such complex systems demands? Can we create a political economy capable of managing natural resources for the common good?
As stated at the outset, my goal was not to fully answer the question, “How many people can the world really hold?” I hope instead that I have raised awareness of some of the issues to think about in the quest for answers about true carrying capacity. Some that I have not even mentioned, like climate change and nuclear radiation (from war or from inability to control meltdown of waste from nuclear weapons or utility plants) could easily reduce the world’s human carrying capacity to zero. On the bright side, if our species has burnt through enough of the world’s nonrenewable resources to eliminate the possibility of another industrial “age of extravagance” with its population bubble and subsequent die-off and its threat of human extinction, that could give the species another shot at building a society that stays more or less within carrying capacity.
Pimentel, D. et al. (1994) Natural resources and an optimum human population. Population and the Environment 15(5): 347-369.
Catton. Op cit | <urn:uuid:9bf9545c-5726-4f86-85e3-72f3bfb6d59c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.energybulletin.net/print/64647 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942043 | 2,378 | 3.046875 | 3 |
- 3 updates
Parents are being urged to set regular bedtimes by researchers who have traced a link between inconsistent sleeping patterns in young children and limited cognitive brain function.
The authors of the Millennium Cohort study, a long-term research project examining more than 10,000 children, said:
New research shows that children who did not go to bed at a consistent time have lower intellectual ability, as measured in reading, maths and spatial awareness skills.
The children were tested at different ages, with different outcomes detected at each stage of development:
- At age 3, non regular bedtimes were linked with lower reading, maths and spatial awareness scores for both boys and girls
- At age 7, girls with non regular bedtimes had lower scores on all three aspects of intellect assessed
- Children without regular bedtimes and who were put to bed after 9pm tended to come from more socially disadvantaged backgrounds
Giving young children regular bedtimes could help improve their brain function, new research suggests.
In a study of more than 10,000 children over ten years, scientists found that inconsistent bedtimes are linked to children's cognitive development and are warned there could be "knock-on" health effects throughout life. | <urn:uuid:32374945-8e61-4a6c-a324-2e12ff0804a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.itv.com/news/story/2013-07-09/regular-bedtime-helps-brain-power/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970804 | 245 | 3.265625 | 3 |
By DAN RUDY
Best known for his ventures into the unknown, likely less remembered were Captain Roald Amundsen's jaunts to Minot at various points in the early 20th century. The Norwegian explorer initially won fame as the first to navigate the long-sought Northwest Passage, which centuries' worth of great and at times ill-fated captains before him had braved stormy seas, Arctic ice floes and frightful conditions to discover. Setting sail from Oslo in 1903, it would be three and a half years before he and his six-man crew would reach Nome, Alaska.
Amundsen came to Minot just over a year later on December 5, 1907, after a lecture had been arranged for him to deliver at Jacobson Opera House downtown by members of the local Sons of Norway. The Minot Daily Optic newspaper recorded his visit with great excitement, describing the captain as unpretentious in presentation as he regaled a packed house with tales of frigid tribulations, shipboard fires, friendly Eskimos, and the expedition's search for the magnetic North Pole.
"The captain's narration of the discovery of the Magnetic Pole was most interesting," the paper reported. "Several excursions were made on sleds drawn by seven or eight dogs, and the first proved unsuccessful because of the intense cold. Three or four miles a day was the best the party could do, but finally the pole was reached, and the observation tent was erected over it."
According to Royal Museums Greenwich this was not entirely the case, a misunderstanding perhaps on the part of the reporter. Amundsen himself had never reached the magnetic pole, but located where the pole was supposed to have been as observed by the Ross expedition some 70 years earlier. What the Norwegians had instead discovered was that the magnetic pole had moved 30 miles in that time, a discovery of immense scientific importance because it confirmed that the Earth's magnetic field was not a static phenomenon.
Whatever the achievement, Amundsen was treated to a hero's banquet at Minot's Lexington Hotel (later the Grand Hotel, which burned in 1960) afterward, and was said to have "expressed himself as much pleased with the entertainment he had received, and that Minot should always hold a warm place in his heart." Whether the town's memory kept the explorer warm when he bested Robert Scott's expedition to the South Pole in 1911 is left to conjecture.
But when Amundsen next visited Minot, in 1926, the world had changed vastly. The little sailboat "Gjoa" that had begrudgingly taken his expedition through the Northwest Passage and the dogsleds and skis that had carried them across Antarctica had been replaced with more modern means of exploration. It was aboard the dirigible "Norge" that Amundsen quite possibly became the first person to reach the North Pole, albeit by flying over it.
The 1909 on-foot trek to the pole by American Rear Admiral Robert Peary and the 1926 flight by also-American Rear Admiral Richard Byrd mere days before the Norge passed it over on May 15 have both been subject to criticism in subsequent years, for their lack of validity and various discrepencies in recordkeeping. But Amundsen was under the impression he had been bested when he and his party stepped onto the Minot train platform that June 30.
Great Northern Railway allowed the Norwegian to make a special half-hour stop in the town for its Northwest State Fair, one of only a handful of stops on his return journey. Amundsen and his party were on their way to New York City, from where they would sail back to Europe. The group was met by a reception committee that included city commission president (mayor) Aksel Bratsberg, and former North Dakota governor Ragnvald Nestos, with the Norwegian and American flags side-by-side outside the station. Two decades earlier, Bratsberg had been on the Sons of Norway committee that had first invited the explorer to speak.
A procession of uncovered automobiles through town led Amundsen's group to the fairground, where he was "cheered by thousands" according to The Minot Daily News. Elsewhere in the same issue was a photo of Byrd, celebrating his triumphal return to the East Coast.
Amundsen was less exuberant. "I feel as if I've done enough," he told the crowd. "I'm going back to Norway to retire in seclusion, spend some time completing details of observations we took and take life easy... What more could I ask? It would be foolish for me to continue. I've reached the peak. If I were to go on it would be to do lesser things."
But the explorer recognized that this was not the end of an era for exploration, but just its start. "This is only the beginning. There is much more to be done," Amundsen said. "Let the younger generation do it. They will find much more honor awaiting the successful ones." Strapped for time, the tales of his flight would have to wait for his final visit to Minot the next year, on March 25, 1927.
Speaking before an overflowing auditorium at the Minot State Teachers College, the captain's visit was as his first. "His step is still sprightly and the stories which he told in Minot were related with the enthusiasm of a youth," the paper reported.
In his thick Norwegian accent, he gave the riveting backstory to his Arctic flight, with an attempt to fly over the North Pole by airplane in 1925 nearly ending in disaster as they were grounded and trapped on the ice for more than a month. Because of this setback Amundsen swore off the airplane as unsuitable for the Arctic air, leading to his decision to use an airship the next year instead. After the lecture, Bratsberg threw a private dinner party for the adventurer, who was said to admit that his reception at the previous year's State Fair "holds a very dear place in his heart."
Amundsen made the front page of The Minot Daily News again the next year, as reports were received that a seaplane with him and five others aboard had gone missing in the north Arctic while searching for survivors of the airship "Italia," which had gone aground after a mechanical failure on May 25, 1928. The gondola of the airship was dashed against the ice and burst open, spilling nine survivors and one fatality onto the ice before drifting off with six others. The dirigible and men aboard were both never seen again.
Among the Italia's crew were two men that had been aboard the Norge with Amundsen in 1926, Italian General Umberto Nobile and Swedish meteorologist Finn Malmgren. The five-nation rescue operation was hampered by foul weather, but eight survivors were rescued. However, Malmgren was reported left for dead by the Italians and there were rumors of cannibalism, espionage and incompetence that peppered the entire debacle.
There were no signs of Amundsen's craft, only speculation that the craft had been forced down by a storm. By July the newspaper somberly noted that "Amundsen's friends remarked that such a finish would have been in accord with the veteran explorer's own wishes." It was fitting enough a finish for a man it had only two years earlier celebrated as from "the stock of which the vikings came sturdy, virile, nerveless, and with a natural inborn craving for adventure and the wilderness."
Speaking before Minoters assembled at the 1926 fair, Amundsen's vision of the future for aerial exploration proved sadly fateful if not a little bit bitterly ironic:
"Exploration by airship of the Far North has just begun. The Amundsen-Ellsworth polar expedition merely demonstrated what could be done in the way of Arctic flights further generations will complete the work; the North Pole soon will witness a long line of commercial airship flying from Europe to America, and on to Asia by the 'short route' opened up by the Amundsen expedition."
As the press was all but giving up on the explorer's survival, on July 23 The Minot Daily News was celebrating the airplane rather than the dirigible. The barnstorming foibles of dozens of aircraft with the National Air Tour entertained some 10,000 spectators as the "Port of Minot," forerunner to the city's current airport, was dedicated at the event.
The same Mayor Bratsberg who met Amundsen at the train station and shared a car to the fair only two years before delivered the airport's dedication speech, and International Airways Ltd. was started up that same month by a group of area investors with the intention of bringing commercial air travel to the city. The future of flight had indeed risen above the days of sail, hoof, and dogsled, but it would continue on wings rather than Amundsen's trusty airships. | <urn:uuid:b28bd7fa-3255-487b-95ab-2047227c28ca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.minotdailynews.com/page/content.detail/id/578011/Ice-and-air--Roald-Amundsen-s-Minot-visits.html?nav=5010 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98645 | 1,843 | 3 | 3 |
Menstuff® has compiled the following information on abusive
Abusive Behaviors - some research
Related Issues: Talking With Kids About Tough Issues, Abuse, Children, Circumcision, Gangs, Hazing, Incest/Molestation, Malstreatment, Ritual Abuse, Sexual Abuse, Sexual Harassment, Violence, Domestic Violence, Women's Violence and Prisons.
Books - Abuse - Boys, Abuse - Children, Abuse - MPD, Abuse - Ritual, Abuse-Sexual, Circumcision, Anger, Forgiveness, Violence, Domestic Violence, Sexual Violence, Sexual Harassment, and Women's Violence
Resources Abuse/Recovery, Child Maltreatment
Journals & Periodicals - on Child, Elder, Emotional, Religious, and Sexual Abuse and Trauma
Bumper Sticker - Make the World Safe for Children
Men who get involved with abusive women are typically those who had abusive childhood home environments. This kind of upbringing tends to normalize abusive behavior in all relationships. What this means is that men from this kind of a background are not as keen to the subtleties of abuse the way healthy men are.
On a positive note, there is a silver lining hereall behavior can be relearned, including the ability to recognize early signs of abuse as unacceptable behaviors in a relationship. Once this is learned, a man will be able to break free from unhealthy relationships with women who are not good for him.
You might review this list to see if you might be in an abusive relationship. This is a list of common abusive behaviors to watch for:
In order to recognize early abusive signs, a man must stop rationalizing abusive behaviors as normal. If he sees ONE abusive behavior, regardless of how small, he needs to remind himself that it IS abuse. Period! With this new skill, he will soon be dating women who treat him with dignity and respectthe way all men deserve to be treated. | <urn:uuid:4b4442a5-4d5e-42a9-ba56-73b4c4977a19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.menstuff.org/issues/byissue/abusivebehaviors.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928062 | 394 | 2.578125 | 3 |
|an EdChange project by Paul C. Gorski|
|[an error occurred while processing this directive]||
Calendar and Cultures
by Richard Alpert
Amherst Educational Publishing deals exclusively with multicultural and diversity educational and training materials. One of our publications is a Multicultural Resource Calendar that contains listings and descriptions of birthdays, historical/cultural events, days of religious observance, and days of special observance for over 35 cultural, religious, and other groups. Putting the Calendar together highlights how much a calendar is rooted in particular historical, cultural, and religious assumptions and perspectives.
The Gregorian Calendar, with the new year starting on January 1 with 12 months varying in length from 28-31 days, is the most familiar calendar to most of us. It reflects a universal agreement about how major components of time will be defined and allows for interaction and communication across every religious, cultural, political, and geographical boundary. It provides a framework that allows us for those interactions to behave as one community.
However, it is not the only calendar, nor even the primary one, that defines the year and the days to be observed and celebrated for many cultural, religious, and ethnic groups. In order to capture the important occasions for millions of Americans who belong to varied ethnic, religious, and cultural groups groups, it is necessary to use other calendars based on other assumptions both about how the components of time are defined and about what occasions are to be observed andcelebrated.
From the perspective of specific cultural and religious groups, the simple question about "what year is it?" and the critical components of that year becomes more complex. What year is September 1995 for an observant Jew, a Muslim, or for traditional Chinese, Vietamese, and Koreans. For the Jew, September 1,1995 is in year 5755 and on September 25, 1995 becomes year 5756.. For a a Muslim, September 1, 1995 is in year 1416 and does not become a new year until May 18, 1996. For Asian cultures that follow the Chinese lunar calendar, the new year does not begin on Januray 1, 1996 but on February 19, 1996 ( the Year of the Rat) and is not year 1995, but year 4694.
To make matters a little more complex, the answer to the question, "when does the year begin next year?" does not, as it does for those who follow only the Gregorian Calendar, have the same answer every year. Many cultural and relgious groups base their calendars on calculations of the phases of the moon or a combination of moon and solar calculations resulting in the days for particular events, such as the beginning of the year, moving each year. The beginning of the Chinese New Year, for example, can vary from mid-January to mid-Februrary of the Gregorian Calendar. Long-range planning that takes into account days of special meaning to many different cultural groups, therefore, becomes much more complex than simply consulting a perpetual Gregorian Calendar.
The ways in which the year is defined, moreover, can vary for ethnic groups as well. While the differences may not be as sharp, various ethnic groups in the United States may emphasize different dates as important to observe and celebrate. For example, Kwannza, which is more a cultural than religious occasion, has become as important, and to some more important, than Christmas for many African Americans and celebrating Martin Luthur King's Birthday has become the most significant day in the year for African American historical and cultural remembrance. Many Mexican Americans prefer to celebrate the traditional religious Day of the Dead holiday from the evening of October 31 through November 1 instead of Holloween.
For any individual, therefore, The calendar becomes a way of connecting to the particular ethnic, cultural, or religious group of which they are a part. For those not part of that group, understanding and knowing the calendar that defines the year and its critical days of demarcation for a particular group helps to provide a way of understanding and connecting with that group. This can happen in many ways.
When we are planning occasions as part of an organization, or in our everyday interactions, that involve people from varied cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, we need to take account of what days are important from their perspective as well as from our own. This is not only important for practical reasons, but also helps to create the complex positive bonds of connection in an increasingly diverse society that maintains our common community while at the same time respecting and acknowledging the ways in which we are different.
In a somewhat more positive way, understanding the different calendars that shape time for different people helps us to make connections and share in the lives of those who differ from us. Just as wishing family, friends, and acquaintances a "happy new year" on January 1 is one of the social bonds that makes us one community, greeting those whose new year is celebrated on a different day, and perhaps at a very different time in the "Gregorian" year, is also a small, but significant step in creating common ties among the many different communities withinour society. In addition, being aware and supportive to others at those times during the year that have sigifigance to them can help to create those harmonious connections that make all relationships more positive, meaningful, and satisfying.
Respond to Richard Alpert via e-mail.
[an error occurred while processing this directive] | <urn:uuid:c1ab36ff-6278-46ce-a801-5bac25afe74d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/richpaper.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954312 | 1,102 | 3.09375 | 3 |
It's a fact of life, every bird needs water to survive. In addition for drinking water to help with thirst, birds also love taking baths in shallow water to help keep themselves cool and clean. A sure fire way to bring more birds into your back yard, and to keep the ones you do have happy, is to provide water for them.
The water doesn't have to be an elaborate waterfall or a themed fountain. Just a simple dish on the ground will suffice, and will please those birds that favor staying on the ground. If you want, a second dish at a raised level will be more comfortable for those birds that don't like going down to ground level.
Water in the summer is key for keeping birds healthy and not dehydrated. The water helps keep them cool and keeps off the dust and dirt of the world. In the winter, water is key, since most natural water is frozen into ice or snow. Providing liquid water may be the difference between life and death for some birds.
Make sure the water isn't deep enough to drown in. It should be just a few fingers high, and you might want to put a flat rock or two in it to give birds a place to land on that's dry. Change the water when it gets dirty. Birds, just like humans, don't enjoy drinking mud or slime.
Birds do love the sound of running water, so if you can hook up any sort of system that involves moving water, you'll thrill them! One simple thing to do is to place your water dish underneath a tree. Take a plastic soda bottle, fill it and cap it. Poke a small hole in it, just enough to let drips out. Now hang the bottle over the dish from one of the tree branches. The drip-drip-drip from the soda bottle into the dish will be a siren call to the birds, letting them know that water is nearby.
How to Choose a Birdbath
Attracting Birds with Food Choices
Bushes and Shrubs that Birds Love | <urn:uuid:5bc7db64-a679-4833-b94a-6045925e6538> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art3808.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965659 | 419 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Video length 5:32 min.Learn more about Teaching Climate Literacy and Energy Awareness»
See how this Video supports the Next Generation Science Standards»
Middle School: 6 Disciplinary Core Ideas
High School: 5 Disciplinary Core Ideas
About Teaching Climate Literacy
Other materials addressing 5b
Notes From Our Reviewers
The CLEAN collection is hand-picked and rigorously reviewed for scientific accuracy and classroom effectiveness.
Read what our review team had to say about this resource below or learn more about
how CLEAN reviews teaching materials
Teaching Tips | Science | Pedagogy |
- Using the materials that accompany this video will facilitate integrating it into a unit of climate change.
- Resource comes from this page http://forces.si.edu/arctic/index.html which contains a lot of background information and additional resources.
About the Science
- On Banks Island in Canada's High Arctic, Inuit hunters have a close relationship with the natural world. They have observed changes in the permafrost, the fish harvests, and the landscape. Their observations of changes over the decades provide an important source of climate change data to scientists who study the Arctic.
- Comments from expert scientist: Concepts are clearly described, vocabulary is appropriate for the lay person. The problems with using oral tradition as scientific evidence are not presented.
Next Generation Science Standards See how this Video supports:
Disciplinary Core Ideas: 6
MS-LS2.C1:Ecosystems are dynamic in nature; their characteristics can vary over time. Disruptions to any physical or biological component of an ecosystem can lead to shifts in all its populations.
MS-LS2.C2:Biodiversity describes the variety of species found in Earth’s terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems. The completeness or integrity of an ecosystem’s biodiversity is often used as a measure of its health
MS-LS4.D1:Changes in biodiversity can influence humans’ resources, such as food, energy, and medicines, as well as ecosystem services that humans rely on—for example, water purification and recycling.
MS-ESS2.D1:Weather and climate are influenced by interactions involving sunlight, the ocean, the atmosphere, ice, landforms, and living things. These interactions vary with latitude, altitude, and local and regional geography, all of which can affect oceanic and atmospheric flow patterns.
MS-ESS3.C1:Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. But changes to Earth’s environments can have different impacts (negative and positive) for different living things.
MS-ESS3.D1:Human activities, such as the release of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, are major factors in the current rise in Earth’s mean surface temperature (global warming). Reducing the level of climate change and reducing human vulnerability to whatever climate changes do occur depend on the understanding of climate science, engineering capabilities, and other kinds of knowledge, such as understanding of human behavior and on applying that knowledge wisely in decisions and activities.
Disciplinary Core Ideas: 5
HS-ESS2.D1:The foundation for Earth’s global climate systems is the electromagnetic radiation from the sun, as well as its reflection, absorption, storage, and redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and land systems, and this energy’s re-radiation into space.
HS-ESS2.D3:Changes in the atmosphere due to human activity have increased carbon dioxide concentrations and thus affect climate.
HS-ESS3.C1:The sustainability of human societies and the biodiversity that supports them requires responsible management of natural resources.
HS-LS2.C2:Moreover, anthropogenic changes (induced by human activity) in the environment—including habitat destruction, pollution, introduction of invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change—can disrupt an ecosystem and threaten the survival of some species.
HS-LS4.D2:Biodiversity is increased by the formation of new species (speciation) and decreased by the loss of species (extinction). | <urn:uuid:4bbe4348-4bd5-442e-86c5-4b71bc81af98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cleanet.org/resources/43786.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898047 | 858 | 4.125 | 4 |
What is conjunctivitis?
Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the conjunctiva, the thin, transparent layer covering the surface of the inner eyelid and a portion of the front of the eye. Conjunctivitis has several causes and affects people of all ages.
What causes conjunctivitis?
The three main types of conjunctivitis are infectious, allergic and chemical. The infectious form, commonly known as pink eye, is caused by a contagious virus or bacteria. Your body’s allergies to pollen, cosmetics, animals, or fabrics often bring on allergic conjunctivitis. Irritants like air pollution, noxious fumes and chlorine in swimming pools may produce the chemical form.
What are the signs and symptoms of conjunctivitis?
Common signs and symptoms of conjunctivitis are red eyes, inflamed inner lids, watery eyes, blurred vision and sandy or scratchy feeling in the eyes. With the infectious form, there may be a puss-like or watery discharge around the eyelids. Allergic conjunctivitis is often associated with stringy white mucous and itchiness.
What measure can be taken to prevent spreading this condition?
To avoid giving infectious conjunctivitis to others, keep your hands away from your eyes; thoroughly wash your hands frequently as well as before and after applying eye medication; do not share pillows, towels, washcloths, cosmetics or eye drops with others and seek treatment promptly if you think you have conjunctivitis. Small children, who may forget these precautions, should be kept away from school, daycare, camp and the swimming pool until the condition is cured.
Will conjunctivitis harm my eyes?
Certain forms of conjunctivitis can develop into a more serious condition that may harm your eyes and affect your vision. Therefore, it’s important to have your condition diagnosed and properly and quickly treated.
How is infectious conjunctivitis treated?
Infectious conjunctivitis, caused by bacteria, is usually treated with antibiotic eye drops and/or antibiotic ointment. Other infectious forms, caused by viruses, can’t be treated with antibiotics. They are fought off by your body’s own immune system. Treatment for a viral infection is primarily supportive, in the form of artificial tears, warm compresses and possibly antihistamine or steroid eye drops. It is essential to see your doctor of optometry who can diagnose the underlying cause of the infectious conjunctivitis and prescribe accordingly.
How are the allergic and chemical forms of conjunctivitis treated?
Remedies to relieve eye symptoms of seasonal allergies can involve oral over-the-counter antihistamine medications taken during your particular allergy season. For those who suffer from severe seasonal allergies, allergy shots may be the treatment of choice. This is usually preceded by tests performed by an allergist to determine exactly what substances you are allergic to. Further comfort can be achieved by placing a clean face cloth soaked in ice-cold water over closed eyes. Over-the-counter artificial teardrops and antihistamine eye drops can also help reduce red, itchy and watery eyes. Prescription medications should be considered for more severe allergy symptoms. Eye drops that combine an antihistamine and a mast cell stabilizer work best by providing immediate and long-term relief. For those who suffer from seasonal allergies, the ocular symptoms can be very uncomfortable. Despite the different remedies that exist to deal with seasonal allergies, there is no cure. It is not recommended to diagnose and treat your symptoms yourself. Consult your doctor of optometry to recommend the best therapy to provide relief from seasonal allergies.
The ideal treatment for chemical conjunctivitis is to remove the cause of the irritation. For instance, if chlorinated water irritates your eyes, wear swimming goggles. In cases where these measures won’t work, other types of prescription and over-the-counter eye drops are available to help relieve the discomfort. | <urn:uuid:fcb35106-2eda-4bde-8939-94418b966cc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://doctorsofoptometry.ca/conjunctivitis-pink-eye/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928153 | 826 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Archive for the ‘4ht of July’ Category
“July 4, 2013 is America’s Independence Day, and still the babies are not free.” – Dr. Alveda C. King
Acts 17:24, 26, 27 – God made the world and everything in it. He is Lord of Heaven and Earth. And He made of one blood, all nations of people to dwell on all the earth, and determined the places where they would live; that they should seek the Lord and find Him…
In the United States, Independence Day, commonly known as the Fourth of July, is a national holiday commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, declaring independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, political speeches and ceremonies, and various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the national day of the United States.
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the American colonies from Great Britain occurred on July 2, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the Declaration, finally approving it on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:
Nearly a century later, the war for freedom continued on this continent. During this time, President Abraham Lincoln prayed to God to end slavery in America. In his prayer, he asked God that if slavery was wrong, to please allow the North to win the war. The North won, and on January 1, 1863, President Lincoln was a leader with the heart of an abolitionist. The battle for freedom still continues today, with the dream of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. that Protestant and Catholics and Gentiles and Jews will sing “Free at Last” together. We must remember that all of this started with the prayers of the Founding Fathers of America.
Along with the Founding Fathers usually listed in history books, a notable African American John Hanson is sometimes listed as one of the Founding Fathers, along with James Armistead and Peter Salem. Also, other notable Blacks such as Benjamin Banneker and Crispus Atticus are credited with helping to establish our nation’s independence. This year during the Juneteenth Celebration, honoring Lincoln’s signing of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863 which officially takes place today in 36 states in America, members of Congress and former Black Congressman J. C. Watts recognized the work of Black slaves in building our nation’s Capitol. So today, we celebrate the ongoing march towards true liberty for all Americans, born and unborn.
Please take a moment now to remember the Declaration of Independence:
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
Were there African-American Founding Fathers? A suppressed history…
Were there African Americans present at the founding of America? We know that most African Americans were slaves when this nation was founded, and we also know that many of the Caucasian founding fathers were slave owners. However, it is not widely know that some Black Americans also owned slaves during that time in history. Slavery is an evil form of oppression, not always demarked by the skin color of the slaves and the slave owners.
We know that African American slaves were forced to exert manual labor to help build the first White House. The question remains, what were some of the other important roles of African Americans in our country’s independence?
The official name “The United States of America” was determined by the Second Continental Congress in 1977. It would be nearly one hundred years later, in 1863 at the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln, that African Americans would legally be freed from the forced servitude and labor called slavery. Let us examine the roles of some African Americans at the time of the founding of America.
One of those was Peter Salem , who can be found in a painting of the Battle of Bunker Hill.
In the painting of the Battle of Lexington, the people assembled here are members of Rev. Jonas Clark’s congregation. They were a congregation of both black and white Americans. One of those men was Prince Estabrook, a black American.
Remember the famous painting of George Washington crossing the Delaware? Near the front of the boat you will see Prince Whipple helping row the boat, as well as a woman. All Americans were involved in winning our independence.
There is another painting of Marquis de Lafayette, the Frenchman who so greatly helped George Washington with our troops, and James Armistead . Armistead was an American double-spy who helped get information from the British and feed them bad information about us. His service was pivotal to our success at the Battle of Yorktown…which effectively won the American Revolution for us.
David Barton is founder of Wall Builders and author of “American History in Black and White.” Another noted historian of the founding of America is Dr. Lucas Morel, a professor at Washington and Lee University in Virginia and author of “Lincoln’s Sacred Effort.” These historians write in great detail about Armistead’s role in American history, as well as the friendship between Lafayette and Armistead.
They also write about Wentworth Cheswell, who is considered the first black American elected to public office. We all know about Paul Revere’s famous ride warning that the British were coming, but Cheswell rode in another direction to give the same warning.
While we know that most Blacks were slaves in America during the time of its founding, many do not know or have forgotten that there are also African American Founders. Since many of these black founders show up in various paintings of the Revolution, we have evidence about the role of black Americans in our founding. Somewhere along the way, like many historical facts, this has been forgotten.
Many attempt to connect Frederick Douglass, who is a better known African American leader, to the founding of America. Yet, since he actually lived years later, it would be more accurate to place him in history as a “Re-founder, emerging during the time of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.” .Douglass once believed the “Three-Fifths Compromise ” was a terrible affront to enslaved black Americans and that it rendered the U.S. Constitution totally corrupt. However, when he studied the Constitution along with the notes from the Constitutional Convention, he realized it was an anti-slavery document.
According to Barton, a some of the Caucasian Founders were anti-slavery, recognizing that slavery was wrong and was counter to the ideals of freedom upon which the American Revolution was based. However, there were many in the South who wanted to preserve slavery in the United States, and the impasse threatened the union of our fledgling nation. As a compromise, they came up with the idea of counting slaves as “three-fifths” for the purposes of representation and apportionment.
If a slave was not worthy of freedom like any other American, then he should not really be counted for the purposes of representation and apportionment. Of course, the Southern states saw how this would hurt them in the federal government, so they compromised by counting slaves at three-fifths of a free person. It made it harder for pro-slavery states to get as much representation in congress; thus the anti-slavery states would have greater representation in apportionment…and in making laws for the nation in general. This gave the Southern states an incentive to free their slaves so that their overall population numbers would increase and thus give the Southern states greater representation and apportionment. Through the years, this flawed effort continues to be interpreted as considering Blacks to be three-fifths human. Even now, in the twenty first century, the battle continues to resolve the right of Blacks the full and equal right of the vote.
Thomas Jefferson, one of the more well known Founding Fathers spoke out against slavery while owning slaves. He even had a Caucasian wife and a slave mistress, Sally Hemming. Most people don’t know that Sally was Martha’s half-sister, they had the same father, a slave owner. According to written historical accounts, she looked like Martha. Sally moved into the White House after Martha’s died of a broken heart. How strange it must have been for Jefferson to be constantly reminded of his dead wife. Sally’s children were the only slaves Jefferson freed; he did so upon his death, but by that time a couple of Sally’s children had already escaped. Being so fair-skinned, they passed into white society keeping their past a secret.
While many of the Founding Fathers were like Jefferson, some were not. One example is John Quincy Adams, and early American President. John Quincy Adams denounced slavery more strongly than did any other early American president, calling slavery “a sin before the sight of God,” an “outrage upon the goodness of God,” and “the great and foul stain upon the North American Union.”
In an especially eloquent statement, Adams wrote: “It is among the evils of slavery that it taints the very sources of moral principle. It establishes false estimates of virtue and vice: for what can be more false and heartless than this doctrine which makes the first and holiest rights of humanity to depend upon the color of the skin?”
The reality of America’s history, both good and bad–should be revised and rewritten, to include the truths that have been hidden. Black leaders like Lemuel Haynes who was a black American, born to a white woman and a black man became a minister and pastored a church with a white congregation, and also fought in the militia in the American Revolution. There was also Benjamin Banneker, a black American who was involved in the planning of Washington D.C. and was said to be very intelligent and involved with building clocks and predicting eclipses.
Of course, Black slaves were forced to provide the manpower for the hard labor of building our nation’s Capitol. And Blacks would be used cruelly as slaves in America until 1863. Some would not realize they had been freed until an Executive Order would be issued on June 19, 1865. That order would read thusly:
“The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere.” –General Orders, Number 3; Headquarters District of Texas, Galveston, June 19, 1865
While this order is not widely known of, it is the basis for the African American Holiday, Juneteenth. The problem with this political effort, like so many others, is that it is incomplete. It ordered the slaves now free to work for pay, but did not order the slave masters to pay them.
The Bible says that when Jesus Christ sets a person free, that person is free indeed. Understanding this, we know that the real formula for liberty for everyone is in Jesus Christ. One question is this, why didn’t the Caucasian Founding Fathers follow God’s patter for freeing slaves? It is found in the book of Leviticus, chapter 25, where slave owners were charged to free slaves after seven years, and send them away with goods and property. This has never happened in America.
“In addition, you must count off seven Sabbath years, seven sets of seven years, adding up to forty-nine years in all. Then on the Day of Atonement in the fiftieth year, blow the ram’s horn loud and long throughout the land. Set this year apart as holy, a time to proclaim freedom throughout the land for all who live there. It will be a jubilee year for you, when each of you may return to the land that belonged to your ancestors and return to your own clan. This fiftieth year will be a jubilee for you. During that year you must not plant your fields or store away any of the crops that grow on their own, and don’t gather the grapes from your unpruned vines. It will be a jubilee year for you, and you must keep it holy. But you may eat whatever the land produces on its own. In the Year of Jubilee each of you may return to the land that belonged to your ancestors. “When you make an agreement with your neighbor to buy or sell property, you must not take advantage of each other. When you buy land from your neighbor, the price you pay must be based on the number of years since the last jubilee. The seller must set the price by taking into account the number of years remaining until the next Year of Jubilee. The more years until the next jubilee, the higher the price; the fewer years, the lower the price. After all, the person selling the land is actually selling you a certain number of harvests. Show your fear of God by not taking advantage of each other. I am the Lord your God. (Leviticus 25:8-17 NLT)
Today, even though many African Americans thought that having a United States President with brown skin would set them free, we must realize that our liberty comes not from human might, power or ability, but true freedom comes from accepting the salvation and Lordship of Jesus Christ.
The first Jubilee is in the Bible, and a Black Liberator names Moses, a Man of God was used to lead a people to freedom. There are also modern day leaders used to lead people to truth and liberty.
In the nineteen fifties and sixties, a Man of God named Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was called by God to lead a people to the Promised Land. Martin Luther King, Jr. didn’t get there with us, yet he looked over and saw a time of liberty.
Dr. King once said this:
“A religion true to its nature must also be concerned about man’s social conditions….Any religion that professes to be concerned with the souls of men and is not concerned with the slums that damn them, the economic conditions that strangle them, and the social conditions that cripple them is a dry-as-dust religion. MLK
According to the Bible in Acts 17, there are no separate races of human beings (male and female), there is only one human race. This is why the age old battle of racism is so tragic. Truly there can be no independence for a nation or a people group until all people are recognized as human beings. Of course this truth applies to skin color, age, physical conditions, and the whole host of human elements that people experience during their lifetimes.
It is human nature to equate liberty with the opportunity to do everything that feels good to individuals without considering the needs of humanity as a whole. It is also human nature to debate over Divine Order, while all the while humanity as a whole often suffers from a poverty of spirit.
Throughout our history, people have made vast and notable contributions to our history. Yet, we all have not been treated fairly by a system that was formed in hypocrisy. Today, babies in their mothers’ wombs are treated with inequity. And there are still the issues of racism, sexual perversion and reproductive genocide to overcome. Humans try to fix problems and eradicate sin with manmade laws. Yet, imperfect manmade laws have caused our nation to operate under a curse. This curse must be broken in order for America to prosper.
Today, many people in America and the world live in the bondage. Too many are enslaved by the sins of fear, violence, racism, reproductive genocide, sexual perversion, economic idolatry, sickness and greed. These issues must now be addressed with Agape Love and truth.
May July 4, truly become a symbol of freedom, not just for some, but for all.
“So if the Son sets you free, you are truly free.” John 8:36 NLT | <urn:uuid:dfc5aa89-08f9-4414-a661-69f8796fca93> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.priestsforlife.org/africanamerican/blog/index.php/category/4ht-of-july | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97323 | 3,537 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Depot & WWII
[excerpt from] Andreas'
BURLINGTON & MISSOURI RIVER RAILROAD.
The completion and opening of a third line of railway from Chicago
marked another epoch in the history of the great metropolis and the Northwest.
To the Chicago & North-Western Railway is due the credit of having been the
first connecting line of the Union Pacific Railroad. Western railway enterprise
rapidly developed another link by the completion of the Iowa Division of the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad, and that was quickly followed by
the Burlington & Missouri River Railway, a continuation of the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad, affording three great eastern outlets to the
Union Pacific via Chicago.
The Burlington &
Missouri River Railroad, running through the richest portion of Southern Iowa,
a region abundantly supplied with timber and coal and presenting a diversity of
agricultural facilities, was projected in about 1850, but, owing to local and
political causes, its progress toward completion was like a desperately fought
campaign, with a succession of battles where every advantage was carried inch
by inch at the point of the bayonet.
The line of the road
was surveyed from Burlington to Ottumwa,
seventy-five miles, in 1853. It was put under contract the following year, but
was not completed until 1859. Ottumwa
was the Western terminus for six years, at which time, in 1865, the company
recommenced operations and began to push slowly toward the advancing Union
Pacific. The road was completed to Albia in 1866; to Chariton in 1867; to Afton
in 1868, and the balance in December, 1869.
This is one of the
best constructed railroads in Southern Iowa.
The road-bed and track are apparently as firm as the hills, and cars glide
along in a manner rarely realized upon Western railroads. The western portion
of the road is more primitive, but still very firm, the embankment being well
rounded and rendered secure by an admirable system of drainage. The ties were
selected with great care, and consist chiefly of oak, with a sprinkling of
walnut, cherry and locust. These are laid 2,500 to the mile. The track was laid
with sixty-pound rails, two and a half inches wide and four inches deep.
fact that the Missouri River at Omaha is five hundred feet above the
Mississippi River at Burlington, the gradients are easy, the greatest being
less than seventy feet to the mile. This fact is largely due to the engineering
skill of those who laid out the road. There are upward of five hundred bridges
crossed by this line of road; these are of all sizes, from a single span over a
miniature creek to a splendid structure half a mile long, like that over the Des
Moines River. All these bridges are models of symmetry and
strength, resting upon stone foundations or firmly set piles, and are entirely
safe, giving no perceptible vibrations as trains pass over. To secure a supply
of water for the engines, reservoirs and ponds were constructed at suitable
points all along the line. This was accomplished in some instances by damming
small streams. The water was elevated into tanks, holding nearly 50,000 gallons
each, by automatic wind-mills. There is no danger that the supply will ever be
short, as experience has demonstrated. The Burlington & Missouri Railroad
connects at Ottumwa
with the Des Moines Valley Railroad and the North Missouri
road, and, at Pacific Junction, with the St. Jo & Council
Among the important
branches and extensions of the road is one from Red Oak Junction
[emphasis added] to Nebraska City
and the Nebraska Extension to Lincoln.
The experimental trip over the road was made January 17, 1870, and was the
first passenger train from Chicago
to Council Bluffs
by the new line. The trip of 496 miles was made in a trifle over twenty-two
hours, and was a very successful one, demonstrating to the satisfaction of all
the practicability and comfort of the route.
census report of 1869 showed the aggregate of live stock and wool carried
eastward from the several stations along the line of road, during the year
ending April 30, 1869, to exceed that carried on any other Iowa
road. The scenery along this line of railroad is everywhere diversified and
beautiful, and the last twenty miles up the Missouri
is perfectly magnificent. The high bluffs that fringe the valley on either
side, marking the ancient boundaries of a mighty river, are picturesque beyond
The road from Burlington
to Omaha traverses eleven counties and runs
through the county seat of each. Everywhere along the line, new and prosperous
villages soon sprang up, the most noted of these being Mount Pleasant,
Fairfield, Ottumwa, Albia, Chariton, Osceola, Afton, Corning, Villesca [sic], Red Oak Junction [emphasis added]
A portion of Iowa,
hitherto comparatively undeveloped, was, by the building of the Burlington
& Missouri River Railroad, opened up with quick and easy access to the
great produce markets of the East, and now attains marked prominence on one of
the great national highways. ### | <urn:uuid:50a71745-2cb0-4b1f-b2ad-2ab9bde4870d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://depothill.net/depot05.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95051 | 1,129 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Golani Infantry Brigade
Golani Brigade Logo
The Golani brigade was
formed on February 22, 1948, when the Levanoni
brigade deployed on Israel's Lebanese border
was divided into two smaller brigades. Golani
was stationed in the valleys and hills of
the Lower Galilee in northern Israel. Its
soldiers included members of the Haganah,
residents of settlements in the areas of
combat, and enlisted men from all over
Prior to Israel's Declaration
of Independence, the soldiers of the brigade
fought in the areas of Mishmar Ha'emek, Tiberias,
Migdal, Zemach and Rosh Pinna. Their mission
was to defend the Upper Galilee and the Galilee
valleys. They also participated in the victory
at Safed in Operation
Yiftach. They captured
Arab Sejera, and Bet Shean and its environs.
The War of Independence
Upon the official proclamation on the founding of
Israel, seven Arab national armies invaded the country.
In the north, this included the Syrian, Iraqi, and Lebanese armies as well as the Kaukji
The Golani brigade was deployed
to face this threat, although it had severely
depleted ranks and was short of arms. New
arrivals to the State
of Israel were thrown
into the fray and many immediately joined the Golani brigade.
The new refugee recruits, though fiercely
loyal to the country and proud of their Judaism,
were reluctant soldiers. There were economic
and social problems 'at home' in the transit
immigrant camps. The standard of army equipment
was poor. The available weapons were Czech
rifles, with a builtin magazine that
held only five rounds, and Sten machine guns,
which were originally designed as cheap throwaways
for British paratroopers to use until their
'real' weapons were dropped. As for transport,
each battalion had one station wagon, a tender
van, and a single truck. One company had
their leave stopped by their commander because
they dared respond to the battalion CO's
interest in their problems by showing him
boots that were tied with string to stop
the soles from dropping off.
Golani Brigade succeeded in bringing the
Syrian columns of armor and infantry to a
halt, sometimes through the use of Molotov
cocktails and facetoface combat.
Iraqi forces were halted in the Jordan Valley.
The guerilla, improvisational tactics that
prevailed in the preState era were grafted
with the Brigade commander's experience in
the British Army to set the tone of Golani
The Golani brigade took
part along with the Seventh armored infantry
brigade, and the Carmeli brigade in Operation
Dekel (in the Galilee). In this operation,
the forces involved captured the Nazareth
area from Kaukji's irregulars. Golani troops,
now incorporated into the newlyformed Israel
Defense Forces participated in activities
to gain control over the entire Galilee in
what was called Operation Hiram. This involved
counterthrusts that penetrated as deep
as the Litani River in Lebanon.
The Golani brigade also
took part in Operation
Assaf to take control
of the western Negev, and also participated
in Operation Horev in which the Egyptians
were repelled from Israeli territory. Golani's
final mission in the War
of Independence was the successful seizure of the Negev in
Operation Ovdah. Golani participated in the
capture of the Southern Negev, all the way
down to the Red Sea at Eilat.
After the war, a large
number of new immigrants were absorbed into
the brigade, some of whom could not speak
Hebrew. The newlyreorganized brigade
went into action against the Syrians in 1951,
after the Syrians gained control of TelMutila
in the north. The Golani force involved suffered
The next time Golani went
into action was in October 1955 in coordination
with the Paratrooper Brigade. Their mission
was a retaliatory raid across the border
from Nitzana, following recurrent Egyptian
One month later, they carried
out an outstanding joint operation with the
Paratroopers against outposts which threatened
the Sea of Galilee region.
The 1956 Sinai Campaign
Israel undertook the 1956
Sinai Campaign in response to developments
in the international arena. Golani's mission
was to capture the Rafah area, in order to
provide Israeli armored forces with a clear
road into Egyptian territory.
Golani's next major activity
was in 1960. Following continued Syrian harassment
of farmers in the demilitarized zone in northern
Israel, a Golani force attacked a Syrian
outpost at Tawfiq. Two years later, they
carried out another attack against the Nukeib
outpost in Syria.
From 1965, the brigade
was integrated into ongoing antiterrorist
operations including Shune and Kilat in Jordan,
and Hilweh in Lebanon.
The 1967 Six Day War
In the Six
Day War, Golani
troops fought in the Jordan/Syria sector.
In Nablus they took part in housetohouse
fighting, while on the Golan
brigade was involved in heroic battles at
Tel Azizyat and Tel Fahr [see below.] Elsewhere,
Golani troops supported armored forces as
in the capture of Zaurah and the Banias.
Elements of Golani's Gideon Battalion landed
by helicopter on Mt. Hermon.
Golani was now given a
new role. The brigade began to reinforce
outposts along the Suez Canal, patrolling
the length of the new border, and pursuing
terrorists into South Lebanon.
The 1973 Yom Kippur
Just before hostilities
broke out, Golani troops were sent to man
outposts in the northern sector of the Golan
Heights. When war broke out, these outposts
came under attack from Syrian infantry and
armor, and were subject to air strikes. Golani
troops blocked possible transportation routes
available to the Syrians, and then went on
to take part in joint operations with IDF
armored forces. After regaining territories
up to the ceasefire line ("the
purple line"), Golani joined Rafael
Eitan's division in its thrust into the Syrian
During the early stages
of the war, the Mt. Hermon outpost, known
in Israel as "the eyes of the State," was
captured by the Syrians. Due to the strategic
importance of the outpost, high priority
was placed on its recapture. Golani troops
successfully undertook this difficult mission
on 22 October. They suffered high casualties
in this battle.
Golani at Entebbe
For years Golani was upstaged
by the more glamorous, red bereted paratroopers.
The Golani brown berets received recognition
as an elite force in the 1976 Entebbe Operation.
Golani units participated in the spectacular
rescue of Israeli nationals after their plane
had been hijacked to Uganda. This was not
a prize for past achievement but simply acceptance
that only the best would go on this mission,
and Golani were the best.
In 1978, following the
terrorist attack on the HaifaTel Aviv
highway, the IDF launched Operation Litani.
The objective of the mission was to repel
terrorist organizations beyond the Litani
river in Lebanon. It was an interarm
action, in which a major component were the
ground forces. The operation enjoyed only
limited success, as the terrorist threat
was not completely removed.
Continued problems with
terrorist incursions from the northern border
led to Operation Peace for Galilee (later
known as the Lebanon War). The Golani brigade
fought on the Nabatiye Heights and in Kfar
Sil, but the battle for which Golani became
famous in Lebanon was the capture of the
Beaufort outpost a military fort dating
back to the crusader period (12th century),
that was used as a terrorist base.
Since the Lebanon War,
Golani has continued to be a volunteer elite
infantry force. They share the humdrum work
of patrolling Israel's borders and facing
the dangers of Lebanon together with the
Paratroopers and other volunteer units.
The Battle of Tel Fahr
The Golani brigade was
deployed along Israel's northern borders.
In the period prior to the Six
Day War the
Syrians built a complex system of outposts
and fortifications facing the Syrians. Two
positions, Tel Azizyat and Tel Fahr were
part of this system. Tel Azizyat was taken
by a flanking maneuver.
On 9th June, 1967 at 14:00
hours, at the same time as armored and infantry
forces crossed over the "green line" (1948
ceasefire lines) a Golani's Barak battalion
made their way by mechanized transport to
Tel Fahr. The battle plan was to outflank
Tel Fahr but the designated approach proved
to be inaccessible to the force's vehicles.
A new plan was therefore decided upon which
required a frontal assault.
Throughout the force's
approach, it suffered attacks from outposts
around the route. Upon the forces' arrival
at the BourjBabil Tel Fahr junction
at 14:30, the battalion commander decided
to assign part of his force to attacking
the BourjBabil outpost, which was firing
heavily upon the battalion, and preventing
it from carrying out its attack effectively.
Despite this, the force pressed forward,
abandoning damaged and destroyed vehicles
along the way.
Upon reaching the foot
of the hill on which the outpost was located,
the force left its vehicles to approach the
outpost on foot. The force was divided into
two groups, with each group attacking one
of the two peaks on which the outpost was
situated. Upon reaching the outer perimeter
of the fortifications some soldiers flattened
the barbed wire coils by lying down on the
wire, thus allowing their colleagues to step
on them and proceed into the fort.
The combat then moved to
the trenches, where fighting was at shortrange,
with very high casualties. Many soldiers,
including the battalion commander, were hit
by Syrian fire.
Six hours after crossing
the border, a mechanized force in tracked
vehicles arrived at the southern side of
the outpost, and a reconnaissance group under
the command of the brigade commander arrived
at the northern side along with the group
assigned to capture BourjBabil. Within
another half an hour, Golani troops had gained
control of Tel Fahr. Thirty-four soldiers
fell in the battle: of these were 23 enlisted
men and officers of the Barak Battalion.
Battalions of the Golani
Barak Battalion: The Barak Battalion is one of the two original battalions of the Brigade. When the historical '4th Plan' was put into effect, the battalion oversaw the protection of the Sea of Galilee district. The battalion is named after a Biblical general and judge of the nation of Israel - Barak. Among many famous battles of the battalion: Ein Gev, Gesher, Sajra, the capture of the Tzemach structure, and the skirmish in Tiberius during the War
of Independence. In addition, one of their more famous battles is the battle of Tel Fahr in the Golan Heights, in the Six Day War. The battalion is also famous for the 'Blue Brown' operation of 1988, and many other campaigns.
Gideon Battalion: The Gideon Battalion is also one of the original battalions of the brigade. It has taken charge of the Gilboa region since its founding. It takes its name from the Biblical General and Judge of the Nation of Israel - Gideon. Among the many famous battles in which the Battalion took part: the battle for Jenin , the 'Asaf' operation during the War of Independence, the capture of the Banias structures during the Six Day War, and the battle of position 107 in the Yom Kippur War.
The "First Breaches" Battalion: This battalion was the first Givati Brigade battalion; it joined the Golani Brigade in 1956. The name of the Brigade was derived from the 'Yoav' operation of 1948. Its purpose was to weaken the fortifications of the Negev, provide a path for the rest of the Israeli forces, and to break the Egyptian army. The battalion took the first steps toward blazing a path for the rest of the forces, and was therefore called 'The First Breaches' battalion. Among its famous battles is the conquest of Rafah during the Sinai Campaign, the capture of Tel Azazit during the Six Day War, and the taking back of the Hermon during the Yom Kippur War.
The 'Egoz' Special Forces Unit: (Guerrilla and Urban Warfare Unit) The initial purpose of the unit, which was originally founded in 1956, was to execute missions far behind enemy lines. Later, the unit was disassembled and re-established a number of times. Since August of 1995 the unit started taking enlistees from the Golani Brigade who had passed a rigorous selection and evaluation regimen. Their training includes navigation, snow training, anti-terror training, a parachuting course, and more. After this process comes to a close, the soldiers execute ambushes and special missions deep into Lebanese territory. The unit specializes in guerrilla warfare, studying rough terrain warfare, scouting, camouflage, and ambush strategies. The unit received citations from the Chief of General Staff.
The Golani Reconnaissance Unit: The soldiers of this elite unit undergo thorough and demanding training. They have an extremely high level of physical and combat competence, which allows them to embark on varying missions beyond the border and in the region of the Green Line. The warriors have twice the reason to be proud of where they serve - they are the elite of the brown berets, the Golani soldiers.
Even during the days when the state was still in its infancy, Rafi Kotser commanded a special division of elite soldiers (the 'commando' division) in the 'Barak' Battalion, and the story of the elite unit does not stray too far from that of the entire Brigade. The elite unit was generally deployed only when the commander of the brigade gave the order. When they were put into action they would undertake such missions as special general defense missions, infiltrations, capture, reconnaissance missions, and confrontations with terrorists. They were also used many a time as the spearhead of major operations, and significant battles. Among them were the battle of Nokiev, Tel Fahr, Beaufort, and others.
The Special Communications Unit: The soldiers of the communications unit undergo the routine training of all Golani soldiers and take an instructional communications course for an additional three months. Upon returning to the brigade, each soldier practices his specialization, given to him during the course. These include: Wireless Equipment Operator, Communications Technician, Code Breaking, etc. In addition to their specialization training, the communications soldiers participate in arduous treks and infantry training exercises with all of their equipment on their backs.
The Combat Engineering Unit: The soldiers of the unit must undergo different sorts of training, including detonation, engineering, mines, and tunnel-making. In wartime, the engineering unit is designated to lead the forces of the Brigade, neutralizing mine fields, creating new pathways, capturing bridgeheads, and more. The soldiers of the unit carry heavy mines on their backs, in addition to heavy engineering and other equipment. This requires them to be physically able and in constant shape.
The 'Orev' Anti-Tank Unit: The main characteristic which sets this unit apart from the rest is its unique anti-tank and anti-armor capabilities. They carry anti-tank missiles on their backs, taking charge of the specialized gear dedicated to the entire division. They use the TAW missile, known in the IDF as the Orev missile. Due to the heaviness of the equipment they carry, they are constantly demanded to be in prime physical condition. | <urn:uuid:e6480802-ceca-4af4-b787-ad172c39926b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/golani_brigade.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956162 | 3,443 | 3.1875 | 3 |
World Bank research on energy, environment, water, and climate change provides information and insight on integrating environmentally sustainability with economic efficiency in advancing growth and poverty reduction. Issues concerning urban-regional development and infrastructure cut across all these topic areas.
PDF Version (460 KB)
Energy is both a key factor in economic development and a central focus in addressing the environment and climate change. Energy research examines the economic and environmental implications of alternative energy resources, increased access to energy services, and improved efficiency in public utility regulation.
Research on environmental, water, and other natural resource problems in developing countries examines policies for reducing pollution and congestion in urban transportation, the economic value of environmental and natural resources, and nontraditional policies for their protection.
Climate change poses significant risks through its effects on temperature, precipitation, sea level, and natural disasters. Climate change research examines the implications of these risks for a wide range of investment decisions, as well as policies for reducing climate change risks and mitigating the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change.
Development is accompanied by significant spatial transformations—changes in the distribution of people and economic activities. Adequate infrastructure is needed in turn to stimulate and sustain development. Research on these topics focuses particularly on urban density, access to markets, and impacts of inter-regional transport improvements on trade flows and economic performance, as well as on the importance of energy availability.
Alternative energy resources present a complex mix of pros and cons
Even with greatly improved energy efficiency, demand for different forms of energy will increase significantly as incomes in developing countries rise. The challenge is to satisfy growth in demand affordably and sustainably. Coal is plentiful and cheap, and its use can be easily scaled-up, but expanded coal use with current technologies intensifies already strong concerns about global warming and local air pollution. Liquid biofuels made from plant matter can be a low-emissions resource, but current food-crop based sources require subsidies for large-scale production, and may not decrease greenhouse emissions substantially—especially if expanded supplies increase deforestation. By competing with food supplies, a global expansion of biofuels could cause important economic losses in some regions, though other regions would gain economically from being biofuels sellers. Better biofuel production technologies exist, but it will be some years before they are technologically and economically feasible on a large scale.
Wind and solar energy for electricity generation have advanced significantly over the past two decades. However, the intermittency of these sources and the need to connect together an enormous number of far-flung, small resources remain significant technical and economic challenges to deploying them at a scale that would replace large quantities of fossil fuels.[4,5] Expansion of nuclear power faces the opposite set of challenges. It can produce a steady supply of electricity at a large scale, but it currently faces an unknown future given concerns about safety and proliferation, as well as a high and still-uncertain initial capital cost. Ultimately, all of these and other energy resources will be needed to successfully meet growth in global demand.
No single solution for increasing access to affordable and clean energy
Lack of access to reliable, affordable, and safe energy—“energy poverty” —is a key barrier to economic development in both rural and peri-urban areas. The challenge is how this is to be accomplished. In many cases, rural households can obtain the limited quantities of energy they need through small-scale, decentralized sources, often using locally available renewable energy sources. Even in Africa, however, the trend toward urbanization and the current cost premium paid for small-scale energy can tip the balance toward extending the electricity grid into areas not too far away. Aside from choice of technology, however, the necessary institutional measures for monitoring and charging for electricity use must be put in place in order to maintain financial sustainability. A study of illegal electricity connections in the favelas of Belo Horizonte, Brazil found that electricity theft was motivated not just by low incomes, but also by poor quality of service and equipment. Such a situation can create a vicious circle in which poor service undermines the willingness of costumers to pay for service, which exacerbates funding shortages for upgrading service.
Several tools needed to solve environmental and congestions problems with urban transportation
As cities grow throughout the developing world, so do transport-related problems—traffic congestion, local air pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. Continued road investments lock in urban sprawl and private reliance on private vehicles, making it harder to reduce time wasted in traffic congestion and pollution from automobile emissions. Part of the solution is investments in public transportation that connect urban centers with each other and with surrounding areas. However, policies to limit transportation services demands also are needed, since the price of fuels does not reflect the cost of the resulting pollution and with a very few exceptions, there is no direct pricing of road access that could reduce congestion. Even without road pricing, there could be significant overall benefits from raising fuel taxes to reflect pollution and congestion “externalities.” However, a study of externality pricing in México City indicates reaping these gains would require significant increases in fuel prices and total driving cost. The full social costs of road travel needs to be considered in evaluating alternative transportation infrastructure investments and designing measures to finance the necessary infrastructure.
People value water access and cleanliness—but how to provide it in practice?
There is significant evidence that even low-income individuals put a high economic value on improved access to water and on the cleanliness of their water supply.[13,14] Yet water supplies often are inadequate and nowhere near potable. Some evidence shows that people would be willing to pay more for improved water. In practice, however, increasing water tariffs can have a mix of desired and unwanted effects: water quality and availability may improve, reducing adverse health effects of contaminated water use, but the necessary cost increases could impose a significant burden on the poor and indirectly limit access to water supplies in rural areas. There is also need for social mechanisms to induce cooperation in limiting pollution of community water supplies.
Alternatives to traditional regulation can extend the reach of environmental protection
In many parts of the developing world, the mechanisms for limiting degradation of environmental and natural resources—pollution standards, land use controls, taxes and fines—are not readily applicable because the institutions for their use are not yet adequately developed. However, some alternative approaches show promise. A “Payment for Environmental Services” (PES) system provides financial incentives for those in charge of sensitive resources to reduce their degradation and promote more sustainable use of them. Financing for such services can come from direct user fees, indirect taxes on environmentally damaging goods, or general revenues. Provided performance can be adequately monitored and payments are sufficiently large to motivate changes in behavior, the system can achieve its environmental goals.
Information disclosure programs and environmental performance ratings also can provide an alternative to difficult-to-implement pollution regulation. In China’s Jiangsu Province, the “Green Watch” performance rating and disclosure program has led to greater pollution reduction among rated companies than non-covered firms, after adjusting for differences among firm characteristics.
Environmental assets and other intangible wealth are important factors in economic development
One of the puzzles of national wealth accounting is that the value of tangible assets—fixed capital and land—is a smaller multiple of national income than expected given realistic rates of return. New and more comprehensive national wealth measures indicate that while intangible wealth, including a number of environmental assets, is not measured in national accounts, it represents 60 to 80 percent of comprehensive wealth across most countries. Increasing environmental assets thus is one key contributor to the growth and development of nations.[20, 21]
Natural hazards exacerbated by climate change will require a range of responses
Developing countries cope with several types of natural disasters that are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, including storm surges that overwhelm coastal areas as well as other impacts of tropical storms.[22, 23] Increasing and more dense urbanization in pursuit of greater economic opportunity will greatly increase the number of city inhabitants exposed to high risks of tropical cyclones, especially with inadequate risk prevention and mitigation measures as simple as unblocking drains. However, there is also evidence that the risk of dying from flooding decreases with income, so higher incomes in urban areas would lessen risks. Effectively responding to growing risks from natural disasters with climate change necessitates a mix of larger-scale and smaller-scale measures over time. In Bangladesh, for example, where much of the country is less than 5 meters above sea level, major improvements in dikes can be combined with reforestation of coastlines, strengthening of private homes (with provision for also sheltering livestock), and improvement in early warning systems. Agreements among countries for use of shared water bodies will have to adjust to reflect changes in precipitation runoff.
Farmers in Africa and elsewhere have several potential options for adapting to climate change
Agricultural crops and grazing lands comprise 40 percent of global land use, and in many developing countries agriculture provides employment and livelihood for three-quarters of the population. More than 15 years of Bank research on the impact of, and long-term adaptation to, climate change in agriculture under a variety of conditions has been synthesized in a recent book spanning more than 22 countries across four continents. Comparison of long-term adjustments across countries is used to examine the impact of climate change on agriculture and livestock, as well as to quantify how farmers adapt to climate change. Because cropping is more sensitive than grazing to climate change, and rain-fed cropland is generally more sensitive than irrigated cropland, farmers may be able to adjust to climate change by switching crops and livestock species, increasing irrigation, and moving between livestock and crops. However, research shows that future farm incomes in Africa are very climate sensitive, and will be severely threatened in the event of extreme climate change scenarios. Adaptation policies and measures also must be location-specific. Public policies to increase resilience through investments in knowledge diffusion and infrastructure can increase productivity across a range of future climate scenarios.
International cooperation to reduce greenhouse gases remains limited
Climate change is a global problem that can only be met with global cooperation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Cooperation between developed and developing countries for emissions mitigation has broadened over the past decade, but it remains limited in scope and impact. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a voluntary mechanism for developed countries to help fund projects in developing countries, has grown in size, but there are lingering questions about how well it operates and about how many projects are “additional” to activities that would have been undertaken anyway.[30, 31] Unless stronger international agreements are reached to actually reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it will be difficult for broader “market mechanisms” like the CDM (or higher energy taxes to limit emissions) to be instituted. More piecemeal interim measures may have to implemented, instead.
One possibility is putting internationally coordinated taxes on aviation and maritime fuels, which so far have been exempted from such measures under a variety of international treaties. Such taxes could have a small but noticeable effect on global emissions while raising billions of dollars each year that could be used for “climate smart” purposes. Even if lower-income developing countries have tax revenues returned to them in the interest of international equity, obtaining international agreements to change multiple treaties ruling out such taxes would be a formidable task. Ultimately such sector-based measures could be aggregated into an architecture for emissions mitigation based on a variety of approaches tailored to differing circumstances in the various sectors. For example, agreements to limit the emissions intensity of countries’ electricity sectors on the one hand, with agreed changes in technical standards and practices to improve building energy efficiencies.
“Connectedness” of infrastructure and institutions enhances regional growth in Africa
Expanding trade within Sub-Saharan Africa by upgrading and maintaining the trunk road network connecting capitals and the largest cities is estimated in the tens of billions of dollars each year—well in excess of costs—with additional benefits accruing from greater within-country trade, increased access to global markets, and considerable employment effects. Similarly, harmonization of legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks along with development of regional-scale “backbone” infrastructure for “network” industries like telecommunications or electricity can lead to reduced cross-border transaction costs, greater economies of scale, and the potential for increased competition, as illustrated by examining regionalized telecommunications policy in West Africa. However, a country’s ability to benefit from such spillover effects also depends on broader institutional factors, such as participation in formal trade agreements and how well agreements function in practice.
China’s expressway construction supports growth, but regional disparities remain
China’s ambitious program of expressway network expansion over the past two decades is estimated to have raised national income in 2007 approximately 6 percent above what it otherwise would have been. However, the expressway network appears to have reinforced existing patterns of spatial income inequality, although the results vary across the country. While increased disparities may stimulate further migration to coastal growth centers in the short term, there is evidence from more advanced developed countries that the disparities will decline in the longer term—especially if infrastructure investments that promote urbanization and economic concentration are accompanied by policies that ensure access to health, education, and other basic services in rural and lagging areas.
Michael A. Toman, Research Manager, Development Research Group, Development Economics Vice Presidency, World Bank (email@example.com)
1. Kessides, Ioannis N., and David C. Wade. 2011. “Towards a Sustainable Global Energy Supply Infrastructure: Net Energy Balance and Density Considerations.” Energy Policy 39(9): 5322–34.
2. Timilsina, Govinda R., John C. Beghin, Dominique van der Mensbrugghe, and Simon Mevel. Forthcoming. “The Impacts of Biofuel Targets on Land-Use Change and Food Supply: A Global CGE Assessment.” Agriculture Economics. (Based on Policy Research Working Paper 5513, World Bank, Washington, DC.)
3. Carriquiry, Miguel A., Xiaodong Du, and Govinda R Timilsina. 2011. “Second Generation Biofuels: Economics and Policies.” Energy Policy 39(7): 4222–34.
4. Timilsina, Govinda R., Lado Kurdgelashvili, and Patrick A. Narbel. 2012. “Solar Energy: Markets, Economics and Policies.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16(1): 449–65.
5. van Kooten, G. Cornelis, and Govinda R. Timilsina. 2009. “Wind Power Development: Economics and Policies.” Policy Research Working Paper 4868, World Bank, Washington, DC.
6. Adamantiades, Achilles, and Ioannis N. Kessides. 2009. “Nuclear Power for Sustainable Development: Current Status and Future Prospects.” Energy Policy 37(12): 5149–66.
7. Barnes, Douglas F., Shahid R. Khandker, and Hussain A. Samad. 2011. “Energy Poverty in Rural Bangladesh.” Energy Policy 39(2): 894–904.
8. Deichmann, Uwe, Craig Meisner, Siobhan Murray, and David Wheeler. 2011. “The Economics of Renewable Energy Expansion in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa.” Energy Policy 39(1: 215–27.
9. Mimmi, Luisa M., and Sencer Ecer. 2010. “An Econometric Study of Illegal Electricity Connections in the Urban Favelas of Belo Horizonte, Brazil.” Energy Policy 38(9): 5081–97.
10. Strand, Jon. 2012. “Low-Level versus High-Level Equilibrium in Public Utility Services.” Journal of Public Economics 96: 163–72.
11. Anas, Alex, and Govinda Timilsina. 2009. “Lock-in Effects of Road Expansion on CO2 Emissions: Results from a Core-Periphery Model of Beijing.” Policy Research Working Paper 5017, World Bank, Washington, DC.
12. Parry, Ian W. H., and Govinda R. Timilsina. 2010. “How Should Passenger Travel in Mexico City Be Priced?” Journal of Urban Economics 682(2): 167–82.
13. Nauges, Celine, Jon Strand, and Ian Walker. 2009. “The Value of Water Connections in Central American Cities: A Revealed Preference Study.” Environment and Development Economics 14(3): 349–70.
14. Wang, Hua, Yuyan Shi, Yoonhee Kim, and Takuya Kamata. 2011. “Valuing Water Quality Improvement in China: A Case Study of Lake Puzhehei in Yunnan Province.” Policy Research Working Paper 5766, World Bank, Washington, DC.
15. Wang, Hua, Jian Xie, and Honglin Li. 2010. “Water Pricing with Household Surveys: A Study of Acceptability and Willingness to Pay in Chongqing, China.” China Economic Review 21(1): 136–49.
16. Barrera-Osorio, Felipe, and Mauricio Olivera. 2009. “Does Society Win or Lose as a Result of Privatization? The Case of Water Sector Privatization in Colombia.” Economica 76(304): 649–74.
17. Kremer, Michael, Jessica Leino, Edward Miguel, and Alix Peterson Zwane. 2011. “Spring Cleaning: Rural Water Impacts, Valuation, and Property Rights Institutions.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(1): 145–205.
18. Pagiola, Stefano, Ana R. Rios, and Agustin Arcenas. 2010. “Poor Household Participation in Payments for Environmental Services: Lessons from the Silvopastoral Project in Quindío, Colombia.” Environmental and Resource Economics 47(3): 371–94.
19. Jin, Yanhong, Hua Wang, and David Wheeler. 2010. “Environmental Performance Rating and Disclosure: An Empirical Investigation of China’s Green Watch Program.” Policy Research Working Paper 5420, World Bank, Washington, DC.
20. Ferreira, Susana, and Kirk E. Hamilton. 2010. “Comprehensive Wealth, Intangible Capital, and Development.” Policy Research Working Paper 5452, World Bank, Washington, DC.
21. World Bank. 2011. The Changing Wealth of Nations: Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium. Washington, DC: World Bank. Download
22. Dasgupta, Susmita, Benoit Laplante, Siobhan Murray, and David Wheeler. 2011. “Exposure of Developing Countries to Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surges.” Climatic Change 106: 567–79.
23. Mendelsohn, Robert, Kerry Emanuel, and Shun Chonabayashi. 2011. “The Impact of Climate Change on Global Tropical Storm Damages.” Policy Research Working Paper 5562, World Bank, Washington, DC.
24. Lall, Somik V., and Uwe Deichmann. Forthcoming. “Density and Disasters: Economics of Urban Hazard Risk.” World Bank Research Observer (doi: 10.1093/wbro/lkr006, July 7).
25. Ferreira, Susana, Kirk Hamilton, and Jeffrey R. Vincent. 2011. “Nature, Socioeconomics and Adaptation to Natural Disasters: New Evidence from Floods.” Policy Research Working Paper 5725, World Bank, Washington, DC.
26. Dasgupta, Susmita, Mainul Huq, Zahirul Huq Khan, Manjur Murshed Zahid Ahmed, Nandan Mukherjee, Malik Fida Khan, and Kiran Pandey. 2010. “Vulnerability of Bangladesh to Cyclones in a Changing Climate: Potential Damages and Adaptation Cost.” Policy Research Working Paper 5280, World Bank, Washington, DC.
27. Dinar, Ariel, Brian Blankespoor, Shlomi Dinar, and Pradeep Kurukulasuriya. 2010. “Does Precipitation and Runoff Variability Affect Treaty Cooperation between States Sharing International Bilateral Rivers?” Ecological Economics 69(12): 2568–81.
28. Mendelsohn, Robert, and Ariel Dinar. 2009. Climate Change and Agriculture: An Economic Analysis of Global Impacts, Adaptation and Distributional Effects. Washington, DC: World Bank, and North Hampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar.
29. Seo, S. N., Robert Mendelsohn, Ariel Dinar, Rashid Hassan, and Pradeep Kurukulasuriya. 2009. “A Ricardian Analysis of the Distribution of Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture across Agro-ecological Zones in Africa.” Environmental and Resource Economics 43(3): 313–32.
30. Rahman, Shaikh M., Ariel Dinar, and Donald F. Larson. 2010. “Will the Clean Development Mechanism Mobilize Anticipated Levels of Mitigation?” Policy Research Working Paper Series 5239, World Bank, Washington, DC.
31. Strand, Jon, and Knut Einar Rosendahl. 2011. “Carbon Leakage from the Clean Development Mechanism.” Energy Journal 32(4): 27–50.
32. Keen, Michael, Ian Parry, and Jon Strand. 2012. “Market-Based Instruments for International Aviation and Shipping as a Source of Climate Finance.” Policy Research Working Paper 5950, World Bank, Washington, DC.
33. Barrett, Scott, and Michael Toman. 2010. “Contrasting Future Paths for an Evolving Global Climate Regime.” Global Policy 1(1): 64–74.
34. Buys, Piet, Uwe Deichmann, and David Wheeler. 2010. “Road Network Upgrading and Overland Trade Expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of African Economics 19(3): 399–432.
35. Kessides, Ioannis N., Roger G. Noll, and Nancy C. Benjamin. 2009. “Regionalizing Telecommunications Reform in West Africa.” Policy Research Working Paper 5126, World Bank, Washington, DC.
36. Roberts, Mark, and Uwe Deichmann. 2009. “International Growth Spillovers, Geography and Infrastructure.” Policy Research Working 5153, World Bank, Washington, DC.
37. Roberts, Mark, Uwe Deichmann, Bernard Fingleton, and Tuo Shi. 2010. “On the Road to Prosperity? The Economic Geography of China’s National Expressway Network.” Policy Research Working Paper 5479, World Bank, Washington, DC. | <urn:uuid:c4f2b202-67a7-45af-aa4f-6629f8583ac1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTEAER/0,,contentMDK:23102716~pagePK:64168182~piPK:64168060~theSitePK:5991650~isCURL:Y~isCURL:Y,00.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898883 | 4,798 | 3 | 3 |
For the most part, if you are eating varied sources of protein, you probably don’t have to worry about experiencing a shortage of amino acids. But if you regularly cut out certain food groups or tend to always eat chicken or fish, you need to determine if supplementation is necessary.
Here are the eight essential amino acids relevant to athletes and those who are involved in intense physical activity.
HistidineHistidine helps the body with the growth and repair of bodily tissues like muscles, as well as with the production of the myelin sheath, a protective covering that forms around nerve cells and helps produce gastric juices.
Food sources: Dairy, meat, poultry, fish, rice, wheat
PhenylalaninePhenylalanine is an amino acid that enhances your mood and improves your memory, hence making it important for proper brain function. It also increases the levels of neurotransmitters in the body, which are essential for proper operation of the nervous system, as well as increases the absorption rate of UV rays by the sun, thereby facilitating the production of vitamin D in the body.
It should be noted, though, that you can reach toxic levels of phenylalanine, which is why there is a large amount of controversy regarding its use in artificial sweeteners containing aspartame. However, you really have to overdo the intake of phenylalanine to reach these toxic levels.
Food sources: Dairy, almonds, avocados, nuts, seeds
LysinePotentially the most critical role this amino acid plays is in the absorption of calcium and bone development. Lysine also helps maintain a good nitrogen balance in the body, which is critical for maintenance of lean muscle mass and the avoidance of fatigue. It also helps the body produce antibodies and regulates the various hormones that act as messenger signals.
Food sources: Cheese, potatoes, milk, eggs, red meat, yeast products
LeucineLeucine is important in regulating blood sugar levels in the body; therefore, it is particularly important for those who suffer from hypo- or hyperglycemica, or for those looking to maintain lower body fat percentages. It also works to keep human growth hormone levels where they should be, which really enhances muscle tissue development.
Food sources: Soybeans, lentils, egg yolks, almonds, milk, fish, peanuts, shrimp
More amino acids you should be loading up on…
Have a question? Get it answered by AskMen's guyQ. | <urn:uuid:b83d4d19-ba42-47ad-8c98-bb9cc122f97c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ca.askmen.com/sports/bodybuilding_200/246_fitness_tip.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942596 | 509 | 3.0625 | 3 |
5) Runts and Runaways
Indeed, one alteration of orbits can be the outright ejection of a planet. When several big planets are orbiting a star under each other's influence, the system is inherently unstable. The almost inevitable result is that the smallest body will be ejected from the system. We would see it as an isolated object smaller (less massive) than a brown dwarf. Such objects have indeed been found in some young star clusters. The problem is, we are not sure whether such small objects can also just form by themselves, without ever being in orbit around a star. Originally theorists claimed this was not possible, but as more details were added, they retreated. We know of no good reason why the smallest objects with fusion should have the same mass as the smallest objects that can form by themselves. At the moment it seems more likely that the discoveries are not true ejected planets (but it is very hard to be sure).
A controversy therefore arose when they were dubbed "free-floating planets" by some of the discoverers. The question is: if the object was never in orbit around a star, can we call it a planet? Some astronomers say that if it never had fusion then it clearly isn't a star (failed or otherwise). Since the free-floating objects have the same mass as some of the accepted extrasolar planets, they should be called planets too. Others say that planets can only form and be found around stars (leaving aside the problem of ejection), so if the new objects formed in isolation they should be called "sub-brown dwarfs" or "grey dwarfs", but certainly not "planets".
The latest computer simulations of star formation only further confuse the issue. They show that in the formation of a cluster of stars, fetal objects are often interacting with each other, forming loose alliances, then being ejected from the group while formation is still in progress. Brown dwarfs sometimes form by themselves. Sometimes they are part of a multiple star system in the process of formation, when they are suddenly tossed out (robbing them of their "rightful" supply of gas). The same could be true of objects in the planetary mass range, in which case it is hard to say whether they formed in orbit around a star or not. (For more information on these computer models, try this link: http://www.astro.ex.ac.uk/people/mbate/Research/pr.html)
6) Mission Definition
By now you should be at least as confused as professional astronomers are. What seemed like an easy question ("what is a planet?") has become a morass. Still, the word is in very common use, and it would be nice to know what we are talking about. A final definition should be acceptable to both scientists and the lay public. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to concoct such a definition. There are three arenas from which the definition could spring. They are not necessarily compatible with each other, and one or more may not be necessary. These are 1) the characteristics of the objects themselves; 2) the circumstances in which they are found; and 3) their cosmogony (how they form).
I here suggest a few properties that the definition perhaps should satisfy, but you are free to add to and subtract from this list at will. A good way to start is probably to settle on the list for yourself. My suggestions (in no particular order) are that a definition should 1) be physical: give some fundamental properties of the object; 2) be observable: depend on measurements that are feasible to accomplish; 3) be succinct and clear, with little ambiguity; 4) be general beyond current observations: allow room for new discoveries; 5) have well-defined limits: except right at these limits it should be easy to place an object inside or outside the category; and 6) be easily understood by the public but satisfactory to scientists.
The International Astronomical Union (the only body empowered to make an "official" definition), has found the task problematic so far. Nature, of course, cares nothing about classification, and the truth is that there is a continuum of characteristics, circumstances, and probably cosmogonies to the objects out there. This article contains the beginnings of many of the relevant issues. Have the students extract them (and perhaps augment them with their research), and organize them so to aid in carrying out the mission. Can they bring clarity to the classification and cut through the confusion? Can they make a definition for "planet" that other students will like and understand, and that teachers and astronomers will also find compelling? It should at least be fun and informative to try.
I don't think this mission is impossible, and will suggest a definition in a future article in Mercury. Or you can get a preview at my website (http://astro.berkeley.edu/~basri/whatsaplanet.htm) after you have finished your own thought process. This document will not self-destruct anytime soon, and you are free to spread it around. Good luck!
<< previous page | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
back to Teachers' Newsletter Main Page | <urn:uuid:e00dde68-d2dc-4fc9-9cf2-c11622c4f540> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.astrosociety.org/edu/publications/tnl/59/planetdefine4.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961344 | 1,064 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Officials at Poland's World War Two Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp say the site hosted a record number of tourists in 2012.
In a statement on the museum's website Friday, officials said more than 1.4 million visitors toured the Holocaust memorial site in southern Poland last year. The visitors came from all over the world, including Poland, Great Britain, the United States, Italy, France, Israel, Spain, the Czech Republic and South Korea.
Director Piotr Cywinski notes that Auschwitz has become a central site of remembrance for all of Europe and underscores “the challenges our societies still face.”
More than one million people, mostly Jews, were murdered by Nazi German soldiers at Auschwitz-Birkenau, before it was liberated by Soviet troops in January, 1945.
Massive efforts are ongoing to preserve the site and the many personal objects, like books, shoes and hair brushes that belonged to the camp's victims, before they were killed in the gas chambers. | <urn:uuid:909d11c8-785a-4225-9956-bd7832a2cf26> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2013/01/04/record-interest-in-auschwitz-birkenau-death-camp/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966719 | 201 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Introduction to JPEG Compression
In our last tutorial of image compression , we discuss some of the techniques used for compression
We are going to discuss JPEG compression which is lossy compression , as some data is loss in the end.
Let’s discuss first what image compression is.
Image compression is the method of data compression on digital images.
The main objective in the image compression is:
Store data in an efficient form
Transmit data in an efficient form
Image compression can be lossy or lossless.
JPEG stands for Joint photographic experts group. It is the first interanational standard in image compression. It is widely used today. It could be lossy as well as lossless . But the technique we are going to discuss here today is lossy compression technique.
How jpeg compression works:
First step is to divide an image into blocks with each having dimensions of 8 x8.
Let’s for the record , say that this 8x8 image contains the following values.
The range of the pixels intensities now are from 0 to 255. We will change the range from -128 to 127.
Subtracting 128 from each pixel value yields pixel value from -128 to 127. After subtracting 128 from each of the pixel value , we got the following results.
Now we will compute using this formula.
The result comes from this is stored in let’s say A(j,k) matrix.
There is a standard matrix that is used for computing JPEG compression, which is given by a matrix called as Luminance matrix.
This matrix is given below
Applying the following formula
We got this result after applying.
Now we will perform the real trick which is done in JPEG compression which is ZIG-ZAG movement. The zig zag sequence for the above matrix is shown below. You have to perform zig zag until you find all zeroes ahead. Hence our image is now compressed.
Summarizing JPEG compression
The first step is to convert an image to Y’CbCr and just pick the Y’ channel and break into 8 x 8 blocks. Then starting from the first block , map the range from -128 to 127. After that you have to find the discrete fourier transform of the matrix. The result of this should be quantized. The last step is to apply encoding in the zig zag manner and do it till you find all zero.
Save this one dimensional array and you are done.
Note. You have to repeat this procedure for all the block of 8 x 8. | <urn:uuid:c0aaa68b-7e8e-4fbf-84bd-6fb4c59039f8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tutorialspoint.com/dip/Introduction_to_JPEG_compression.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.897188 | 539 | 3.796875 | 4 |
From AMS Glossary
(Also known as the F-scale.) Relates tornado intensity indirectly to structural and/or vegetative damage.
The estimated wind speed is calculated using the following formula: V = 6.30 (F+2)1.5 m s-1. A six-point scale has been developed that corresponds to the following wind-speed estimates:
- F0 (light damage): 18–32 m s-1
- F1 (moderate damage): 33–49 m s-1
- F2 (considerable damage): 50–69 m s-1
- F3 (severe damage): 70–92 m s-1
- F4 (devastating damage): 93–116 m s-1
- F5 (incredible damage):117–142 m s-1.
Although extremely dependent on the design of a structure and the tree type, the following visual characteristics of the damage have been assigned to the F-scale.
- F0 - Some damage to chimneys; branches broken; shallow-rooted trees knocked over.
- F1 - Surface of roofs peeled off; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving autos pushed off road.
- F2 - Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars pushed over; large trees snapped or uprooted.
- F3 - Roofs and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted; heavy cars lifted off ground and thrown.
- F4 - Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown off; large missiles generated.
- F5 - Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried considerable distances; automobile- sized missiles flying through the air for distances in excess of 100 m; trees debarked.
Fujita, T. 1981. Tornadoes and downbursts in the context of generalized planetary scales. J. Atmos. Sci.. 38. 1511–1534. | <urn:uuid:69d5350c-b069-4b41-a3a3-8f41e4220480> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Fujita_scale | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876775 | 412 | 3.25 | 3 |
Chullin 61-67 -- Issue #141
The Chicken Before the EggHow do we know that it is permissible to eat eggs?
But why should there be any problem with eggs laid by a kosher chicken?
The Talmud (Bechoros 5b) states a rule that forbids anything that comes forth from an animal which is forbidden. This ban includes the milk and other secretions of forbidden animal life (with the exception of honey from a bee) and raises a problem concerning the milk of a cow. Before the cow is slaughtered it is forbidden to cut off any part of its flesh and eat it. So, why may we drink the milk which flows from such forbidden flesh?
The resolution of this problem is that in a number of places in Scripture there is reference to milk being consumed. One of these is the Torah's description of Eretz Yisrael as a "land flowing with milk and honey," leading to the conclusion that unless milk was permissible to drink it would not be utilized as a praise for the holy land.
The same problem which is raised regarding milk applies to eggs as well. If we cannot eat from the flesh of the chicken while it is alive how can we eat the eggs which come from it? The revelations which are found in the various passages about the legitimacy of milk are not there in regard to eggs.
An interesting source is proposed by the Ba'al Hilchos Gedolos. Our Gemara states that the eggs of a non-kosher bird are forbidden because one of the birds listed by the Torah as forbidden is "the daughter of the ya'anah," which is interpreted as meaning the eggs of that or any other forbidden bird. There is really no need for a source to prohibit eggs of forbidden birds since they are covered by the aforementioned general ban on anything coming from a forbidden species. The purpose of mentioning a ban on ya'anah eggs, therefore, is to communicate that only the eggs of a forbidden bird are forbidden but not the eggs of a kosher fowl.
Tosefos finds this interpretation of the Gemara a bit difficult to reconcile with the text. He suggests an alternative source. In regard to the mitzvah of sending away the mother bird before taking the eggs found along the road there is an exception made if the eggs are those of a forbidden species even if the bird sitting on them is kosher. This distinction communicates the message that if the eggs have been laid by a kosher bird they may be eaten.
Great Fish for DinnerThe Leviathan is a kosher fish.
Tradition has is that this creature, referred to as the great sea-giants created on the fifth day of creation, was removed from circulation but will be restored in the end of days to serve as a main course in the feast for the righteous. It is described in the Book of Iyov (41:6,22) as having the fins and scales which identify a kosher fish.
An interesting problem is raised by the commentaries in regard to the Talmud's need to prove the kosher status of the Leviathan. How could we possibly assume that the fish to be served at the feast reserved as a great reward of the righteous could be non-kosher?
Maharsha suggests that there was never a doubt as to whether the flesh of the Leviathan is kosher since it is to star in the menu of that great feast of the future. The question, rather, is whether it is to be classified as a fish, or whether it is a fowl which lives in the water, like some gigantic duck. The proof cited from the Book of Iyov establishes that it is indeed a fish, on the basis of its having the fins and scales that other kosher fish have, and thus assures us that the righteous will enjoy great fish for their great dinner. | <urn:uuid:511cfab8-a752-4f07-ae14-0aff3ab5c80c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ohr.edu/this_week/the_weekly_daf/185 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973212 | 780 | 2.53125 | 3 |
In the depths of
the Amazonian basin, a specific type of soil is found that is
known to be of human origin – but which modern science has
so far been unable to reproduce. It seems to have been “primitive
man’s” attempt to terraform the Amazon into fertility.
the latter half of the 20th century, two leading thoughts have
come to the forefront of humanity: one is the possibility that
we can destroy our planet – and whether our industrialised
economy is killing the planet; the second is so-called “terraforming”
other planets – making them inhabitable and suitable for
human habitation. Both “techniques” transform an existing
ecosystem and reside in opposite camps – destruction and
Though topical, and for many perhaps theoretical, it is not a
purely modern issue, an outcome of Man’s conquest of space,
or the science fiction generations that have grown up in the 20th
century. During that same century, it has become clear to science
that people in the Amazon have created and used similar techniques
– two millennia before Mankind went into space.
"Terra Preta de Indio" (Amazonian Dark Earths, earlier
also called “Terra Preta do Indio” or Indian Black
Earth) is the local name for certain dark earths in the Brazilian
Amazon region. These dark earths occur, however, in several countries
in South America (Brazil, Ecuador and Peru) and possibly beyond.
As ecologically rich as the rainforest may appear, the soil it
stands in is unsuited to farming – largely a result of the
incessant rain washing away all nutrients. But those pockets of
soil that are Terra Preta, are suitable for farming and thus form
an out of place patch of fertility in an otherwise harsh environment.
In fact, it has the ability to maintain nutrient levels over hundreds
of years. According to Bruno Glaser, a chemist at the University
of Bayreuth, "If you read the textbooks, it shouldn't be
there." According to a study led by Dirse Kern of the Museu
Goeldi in Belem, Terra Preta is "not associated with a particular
parent soil type or environmental condition", suggesting
it was not produced by natural processes.
Terra Preta pockets in the Amazon are seldom larger than 2 acres,
reaching down to a depth of approx. 50 centimetres, with traces
going down to 2-3 metres deep. Terra Preta, in short, is like
a small pocket of different soil, stretching over a small area
of land, and not going to any depth. Still, when the various pockets
are added up, about ten percent of the Amazon landmass is like
this (though others argue only 0.3 percent of the basin is covered),
a space roughly the size of France – or twice the UK.
As a rule, Terra Preta has more plant-available phosphorus, calcium,
sulfur, and nitrogen than is common in the rain forest. The soil
is specifically well-suited for “tropical fruits”.
Corn, papaya, mango and many other foods grow at three times the
rate than in the “normal” tropical soil. Fallows on
the Amazonian Dark Earths can be as short as six months, whereas
fallow periods on Oxisols are usually eight to ten years long.
Only short fallows are presumed to be necessary for restoring
fertility on the dark earths. However, precise information is
not available, since farmers frequently fallow the land due to
an overwhelming weed infestation and not due to declining soil
fertility. In 2001, James B. Petersen reported that Amazonian
Dark Earths in Açutuba had been under continuous cultivation
without fertilization for over forty years.
What’s more: the soil behaves like a living organism; it
is self-renewing. It acts more like a super-organism than an inert
material. It is even more remarkable when it was discovered that
it was most likely created by pre-Columbian Indians, between 500
BC and 1500 AD, and abandoned after the invasion of Europeans
(other dating suggests 800 BC to 500 AD). Dating of the soil samples
has shown that cultivation stopped in 1500, at the time of the
Spanish Conquest. Francisco de Orellana, of the Spanish Conquistadors,
reported that as he ventured along the Rio Negro, hunting a hidden
city of gold, his expedition found a network of farms, villages
and even huge walled cities. When later Spanish settlers arrived,
none could find the people of whom the first Conquistadors had
spoken. Had they been lured here with a lie? And if the farms
did not exist, a “city of gold” seemed to have been
an even bigger lie. Later, scientists were sceptical of Orellana’s
account, as in their opinion, the Amazonian soil could not support
such large farming communities. Of course, these scientists were
speaking at a time when Terra Preta was not yet identified.
Wim Sombroek of the International Soil Reference and Information
Centre in Wageningen, the Netherlands, has identified one of the
biggest patches of Terra Preta near Santarem, where the zone is
three miles long and half a mile wide. The plateau has never been
carefully excavated, but observations by geographers Woods and
Josephn McCann of the New School in New York City indicate that
this area would have been able to support about 200,000 to 400,000
people. This makes Orellana's account at least plausible.
some answers, other questions remain unanswered. This should not
come as a major surprise, as the first description of Terra Preta
soil was given in 1871, when Hartt called it “terra cotta”.
Though he identified it, he – and others since – was
unable to identify its origin. In 1928, Barbosa de Farias proposed
that Terra Preta sites were naturally fertile sites. Camargo (in
1941) speculated that these soils might have formed on fall-out
from volcanoes in the Andes, since they were only found on the
highest spots in the landscape. Other theories included a formation
as a result of sedimentation in Tertiary lakes or in recent ponds.
A natural explanation remained the best-liked flavour until the
1950s, when the camp became divided and more and more began to
favour an anthropogenic origin. During the 1960s and 1970s, Terra
Preta sites all over the Amazon basin were mapped and investigated
with respect to the physical and chemical parameters of the soil,
which supported the anthropogenic origin of the soil type. The
fact that most of the sites are not too far from navigable waterways,
where man would be expected to settle, added to this conviction.
However, was it a by-product of habitation or was it a clear example
of terraforming, i.e. intentionally created for soil improvement?
That question remained unanswered, though most now argue that
people altered the soil with a transforming bacterial change.
was it made? In the 1980s, it was thought that it was a kind of
kitchen-midden, which acquired its specific fertility from dung,
household garbage and the refuse of hunting and fishing. The soil
was also full of ceramic remains, a clear sign of human intervention.
The preferred conclusion was therefore that biological waste products
had been gathered and then used as fertiliser, resulting in Terra
Preta. However, how the humus gained its stability and special
properties remained subject to speculation – could it really
be true that this almost magical ability was an advantageous but
totally accidental by-product?
At the end of the 1990s, investigations on molecular level showed
that Terra Preta contained tremendous amounts of charring residues,
which are known to contain high amounts of nutrients and to persist
in the environment over centuries. This is a 20th century problem
and the global carbon cycle has been brought to wide attention
due to its importance for the global climate.
Soil organic carbon is an important pool of carbon in the global
biogeochemical cycle (estimates placing it at just over 80%).
It is normally considered to be a problem. And as Amazonian dark
earths have high carbon contents that are five to eight times
higher than the surrounding soil, Terra Preta could, in some theories,
be considered as “bad” soil. And if we were to see
this as contaminated earth, we should note that the horizons which
are enriched in organic matter, are not only 10-20cm deep as in
surrounding soils, but may be as deep as 1-2m. Therefore, the
total carbon stored in these soils can be one order of magnitude
higher than in adjacent soils. But rather than seeing this as
the problem, it is actually the solution…
Amazonian basin is not the only site where Terra Preta has been
found. The terrain of the Bolivian Llanos de Mojos is savannah
grassland with extreme seasons: floods in the wet, fires in the
dry. Crops are hard to grow and few people live there. But back
in the 1960s, archaeologist Bill Denevan noted that the landscape
was crossed with unnaturally straight lines. Large areas were
also covered with striped patterns.
Clark Erickson, a landscape archaeologist, was drawn to the numerous
forest islands dotted across the savannah. Down on the ground
he found them littered with prehistoric pot sherds, similar to
the ceramics found in Terra Preta soil. Some mounds were as much
as 18m high and much of the pottery was on a grand scale as well.
Erickson and a colleague, William Balée, realised that
the entire region must have been linked with agriculture, but
they needed evidence for their conviction. They soon found that
some of the mounds were still inhabited by indigenous people and
that their language provided for words for staple crops like maize,
as well as cotton and dye plants.
The straight lines turned out to be canals for irrigation, next
to which were found causeways. These canals themselves are a masterwork
of engineering; in the bottom of these canals, the ancient engineers
had wedged diamond-shaped rocks, so that the canals would remain
free from sediment. The water flow itself would clean the canals,
thus not requiring a human agent.
As to the mounds, Erickson’s interpretation of the lie of
the land is that the mounds were built to offer protection from
floodwaters, with the most sacred buildings always at the centre
of the mound on the highest level. There is historical evidence
for this: a Spanish expedition of 1617 remarked on the extent
and high quality of a network of raised causeways connecting villages
together. The area is so vast that it could have sustained hundreds
of thousands of people. Erickson believes that the Mojos Plains
were home to a society which had totally mastered its environment.
how did they do it? Orellana reported that the indigenous people
used fire to clear their fields. We know that the Bolivian savannah
has also been the “victim” of fire – though
perhaps we should argue that it was “blessed” with
fire. Bruno Glaser has found that Terra Preta is rich in charcoal,
i.e. incompletely burnt wood. Terra Preta contains up to 64 times
more of it than surrounding red earth. He believes that it acts
to hold the nutrients in the soil and sustain its fertility from
year to year. In experimental plots, adding a combination of charcoal
and fertiliser into the rainforest soil boosted yields by 880%
compared with fertiliser alone. As such, we have made one important
step towards one of the great secrets of the early Amazonians:
put the soil on fire, and it will regenerate. Of course, though
science may have long forgotten about this technique, in the highlands
of Mexico, these techniques can still be seen at night, when local
farmers set parts of their field alight. But it is not as simple
as that. A simple slash-and-burn technique does not produce enough
charcoal to make Terra Preta. Instead, a "slash-and-char"
technique must have been used. Named by Christopher Steiner of
the University of Bayreuth, this technique does not burn organic
matter to ash, but incompletely, whereby the charcoal was then
stirred into the soil. Carbon is, as mentioned, a key ingredient
in this process. When a tree dies or is cut down, the carbon stored
in the trunks, branches and leaves is released; but when plants
and trees are "only" reduced to charcoal, the carbon
remains in the charcoal, apparently for periods up to 50,000 years,
according to research by Makoto Ogawa. And this explains the high
levels of carbon in Terra Preta.
we know that the distribution of Terra Preta in the Amazon correlates
with the places Orellana reported were centres of farmers. Today,
as in the past, Terra Preta holds a great promise for the Amazonian
population – as well as other areas of the world facing
the same problem. Modern chemicals and techniques have failed
to generate significant food from Amazonian soil in a sustainable
way. Though some of the secrets of this soil have been discovered
and will help in provide great help to many impoverished regions,
some ingredients of Terra Preta remain unidentified – or
at least difficult to reproduce. In fact, one missing ingredient
is how the soil appears to reproduce. Science may not know the
answer, but the Amazonian people themselves argue that as long
as 20cm of the soil is left undisturbed, the bed will regenerate
over a period of about twenty years. A combination of bacteria
and fungi are believed to be the transformative agents, but the
agents themselves remain elusive from the scientific microscopes.
secrets of Terra Preta have been lost, both in the Amazon and
on the Bolivian plains. The people who created it just disappeared.
The communities Orellana saw, were gone some decades later. What
became of them? Tragically, Orellana, his and other groups were
responsible for their demise. The visitors brought diseases to
which the Amerindians had little resistance: smallpox, influenza,
measles, etc. So even though perhaps hundreds of thousands of
people could survive in the New World for millennia by transforming
the land they lived on, they had no protection against the new
viruses that were brought in by the European “visitors”.
And this is yet another example of the paradox of destruction
and creation. But – literally – from their ashes,
new knowledge and agricultural techniques are arising. | <urn:uuid:22ce46c7-0148-489f-bce4-a875289674de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.philipcoppens.com/terrapreta.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957196 | 3,222 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Q: What are the disadvantages/advantages of starting solid foods at four months, as opposed to six months? And why do some pediatricians recommend starting earlier, while others say to wait?
A: Feeding your baby is not a strict science. Different sources of advice—from caring Grandmothers to your best friend—may offer their “expertise,” but it is best to follow your pediatrician as your partner in this exciting adventure.
Although strong family histories of allergies may be a factor in delaying introduction of solid foods until after six months of age, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends, in order to meet the nutritional needs of your growing child, that solid foods be added to the diet “between four and six months of age.”
This is when the fun begins and all the bibs received as gifts are pulled off the shelf. Generally, whether or not you start with yellow or green vegetables, I recommend introducing—beginning with the smallest amount—each new food for at least three days. By that time, you will know whether your baby accepts (enjoys) or rejects (intolerant, allergic, or just doesn’t like it!) that particular food. Before combining, make sure that each fare successfully passes the “three day test.”
A number of tips:
- Human milk is the best source of nutrition for most infants. There is scientific evidence that breast milk provides advantages with regard to general health, growth, and development, increases protection against infections, and allows Mom and baby a unique bonding experience. Although recommended for at least twelve months, breastfeeding your baby for three-to-six months will be beneficial.
Dietary Restrictions & Supplements:
- Although incredibly fortified and balanced, human milk does not contain enough vitamin D—therefore all breastfed babies should be given vitamin D supplements, beginning within the first two months of life.
- I am not (nor is the American Academy of Pediatrics) suggesting routine multivitamin usage for children. Although normal, healthy children receiving a normal diet do not need vitamins, recent studies on vitamin D and calcium requirements suggest that beginning during preteen years, supplementing daily with vitamin D, Calcium, and Magnesium is beneficial.
- Fat intake should not be restricted in children younger than age two years; after, saturated fats, cholesterol and salts should be monitored and restricted.
Read the April Ask Dr. Rubin column
Family Health: Ask Dr. Rubin is published monthly. Each column features real questions from readers, and we invite other readers to respond with their thoughts and insights by posting comments. If you have a question for Dr. Mitchell Rubin, please send it to him in care of the editor at firstname.lastname@example.org . Your question will be kept in the strictest of confidence.
Never miss an Ask Dr. Rubin column again. Just click on the author’s name at the top of the story, then select “Be notified when writer publishes” at the top of the page. We’ll send you an email as soon as a new column is published. | <urn:uuid:2e911f9a-db78-41cc-8a12-c362a3166f09> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.divinecaroline.com/print/155473 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936765 | 645 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Links updated, July 2015
A legacy resource from NICHCY
Behavior at school. What a gigantic topic, for families and schools alike. NICHCY is pleased to connect you with resources for helping children with disabilities with respect to behavior at school.
School presents a unique challenge for children with behavior issues. Teachers need tools to use to help provide support and guidance. Administrators need methods for creating a positive learning atmosphere within the entire school. Parents need information on how to work with school staff to address their child’s behavior challenges in the school setting. We’ve included resources below that, hopefully, will give teachers, schools, and families the tools they need to create safe and positive learning environments for all children, while providing the informed and positive behavior support that many students need to flourish.
- Using positive methods
- Functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans
- Behavior and specific disabilities
- What’s the law require of schools?
Using Positive Methods for Change
Don’t miss this quick training on behavior problems in school.
You’ll love the brief overviews on topics such as, “Behavior Problems. What’s a School to do?” Check out the fact sheets on behaviors like Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD), and Conduct Disorder. You’ll also find tools and handouts, model programs, and additional resources.
Arm yourself with this knowledge and stop problem behaviors before they start.
This 65-page guide helps teachers anticipate common problems throughout the year and plan prevention and early intervention to minimize them. Suggestions provided on a monthly basis.
Play at being good: The good behavior game.
This is one fun way to involve the whole class in supporting positive behavior. Especially good for elementary students demonstrating early high-risk behavior.
Discipline: What works, what doesn’t.
This guide discusses the failure of punitive disciplinary practices and promotes supportive discipline strategies. It provides great tips on research-based approaches to positive behavior change.
Dodging the power-struggle trap: Ideas for teachers.
A conflict requires two people. If a teacher remains cool and calm, a conflict can often be avoided. This guide offers practical advice for disengaging, interrupting, and deescalating problem behavior, and gives specific examples of how to react in different scenarios.
From the experts on positive behavior supports in schools.
From the PBIS center, this document includes (1) Top 17 Classroom Management Strategies that should be emphasized in every classroom, (2) Effective Teaching Strategies, (3) Promoting Positive & Effective Learning Environments Classroom Checklist, (4) Effective Classroom Plan, and (5) an environmental inventory checklist.
Check out Intervention Central.
The link below will take you to the Intervention Central’s Behavioral Resource page, where you’ll find a rich hub into topics such as classroom management, bully prevention, rewards and motivation, special needs, and challenging students.
Teaching children to manage their own behavior.
What Works briefs from the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL) summarize effective practices for supporting children’s social-emotional development and preventing challenging behaviors. This 4-pager describes practical strategies for helping children learn to manage their own behavior and provides references to more information.
More of What Works.
There are plenty of other What Works briefs at CSEFEL to help teachers deal with behavior problems in the classroom. See if the long list of possibilities holds info relevant to your classroom concerns. Three example titles are: What are Children Trying to Tell Us? Assessing the Function of Their Behavior (Brief 9), Positive Behavior Support: An Individualized Approach for Addressing Challenging Behavior (Brief 10), and Using Choice and Preference to Promote Improved Behavior (Brief 15). And they’re available in Spanish, too, on the same page!
Just for teachers.
The link below will take you to a wealth of resources, tips, tricks, and classroom tried and true strategies to help identify and curb inappropriate behaviors.
Download the Classroom Behavior Report Card Resource Book.
This resource book contains pre-formatted teacher and student behavior report cards, along with customized graphs, for common types of behavioral concerns in the classroom. It was designed to give teachers and other school professionals a convenient collection of forms for rating the behaviors of students in such areas of concern as physical aggression, inattention/hyperactivity, and verbal behaviors.
Create daily and weekly behavior report cards online.
Functional Behavior Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans
FBA and BIP, for short. When students with disabilities exhibit challenging or disruptive behavior, it may be time to conduct a functional behavior analysis to find out what may be triggering the behavior, when, and why. Using information from the FBA, the student’s IEP team can develop a behavior intervention plan to support the student in school and, hopefully, keep the behavior from recurring. Learn more about FBAs and BIPs via the resources below.
The ABCs of behavior analysis.
One of the components of a functional behavior analysis (FBA) or any systematic study of behavior is to note what happened prior to the event, what the behavior looked liked, and what happened after the behavior. The acronym “ABC” in this case stands for “Antecedent, Behavior, Consequences.”
Practical strategies for teachers: Tools for developing behavior support plans.
More on FBAs.
Visit another page in this Behavior Suite, and you’ll find lots of links to info on FBAs–how and when to conduct them, how to interpret them, what major benefits they can bring.
More on BIPs.
Again, we recommend visiting another page in the Behavior Suite. Again, you’ll find lots of links, this time to info about BIPs.
Behavior and Specific Disabilities
Watch out for these behavior plan pitfalls!
This 3-page guide gives descriptions of 12 common mistakes in implementing behavior plans, then offers solutions.
AD/HD and behavior.
If you have a student with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), you’ll find a lot of useful info at the National Resource Center on AD/HD.
AD/HD, impulsivity, and behavior.
The title of this article is How to Help and Support Impulsive Students.
Asperger syndrome and behavior.
How to support appropriate behaviors in a student with Asperger syndrome.
Autism, schoolwide discipline, and individual supports for behavior.
From the Autism Society of America, published in Principal magazine in 2008.
Autism and positive behavior supports.
Behavioral disorders and behavior plans.
Public school administrators and special educators are required to assess and evaluate the need for behavior intervention or modification plans for students with disabilities whose behavior impedes their learning or the learning of classmates. The link above will take you to an introduction to assessing negative behavior and creating interventions to correct negative behavior in the classroom.
Bipolar disorder/depression and behavior.
Read about accommodations for medication side-effects, sleep disturbances, impaired concentration, focus, and memory, testing, homework and more.
Down syndrome and behavior.
This “Position Statement On the Management Of Challenging Behaviors” from the National Down Syndrome Congress (NDSC) identifies key features consistent with quality programs for the individuals with Down syndrome.
More on Down syndrome and behavior.
This description of behavioral challenges in people with Down syndrome comes from the National Down Syndrome Society (NDSS).
Learning disabilities and behavior.
This article, available at LDOnline, comes from the book published by Paul H. Brookes entitled Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviors: A Guide to Intervention and Classroom Management.
What’s the Law Require of Schools?
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has well-specified requirements of how schools must address behavior issues with respect to students with disabilities. Find out more about those requirements via the resources we’ve listed below.
Start here: How school discipline can affect a student’s placement.
All about student placement and how the discipline of students with disabilities can affect that placement.
What IDEA 2004 requires.
What authority do school personnel have to take disciplinary action when a student with a disability violates a code of student conduct? What obligations does the school have, especially with respect to providing services and addressing the student’s behavioral issues? All the details! From NICHCY’s training module on Key Issues in Discipline.
Kids with behavior problems: What are schools required to do?
Wrightslaw answers questions from school personnel about obligations to “students who may be dangerous to us.”
More on behavior problems and school discipline.
From this central topic page at Wrightslaw you have access to a multitude of useful information. Pick your pleasure!
IDEA 2004 close up: Disciplining students with disabilities.
The use of seclusion and restraint in public schools: What are the legal issues?
A tidy and authoritative summary, from the Congressional Research Service.
What are states’ policies regarding seclusion and restraint?
Visit the U.S. Department of Education’s States and Territories Summary page.
Would you like to visit another page in the Behavior Suite?
If so, may these quick-jump links swiftly take you there! | <urn:uuid:6f1169fc-8d23-4898-bad5-9437dff7e569> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/behavior-atschool/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.849301 | 1,979 | 3.921875 | 4 |
The body is short, plump, and arched dorsally. Two small teeth are located dorsally at the anterior margin of the lorica. The posterior end is broad and rounded, and the head sheath is marked off from the body. The toes are curved inwards, towards the body. Each toe has two wide-based substyles. The trophi are highly asymmatrical, the left manubrium and ramus are greatly developed, but the right manubrium is thin and small. | <urn:uuid:f033a0d4-d287-4f67-9d76-c77fbbfc5a51> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eol.org/data_objects/13508186 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949728 | 104 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Sample Ohm in the Circuit (grades 3-4) Worksheet
Reading Comprehension Worksheets
Return to Electricity Theme Unit
Build a printable worksheet with the complete story and puzzles
Build a proofreading activity
Ohm in the Circuit
By Trista L. Pollard
1 Although Benjamin Franklin had his moment in the "spot light", there were many scientists in the 18th and 19th centuries who worked to discover the mystery of electricity. Franklin's creation of the lightning rod in 1752 sparked the interest of scientists throughout Europe and America. During the late 1700s and 1800s these scientists tried to figure out how to produce electrical energy and how to store large amounts of electricity. This whole "electricity era" started with hanging frog legs, but it ended with an important law for measuring the flow of electricity.
2 In 1786, an Italian scientist named Luigi Galvani tried to discover if lightning was truly the key to producing electricity. Prior to an approaching thunderstorm, he took the legs of a dead frog, attached them to a metal hook, and hung the hook from a metal railing. Galvani wanted to see if the lightning would produce an electrical current that would make the legs jump. However, before the lightning could arrive, the legs jumped. After Galvani observed this phenomena, he realized the frog's nerves had made a new type of electricity called animal electricity. People throughout Europe began to believe animal electricity was the secret to life. Now you know why Frankenstein had such a jolt when he woke up. Today the word galvanic stands for the direct current of electricity that is produced chemically. Galvanize means to shock with an electric current. I guess Galvani "galvanized" his frog's legs.
3 In the 1790s, another scientist named Alessandro Volta proved that Galvani's animal electricity was really a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction occurs when two or more substances are combined and a new substance is produced. The metal railing on Galvani's balcony reacted to the metal hook that held the frog's legs and the moisture in the air. The result was a mild electrical current that caused the legs to jump. Volta used this knowledge to produce the first battery in 1800. He built the battery by using alternate layers of copper and zinc in a jar of salt water. The chemical reaction that occurred between the two metals and the salt water caused a steady flow of electricity. Volta's work provided us today with the words volt and voltage. Volts are units of potential difference similar to the pressure in the circuit. Voltage is the type of pressure that pushes an electrical charge through a circuit. In addition to new science vocabulary words, Galvani and Volta's work helped other scientists as they learned about circuits and current electricity. Current electricity is the electrical energy that flows through an unbroken path or circuit.
Paragraphs 4 to 7:
For the complete story with questions: click here for printable
Weekly Reading Books
More Activities, Lesson Plans, and Worksheets
Copyright © 2011 edHelper | <urn:uuid:98384f7a-8703-4502-815e-fffdafc73693> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_33_68.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955774 | 632 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Faculty in the School of Education believe that programs must be designed so that professional education candidates continually evaluate and improve their practice through critical self-reflection and inquiry.
Critical self-reflection and inquiry is a process of deliberate examination designed to help beginning candidates make sense of the interwoven complexities of their profession and establish the habits of mind that will guide them through the novice-to-expert continuum. The craft of teaching, as with artistry of any type, involves the continual refinement of knowledge and skills. As Huebner (1962/1999) notes:
As the writer shapes words to his meanings, so the sculptor shapes clay or stone, the painter pigment, and the composer sounds …. The artist has cognitive control over the media, knowing immediately and almost intuitively the possibilities ofvarious stones, the blending and gazing of characteristic pigments….Furthermore he is a master of the abstract knowledge about the craft: metrics, plot and character development, perspective, balance….and other aspects of the love and science of the craft (p. 33).
The job of education programs is to develop in the professional education candidate the capacity to reflect and inquire systematically and sensitively into the nature of learning and the effects of teaching. This position is congruent with the approach to knowledge production advocated by John Dewey – one that empowers educators with greater understanding of complex situations rather than seeking to control them with simplistic formulas. Thus, as Dewey maintained (1964); by developing the skill of reflective teaching and inquiry, education candidates are “[enabled] to know what [they] are about when [they] act. It converts action that is merely appetitive, blind, and impulsive into intelligent action” (p.211).
More recently, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (1997) has adopted the following reflection standard:
Accomplished teachers constantly analyze, evaluate, and strengthen their practice in order to improve the quality of their students’ learning experiences.
Schon’s (1983,1987) model of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action provides a foundation for a vast body of literature on reflective practices and inquiry. Grimett and Erikson (1988) cite Schon in defining reflection as “research not about or for practice, but in practice.” Adler (1991) refers to Schon’s work when he discusses tacit knowledge derived from the construction and reconstruction of professional experience. Others, such as Johnston (1997) and Lyons and Pinnell (2001), cite Schon when discussing the need for professionals to view situations from multiple perspectives and reflection’s centrality to clarifying one’s understanding and making sense of practice. Thus, training in reflection and inquiry helps teachers learn how to look at the world from multiple perspectives and to use this knowledge to reach diverse learners.
As described in belief statement two, becoming a professional educator is a developmental process where candidates progress through a series of stages. An initial step in the development of critical reflection and inquiry skills is for candidates to identify and begin to reconstruct their conceptions of their chosen profession. Research suggests that preservice teachers’ existing conceptions about teaching behaviors strongly influence their learning (Cruickshank, Bainer and Metcalf, 1995; Goodlad, 1990), and that critical self-reflection and inquiry is “not generally associated with working as a teacher” (Hatton and Smith, 1995).
McCutcheon and Jung (1990) identify the core components of teacher inquiry as systematic, reflexivity, and focus on the practical. Reflection and inquiry seek to answer questions and solve problems that arise from the daily life of the classroom and to put findings into immediate practice (McKay, 1992; Twine & Martinek, 1992). McNamara (1990) emphasizes time and opportunity as critical factors in the development of reflective skills. Further, the research of Cruickshank (1985) and Palinscar (1986) support the notion that development of professional education candidates’ reflective competencies is enhanced via processes such as modeling and coaching, scaffolded dialogues, and peer collaboration.
Shulman (2002) suggests the production of artifacts as another crucial element in development of critical self-reflection and inquiry. On-the-job events are fleeting. They occur and disappear. Construction of artifacts, however, provides professional education candidates with tangible evidence of performance and creates opportunities to rethink and reconstruct their learning.
In order for professional education candidates to evolve into artists of their professions, programs must include rigorous self-reflection and inquiry components that require re-conceptualization and refinement of our notions of effective practice, production of and reflection upon artifacts, and opportunities to collaborate and share with other professionals. The UAB School of Education faculty believe that all education professionals should regularly engage in critical self-reflection and inquiry in order to master their craft. | <urn:uuid:ba30af0c-bbca-41c5-ba8b-463cda7f72e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uab.edu/education/home/faculty-and-staff-directory/fd/37-andrew-mcknight | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940788 | 1,002 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Language design idea: pure name-spaces
One of the nice things about Common Lisp is the pervasive use of (its notion of) symbol objects for names. For those unfamiliar, I'll give a quick introduction to the relevant parts of their semantics before going on to my actual proposal for a “good parts version”.
A CL symbol is an object (value, if you prefer). A symbol has a name (which is a string). A CL package is a map from strings to symbols (and the string key is always equal to the symbol's name). A symbol may be in zero or more packages. (Note in particular that symbol names need not be unique except within a single package.)
Everywhere in CL that something is named — a variable, a function, a class, etc. — the name is a symbol object. (This is not impractical because the syntax makes it easy to write symbols; in fact, easier than writing strings, because they are unquoted.)
The significance of this is that the programmer need never give significance to characters within a string name in order to avoid collisions. Namespacing of explicitly written symbols is handled by packages; namespacing of programmatically generated symbols is handled by simply never putting them in any package (thus, they are accessible only by passing references); these are known as gensyms.
Now, I don't mean to say that CL is perfect; it fails by way of conflating too many different facilities on a single symbol (lexical variables, dynamic variables, global non-lexical definitions, ...), and some of the multiple purposes motivate programmers to use naming conventions. But I think that there is value in the symbol system because it discourages the mistake of providing an interface which requires inventing unique string names.
(One thinking along capability lines might ask — why use names rather than references at all? Narrowly, think about method names (selectors, for the Smalltalk/ObjC fans) and module exports; broadly, distribution and bootstrapping.)
So, here’s my current thought on a “good parts version”, specifically designed for an E-style language with deep equality/immutability and no global mutable state.
There is a notion of name, which includes three concrete types:
- A symbol is an object which has a string-valued name, and whose identity depends solely on that string.
- A gensym also has a name, but has an unique identity (selfish, in E terms). Some applications might reject gensyms since they are not data.
- A space-name holds two names and its identity depends solely on that combination. (That is, it is a “pair” or “cons” specifically of names.)
Note that these three kinds of objects are all immutable, and use no table structures, and yet can produce the same characteristics of names which I mentioned above. (For implementation, the identity of a name as above defined can be turned into pointer identity using hash consing, a generalization of interning.) Some particular examples and notes:
- A CL symbol in a package corresponds to a pair of two symbols, or perhaps a gensym and a symbol. This correspondence is not exact, of course. (In particular, there is no notion here of the set of exported symbols in a package. But that's the sort of thing you have to be willing to give up to obtain a system without global mutable state. And you can still imagine 'linting' for unexpected symbols.)
- The space-name type means that names can be arbitrary binary trees. If we consistently give the left side a “namespace” interpretation and the right side a “local name” one, then we have a system, I think, where people can carve out all sorts of namespaces without ever fearing collisions or conflicts, should it become necessary. Which probably means it's massively overdesigned (cf. "worse is better").
- Actual use case example: Suppose one wishes to define (for arbitrary use) a subtype of some well-known interface, which adds one method. There is a risk that your choice of name for that method conflicts with someone else's different subtype. Under this system, you can construct a space-name whose two components are a large random number (i.e. a unique ID) acting as the namespace, and a symbol which is your chosen simple name. One can imagine syntax and tools which make it easy to forget about the large random number and merely use the simple name.
- It's unclear to me how these names would be used inside the lexical variable syntax of a language, if they would at all; I suspect the answer is that they would not be, or mostly confined to machine-generated-code cases. The primary focus here is improving the default characteristics of a straightforwardly written program which uses a map from names to values in some way.
(This is all very half-baked — I'm just publishing it on the grounds described in my previous post: in the long run I'll have more ideas than I ever implement, and this is statistically likely to be one of them, so I might as well publish it and hope someone else finds some use for it; if nothing else, I can stop feeling any obligation to remember it in full detail.) | <urn:uuid:c65c1e6c-bd75-4501-a399-46b1e6452ea1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kpreid.livejournal.com/50726.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924475 | 1,111 | 2.5625 | 3 |
COP18 Climate Change THE NEW ECONOMY
For most of the last two decades, frustrated climate campaigners have been saying that “the climate is changing faster than the pace of the climate negotiations”, or words to that effect. While we all hoped that that was not really true and that it would spur governments into action, it is now really the case.
The much-reported record loss of Arctic sea ice is only the tip of the proverbial iceberg. A new study from independent researchers estimates that climate change is already contributing to the deaths of 400,000 people per year, and costing the global economy about US$1.2 trillion per year, or roughly 1.6 per cent of global GDP, which of course is expected to continue to rise dramatically. Put that next to the furore surrounding the IMF’s recent announcement downgrading its expectations for global GDP growth in 2012 from 3.6 to 3.5 per cent, and for 2013 down to 3.8 per cent from a previous projection of 4.1 per cent, and you have to wonder…
Extreme drought conditions across the United States have wreaked havoc with this year’s corn crop, and the litany of extreme weather events, increasing evidence of ecosystem change from the Arctic to the tropics, floods, heat waves famine and accelerating sea level
rise has built up to a pitch that even government climate negotiators cannot ignore. Or can they? Read full article | <urn:uuid:688ab0af-38ee-4908-a382-6eb1dbc14cf2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gwec.net/waiting-miracle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948945 | 313 | 2.671875 | 3 |
1. A leap on one leg, as of a boy; a leap, as of a toad; a jump; a spring.
2. A dance; especially, an informal dance of ball. Hop, skip (or step), and jump, a game or athletic sport in which the participants cover as much ground as possible by a hop, stride, and jump in succession.
1. (Science: botany) a climbing plant (humulus Lupulus), having a long, twining, annual stalk. It is cultivated for its fruit (hops).
2. The catkin or strobilaceous fruit of the hop, much used in brewing to give a bitter taste.
3. The fruit of the dog-rose. See hip. Hop back.
see 1st back.
(Science: botany) hop clover, the climbing vine or stalk of the hop.
Origin: oe. Hoppe; akin to D. Hop, hoppe, OHG. Hopfo, g. Hopfen; cf. LL. Hupa, W. Hopez, Armor. Houpez, and Icel. Humall, SW. & dan. Humle. | <urn:uuid:adce620c-5029-494d-8afb-eff8a127b1b4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Hop | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92486 | 245 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Aerobic Vs. Anaerobic
Groundwater sources usually contain a low level of dissolved oxygen (DO) compared to surface waters. A DO level less than 1.0 mg/L is considered anaerobic. It has often been debated throughout the membrane treatment industry if the presence of certain elements in a groundwater source will mandate pretreatment prior to treatment by a membrane system. There are several considerations that should be evaluated to develop site-specific recommendations regarding pretreatment requirements. The primary considerations are:
- Age, condition, and materials of construction in raw water feed facilities—i.e., wells and trans- mission mains;
- Level of metal ions in the raw water, specifically iron and manganese;
- Amount of anaerobic and/or aero- bic bacteria and organics in the raw water;
- Presence of any other ions that may experience improved removal by the membranes if pre-aerated such as arsenic or boron; and
- Distance of wells from treatment facility and ability to maintain a relatively air-tight, sealed raw water transmission system.
In anaerobic groundwater, common metals such as iron and manganese primarily exist in their soluble forms, Fe2+ and Mn2+. In an oxidizing environment, iron and manganese will precipitate. In their precipitated, particulate form they are a foulant to a spiral wound nanofiltration or RO membrane. Fouling may be avoided by preventing oxidation of the metals or removing the precipitated iron or manganese after oxidation. Parameters that affect iron oxidation and the rate at which it occurs include water temperature, pH and constituents in the water such as DO, bicarbonate, naturally-occurring organic material (NOM), ulfate, dissolved silica, bacteria and suspended solids.
Historically, it was believed that any iron or manganese in a raw water supply could not be tolerated by a membrane treatment system and would have to be removed through pretreatment. Typical pretreatment used to remove iron included oxidation with oxygen, chlorine or potassium permanganate followed by adequate mixing and hydraulic detention time and granular media filtration. Sometimes greensand filtration is used, in which oxidation and filtration take place simultaneously. Oxidation with chlorine would not be recommended for membrane system pretreatment, as chlorine damages the membranes and must be neutralized with sodium bisulfite.
Aeration is a method of oxidizing iron and manganese by mixing air and water together. The oxygen present in air reacts with the iron and manganese, donating an additional electron to elevate the ion to a higher state. Aeration can be used to provide DO to the feed water to convert Fe2+ and Mn2+ to Fe(OH)3 and MnO2, respectively. Oxidizing reactions for iron and manganese in the presence of DO are shown below.
4Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O Æ 4Fe(OH3) + 8CO2
2MnSO4 + 2Ca(HCO3)2 + O2 Æ 2MnO2 + 2CaSO4 + 2H2O + 4CO2
Theoretically, 1 mg of oxygen can oxidize up to 7 mg of soluble Fe2+ and 3.4 mg soluble Mn2+. However, the rate of oxidation is slow and not practical for manganese at pH levels commonly found in feed water sources. At a pH of 9.5, it takes approximately 1 hour of detention time for manganese to oxidize. In comparison, iron can be completely oxidized in about 15 minutes if the pH level of the water is between 7.5 and 8 and the iron is not complexed NOM.
Large aerators that use air spargers, retention wells and sedimentation basins are commonly used in this type of process. In order for all the iron to be oxidized, it may be necessary to raise the pH by injecting an alkali. Once iron is in its ferric state, it will tend to precipitate. The iron oxide particulates can then be filtered using a multimedia filter or any other variety of filtration mechanisms. This is usually the most economical method of iron removal because air is available for free. However, because large retention tanks may be required, this type of treatment may have higher capital costs.
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a very strong oxidant that can easily oxidize soluble Fe2+ and Mn2+ over a wide pH range (>5.5). The process is more efficient at pH values above 7.5. The contact time after the oxidant addition is typically 5 minutes at 20˚C or 10 min at 1˚C, which is more than enough time for Fe2+ and Mn2+ oxidation. Reactions for oxidation of iron and manganese with potassium permanganate are listed below.
3Fe(HCO3)2 + KMnO4 + 2H2O Æ 3Fe(OH)3 + MnO2 + KHCO3 + 5CO2
3Mn(HCO3)2 + 2KMnO4 Æ 5MnO2 +2KHCO3 +2H2O +4O2
The typical process for the removal of soluble iron and manganese with potassium permanganate involves injecting KMnO4 ahead of a pressure filter in order to convert the iron and manganese to their insoluble forms so they can be filtered out. After injecting potassium permanganate, the raw water is sent to greensand pressure filters. These filters are typically constructed as horizontal cylinders with layers of filtering material. The top layer of filtering material is anthracite. The anthracite filters out the precipitated insoluble iron produced by the injection of the potassium permanganate. The middle layer is manganese greensand. The purpose of this layer is to absorb any residual potassium permanganate left over in the water. This layer also oxidizes any remaining iron still left in the water and filters it out. The final layer consists of multi-sized gravel particles whose purpose is to support the upper layers any provide filtering for most of the particles, which may have passed through the upper layers.
The key to the success of any aerobic treatment for metal removal is the efficiency of the particle filtration of the oxidized metals. Unfortunately, no particle filtration system is 100% efficient. The problems arise when an unacceptable level of particles pass through the filtration system and then rapidly foul the RO system.
Evaluating pretreatment requirements
From years of experimentation, pilot studies and studying full-scale plant operational data, it has been postulated that aerobic pretreatment of groundwater containing metals is not always required. The factors listed above need to be considered for each site-specific application. The key in evaluating pretreatment needs is determining if it is possible to maintain the anaerobic raw water supply in an anaerobic state. Testing has demonstrated that the dissolved metal ions are well rejected by RO membranes and the membranes do not experience unacceptable levels of fouling from the dissolved ions. Thus it is important to determine if the raw water supply has the potential to become aerated from leaks that allow air into the transmission mains, or vertical turbine well pumps that aerate the water through stuffing boxes, or raw water piping that is a long distance from the water plant with many elevation changes requiring extensive use of automatic air release/air vacuum valves. Also, an older raw water supply system that may incorporate many ferrous metals—perhaps steel cased wells, or unlined ductile iron transmission pipes—can contribute to additional metal oxide fouling problems in the RO system.
The ideal raw water supply design for a groundwater that contains metals or hydrogen sulfide would include: submersible well pumps with foot valves, all non-metallic materials of construction for wells, pumps and piping, only manual air relief valves and ideally, a fairly compact wellfield layout near the water plant site.
An additional complication from the introduction of air into an anaerobic groundwater occurs when there is hydrogen sulfide in the raw water. The hydrogen sulfide in the raw water will convert to elemental sulfur, which is a particularly bad foulant for a membrane treatment system since it very difficult, if not impossible, to remove. Metal oxide fouling can generally be cleaned from a membrane system by hydrochloric acid or citric acid cleanings. Biological fouling of an RO system is often worsened by aerobic pretreatment of the raw water.
Below are descriptions of three case studies that present data on aerobic versus anaerobic pretreatment of feedwater to membrane treatment systems. The first two cases use an oxidizing iron removal pretreatment. The other two cases treat fairly high iron groundwater very successfully with direct membrane treatment.
City of Aledo, Ill.
The city of Aledo uses anthracite greensand filters as a pretreatment method for removing iron and manganese prior to membrane treatment. The raw water iron level is 0.68 mg/L. The RO membrane system in Aledo was commissioned in 2002. Since being put into operation the RO system has required frequent cleanings, 2-3 times a year, due to high differential pressure across the first stage of the membrane system. At start-up, the first stage differential pressure was 20 psi. Cleanings are typically performed once the differential pressure in the first stage increases to approximately 60 psi. Typical cleanings performed by city personnel have provided a minimal decrease in differential pressure, approximately 20 psi. The differential pressure stays constant for a short period of time before beginning to increase again.
The data shows that four cleanings have been performed since the beginning of 2005. The improvement in differential pressure was due to removing one membrane for autopsy and shifting the other lead end elements of the first stage. The membrane autopsy was performed to determine the nature of the foulant causing this increase in first stage differential pressure. Results of the autopsy showed that the cause of the fouling was an organic foulant composed of bacteria, proteins and carbohydrates.
The large increases in differential pressure were being caused by the “bio-slime” building up on the membrane surface and plugging the vexar spacer over time. Changes in cleaning procedures have allowed for better cleaning results with less frequency between cleanings. Biofouling is a common occurrence with membrane systems that have aeration as a pretreatment method. Aerating the feed water allows it to become a median for the growth of aerobic bacteria.
Grand Forks WTP
Grand Forks Trail Water Users Utility had an existing raw water supply that was treated with greensand filtration for iron and manganese removal. The raw water entering the plant has an iron level of .567 mg/L and a manganese level of .515 mg/L. The groundwater was also high in hardness and alkalinity; therefore, the utility decided to construct a membrane softening plant in addition to the existing greensand filtration plant. The hardness and alkalinity of the raw water are approximately 320 mg/L as CaCO3 and 250 mg/L as CaCO3, respectively. The NF plant was completed in September 1997 and houses two equally-sized NF trains, each designed to produce 600 gpm of permeate.
At times the greensand filters at the water plant have not provided adequate manganese removal. The reason for this fluctuation is not known; however, it may be due to fluctuations in the iron and manganese concentrations, which lead to an inadequate dosing of potassium permanganate. Periodically, the concentration of manganese in the concentrate leaving the membrane system approaches 1.0 mg/L. Normal operation typically shows trace levels of manganese in the membrane concentrate. These are the levels expected because the purpose of the pretreatment system is to remove the manganese present in the raw water.
The membrane system operates at 80% recovery, which corresponds to a five times concentration factor. Based on this operational data the concentration of manganese in the membrane feed water is approximately 0.2 mg/L. Therefore, the efficiency of the greensand filter for manganese removal can be as low as 60%. Samples taken from the membrane system show that the manganese concentration in the permeate is less than 0.01 mg/L whether or not the greensand filter is adequately removing the manganese present in the raw water. This plant operates with very low fouling. The cleaning frequency is as little as once per year. The membranes are still performing well after nine years of operation.
Pinewoods Water Treatment Plant
The Pinewoods Water Treatment Plant in Lee County, Fla. was upgraded in 2005 to increase the total permeate capacity of the three membrane trains from 2.1 to 2.3 mgd. These three trains use nanofiltration membrane elements. It has been shown that nanofiltration membranes are very effective for the removal of soluble Fe2+ and Mn2+. The feed water for the Pinewoods WTP has a dissolved iron concentration of 2.95 mg/L.
Results of water analysis tests for permeate samples show that the nanofiltration membranes in use at Lee County are effective in removing the dissolved iron and manganese from the raw water. Not all NF membranes remove iron and manganese as well as RO membranes; thus pilot testing may be required to confirm the rejection for metal ions for a particular NF membrane. The concentrations of iron and manganese in the permeate at Lee County is less than .01 mg/L.
The natural pH of the raw feed water entering the plant is 7.2. At pH values greater than 5.5, the rate of oxygenation of Fe2+ increases by 100 times per pH unit. Even a small amount of oxidized iron will foul membranes and cause a decrease in their effectiveness. Therefore, to minimize the chance of iron oxidation, sulfuric acid is added upstream of the membrane system to lower the feed water pH from 7.2 to 5.5 pH units. The system operates currently without scale inhibitor since the pH is lowered to a level that calcium carbonate scaling does not occur. The utility is planning to experiment with gradually raising the pH and adding a special scale inhibitor/dispersant that has the ability to disperse metal oxide particles through the membrane system. The plant experiences a very low fouling rate. They have not needed to perform a cleaning in about three years.
Clay Rural Water
Clay Rural Water Systems in Vermillion, S.D. performed a pilot study to test the effectiveness of membrane technology to treat their groundwater. Their groundwater source has a high concentration of dissolved iron and manganese—1.7 mg/L and 0.16 mg/L respectively. The pilot test was designed to keep the feed water anaerobic in order to see if additional pretreatment would be necessary for the future full-scale plant. During operation of the pilot unit, permeate samples were periodically analyzed for iron and manganese concentration in order to verify the removal efficiency of the nanofiltration elements. Results from these tests show the iron and manganese levels to be less than 0.1 mg/L in the permeate.
Operational data was also reviewed to determine if any fouling of the membranes had occurred throughout the duration of the pilot test. The pilot was operational for two months, and the differential pressures stayed relatively constant throughout the duration of the pilot study.
After the pilot study was completed, a lead-end first stage element and a tail-end second stage element were autopsied in order to determine if any fouling or scaling of the membranes had occurred. Autopsy results determined both elements were within manufacturer’s specifications for differential pressure. The autopsy indicated there were trace amounts of iron in the tail-end element, but not at a level that would diminish the performance.
As demonstrated from the case studies presented herein, membrane treatment can be used successfully directly on waters containing high levels of metals. If other ions such as boron or arsenic dictate a need for aerobic pretreatment, utmost care must be taken to ensure no oxidized particles carry over from the filtration step. If there is any concern regarding metal rejection or potential for metal oxide or elemental sulfur fouling, a pilot study is highly recommended. Although it is uncommon to measure groundwater for dissolved oxygen levels, it is a good idea because sometimes a surprising amount of DO can be present even in groundwater. The well should be thoroughly flushed and the measurement taken while the well is being pumped at its design flow. Also, there are several scale inhibitor/dispersants available that promise an increased ability to minimize metal oxide fouling in the membrane treatment system. If high metal levels are a limiting factor for raw water blending, consider just treating the blend sidestream with a conventional iron removal filtration process and feeding the anaerobic groundwater directly to the RO unit.
A high level of metals in a raw water source should not automatically mean that the water is not suited for membrane treatment or that extensive pretreatment will be required. Often times the pretreatment process not only adds capital and operating and maintenance cost, but actually is detrimental to the membrane treatment operation. | <urn:uuid:23708baa-0fcd-4289-8a82-a3d23672a845> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wwdmag.com/aeration/aerobic-vs-anaerobic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932335 | 3,565 | 3.125 | 3 |
Joint musical collaboration CD between BAI, Zion Baptist Church and Main Line Reform Temple.
“Contrary to the belief of some, the Jews are a multiracial, multi-ethnic group. But it should not be surprising that Judaism’s 4,000-year-old creed spans geography as well as time, or that its message appeals to members of all races, on all continents.” ~Karen Primrack, Author, Under One Canopy
The Seder Table – Artist Lynne Feldman
The scattering of the Jews around the world over thousands of years, to nearly every continent, has meant that these traditions have evolved and been adapted to different cultures and settings. Here are some Passover traditions from around the world.
PASSOVER CELEBRATIONS AROUND THE WORLD
Ethiopian Jewish women making Matzoh
Destroying Earthenware Dishes: The Jews of Ethiopia strongly identify with the story of Exodus — and indeed, the first of the famous airlifts that delivered them to Israel was actually called Operation Moses. In some Ethiopian families, the matriarch would destroy all of her earthenware dishes and make a new set to mark a true break with the past. Ethiopian Jews had no Haggadahs, and read about Exodus directly from the Bible. Matzahs were homemade, often from chickpea flour, and on the morning of the seder, a lamb would be slaughtered. They also refrained from eating fermented dairy like yogurt, butter, or cheese
Whipping Each Other with Scallions
Jews living in Afghanistan developed the tradition of using scallions or leeks to stand for the Egyptian slavedrivers’ whips, using them to lightly “whip” each others’ backs. Jews have lived in Afghanistan at least since the Babylonian conquest 2,000 years ago, but in 2004 only two Jews were left in the country. It is now estimated that only a single Jew lives in Afghanistan, as the other died in 2005. The largest group of Afghan Jews in the world is comprised of 200 families in Queens, New York.
Re-enacting Crossing the Red Sea
Moses Parts the Red Sea. Ethiopian Jewish Embroidery Project: NACOEJ
Hasidic Jews from the Polish town of Góra Kalwaria, known as Gerer Hasids, re-enact the crossing of the Red Sea on the seventh day of Passover by pouring water on the floor, lifting up their coats, and naming the towns that they would cross in their region of Poland. They raise a glass at each “town” and then thank God for helping them reach their destination.
Every Passover, Jews prepare charoset, a sweet paste that can be made with fruits like dates, figs, and apples. The result is meant to remind sedergoers of the mortar in the bricks that Jewish slaves in Egypt used in their labor. In the British territory of Gibraltar, a tiny peninsula off Spain where Jews have lived for about 650 years, there’s a special recipe for charoset: the dust of real bricks, ground up and mixed in.
Tapping Guests on the Head: In a custom that began in Spain in the fourteenth century, the seder leader walks around the table three times with the seder plate in hand, tapping it on the head of each guest. Many Moroccan, Turkish, and Tunisian Jews adopted this tradition, which is said to bless those whose heads are tapped. This is sometimes connected to the Talmudic custom of “uprooting” the seder plate so that guests might ask questions about the Jews in Egypt.
Telling the Exodus Story in Costume: In many Sephardic traditions, (a term used to describe Jews originally hailing from the Iberian peninsula and North Africa), an elder member of the family enacts a skit in costume, posing as an ancient Jew who experienced the exodus from Egypt and describing the miracles he saw. In the countries of the Caucasus region, Iraq, Kurdistan, Yemen, and others, the seder (usually the head of household), would put the afikoman matzah in a bag, throw it over his shoulder, and use a cane to support himself. Sometimes a child participated, and there was a call and response with the table: “Where are you coming from?” “Egypt,” was the reply, followed by the story of the Israelites following Moses out of slavery. “And where are you going?” someone at the table would ask. “Jerusalem!”
Breaking Matzah into Hebrew Letters:
In the Syrian community, the custom of breaking the middle matzah on the seder table into pieces (known as yachatz) can sometimes take on Kabbalistic meaning. Matzah broken into the shape of the Hebrew letters “daled” and “vav” correspond to numbers, which in turn add up to 10, representing the 10 holy emanations of God. Jews from North Africa, including from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Libya, break the matzoh into the shape of the Hebrew letter “hey,” which corresponds to the number five.
Inspecting Rice for Defects: Jews have lived in Cochin, in the Indian state of Kerala, for 2,000 years. In the tiny community that remains, Passover preparation begins immediately after Hanukkah, about 100 days beforehand. After Purim, Cochin’s Jews scrub their house of chametz (bread and any fermented grain) and repaint them, keeping special Passover dishes in a separate room. Wells are drained and cleaned for fear of chametz, and every grain of rice is inspected for defects that might let impure chametz in. Jews usually maintain warm relations with the larger community, but during Passover and the preceding months, they keep entirely to themselves.
Many different customs surround the welcoming of the prophet Elijah, who is said to visit every seder. While Ashkenazi Jews (whose families came from Germany and later Eastern Europe) commonly leave a goblet of wine for the prophet, in Casablanca, Morocco, Jews would set up an elaborate chair with cushions and ornaments and leave it empty for Elijah’s arrival. And in Marrakesh, dishes are prepared using the wine from Elijah’s cup. Ashkenazi Jews often open the door to allow Elijah in, a tradition that wasn’t historically a part of the Sephardic practice.
Wearing White: Both Hasidic Jews and Moroccan Jews have the custom of wearing white to seder, possibly to signify joyfulness. Some Jews wear white on Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish new year, or on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, although this varies.
Displaying Gold and Silver Jewelry: Three passages in Exodus say that the Israelites received gold and silver from the Egyptians (for example, 12:35: “The Israelites did as Moses instructed and asked the Egyptians for articles of silver and gold and for clothing”). Accordingly, Hungarian Jews had a tradition of putting all of their gold and silver jewelry on the seder table.
Tossing Pebbles in the Ocean
Among Moroccan Jews, Mimouna is celebrated the day after Passover with a generous feast of baked goods. Some say it marks Maimonides’ birthday, while others link it to the Arabic word for luck. A table is heaped with items symbolizing luck or fertility, many repeating the number 5, such as dough with five fingerprint marks or five silver coins. Fig leaves, live fish, stalks of wheat, and honey might also be included. In some parts of the Moroccan Jewish community, Jews entered the ocean and tossed pebbles behind their backs to ward off evil spirits. Original article here.
The Inside Story on Passover
In each one of us there is an Egypt and a Pharaoh and a Moses and Freedom in a Promised Land. And every point in time is an opportunity for another Exodus.
Egypt is a place that chains you to who you are, constraining you from growth and change. And Pharaoh is that voice inside that mocks your gambit to escape, saying, “Why change? How could you attempt being today something you were not yesterday? Don’t you know who you are?”
Moses is the liberator, the infinite force deep within, an impetuous and all-powerful drive to break out from any bondage, to always transcend, to connect with that which has no bounds. But Freedom and the Promised Land are not static elements that lie in wait. They are your own achievements which you may create at any moment, in any thing that you do, simply by breaking free from whoever you were the day before.
Last Passover you may not have yet begun to light a candle. Or some other mitzvah still waits for you to fulfill its full potential. This year, defy Pharaoh and light up your world, with unbounded light!
EXODUS by Bob Marley
Open your eyes and look within: Are you satisfied with the life you’re living?
Exodus! Movement of Jah’s people
GET A GUIDED MEDITATION FOR YOUR PASSOVER SEDER HERE:
Guided visualization actually is reported not to work with about 10% of people, some of us are simply hard wired for different forms of spirituality. I mention this so those who have this difference won’t wear themselves out trying.
For those who can benefit from guided visualization it is a very powerful spiritual tool. Several major medical research centers have discovered that it can even be a tool for active healing (called psycho-neuro-immunology), although this meditation is primarily designed for shifting consciousness.
Be sure to read slowly, with feeling and honor all the pauses fully, they are very important elements…like rests between the notes of a score. #888888;”>
Go down Moses, Way down in Egypt land.
Tell ole Pharaoh to Let My People Go!
Now when Israel was in Egypt land..Let My People Go!
Oppressed so hard they could not stand…Let My People Go!
So the Lord said: ‘Go down, Moses, Way down in Egypt land,
Tell ole Pharaoh to Let My People Go!’
So Moses went to Egypt land…Let My People Go!
He made ole Pharaoh understand… Let My People Go!
Yes, the Lord said ‘Go down, Moses, Way down in Egypt land
Tell ole Pharaoh to Let My People Go!
Thus spoke the Lord, bold Moses said: Let My People Go!
‘If not I’ll smite your firstborn’s dead’ Let My People Go!
Thus the Lord said ‘Go down, Moses, Way down in Egypt land
Tell ole Pharaoh to Let My People Go!’
Tell ole Pharaoh To Let My People Go
Moses in the Bulrushes by Mary Auld, Illustrated by Diana Mayo
Lavishly illustrated retelling of the Biblical story. Includes background information about the story, a useful word section and a section of questions to encourage further thought.
Ethiopian Jewish Embroidery-Making Matzoh for Passover – NACOEJ | <urn:uuid:972d8300-8e55-4586-9598-a0fc8e637297> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mochajuden.com/?p=4179 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945747 | 2,384 | 3.015625 | 3 |
By Eric Mousel, South Dakota State University
A little extra rain this fall and cooler temperatures have stimulated many cool-season pastures with smooth bromegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, wheatgrasses and needlegrasses to provide some extra growth compared to the past several years. Extra fall regrowth is always welcome but as we move towards the end of the growing season, try to avoid grazing off every green blade.
Although it is tempting to keep livestock on these nice green pastures as long as possible, grasses need the opportunity to rejuvenate their energy reserves and root systems in the fall to allow for vigorous growth next spring. Grazing off a little regrowth just before winter could cost you a lot of spring growth next year.
To help pastures reach their growth potential for next year, be sure to leave at least 2 to 4 inches of green leaves if you live in Western ranges and 4 to 6 inches of green leaves in pastures in the Midwest at least two to three weeks before the average date for the first killing frost of the season. Typically, a killing frost is considered to be 3 successive nights of less than 20º F. Temperatures like this will ensure complete perennial vegetation dormancy.
These remaining leaves will allow the plant to continue photosynthesizing, producing energy needed for root growth and nutrient storage. Having a healthy reserve of stored energy will help vegetation avoid winter kill. Next spring, these reserves will be used by the plant to establish the first flush of green growth before the plant is able to start photosynthesizing on its own.
Leaving a little grass on your pastures this fall will put more grass in pastures next spring. | <urn:uuid:ce709540-b7d0-44bc-8221-7d75a1bb2597> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://beefmagazine.com/americancowman/pasture-and-range/damage-pastures-fall-grazing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947471 | 344 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Steele: Eliminate weed tree seedlings to avoid costly issues
Every year, our city’s large population of Siberian elms creates a ‘snowfall’ in late May when mature seeds blow into gardens and every nook and cranny.
These large shade trees are tough and fast-growing, likely the reason so many were planted in earlier days. Part of their toughness is due to their drought-proof, deep taproot. It enables them to grow in dry, natural landscapes as well as irrigated gardens.
Each tree produces ‘millions’ of flat, dime-sized, off-white seeds which germinate readily.
It’s common to see them growing in awkward places (inside hedges, in cracks in sidewalks, against the foundation of a house) as well as flower beds.
Siberian elms can grow more than five feet a year. The taproot grows as fast, or faster than the top, making it difficult to dig out even when young. If any root is left in the ground it will re-sprout.
A good way to get rid of a larger tree is to girdle it between late spring and mid-summer. This means just removing a section of the outer layer of bark around the circumference of the trunk which deprives the tree of nutrients and should cause death in one to two years. Once dead, it can be cut down.
Cutting down a live tree does not kill it. It re-grows from the roots.
Other drought-tolerant tree seedlings to watch out for and remove quickly are Tree of Heaven (easily recognized by the stinky smell of leaves and branches when rubbed) and Russian olive. These and the elm are considered invasive.
In our irrigated landscapes, maple seeds germinate well and can grow quickly in the same difficult places the other tree seedlings populate.
If you have squirrels in the neighbourhood, as I now do, you may find walnut, oak or hazelnut seedlings in your garden beds.
Images on the Internet are helpful to identify any of these tree seedlings. Dig out as soon as spotted to avoid future difficult or costly removal.
The Kelowna Garden Club will sponsor a presentation by author and educator Sara Williams on Thursday, May 29, 7 p.m., in the Okanagan College campus theatre (Student Services Building).Admission is free.
And the Okanagan Xeriscape Association will host a book signing event with Williams on Friday, May 30, 10 to 11 a.m., at the unH2O Xeriscape Garden in front of the H2O Aquatic Centre, 4075 Gordon Dr. | <urn:uuid:83c3cdeb-359a-43b7-85ca-42f1e3b5c7e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kelownacapnews.com/lifestyles/260464531.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950677 | 562 | 2.640625 | 3 |
VAIL, Colorado --Leptospirosis is a bacteria that can infect dogs and cats in Colorado's Vail Valley. It also infects many wild animals and humans.
Wild animals can carry the bacteria and shed it in their urine, contaminating the environment. Backyard wildlife, which is abundant in our Vail Valley, can be an important source of this infection. Raccoons, skunks, squirrels, voles, deer and elk can all spread the bacteria.
Pets and people often exposed to leptospira bacteria by drinking contaminated water. But other contaminated sources are bedding, soil, food and vegetation. The organism penetrates through the lining of the mouth, abraded skin and bite wounds.
The reason we are discussing leptospirosis disease is because it has been reemerging over the last several years. Large-breed dogs who spend time outdoors are most likely to get it, however all dogs are at risk. Any dog who goes hiking in the valley can be exposed at any time.
The incidence of infection is highest in the summer and fall and increases during wet periods after rainfall. Because wild animals carry and shed the leptospira organism in the environment, prevention of exposure is unrealistic.
Fortunately, there is a vaccine for our pets to prevent or at least decrease the severity of the disease. The leptospira vaccine is given at 12 weeks of age and boostered in three to four weeks. Then an annual vaccine is given.
There have been an occasional reaction to the vaccine (facial swelling, itching, etc.), and seems to occur more frequently in small-breed dogs and puppies under nine weeks of age. It is advisable to vaccinate your pet because the disease can become severe and even fatal. Another important fact is that humans can become infected as well.
Leptospira disease occurs four to 12 days post infection. The primary organs targeted are the kidneys and the liver. Infection in vaccinated dogs and cats is usually barely symptomatic. I
f an unvaccinated pet is infected the symptoms usually occur as follows: anorexia, depression, fever, vomiting, dehydration, stiffness. When the kidneys are infected, they become painful and kidney symptoms develop. Liver symptoms can then occur as well. Then in severe cases, tissues become swollen and bleeding in various parts of the body follow.
Treatment involves intravenous fluids and antibiotics. If treated early, most dogs can survive but some may have continuing kidney problems. Leptospirosis is an important disease that has been reintroduced into Colorado. The annual vaccine is the way to prevent your pet from getting sic.
Veterinarian Nadine Lober can be reached at 970-949-7972 | <urn:uuid:ffd9cfd1-63f5-41f9-8e2a-78b6abadef1f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vaildaily.com/article/20100407/AE/100409725 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957844 | 562 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Most of us minions believe free will exists
|June 2, 2014||Posted by News under Mind, News|
We just don’t do much with it.
A new study tested whether people believe free will arises from a metaphysical basis or mental capacity. Even though most respondents said they believed humans to have souls, they judged free will and assigned blame for transgressions based on pragmatic considerations — such as whether the actor in question had the capacity to make an intentional and independent choice.
Across the board, even if they believed in the concept of a soul, people in a new study ascribed free will based on down-to-Earth criteria: Did the actor in question have the capacity to make an intentional and independent choice? The study suggests that while grand metaphysical views of the universe remain common, they have little to do with how people assess each other’s behavior. | <urn:uuid:422eccfb-108e-41d6-bb0a-40a83518b052> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uncommondescent.com/mind/most-of-us-minions-believe-free-will-exists/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951571 | 179 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Democracy, literally, rule by the people. The term is derived from the Greek dēmokratiā, which was coined from dēmos (“people”) and kratos (“rule”) in the middle of the 5th century bc to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens.
The etymological origins of the term democracy hint at a number of urgent problems that go far beyond semantic issues. If a government of or by the people—a “popular” government—is to be established, at least five fundamental questions must be confronted at the outset, and two more are almost certain to be posed if the democracy continues to exist for long.
(1) What is the appropriate unit or association within which a democratic government should be established? A town or city? A country? A business corporation? A university? An international organization? All of these?
(2) Given an appropriate association—a city, for example—who among its members should enjoy full citizenship? Which persons, in other words, should constitute the dēmos? Is every member of the association entitled to participate in governing it? Assuming that children should not be allowed to participate (as most adults would agree), should the dēmos include all adults? If it includes only a subset of the adult population, how small can the subset be before the association ceases to be a democracy and becomes something else, such as an aristocracy (government by the best, aristos) or an oligarchy (government by the few, oligos)?
(3) Assuming a proper association and a proper dēmos, how are citizens to govern? What political organizations or institutions will they need? Will these institutions differ between different kinds of associations—for example, a small town and a large country?
(4) When citizens are divided on an issue, as they often will be, whose views should prevail, and in what circumstances? Should a majority always prevail, or should minorities sometimes be empowered to block or overcome majority rule?
(5) If a majority is ordinarily to prevail, what is to constitute a proper majority? A majority of all citizens? A majority of voters? Should a proper majority comprise not individual citizens but certain groups or associations of citizens, such as hereditary groups or territorial associations?
(6) The preceding questions presuppose an adequate answer to a sixth and even more important question: Why should “the people” rule? Is democracy really better than aristocracy or monarchy? Perhaps, as Plato argues in the Republic, the best government would be led by a minority of the most highly qualified persons—an aristocracy of “philosopher-kings.” What reasons could be given to show that Plato’s view is wrong?
(7) No association could maintain a democratic government for very long if a majority of the dēmos—or a majority of the government—believed that some other form of government were better. Thus, a minimum condition for the continued existence of a democracy is that a substantial proportion of both the dēmos and the leadership believes that popular government is better than any feasible alternative. What conditions, in addition to this one, favour the continued existence of democracy? What conditions are harmful to it? Why have some democracies managed to endure, even through periods of severe crisis, while so many others have collapsed?
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, both the theory and the practice of democracy have undergone profound changes, many of which have concerned the prevailing answers to questions (1) through (3) above. Thus, for thousands of years the kind of association in which democracy was practiced, the tribe or the city-state, was small enough to be suitable for some form of democracy by assembly, or “direct democracy.” Much later, beginning in the 18th century, as the typical association became the nation-state or country, direct democracy gave way to representative democracy—a transformation so sweeping that, from the perspective of a citizen of ancient Athens, the governments of gigantic associations such as France or the United States might not have appeared democratic at all. This change in turn entailed a new answer to question (3): Representative democracy would require a set of political institutions radically different from those of all earlier democracies.
Another important change has concerned the prevailing answers to question (2). Until fairly recently, most democratic associations limited the right to participate in government to a minority of the adult population—indeed, sometimes to a very small minority. Beginning in the 20th century, this right was extended to nearly all adults. Accordingly, a contemporary democrat could reasonably argue that Athens, because it excluded so many adults from the dēmos, was not really a democracy—even though the term democracy was invented and first applied in Athens.
Despite these and other important changes, it is possible to identify a considerable number of early political systems that involved some form of “rule by the people,” even if they were not fully democratic by contemporary standards.
Prehistoric forms of democracy
Although it is tempting to assume that democracy was created in one particular place and time—most often identified as Greece about the year 500 bc—evidence suggests that democratic government, in a broad sense, existed in several areas of the world well before the turn of the 5th century.
It is plausible to assume that democracy in one form or another arises naturally in any well-bounded group, such as a tribe, if the group is sufficiently independent of control by outsiders to permit members to run their own affairs and if a substantial number of members, such as tribal elders, consider themselves about equally qualified to participate in decisions about matters of concern to the group as a whole. This assumption has been supported by studies of nonliterate tribal societies, which suggest that democratic government existed among many tribal groups during the thousands of years when human beings survived by hunting and gathering. To these early humans, democracy, such as it was practiced, might well have seemed the most “natural” political system.
When the lengthy period of hunting and gathering came to an end and humans began to settle in fixed communities, primarily for agriculture and trade, the conditions that favour popular participation in government seem to have become rare. Greater inequalities in wealth and military power between communities, together with a marked increase in the typical community’s size and scale, encouraged the spread of hierarchical and authoritarian forms of social organization. As a result, popular governments among settled peoples vanished, to be replaced for thousands of years by governments based on monarchy, despotism, aristocracy, or oligarchy, each of which came to be seen—at least among the dominant members of these societies—as the most natural form of government.
Then, about 500 bc, conditions favourable to democracy reappeared in several places, and a few small groups began to create popular governments. Primitive democracy, one might say, was reinvented in more advanced forms. The most crucial developments occurred in two areas of the Mediterranean, Greece and Rome.
During the Classical period (corresponding roughly to the 5th and 4th centuries bc), Greece was of course not a country in the modern sense but a collection of several hundred independent city-states, each with its surrounding countryside. In 507 bc, under the leadership of Cleisthenes, the citizens of Athens began to develop a system of popular rule that would last nearly two centuries. To question (1), then, the Greeks responded clearly: The political association most appropriate to democratic government is the polis, or city-state.
Athenian democracy foreshadowed some later democratic practices, even among peoples who knew little or nothing of the Athenian system. Thus the Athenian answer to question (2)—Who should constitute the dēmos?—was similar to the answer developed in many newly democratic countries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although citizenship in Athens was hereditary, extending to anyone who was born to parents who were themselves Athenian citizens, membership in the dēmos was limited to male citizens 18 years of age or older (until 403, when the minimum age was raised to 20).
Because data is scanty, estimates of the size of the Athenian dēmos must be treated with caution. One scholar has suggested that in the mid-4th century there may have been about 100,000 citizens, 10,000 resident foreigners, or metics, and as many as 150,000 slaves. Among citizens, about 30,000 were males over 18. If these numbers are roughly correct, then the dēmos comprised 10 to 15 percent of the total population.
Regarding question (3)—What political institutions are necessary for governing?—the Athenians adopted an answer that would appear independently elsewhere. The heart and centre of their government was the Assembly (Ecclesia), which met almost weekly—40 times a year—on the Pnyx, a hill west of the Acropolis. Decisions were taken by vote, and, as in many later assemblies, voting was by a show of hands. As would also be true in many later democratic systems, the votes of a majority of those present and voting prevailed. Although we have no way of knowing how closely the majority in the Assembly represented the much larger number of eligible citizens who did not attend, given the frequency of meetings and the accessibility of the meeting place, it is unlikely that the Assembly could have long persisted in making markedly unpopular decisions.
The powers of the Assembly were broad, but they were by no means unlimited. The agenda of the Assembly was set by the Council of Five Hundred, which, unlike the Assembly, was composed of representatives chosen by lot from each of 139 small territorial entities, known as demes, created by Cleisthenes in 507. The number of representatives from each deme was roughly proportional to its population. The Council’s use of representatives (though chosen by lot rather than by election) foreshadowed the election of representatives in later democratic systems.
Another important political institution in Athens was the popular courts (dikasteria; see dicastery), described by one scholar as “the most important organ of state, alongside the Assembly,” with “unlimited power to control the Assembly, the Council, the magistrates, and political leaders.” The popular courts were composed of jurors chosen by lot from a pool of citizens over 30 years of age; the pool itself was chosen annually and also by lot. The institution is a further illustration of the extent to which the ordinary citizens of Athens were expected to participate in the political life of the city.
In 411 bc, exploiting the unrest created by Athens’s disastrous and seemingly endless war with Sparta (see Peloponnesian War), a group known as the Four Hundred seized control of Athens and established an oligarchy. Less than a year later, the Four Hundred were overthrown and democracy was fully restored. Nine decades later, in 321, Athens was subjugated by its more powerful neighbour to the north, Macedonia, which introduced property qualifications that effectively excluded many ordinary Athenians from the dēmos. In 146 bc what remained of Athenian democracy was extinguished by the conquering Romans. | <urn:uuid:d49de75c-3f7d-4ce8-ac1b-80786babfc82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973512 | 2,296 | 4 | 4 |
Green Chemistry Education Network
Flinn scientific catalog mentioned that one could switch from concentrated to 6M nitric acid to oxidize copper in the first reaction of the copper to copper lab (aka sequence of chemical reactions, copper recycling) if one used their copper foil (0.005" thick).
In our original set up (conc. nitric + copper wire) the copper completely dissolved in 3 minutes. When I tested the wire with 6M nitric, it took > 30 minutes and the foil they suggested took about 12 minutes. Both of these would have taken too long for the lab period. I found another source of copper that is 0.001" thick which dissolves the copper in 2-3 minutes. The source I found for the thin foil was http://basiccopper.com/.
There is a good copper cycle lab from the NY State Pollution Prevention Institute that uses 1M sulfuric acid and 1M hydrochloric acid for this as an alternative. There are a couple things that have higher hazards associated with them (i.e., magnesium powder), but this lab is a good alternative to the copper cycles that are typically done with concentrated nitric acid. Here is a link to the full lab: http://hhw.uvlsrpc.org/files/2613/7218/4212/NYSP2I_Green_Chem_Modul.... I've uploaded the lab too (hopefully they don't mind me posting it here!). | <urn:uuid:8f00c09f-9c8f-4fd3-b673-949ae1fde61f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cmetim.ning.com/group/moving-chemistry-labs-towards-green-chemistry-prin/forum/topics/copper-to-copper-lab-switching-from-concentrated-nitric-acid-to | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951833 | 303 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Sixty-five million years ago, life on Earth was sorely tested. One or more catastrophic events including a massive asteroid strike and increased volcanic activity, created wildfires on a global scale and dust clouds that cut the planet’s surface off from the sun’s vital light. The majority of animal species went extinct including, most famously, the dinosaurs. The fate of the planet’s plants is less familiar, but 60% of those also perished. What separated the survivors from the deceased? How did some species cross this so-called “K/T boundary”?
Jeffrey Fawcett form the Flanders Institute for Biotechnology thinks that the answer lies in their genomes and specifically how many copies they have. Geneticists have found that the majority of plants have duplicated their entire portfolio of genetic material at some point in their evolution. They are called “polyploids” – species with multiple copies of the same genome.
By dating these doublings, Fawcett had found that the most recent of them cluster at a specific point in geological time – 65 million years ago, at the K/T boundary. It suggests that having extra copies of their genomes on hand gave these plants the edge they needed to cope with the dramatic environmental changes that wiped out the dinosaurs and other less well-endowed species.
Time and again, scientists have found that flowering plants, from trees to grasses, have multiple copies of their genomes. The exact number and timings are being debated, but most agree that the oldest doubling took place very early on in the evolution of this group. It may even have contributed to the lineage’s success. Within about 5 million years, the lineages that would eventually produce about 97% of all flowering plant species had exploded into existence and an extra genome copy may have acted as the catalyst for this rapid expansion.
But this ancient doubling was just the beginning. Recent studies have found evidence of another, more recent duplication in the genomes of many species. To date these events, Fawcett looked at several plant species whose entire genomes have been completely sequenced – the thale cress Arabidopsis, the California poplar, barrel clover the common grape vine and rice – and many others that we have plenty of genetic data for, including cotton, tomato, lettuce, Californian poppy and American sweet flag.
Fawcett used these sequences to build a family tree of these different species. He used known evolutionary splits to put dates on the tree’s branches and he used this information in turn to date the recent genome duplications in the various species.
In almost all cases, from rice to tomatoes to cotton, flowering plants showed a peak in or genetic duplication between 60 and 70 million years ago – a time that precisely matches the Earth’s most recent mass extinction. Ten million years may seem like a long time to us but geologically it’s a blip. The world’s climate was changing long before the asteroid impact that truly sparked the extinction event, and the strike’s aftermath lasted long after it happened.
Fawcett recognises that dating these events can be an unexact science, but he feels that the cluster of dates round this point is significant and unlikely to change. Only Arabidopsis and the poplar didn’t fit this narrow band of time – they most recent genome duplications took place about 43 and 48 million years ago respectively.
In the case of Arabidopsis, Fawcett cites another study which suggests that this species, so favoured of geneticists, has copied its entire genome twice in the last 70 million years. It may be that this current study has only picked up the most recent event. In the case of the poplar, its family of trees have a tendency to evolve very slowly, which may mean that Fawcett’s methods underestimated the date of its most recent whole-genome duplication.
During the KT boundary, the planet’s environment changed dramatically. Dust clouds thrown up by asteroid collisions would have choked plants of sunlight and led to freezing ground temperatures that prevented seeds from germinating. There’s plenty of evidence that these prehistoric plants were severely hit by these conditions. Studies of fossilised pollen, spores and leaves have suggested about 60% of plant species went extinct, including a “global forest dieback”. The abundance of decaying vegetation provided nourishment for fungi, and their populations boomed at the KT boundary.
Fawcett thinks that double-genomes provided some lineages of plants with advantages that saw them through the environmental upheaval. Some studies have suggested that plants with multiple copies of their genomes are better able to cope with changing environmental conditions. Spare copies kicking around mean that the plant is more resistant to harmful mutations cropping up in any one gene.
But far from just being identical back-ups, spare copies can also be repurposed to new jobs or be used in new locations and at new times. This division of labour can be set up very quickly and provides the plant with the ability to swiftly adapt to new conditions – they get more bang for their genetic buck. You can see this happening in artificial selection experiments – cotton plants partition different copies of the same gene towards different ends if they are placed in difficult environments, like cold or too much water. By doing this, the plant ensures that neither copy is redundant; both quickly take on important roles and evolve independently.
Finally, plants with extra genome copies find it difficult to mate with other individuals with just the one, so they are biased towards fertilising themselves and reproducing asexually. That could actually be a perk in an environment where populations are crashing and mates are becoming scarce.
All these benefits combined to give polyploid plants a valuable advantage in a harsh world. Perhaps even further genome duplications will give some plants an edge in the rapidly changing climate of 21st century Earth.
There are signs that this might happen. The Arctic Circle is a haven for polyploid plants and there’s evidence to suggest that those with many genome copies are better than those with just the one at colonising areas where glaciers have vanished More recently, the industrial wastelands of York have been colonised by a new species of plant, the York groundsel, that evolved when two other species – the Oxford ragwort and common groundsel – crossbred to form a polyploidy hybrid.
Reference: PNAS doi:10.1073/pnas.0900906106 to be published this week
More on gene duplication:
- A burst of DNA duplication in the ancestor of humans, chimps and gorillas
- Enormous bacterium uses thousands of genome copies to its advantage
- The death and resurrection of IRGM – the “Jesus gene” | <urn:uuid:e03ba6f6-4192-4c2b-b1e8-1bfb205d412e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2009/03/23/extra-genomes-helped-plants-to-survive-extinction-event-that-killed-dinosaurs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955693 | 1,397 | 4.375 | 4 |
- Written by Sarah C. Corriher Sarah C. Corriher
- Published: June 30, 2009 June 30, 2009
Update Notice: We are no longer certain that the Swiss Water Method of decaffeination is safe. For now, our recommendation is to entirely avoid decaffeinated teas and coffees.
Decaffeinated drinks have been touted as a healthy alternative for several decades at the behest of the chemical industry, but these drinks are often more dangerous than the unmodified versions.
Early decaffeination efforts were abruptly terminated because of the toxic solvents that were used in the process (benzene, chloroform, and trichloroethylene). Of course, the F.D.A. is okay with benzene being inside your soft drinks (Coke, Pepsi, etc.), where it can be found in remarkably high amounts, and inside all of your microwaved foods. Money from its industry partners makes all the difference. In the early days of decaffeination, the new industry was not lucrative enough to buy F.D.A. safety studies.
The industry next switched to dichloromethane. It became the solvent of choice in the early 1970's, because of its 'lower toxicity', but it soon became public knowledge that dichoromethane was carcinogenic too, and its use came to a rapid halt.
The idea of decaffeinating drinks is modeled after the belief that caffeine is unhealthy in even small doses, which is yet another lie. While those who drink 10+ cups of coffee each day may benefit from switching to decaf, the same cannot be said for the rest of us. Caffeine, in moderation, will not cause problems unless a person already has a condition like excessively high blood pressure. For reasonably healthy people, coffee consumption is not a risk to their health. In fact, unaltered coffee has even been shown to have some health benefits; in moderation, of course. It is therapeutically used in the Gerson cancer cure.
It is particularly troubling when people avoid coffee because of the caffeine, and then switch to those ungodly energy drinks, which really deserve a full article of their own. Almost all of the energy drinks that are found in typical retailers are poisonous, and you will have trouble finding any natural ingredient on the labels. If you try, then you will find that the processed, bleached, white sugar is as close to a natural ingredient as you will find inside them. Even their so-called vitamins are actually the chemically synthesized versions, so a body will reject approximately 85% of each of these "vitamins" as an unidentifiable, potentially toxic substance; eventually making the person more fatigued, and prone to illness, because his immune system will be burdened by the process of flushing out these unknown chemicals. You may notice having bright yellow urine only hours after taking such "vitamins", indicating that your immune system is in overdrive flushing out the chemically produced, artificial vitamins. Coffee is a much healthier option than energy drinks. Although, we do recommend being cautious about which "creamer" is used in coffee, and we also recommend only using evaporated cane juice (the only pure sugar crystals). Please note that all chemically synthesized artificial sweeteners are likewise terrible -- and we're talking brain tumor terrible.
If you still feel that decaffeinated coffee is the way to go, then you may wish to read how it is made; so that you can make a more informed choice regarding your health. There are three different methods of decaffeinating, and I shall list them in order of popularity; not preference.
|The Chemical Solvent Method|
|Almost all decaffeinated coffee that is found in regular grocery stores is made with this method. The common solvents used on the coffee beans include methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, and highly pressurized carbon dioxide. After the green beans are moistened, they are immersed into the chosen solvent. After the solvent performs its chemical reaction, the beans are rinsed with water. The final decaffeination phase is steaming the beans.|
Proponents of this decaffeination process tell us the rinsing and steaming processes remove all of the chemicals. If that were so, then why was it previously necessary to switch from benzene, chloroform and other toxins, which were also supposedly steamed-out? Many women will recognize ethyl acetate from their nail polish remover labels. Consider how dangerous you know this to be, and how it will destroy and melt items that you spill it upon. Could you ever consider it to be "low in toxicity"? It is known to cause serious reactions with the eyes, skin, central nervous system, and the respiratory system.
You must decide if trace amounts of these chemical solvents should be inside your morning coffee. Do you think the coffee manufacturer or the F.D.A. will pay the expense of your chemotherapy, or even your funeral, when eventually the inevitable premature death happens? Coffee consumption can elevate your blood pressure slightly for several hours, but consuming benzine, methylene chloride, and ethyl acetate regularly will vastly increase a person's chances of contracting a serious disease, such as cancer; for the rest of his life. The industry's marketers, including the ones wearing the white overcoats, never mention this. Mentioning it would be bad for business, and they know what happens when the knowlege is made public.
|The Super Critical Carbon Dioxide Method|
|This method uses carbon dioxide at 250 - 300 times normal atmospheric pressure. Carbon dioxide in this form looks like a liquid in terms of its density, but it has the viscosity of a gas. It is a very effective solvent at extremely high pressures. When the coffee beans are exposed to the solvent, the caffeine dissolves into the solvent.|
While this is technically another chemical method of decaffeination, I would much prefer this over the previous option, and I can see no health risks from it. Unfortunately, there is inadequate labeling to separate coffee produced in this manner from coffee processed by the former chemical solvent method. Russian Roulette anyone?
|The Swiss Water Method|
|This is the type of natural decaffeination that you will find in health food store products, and it is always more expensive, because it is a considerably more complex process. This process uses a coffee extract, which is already virtually caffeine-free. Due to chemical solubility laws, the caffeine will migrate from the green coffee beans into this extract. Due to the way that the coffee beans react to the essential oils and the other components of the previously extracted coffee compounds, the caffeine seeks its way into the extract, and leaves behind the desirable components of the coffee, such as the flavor.|
The Swiss Water Method is a safe, chemical-free, decaffeination process; which is well labeled. Organic decaf is made using this method. Coffees decaffeinated in this manner are more flavorful than other decaffeinated coffees, but have slightly more residual caffeine. Whenever a drink is decaffeinated, it will still contain between 3 and 13 mg. of caffeine, which are negligible amounts.
In conclusion, neither caffeine nor coffee are actually unhealthy in moderate amounts; but can be if taken to an extreme. If you are going to drink decaf, make sure that it is organic, or at least made with the Swiss water method. Above all, do not seek alternative sources of energy from energy drinks. | <urn:uuid:b70f96f9-5544-403a-aee2-46c3e8496357> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://healthwyze.org/index.php/forum/10-Ask-The-Staff/146-Questions-about-colloidal-silver-hydrogen-peroxide-and-acne.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959698 | 1,549 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The Swedish Krona
If you’re an expat in Sweden, there’s a good chance you see and use it every day: the krona, Sweden’s currency. But besides earning it, spending it in shops and (hopefully) having a bank account full of it, what do you know about the krona? Well, that’s the topic I want to broach in this post.
History of the Swedish krona
The krona (meaning “crown” in English) came into being in 1873, when it replaced the then-Swedish currency the riksdaler. Unlike the riksdaler (which translates as “daler of the realm” in English, mirrored in the name of Sweden’s central bank, the riksbank, or “bank of the realm”), the krona wasn’t intended as a currency just for Sweden, but as part of a Scandinavian Monetary Union, with Denmark and Norway. This only lasted up the end of World War I, but explains why, even though today these three countries have individual currencies, they all share the name “crown” (in Denmark and Norway, “crown” becomes “krone”, not “krona).
One of the most remarkable features of the krona is that it still exists at all. By this I mean, Sweden didn’t join the majority of its fellow European Union members and adopt the euro, thereby rendering their national currencies defunct. This is in spite of the fact that Sweden is technically obligated to join the euro, as one of the conditions of its ascension to the EU in 1995. (Sweden avoids this by a loophole, by which countries that join the euro must join the Exchange Rate II (ER-II) mechanism for two years beforehand. However, membership of ER-II is voluntary, giving Sweden a way out). More importantly, repeated polls have shown that the majority of Swedes prefer to retain the krona.
Another interesting historical feature of the krona is that it’s one of the only global currencies to not be sub-divided into smaller units. This is to say, if you have a US dollar, you can divide that into 100 cents, right? And if you have a UK pound, that’s made up of 100 pence, you know? Well, this isn’t true in Sweden. A krona is a krona is a krona. This is because, in September 2010, the Swedish government decided to discontinue its series of currency sub-units, known as öre, because the cost of producing them was more than their value. Hence, while öre can still feature in electronic bills, all cash payments in Sweden must be rounded up to the nearest krona.
Features of the Swedish krona
Like most modern currencies the krona is freely floated. This doesn’t mean it’s a balloon that someone let go of, but that Sweden doesn’t (directly) intervene to control its value. Instead, the value of the krona is determined by participants on the foreign exchange market. They decide how much to buy and sell the krona for, based on the strength of Sweden’s economy compared to other countries.
The aforementioned Riksbank, Sweden’s central bank, is responsible for issuing krona. In addition, as with most central banks, it has an almost definitive influence over the krona’s value, thanks to its ability to set interest rates. Simply put, higher interest rates make Swedish bonds and equities more profitable to investors, giving them a higher incentive to buy the krona. However, changing the interest rate has a whole heap of implications for Sweden’s wider economy, like the cost of a mortgage, meaning the Riksbank can’t just change the interest rate to influence the krona when it feels like it.
The value of the Swedish krona
As you probably know if you’ve ever taken a trip from Sweden to the Eurozone, or vice versa, the krona is a good deal beefier than it used to be. From its lowest value in 15 years, 10.94 kr to the euro (03/01/2009, during the financial crisis), the krona has taken a one-way escalator up reaching as high at 8.38 kr to the euro last August.
Why’s this? Well, it reflects the fact that Sweden’s got two things going for it. One is the fact that it doesn’t use the euro, a currency that, as recently as two months ago, looked ready to pop its clogs, causing who knows what economic havoc to its members. The second is the fact that Sweden is a country in great economic shape, with public debt of about 35.0% (compared to 90.0% in the UK or Spain) and good growth prospects (Sweden is estimated to have expanded +1.2% in 2012, while the Eurozone shrank -0.1%). All that leaves investors saying “Swedish krona? I’ll have some of that!”, driving up its value.
So, the krona is an interesting currency, and its also a strong currency. Is there anything you’d like to about it that I’ve missed? Then let me know in the comments!
About the writer
Peter is an economist at foreign exchange broker Pure FX. He’s worked in foreign exchange since 2010, and is a close follower of global politics and economics. If you have any questions for him about exchanging Swedish krona, he’d be delighted to help answer them. | <urn:uuid:d9d867fe-6360-43cf-864f-756e21e55811> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.swedishfreak.com/life-in-sweden/the-swedish-krona/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959274 | 1,233 | 2.84375 | 3 |
I found some interesting mud constructions the other day. They were tucked away in a crack in a piece of 4x4 lumber that had been sitting on the ground. They were perfectly arranged so that they could fit in the crack if they were placed alternately.
Almost any mud construction attached to rocks, trees, walls or other objects belongs to a wasp or bee. There are a few ground beetles that build mud cells for their eggs, but you are unlikely to come across them.
Some common mud dauber wasps build a series of nest cells close together, then cover the whole thing with a shapeless mass of mud. The well-known organ pipe mud dauber builds a series of mud tubes, divided into rooms inside so each larva has its own space. The potter wasp makes tiny, perfect pots that could cause one to think they were made by fairies. Other wasps and solitary bees attach mud nests to twigs or place them inside cavities.
Journal photo by Claire Stuart
Some common mud dauber wasps build a series of nest cells close together, then cover the whole thing with a shapeless mass of mud.
The constructions I found are mud nest cells built by certain spider wasps to hold their eggs and food for their larvae. The spider wasp family Pompilidae is a large one, including many solitary wasps whose larvae eat spiders. In general, each genus specializes in spiders of a size that they are able to handle, although the spiders are often larger than the wasps. In the southwestern states, there are spider wasps that hunt tarantulas and huge trapdoor spiders.
Spider wasps do not kill spiders. They paralyze them with a sting, then drag them into a burrow or a mud cell. One egg is laid on the spider and the egg is sealed into the chamber and left to hatch. A dead spider would dry out and not provide nourishing food. The larva will eat the paralyzed spider, leaving the vital organs until last so that the spider will live long enough for the larva to mature. The larva will then spin a cocoon, become an adult and dig its way out.
The particular mud cells that I found are probably those of wasps in the genus Auplopus, known for making thimble-shaped mud nests, each holding one spider and one egg. These wasps are usually found in the woods, but they sometimes enter old buildings where they can find cracks in which to place their nests. Sometimes they build in abandoned nests of other types of wasps and sometimes under bark and rocks or in crevices.
Auplopus wasps usually specialize in capturing spiders in the Family Anyphaenidae. These are common, light-colored and rather small ground-dwelling spiders that wander around on soil and plants.
Our local spider wasps are about half an inch long, usually black with dark wings, sometimes with orange legs or small orange markings. They are extremely long-legged. They appear to be very nervous because they are usually seen walking quickly around on the ground or on tree trunks, jerking their wings and tapping their antennae as they track spiders.
Adult wasps do not eat spiders. They visit flowers and feed on nectar. They are solitary, with each female working by herself. Males have nothing to do with catching spiders or nest building. They simply set up territories where they perch and watch for females to mate.
Female spider wasps show a bit of intelligence because they are able to learn from experience. Over her lifetime, a wasp's hunting abilities improve and she is able to find and overcome spiders faster and more efficiently.
Spider wasps are not at all aggressive and will not sting unless they are seriously threatened or harmed. It is perfectly safe to watch them if you happen to see one at work.
Although few insects are around at this time of year, you can always find signs of insect life if you are a careful observer.
- Send your insect questions to Claire Stuart by e-mail at firstname.lastname@example.org or write her (with self-addressed stamped envelope) in care of Living Section, The Journal, 207 W. King Street, Martinsburg, WV 25401. | <urn:uuid:7fccb77d-8784-42c9-986c-07229316da65> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journal-news.net/page/content.detail/id/571585/Wasps-create-plethora-of-hidden-hives.html?nav=5067 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973923 | 882 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Contaminated water for drinking and cooking is a significant problem in much of the world. Servants 4 Him works with bio-sand water filters (BSF), developed by the Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology (CAWST) to address this problem. The BSF removes or kills parasites, harmful bacteria, and viruses making water safe to drink according to World Health Organization (WHO) standards.
Harmful bacteria in water used for consumption is a leading cause of health problems including diarrhea. Dehydration from diarrhea is the leading cause of death especially among children.
S4H works with local churches and mission organizations to train and equip them to build BSFs in their communities. The local church is culturally in an excellent position to help meet the phyisical need of purified water.
Many spiritual parallels or examples can be drawn from the need for filtering water and the work of the water filter. Therefore, the filters become a great “door opener” to talk to the unsaved and unchurched. By meeting a physical need, clean water, there are many opportunities to discuss spiritual needs. | <urn:uuid:c7c1adfe-db82-4b9c-9eba-45c85837d3ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://servants4him.org/?page_id=441&lang=es | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949663 | 229 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Ask the WWM Crew
|Please visit our Sponsors|
Guppies, mollies, platies, and swordtails the most popular and widely kept of livebearing fishes in the aquarium hobby. They are generally hardy, colorful, and easy to maintain. Best of all, they readily breed in the home aquarium with little effort on the part of the aquarist. But like all other aquatic organisms, they respond positively to good care and if maintained improperly will get sick and die.
Taxonomy and distribution
The guppies, mollies, platies, and swordtails all belong to a single family of freshwater fish known as the Poeciliidae. All share a similar body shape with a distinctly upturned mouth, and in most cases the males are substantially smaller than the females. Males also tend to be more brightly colored, and also have a modified anal fin known as a gonopodium used to fertilize the female. Guppies and mollies belong mostly to the genus Poecilia while the swordtails and platies belong to the genus Xiphophorus. Species within each genus sometimes hybridize, and guppy-molly crosses and platy-swordtail crosses are not uncommon.
Until relatively recently mollies were placed in their own genus, Mollienesia, from which comes the "molly" name. Older books may also place the guppies in the genus Lebistes, and while this name is occasionally used in the modern literature, it is generally considered to be an obsolete name. Another old name that may be encountered is Platypoecilus, a genus to which the platies were assigned (and from which they derive their common name, platy).
Their natural range of these livebearers is centered on Mexico and Central America but most have been introduced to various tropical and subtropical locations outside their natural range. Guppies in particular have been used as anti-malaria fish, being placed in waters such as ponds and canals to eat the mosquito larvae found there. Whether or not these introductions had much effect on malaria is debatable, but feral populations of guppies can now be found in places as diverse as Albania and Zambia. In some cases, the introduced livebearers have had a negative effect on native fish faunas.
Poecilia reticulata Peters 1860 is the common guppy. Originally found across northern South America from Venezuela to Brazil, as well as the some of the Caribbean islands including Barbados and Trinidad. Now widely distributed elsewhere. Females to about 2", males smaller and less robust, but more colorful. Lots of variation in the wild, but these distinct "races" are rarely traded. Feeder guppies are closest to the wild guppies in size and color. Numerous "fancy" varieties; these may be more brightly colored than wild guppies but are often smaller and generally much less hardy. Remarkably adaptable in terms of water chemistry, but ideally pH 7.0-8.0, hardness 10 dH or more. Does well in brackish water and, if acclimated properly, can be kept in saltwater conditions as well. Temperature 18-28 C.
Poecilia wingei Poeser, Kempkes, & Isbreucker 2005 is known as the Endler guppy to aquarium hobbyists but the Campoma guppy to scientists, this latter name a reference to the Campoma region of Venezuela where these guppies are naturally found. Similar to the common guppy in appearance but a little smaller and though very variable its colors are often even more vivid than those of common guppies. In general terms its maintenance is identical to that of the common guppy, except that warm water conditions are preferred, ideally around 26-28 C. Common and Endler guppies hybridize readily, and most of the Endler guppies available in pet stores are in fact hybrids of the two species. While perfectly nice fish in themselves, aquarists after pure-bred Endler guppies will do better by obtaining them from aquarium clubs, auctions, etc.
Micropoecilia picta (Regan 1913) is known as the swamp guppy in the trade and is referred to as Poecilia picta in many older aquarium books. It is a small species getting to about an inch or so in length and rather resembles a wild-type guppy at first glance. It is a bit more streamlined than the average guppy though, and its tail is not so large. Coloration is very variable, and a number of aquarium strains have been developed. Typically the fish is silvery-green with patches of yellow, blue, and black. Males are smaller but more colorful than the females. A brackish water species, the swamp guppy does not do well kept in a freshwater tank; pH 7.5-8.0, hardness 20 dH or more, specific gravity 1.003-1.005. Temperature 26-28 C.
Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur 1821) is known as the sailfin molly on account of the very large dorsal fin sported by male fish. Native to the Southern United States, primarily in brackish water, sometimes in the sea. They use the fin for threat displays between one another and to impress females. Body greenish with numerous blue, white, and yellow spots. Various artificial varieties: black, chocolate, orange, etc. Mollies are distinctly herbivorous and require plenty of green foods in their diet. Algae or algae-based flake foods ("livebearer flake") should be used instead of ordinary meat-based flake foods. Will also peck at algae in the aquarium as well as soft vegetables such as blanched lettuce and thinly-sliced cucumber. Enjoys insect larvae, daphnia, etc. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, hardness 20 dH, temperature 20-28C. Does best in brackish water, and can be acclimated to marine conditions as well.
Poecilia mexicana Steindachner 1863 is one of the short-fin mollies that may turn up for sale though it isn't all that common in the hobby. Native to Mexico and parts of Central America. Has a relatively small dorsal fin compared with the sailfin molly, but otherwise similar in size and shape. Around 3-4", females larger than males. Requires similar care as Poecilia latipinna. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, hardness 20-30 dH, temperature 23-28C. Does well in brackish water.
Poecilia salvatoris Regan 1907 is known as the liberty molly. Naturally found only in El Salvador. Silvery green body, enlivened with red, white, and blue dorsal and tail fins (from whence its common name, in the US at least). Apparently confined to freshwater habitats in the wild, but otherwise requires similar care to the other mollies. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, hardness 20 dH, temperature 25-28C.
Poecilia sphenops Valenciennes 1846 is another of the short-fin mollies and most likely the chief ancestor of the balloon molly and black molly. Natural range runs from Mexico to Colombia; widely introduced elsewhere. Smaller (2-3") but otherwise similar to Poecilia mexicana. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, hardness 20 dH, temperature 25-28C. Does very well in brackish and marine aquaria (often used to mature marine aquaria).
Poecilia velifera (Regan 1914) is the giant sailfin molly. A spectacular but rather uncommonly traded species. Endemic to Mexico. Maximum length of males is 6", females 7". A large, deep aquarium is essential because of the size of these fish. Maintenance is otherwise similar to that of the other mollies but brackish water conditions seem to be more important; pH 8.0, hardness 20-30 dH, temperature 25-28 C, SG 1.005-1.025. Does very well in marine aquaria, and said to grow larger under such conditions.
Xiphophorus maculatus (Gunther 1866), the platy of the hobby but southern platyfish to the scientists. Native to Mexico and parts of Central America. Relatively small but very stocky. Maximum size about 2", often smaller. Males and females similar in length but the female is much more robust. Wild fish greenish with a black patch at the caudal peduncle. Numerous artificial varieties. Quite hardy and easy to keep. Herbivorous in the wild, and algae-based flake foods should be used as a staple. Also enjoys small invertebrates such as daphnia and bloodworms. Very peaceful. Adaptable, but does best around pH 7.0-8.0, dH 10-20, temperature 25-28 C.
Xiphophorus variatus (Meek 1904), the variatus platy of the hobby but variable platyfish to ichthyology. Endemic to Mexico but like many other livebearers widely introduced elsewhere. Larger than the common platy (around 2.5"). Its common name refers to its variable coloration in the wild, but typically with a series of longitudinal stripes along the flanks. Many artificial varieties, likely including crosses with the common platy. Robust and easy to keep, this fish is notable for being tolerant of subtropical water conditions much cooler than those favored by most other livebearers in the hobby. Care is otherwise similar to that of the common platy. Water conditions: pH 7.0-8.0, dH 10-25, temperature 15-25 C.
Xiphophorus xiphidium (Gordon, 1932), the swordtail platy. Endemic to Mexico. Small (around 1.5") and not as brightly colored as the other platies, but notable for the short "swordtail" borne by the males. Not commonly traded, but easily obtained at fish auctions, etc. Care is similar to the common platy; water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, dH 5-20, temperature 22-26 C.
Xiphophorus alvarezi Rosen 1960 is the Chiapas swordtail and one of many "oddball" swordtails that turn up in tropical fish shops occasionally. Native to Mexico and Guatemala. Compared with the common swordtail, this species has three prominent horizontal bands running along the flanks. Grows to around 2.5-3" plus the sword. Maintenance similar to the common swordtail, but less adaptable and demands closer attention to water quality and diet. Males rather quarrelsome. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, dH 5-20, temperature 24-28 C.
Xiphophorus hellerii Heckel 1848 is the common swordtail or green swordtail. Native to Mexico and parts of Central America. Larger (typically around 3") and more streamlined in shape than the platy. Males immediately recognizable by the long "sword" jutting from the lower lobe of the tail fin; in some cases this sword may be almost as long as the body of fish itself. Many geographical varieties, some relatively small (around 2.5") others much larger (up to 4.5") and remarkable for their differences in coloration as well. Body may be green, silvery, or orange; one or more horizontal red bands may be present on the flanks; some varieties have black spots on the body that others lack. These varieties are often named after their place of origin, e.g., Yucatan, Rio Belize, Rio Atoyac, etc. There are also numerous artificial forms. Wild-caught fish are often sensitive to poor water quality and show a preference for small live foods such as daphnia and mosquito larvae; captive-bred fish generally hardy and thrive on flake foods. Male swordtails are aggressive towards one another and may also chase other fish they perceive as rivals, such as platies. Because of their relatively large size and very active natures, these fish are best suited to large aquaria with plenty of swimming space. Water conditions: pH 7.5-8.0, dH 5-20, temperature 24-28 C.
Belonesox belizianus Kner 1860, the pike topminnow or pike livebearer. Native to Mexico and Central America, but now found in parts of the United States and deemed by many to be a serious threat to native fish faunas. Big (up to 8", more typically 4" for males, 6" for females) and highly predatory. Does not gorge like many other predatory fish, but eats a few small prey every day. Difficult to care for. Females much larger than the males, and as apt to eat potential mates as breed with them; fry highly cannibalistic. Prefers live foods; invertebrates when young, almost entirely fish when mature. Wild-caught fish very difficult to wean onto dead foods, tank-bred fish a bit easier. Best kept in brackish water; pH 8.0, hardness 20-30 dH, temperature 25-28 C, SG 1.005-1.025.
Within each genus, hybrids will occur readily. That is, all Poecilia will hybridize with each other, as will all Xiphophorus. So unless you want to produce hybrids, guppies and mollies should all be kept apart, one species to a tank, and likewise swordtails and platies should be kept apart, one species to a tank as well. Hybrids across genera don't seem to happen; so guppies, Poecilia reticulata, and platies, Xiphophorus maculatus could be mixed for example without any problems.
In reality, all mollies and platies are already hybrids of a number of species, so questions of "genetic purity" don't really mean much with these fish. Swordtails and common guppies may be "pure" species at a crude level, but the geographical variations typical of these species have long since been lost. On the other hand, commercial stocks of Endler guppies are almost certainly hybrids of the true Endler guppy Poecilia wingei with the common guppy Poecilia reticulata.
Water chemistry and quality
All these livebearers prefer hard water with a pH around 7.5-8.0. When kept in soft or acidic waters these fish tend to be more prone to diseases, particularly finrot and fungus. Mollies are also prone to a condition known as the "shimmies", a neurological condition where the fish seems to tread water and loses the ability to swim properly; eventually it dies. In soft water areas, Malawi or Tanganyikan salt mix can be used to raise the pH and hardness. Alternatively a calcareous substrate such as coral sand can be added to the aquarium. Salt-tolerant livebearers can be kept successfully in brackish water tanks but it is important to use marine salt mix not aquarium "tonic" salt for this. Only marine salt mix contains the minerals that will raise the pH and hardness of the water.
Water quality is very important over the long term. Mollies in particular are very sensitive to high levels of nitrate (above 20 mg/l) when kept in freshwater conditions. By contrast, in brackish and salt water mollies are extremely robust, and are routinely used to cycle marine aquaria. Although often recommended as suitable fish for maturing aquaria, fancy guppies are actually not all that hardy and should only be kept in mature aquaria.
Mollies and platies are more herbivorous than guppies and swordtails. When feeding mollies and platies, providing them with green foods is essential to long-term health. Without enough green matter in their diet, these fish are prone to constipation and do not develop their best colors (this is especially true with wild-caught fish). Flake foods designed for livebearers are the ideal, containing large amounts of algae as well as protein. Also consider leaving some of the algae in the tank for your livebearers to nibble on. All livebearers enjoy small invertebrates such as mosquito larvae and these make an excellent treat, particularly for pregnant females.
These livebearers are not really schooling fish in the same way as tetras or barbs. Males are often aggressive towards one another. This is especially true with swordtails which will fight and chase one another. Male mollies and guppies are somewhat less aggressive, and platies least of all. Females of all types get along well.
Mixing livebearers with other community species is usually not a problem provided water chemistry is taken into consideration. However, fin-nippers such as serpae tetras and tiger barbs will certainly pester male guppies. Their small size also makes guppies at risk of being eaten by other fish, including angelfish. Male swordtails and mollies can sometimes be a bit boisterous with more placid fish, so tankmates for these should be chosen with care. Platies are usually the safest species for the community tank, being neither too small nor too quarrelsome.
Although often dismissed as being simply a case of "just add water", breeding livebearers is a little more complex than this. In the wild, newborn livebearers swim towards shallow water where they hide among the vegetation. The parents have no protective instinct at all, and if they come across a newborn fish, they'll try and eat it. So, in the average community tank, few if any fry survive to maturity.
There are two ways to solve this problem. One is to to place some floating plants in the aquarium to give newborn fish some cover, and then to check once or twice a day for fry and remove them to another aquarium whenever they are found. A rearing tank need not be large: a 10 gallon tank will be ample, since all you need to do is get them to a size large enough that they won't be eaten by anything in the main aquarium.
The other approach is to place a pregnant female in a breeding trap. These are floating boxes that contain compartments into which the fry drop after being born. The idea is that because the female cannot get to the fry, and the fry cannot get loose in the aquarium, it is easier to keep the newborn fish safe. However, most traps are far too small for anything other than guppies or perhaps small platies. Mollies and swordtails certainly cannot be kept in breeding traps, and often miscarry when placed in them (assuming they simply don't jump out).
Raising livebearer fry is not difficult. They will take algae and finely powdered flake food immediately, and should be fed 4-6 times per day. Some floating plants should be provided to offer shade and at least weekly 25% water changes are important to maximize growth rate. Guppies will reach a sellable size in about 2-3 months, mollies and swordtails may take a little longer. Sailfin mollies especially depend upon being kept in a large tank with good water quality if the males are to develop their dorsal fins properly.
Livebearers are generally trouble-free as far as healthcare goes. While they do get things like whitespot and finrot just as readily as any other fish, they react positively to copper-based treatments making curing any such diseases easy. Mollies are the exception here: in freshwater tanks they are very prone to a variety of sicknesses, possibly related to their intolerance of high levels of nitrate. When kept in brackish or saltwater conditions they are altogether more robust.
Endnote: perfect fish?
Are livebearers the perfect aquarium fishes? Many aquarists think so, and they are consistently among the most widely sold and frequently bred freshwater fishes in the trade. But familiarity often breeds complacency, and far too often these fish have been kept in under-filtered and overstocked aquaria with the wrong water chemistry. It is a testament to their fundamental hardiness that livebearers usually come through such abuse, but these are such nice fish that they deserve better. Whether you're looking for a good beginner's fish, something with bright colors, or an introduction to fish breeding, livebearers have lots to offer.
Scott, P: Livebearing Fishes (Fishkeeper's Guides), Interpet Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1-9023-8962-X
Dawes, J: Livebearing Fishes: A Guide To Their Aquarium Care, Biology and Classification, Blandford, 1995, ISBN 0-7137-2592-3
Monks N. (editor): Brackish Water Fishes, TFH 2006, ISBN 0-7938-0564-3
Schäfer F & M. Kemkes: All Livebearers and Halfbeaks, Aqualog 1998, ISBN 3-931702-77-4 | <urn:uuid:dc81d1d7-4486-4737-b466-3ffa20e5c4ad> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wetwebmedia.com/FWsubwebindex/poeciliids.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943179 | 4,445 | 3.375 | 3 |
Projectiles vertical motion
A body that is projected through a gravitational field is known as a
projectile. We will look for the present at the case of an un-powered projectile such as a stone and ignore
the effects of air resistance.
The vertical acceleration is due to the gravitational attraction
of the Earth and is called the acceleration due to gravity (g).
Above the Earth's surface the value of g decreases as the
distance from the centre of the Earth increases, but if we restrict our considerations to points
close to the Earth's surface its value is sensibly constant and has a value of about 9.81 ms-
2 (often simplified to 10 ms-2)
Since this acceleration is produced by the
gravitational field of the Earth it may also be called the gravitational intensity (units Nkg-1). The
value of g can vary due to the following factors:
(a) distance above sea level - g is less up a
mountain or in a satellite or plane;
(b) on the equator - the distance from the centre of the
Earth is greater here, because of the non-spherical shape of the Earth, and g is smaller;
above mineral deposits there is a greater attraction and so g is larger;
(d) the centripetal
force of the rotating Earth causes a variation in g from Equator to pole.
projected vertically upwards
We will look first at the case of an object that is projected
Initial vertical velocity = u
We will call time of flight 2t, (in other words the time
to return to the ground again) and so the time to reach the top is t. You should understand that it will take
the same time for the projectile to reach the top of its path as it will to return to the ground
Velocity at the top of the path (v) = 0, it is not moving at this point.
1. Maximum height
Since the time to reach the maximum height is the same for an object released from rest
at that height to fall to the ground we can use:
Using h = ½ gt2
Alternatively if we
know the initial velocity.
+ 2as with s = h and v = 0 at the top of the path
and a = -g then:
h = u2
notice the negative sign because the object is
slowing down as it rises, g acts in the opposite direction to the velocity of the projectile. Also remember
that the acceleration of the projectile is 9.8 ms-2
towards the ground throughout the trajectory,
even at the very top.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity at 30 ms-1
(a) the maximum height reached
(b) the time taken for it to return to the ground
(a) Using v2 - u2 + 2as
0 = 900 - 2x10xs 20s= 900 s =45m
Notice that at the maximum height the vertical velocity is zero and that the acceleration due to gravity is negative since it acts to retard the ball.
(b) Using v = u + at, 30 = -30 + 10t t = 6s
Remember that the ball must return to the ground with the same speed with which it left it.
2. Any other
height than the maximum
h = ut + ½ gt2
where as before when the numbers are put into the equation g = - 9.8 ms-
A balloon is going up at a steady velocity of 12 ms-1 at a height of 32 m above the ground when an object is dropped from it. How long does it take for the object to reach the ground?
Consider first the time taken to return to the 32 m level.
v = 12ms-1 and u = -12ms-1 (notice the minus sign that allows for the different direction of u and v. It does not matter which one you choose to be minus as long as g is also made plus or minus).
Therefore taking g = 10 ms-2
Using: v = u+at spacewe have: 12 = - 12 + 10t
Therefore t = 2.4 s.
Now it falls to the ground.
Using s = ut + ½at2 space 32 = 12t+ 5t2
This is solved to give t = 1.65 or - 4.00s.
The negative value indicates a time before it passed the 32 m level, which is clearly of no physical significance here.
Therefore the total time = 1.6 s +2.45 s = 4s
A VERSION IN WORD IS AVAILABLE ON THE SCHOOLPHYSICS CD | <urn:uuid:ff3b903a-022d-4c8e-8095-a2a7a3e2df30> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Mechanics/Kinematics/text/Projectiles_vertical_projection/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919366 | 982 | 4.65625 | 5 |
July 26 will mark the uncovering of one of the biggest secrets of the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawwas said Saturday 16/5/2009.
Addressing a symposium held within the framework of the Turin International Book Fair, he said the SCA will undertake another experiment involving getting a robot made by a group of scientists at the Universities of Hong Kong and Manchester into the pyramid to uncover the mystery shrouding the third gate of one of the pyramid's corridors. This gate is expected to lead to the room where King Khufu is buried.
The Great Pyramid of Giza (Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three Giza pyramids and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth dynasty Egyptian King Khufu (Cheops in Greek) and constructed over a 20 year period concluding around 2560 BC.
The Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years. Originally the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface, and what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base.
There have been varying scientific and alternative theories regarding the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction theories are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure.
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu; one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile.
Monday, May 18, 2009
July 26 marks uncovering one of biggest secrets of Khufu Pyramid
Egypt State Information Service | <urn:uuid:2a1b6057-200a-4ba6-8872-98326d269aa9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://egyptology.blogspot.com/2009/05/july-26-marks-uncovering-one-of-biggest.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962453 | 435 | 2.875 | 3 |
Floating Offshore Wind Turbine is Launched in Maine
The prototype is the first of its kind in North America and follows five years of research and development at the University of Maine
The country's first grid-tied floating wind turbine, launched in Maine at the end of May, has started feeding electricity into the state's power grid.
VolturnUS 1:8, a 1/8-scale prototype of a 6-megawatt design, was launched in Brewer, Maine, on May 31, 2013. It was towed down the Penobscot River and moored off the town of Castine. On June 13, electricity began flowing from the turbine into Central Maine Power Co.'s grid.
The 65-foot tall unit is equipped with a 20-kW turbine manufactured by Renewegy. A full-size turbine, the first of which could be launched by 2016, would have rotors with a diameter of 423 feet and would generate up to 6 megawatts of electricity.
Design combines concrete and composites
The launch capped five years of research at the University of Maine's Advanced Structures and Composites Center in Orono.
Financial support included a $12 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy. The effort ledLight-emitting diode. Illumination technology that produces light by running electrical current through a semiconductor diode. LED lamps are much longer lasting and much more energy efficient than incandescent lamps; unlike fluorescent lamps, LED lamps do not contain mercury and can be readily dimmed. to the creation of the DeepCwind Consortium, which includes nonprofit groups and a variety of marine construction and manufacturing interests.
The turbine has a semi-submersible base made from a proprietary concrete and an upper structure of lighter-weight composite materials.
A foundation made from steel would have been a more conventional choice, says Elizabeth Viselli, manager of offshore wind programs and communications at the composites center, but Maine would have had to import that material from South Korea and it lacked the manufacturing facilities it needed to form curved steel components.
Concrete, on the other hand, is well understood, with ingredients that are locally available. The exact mix of concrete, which Viselli did not discuss, was developed at the University of Maine. The structure was fabricated by Cianbro Corp.
The Gulf of Maine has an estimated 156 gigawatts of wind energy potential within 50 miles of the coast, but Viselli says the depth of water 20 miles offshore where turbines will be deployed makes fixed designs like those in northern Europe impractical.
Much bigger plans in the works
Later this year, the VolturnUS will be towed to a site off Monhegan Island for more tests. These research sites relatively close to land are perfect, Viselli says, because waves and wind are about one-eighth as intense as what an offshore turbine would encounter.
The university hopes that the 2016 deployment of a full-size turbine would be the start of an offshore wind farm that will include 80 turbines by 2020. By 2030, the project would expand to about 170 turbines generating 5 GW of electricity, according to the Bangor Daily News.
Wind development on that scale would attract $20 billion in private investment and create thousands of jobs, the university says. To that end, the university is in the process of spinning off the wind generation business into a private venture called Aqua Ventus Holdings.
The Volturn project is part of a larger effort to develop an estimated 4,000 gigawatts of offshore wind energy, which the Department of Energy says is four times the country's current generating capacity. In December, the energy department announced seven offshore wind awards.
The goal of the program in Maine is to reduce the cost of offshore wind electricity to 10 cents a kilowatt hour by 2020.
- University of Maine | <urn:uuid:34362744-33ca-4719-9678-d3f90043f245> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/green-building-news/floating-offshore-wind-turbine-launched-maine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954303 | 786 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Stanford, CA Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are rising more rapidly than expected, increasing the danger that without aggressive action to reduce emissions the climate system could cross a critical threshold by the end of the century, warns a leading member of the Nobel Prize-winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Studies indicate that greenhouse warming could trigger a vicious cycle of feedback, in which carbon dioxide released from thawing tundra and increasingly fire-prone forests drives global temperatures even higher.
Chris Field, director of the Carnegie Institution's Department of Global Ecology and co-chair of the IPCC Working Group 2, will address these issues at a symposium titled "What Is New and Surprising since the IPCC Fourth Assessment?" at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in Chicago. The IPCC Fourth Assessment, for which Field was a coordinating author, was published in 2007. As co-chair, Field will oversee the Working Group 2 Report on the predicted impacts of climate change for the IPCC Fifth assessment, scheduled to be published in 2014. The Fifth Assessment will incorporate the results of new studies that predict more severe changes than did previous assessments.
"The data now show that greenhouse gas emissions are accelerating much faster than we thought," says Field. "Over the last decade developing countries such as China and India have increased their electric power generation by burning more coal. Economies in the developing world are becoming more, not less carbon-intensive. We are definitely in unexplored terrain with the trajectory of climate change, in the region with forcing, and very likely impacts, much worse than predicted in the fourth assessment."
New studies are also revealing potentially dangerous feedbacks in the climate system that could convert current carbon sinks into carbon sources. Field points to tropical forests as a prime example. Vast amounts of carbon are stored in the vegetation of moist tropical forests, which are resistant to wildfires because of their wetness. But warming temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns threaten to dry the forests, making them less fireproof. Researchers estimate that loss of forests through wildfires and other causes during the next century could boost atmospheric concentration of CO2 by up to 100 parts per million over the current 386 ppm, with possibly devastating consequences for global climate.
Warming in the Arctic is expected to speed up the decay of plant matter that has been in cold storage in permafrost for thousands of years. "There is about 1,000 billion tons of carbon in these soils," says Field. "When you consider that the total amount of carbon released from fossil fuels since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution is around 350 billion tons, the implications for global climate are staggering."
"The IPCC fourth assessment didn't consider either the tundra-thawing or tropical forest feedbacks in detail because they weren't yet well understood," he says. "But new studies are now available, so we should be able to assess a wider range of factors and possible climate outcomes. One thing that seems to be certain, however, is that as a society we are facing a climate crisis that is larger and harder to deal with than any of us thought. The sooner we take decisive action, the better our chances are of leaving a sustainable world to future generations."
|Contact: Chris Field| | <urn:uuid:77fba450-fe96-470b-89ed-2e1e87eeb706> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Decisive-action-needed-as-warming-predictions-worsen--says-expert-7077-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952444 | 659 | 3.75 | 4 |
From Our 2012 Archives
Blogging Can Help Calm Anxious Teens: Study
Latest Healthy Kids News
THURSDAY, Jan. 12 (HealthDay News) --Blogging appears to help teens deal with social problems, according to a new study.
It included 161 Israeli high school students, 124 girls and 37 boys, average age 15, who had some level of social anxiety or distress. They all had difficulty making friends or relating to current friends.
The students were divided into six groups. Four groups were assigned to blog, one group wrote in a private diary about their social problems and one group did nothing.
Two of the blogging groups focused their posts on their social problems, and one of those groups opened their posts to comments. The two other blogging groups were free to write about any topic, and one of those groups also opened their posts to comments.
All the blogging groups posted messages at least twice weekly for 10 weeks.
The researchers assessed all the teens' self-esteem, everyday social activities and behaviors before, immediately after, and two months after the 10-week experiment.
The teens in the blogging groups showed significant improvements in self-esteem, social anxiety, emotional distress and the number of positive social behaviors, compared to the teens who wrote in a private diary or did nothing.
The greatest improvements were seen in teens who were told to write about their social problems and whose blogs were open to comments, according to the study published online recently in the journal Psychological Services.
"Research has shown that writing a personal diary and other forms of expressive writing are a great way to release emotional distress and just feel better," lead author Meyran Boniel-Nissim, of the University of Haifa, said in a journal news release. "Teens are online anyway, so blogging enables free expression and easy communication with others."
"Although cyberbullying and online abuse are extensive and broad, we noted that almost all responses to our participants' blog messages were supportive and positive in nature," co-author Azy Barak said in the release. "We weren't surprised, as we frequently see positive social expressions online in terms of generosity, support and advice."
Because so many more girls than boys were involved in the study, the authors said future research should control for gender.
-- Robert Preidt
Copyright © 2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.
SOURCE: Psychological Services, news release, Jan. 4, 2012 | <urn:uuid:08a49b7c-58ca-4e59-af69-2da9df29afb6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=153570 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969966 | 500 | 2.96875 | 3 |
When an "extra-tropical cyclone" bore down recently on the small village of Shaktoolik on the coast of Alaska, an area I've been researching for the past decade, I called the village coordinator. There was no time for pleasantries. "We need to get people out of here!" said Carole Sookiayak, as she stood, looking out her window with the Norton Sound pounding at her doorstep. Mercifully, the surges were less severe than predicted, the driftwood held firm and sea ice dampened wave activity.
Natural forces saved Shaktoolik. This time.
Alaska's new climate features a potent mix of wind, snow, rain and surging ocean with pounding waves. A reflective landscape exposed to solar radiation is causing a rapid loss of snow and ice. Sequestered for thousands of years, carbon-rich deposits in the permafrost and ocean floor leach out, adding another pulse of greenhouse gases to those from fossil fuel-burning and deforestation.
Storms feed on the heat accumulating in the oceans, something climatologists warned us about decades ago. Recall that Katrina reconstituted itself after it passed over Florida and then swelled as it drew strength from the Gulf of Mexico.
The atmosphere at the poles is thinner, so additional greenhouse gases have a pronounced effect, with warming rates up to four times the rate of the rest of the planet. Runaway climate change in the Arctic concerns me, and it should concern Congress as well.
Scientists are getting better at predicting the impact of wind direction, tides and "fetch" -- the distance wind travels on the open water -- on coastal communities. Up north, we are just beginning to appreciate the importance of sea ice, which forms along with slush on the ocean bottom, then floats up to the surface, forming walls that dampen wave activity and storm surge. Sea ice is at record low levels.
Those involved with the Alaskans Sharing Indigenous Knowledge (AKSIK) have been tracking villages like Shaktoolik for the past few years, and in video interviews, residents report how vulnerable they are to flooding, erosion and coastal destruction. See aksik.org for information.
A community of 250 people, Shaktoolik came very close to being destroyed by this recent storm. A large deposit of driftwood held the waves back just enough to save the village. Had the tide risen a few more feet, the logs would have been transformed in to battering rams, destroying the houses and buildings and dragging its people in to the freezing, churning ocean. It was an uncomfortably close call, as it was in 2005 and 2009, when storms hit.
Evacuation, difficult in the best of circumstances, is virtually impossible here. Planes and helicopters won't fly in storms and the river is frozen, impassible by boat. They need an evacuation center, a building firmly anchored to bedrock, and they need an evacuation road to higher ground.
I know what you're asking, but the people of Shaktoolik and similar communities along Alaska's coast cannot simply relocate. They live where they live because their identities are drawn from the land. If they moved to Nome or Anchorage, it would mean cultural destruction.
A few villages have, in fact, relocated to higher ground, extremely expensive undertaking. According to a General Accounting Office report, there are 31 imminently vulnerable communities in Alaska, yet we have no domestic climate bill in sight and no international aid that vulnerable people in developed countries can draw on.
So villages are left to fend for themselves. One, Kivalina, is suing Exxon-Mobil for $400 million on the grounds that burning their oil has destroyed the sea ice that once protected their village. The case is now pending in the 9th Circuit Court.
Federal resources should support villages like Shaktoolik, so they can adapt to their new storm-riddled climate. The American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 allocates funds to the states and then to the most vulnerable communities. While that funding is insufficient, it is an acknowledgement of the need. Simple math proves that using taxpayer money now to pay for adaptation measures would be less expensive than paying for disaster relief efforts after storms hit. | <urn:uuid:b2b8c46f-a029-4f61-8fbf-a609a1b5d2d7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jon-rosales/alaskas-new-climate-act-n_b_1131234.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957449 | 864 | 3 | 3 |
What does YUS stand for?
What does YUS mean? This page is about the various possible meanings of the acronym, abbreviation, shorthand or slang term: YUS.
We've found a total of 1 definition for YUS:
What does YUS mean?
- Little yus and big yus, or jus, are letters of the Cyrillic script, representing two Common Slavonic nasal vowels in the early Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets. Each can occur in iotified form, formed as ligatures with the letter Decimal I. Other yus letters are blended yus, closed little yus and iotified closed little yus. Phonetically, Little yus represents a nasalized front vowel, possibly, while big yus represents a nasalized back vowel, such as IPA. This is also suggested by the appearance of each as a 'stacked' digraph of 'Am' and 'om' respectively. The names of the letters do not imply capitalization: both little and big yus exist in majuscule and minuscule variants. All modern Slavic languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet have lost the nasal vowels, making yus unnecessary. Big Yus was a part of the Bulgarian alphabet until 1945. However, by that time the back nasal was pronounced the same way as ъ. As a result, there were inconsistencies in its usage since people had to rely on memorized orthographic conventions to put it in its etymologically correct place. There are some Macedonian dialects around Thessaloniki and Kastoria in Northern Greece that still preserve a nasal pronunciation, 'Where are you going, dear child?'. | <urn:uuid:3f5dd83b-8ccb-4f9f-9523-fa488378ad88> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abbreviations.com/YUS | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95116 | 355 | 2.984375 | 3 |
This tutorial will teach you the methods of preparing the table of a given number by using loop condition. As we know the loop statements are used to repeat a statement or process multiple times according to a specified condition. Loop checks certain condition and if it finds the condition is valuable then all the statements written under loop are executed.
Here we will take a number a=25 of which we have to prepare a table. Define the integer a=25 and b=1 as the initial point. Now apply "while" condition of loop and confine b<=10 as we have to make a table of 25. Again define another integer as c=a*b, this will be the result when we multiply 'a' with 'b'. Here we have to multiply 'a' with 'b' up to 10 times like a*1, a*2....................a*9, a*10. So make define b=b+1 as increment operator.
Now compile and run the program on the command window.
Here is the code of the prorgram:
Posted on: February 11, 2008 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles | <urn:uuid:f5484484-fa65-4708-949d-a5b5beadc1c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://roseindia.net/java/beginners/PreparingTable.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00156-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.859714 | 247 | 4.28125 | 4 |
Every Week Hundreds of People Get Hepatitis B
- Every Week Hundreds of People Get Hepatitis B is available in Portable Document Format (PDF, 260KB, 2pg.)
HBV: Protect yourself. Get vaccinated.
What is hepatitis B?
Hepatitis B is a liver infection causedby the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This infection is spread much like HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. It is found in the blood, semen, and vaginal secretions of an infected person. Hepatitis B is easier to catch than HIV because it can be 100 times more concentrated in an infected person's blood.
Is sex the only way I can get infected with hepatitis B?
No. Hepatitis B is a sexually transmitted disease, but it is spread in other ways, too. This is a hardy virus that can exist on almost any surface for up to one month. You can get infected through contact with an infected person's blood or body fluids. The hepatitis B virus can be spread in the following ways:
- unprotected vaginal or anal sex
- living in a household with a person with chronic (life-long) HBV infection
- sharing personal care items such as toothbrushes, razors, or nail clippers
- mother passing the infection to her infant during birth
- sharing needles or paraphernalia (works) for illegal drug use
- tattooing or body piercing with unsterile equipment
- human bites
You do not get hepatitis B from sneezing, coughing, kissing, or holding hands.
What are the symptoms of hepatitis B?
Only about half of the people who are infected get symptoms. Symptoms might include:
- yellowing of skin and whites of eyes
- dark-colored urine
- loss of appetite or nausea
- bloated and tender belly
- extreme tiredness
- pain in joints
How serious is infection with hepatitis B?
Infection with HBV can cause life-long (chronic) infection that can lead to liver scarring (cirrhosis) and liver cancer. Many people in the United States die every year from hepatitis B-related liver disease. Fortunately, there is a vaccine to prevent this disease.
Do people fully recover?
Most people who get infected as adults will fully recover. However, about 5 of 100 people will remain infectious and carry HBV in their bodies for life. This is called chronic infection. Chronically infected people do not necessarily look or feel ill, but they are at increased risk for liver failure and liver cancer and need ongoing medical care. They can also spread the virus to others.
How do I protect myself from getting infected?
Get vaccinated against hepatitis B. Three shots are usually given over a period of six months. Tell your sex partner(s) to get vaccinated too, and always follow "safer sex" practices (for example, use a condom).
Who should get hepatitis B vaccine?
The following groups of people should get vaccinated against hepatitis B:
- Everyone 0–18 years of age
- Anyone who wants to be protected from this infection
- Sexually active people who are not in long-term, mutually monogamous relationships
- Men who have sex with men
- People seeking evaluation or treatment for a sexually transmitted disease
- Health care or public safety workers who might be exposed to blood or body fluids
- Residents and staff of facilities for developmentally disabled people
- Dialysis and pre-dialysis patients
- People infected with HIV
- People in close personal contact (that is, household or sexual) with someone who has chronic HBV infection
- Current or recent injection-drug users
- Travelers to regions of the world where hepatitis B is common (Asia, Africa, the Amazon Basin in South America, the Pacific Islands, Eastern Europe, or the Middle East);
- People with chronic liver disease
Three shots will protect you from hepatitis B. How do I know if I've already been infected?
The only way to know if you've been infected is to have a blood test.
Should I get a blood test for hepatitis B before I get vaccinated?
Talk to your health care professional about whether you need this testing. Most people do not need a blood test. If you and your doctor decide you need testing, get your blood drawn, then start the vaccine series at the same visit. That way, you will be closer to being protected from HBV infection.
Will hepatitis B vaccine protect me from hepatitis A or hepatitis C?
No. Hepatitis A and hepatitis C are different diseases caused by different viruses. There is a vaccine for hepatitis A, but there is no vaccine for hepatitis C. For information on hepatitis A and hepatitis C, talk to your health care professional, call your local health department, or visit CDC's hepatitis Web site at www.cdc.gov/hepatitis.
How can I pay for these shots?
If you have insurance, the cost of hepatitis B vaccination may be covered. If not, sometimes these shots are available free or at low cost through special clinics or health departments. Call your local health department for details. While you're at it, find out what other vaccinations you need, too!
Everyone needs vaccinations!
If you can't afford shots or don't know where to get them, contact your local or state health department, or call the CDC-INFO Contact Center: 1-800-232-4636. | <urn:uuid:6542f20a-ea3f-4aca-be43-41e32dcfdce3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.health.ny.gov/publications/2340/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928138 | 1,123 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The next time I go to Matu-Somes Island (or any other outdoor place in New Zealand) I will have this book in my bag.
I learn from this book (pg 44) that our ‘little blue penguins‘ are the same as the Australian ‘fairy penguins’, and that the giant weta (pg 281)are gravely threatened.
I also see we have six different grasshoppers in New Zealand. One is called the ‘skiing grasshopper‘ 9p.277) : “Instead of floundering about in soft snow, this grasshopper ‘skis’ from danger. using its legs as ski-poles and its smooth abdomen as a snowboard, ‘skiing siggy’ is an excellent downhill racer.’ How cool is that – what wonderful creature live here!
With 80% of NZ species being found only on these islands, this book helps us know more about our unique wildlife.
COLLINS FIELD GUIDE TO NEW ZEALAND WILDLIFE Terence Lindsey and Rod Morris (Collins)
‘If uniqueness were a quality that could somehow be cubed, the result could legitimately be applied to New Zealand’s wildlife. But it has received a most fearful battering over the past century or two, and is now greatly in need of some tender loving care. Every little bit helps’ say this books author’s, Lindsey and Morris.
Evidently there are no island groups anywhere in the world that are comparable to New Zealand in size, latitude, climate and isolation. It seems we have around 10,000 species of insects, 2000 spiders, nearly 300 snails, and perhaps a further couple of thousand of all other groups combined.
This book is a completely updated edition and an extensive guide to well over 400 species of New Zealand fauna, including both native and introduced species. Each entry succinctly describes both habits and habitats, distribution, classification, breeding patterns, food and recognition tips to aid amateur identification. The significantly expanded text also includes the latest research findings and changes in classification and nomenclature that have occurred in the past 10 years, along with many new photographs.
“It seems to me, far too few people — New Zealanders and ‘foreigners’ alike — are aware of just how extraordinary New Zealand wildlife is. For any animal enthusiast with a global perspective, it’s right up there on the billboard with its name in lights along with Hawaii, the Galapagos and Madagascar.” – Terrence Lindsay (Zoologist and ornithologist)
Rod Morris’s stunning photographic work has also received widespread international acclaim. Previously a producer with Wild South, he is now a freelance natural history photographer. | <urn:uuid:0155741f-ef27-4442-b950-cbd2cee1746d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://kiwitravelwriter.wordpress.com/2011/11/17/penguins-and-grasshoppers4876/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952017 | 579 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Your doctor can diagnose trachoma through a physical examination or by sending a sample of bacteria from your eyes to a laboratory for testing. But lab tests aren't always available in places where trachoma is common.
Aug. 21, 2015
- Yanoff M, et al., eds. Conjunctivitis. In: Ophthalmology. 4th ed. Edinburgh, U.K.: Mosby Elsevier; 2014. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed July 10, 2015.
- Wright HR, et al. Overview of trachoma. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed July 10, 2015.
- Water-related diseases: Trachoma. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/trachoma/en/#. Accessed July 10, 2015.
- Trachoma. Merck Manual Professional Version. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/eye-disorders/conjunctival-and-scleral-disorders/trachoma. Accessed July 20, 2015.
- Guerrant RL, et al., eds. Trachoma. In: Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens and Practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2011. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed July 10, 2015.
- World Health Organization. WHO alliance for the global elimination of blinding trachoma by the year 2020. WER. 2014;39:421. http://www.who.int/wer. Accessed July 10, 2015.
- Preventing the spread of conjunctivitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/conjunctivitis/about/prevention.html. Accessed July 20, 2015.
- Hod E, et al. Face washing promotion for preventing active trachoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003659.pub4/abstract. Accessed July 20, 2015.
- Taylor HR, et al. Trachoma. The Lancet. 2014;384:2142. | <urn:uuid:165f832c-f71a-4c6d-b67b-aa83bae51923> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/trachoma/basics/tests-diagnosis/con-20025935 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.709317 | 479 | 2.75 | 3 |
Many people forget or don’t realise that there are several types of sugar: Glucose or dextrose is by far the most important because it is what our body uses to produce energy but also lactose, sucrose, fructose, inverted sugar, etc. are all examples of sugars that are present in different types of food i.e. milk, fruit, granulated sugar, honey. Inverted Sugar is quite an interesting one and often found in many recipes here at Giapo ice cream in New Zealand. It is unlike a syrup which is just made from dissolving sugar into water and heating it – we use an inverted syrup. Sugars are made up of carbons, hydrogens and oxygen atoms – the different types of sugars are based on the different configurations of these atoms. Inversion in chemistry is the rearrangement of atoms to create different molecular configurations. An inverted syrup can be made by boiling equal parts of water and granulated sugar with a pinch of cream of tartar (acid catalyst) or lemon juice which results in an inverted syrup made up of equal parts of glucose and fructose.
Another example of this is when yeast cells are mixed in a dough (or beer), they begin their digestion process by releasing an activated enzyme called invertase. This breaks down sucrose into simpler components – glucose and fructose. This reaction is called hydrolysis (breaking of bonds and addition of water) and is used to split up a complex molecule into its simple constituents.
Invert syrups are favourable in food processes in these ways:
- hygroscopic properties: absorbs moisture from the atmosphere so longer shelf life.
- sweeter than sucrose syrups: use less for the same amount of sweetness because 50% is fructose.
- easier to dissolve: preferable in cooking.
As mentioned before, there are two ways in which you can make an invert syrup – addition of an enzyme or addition of an acid. If preparing using an enzyme, heating plays an important part – it is required to dissolve the sucrose into the water and facilitate the process, however, if it is above 70 degrees Celsius it can denature the enzymes and also dissolve the water. If this happens you are less likely to get an equal amount of the final products: glucose and fructose. Loss of water in the invert syrup can also lead to crystallisation which defeats the purpose of creating a syrup in the first place.
Addition of acid (or acid hydrolysis) is the alternative and more accessible in the everyday kitchen. Using cream of tartar or lemon juice is adding a catalyst (this is an ingredient which speeds up the reaction but does not become part of the finished product) as it speeds up the conversion process. Acidic environments in general speed up the conversion as yeast cells also produce acid in the fermentation process, resulting in lowering of the pH levels or increasing acidity for a faster chemical reaction.
In the conversion of sugar and water to an invert syrup, the sucrose molecule divides into the glucose segments which acquire the oxygen (O) that connected the two halves and the H+ (hydron) ion of the water (H2O) molecule; the fructose segment gets the OH- (hydroxide) ion. The reaction looks like this: C12H22O11 (sucrose) + H2O (water) in the presence of an acid = C6H12O6 (glucose) + C6H12O6 (fructose) or invert syrup.
If you were to count the amount of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) atoms on equation, you will see that they are exactly the same amount from the start of the reaction to the end. All the atoms present in the sucrose molecule are now the new glucose and fructose molecules. The ‘absorption’ of the water molecule is why the invert syrup remains in syrup form, instead of settling out or crystallising as a simple sugar/water mixture because there is not water to evaporate off. As a result, the total solids in the newly created invert syrup are about 5% higher than the total solids of the sugar/water mixture you started with! The reaction increases the number of H+ and OH- sites from 13 on the sucrose molecule to 18 on the glucose and fructose molecules. These sites attract the H+ and OH- ions of water present in the atmosphere and since there are more sites in the invert syrup than in the original sucrose there is an increase in hygroscopic properties. The respective positive H+ions and negative OH- ions in water are attracted to the negative OH- and positive H+ sites on the sugar molecules.
In addition to increased moisture retention ability, converting sucrose to invert syrup has two other interesting results: increased sweetness and better solubility. On a sweetness scale where sucrose is set at 100, invert syrup ranks about 130. Therefore using an invert syrup in formulas can allow you to cut back on the total amount of sugar used and still maintain the same sweetness in the finished product! | <urn:uuid:ceca7614-e183-4590-804e-b12e58a95480> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://giapo.com/2013/09/sugar-inversion-making-invertedsyrup/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937918 | 1,049 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Idea Brushing Polygon
Image masks for blending images are currently bitmap-based, but this information can be generated from polygon masks. Usually polygons are manipulated in grabbing the points or the faces. In hugin-ptx, relating to the Google SoC 2008 Masking in GUI project, the idea of brush strokes for easy mask generation has been put forward.
The following presents an idea on how brush stroke actions with the mouse can act on polygonal outlines. It is a rough description, not yet covering all special cases.
The main idea is that the start point and the initial direction of the brush stroke have an effect on how the polygon is modified. The click, hold and drag action starts away from any polygonal trace.
A rectangle framing the image shall be the start polygon.
Starting the brush stroke
Two different polygon examples are shown, with the brush stroke starting at the bottom in an upwards direction.
The dot at stroke start and the arrow may not always render correctly.
The mouse-down start point defines half-way boundaries. For each polygon this is a combination of that polygon being scaled (dashed line) and the perpendicular bisectors (dotted lines) between start point and polygon points.
Crossing the half-way mark
When the first of these half-way boundaries are crossed, the corresponding polygon is chosen, the half-way point defined, and also a trace, a part of the polygon outline, is selected as follows:
The start point and the half-way point define a direction. From the start point inside the angle range 30-60 degrees left one looks for a polygon point to act as trace endpoint (full blue circle). If there are several, one chooses the "best" as endpoint, which usually means the point nearest to the 45 degrees direction. If there is no point within that angle range but a polygon face, then a candidate endpoint (open circle) is placed on it at 45 degrees.
Then repeat for the angle range to the right.
There is a continuous polygon trace between two endpoints (blue), any segment of it connected to an endpoint is an endpoint segment. There may be intermediate points and intermediate segments (violet).
Possibly this trace should be highlighted at that point in the GUI.
Crossing into the polygon
When this highlighted trace is being crossed, any candidate endpoint is added as a new point to the polygon.
- If one crosses an endpoint segment (blue line), a new point (red) is created and sticks to the pointer.
- If one crosses an intermediate segment (violet line), this segment (red line plus two red points) sticks to the pointer.
Each of the violet polygon points between the red sticky middle element and a blue endpoint performs a scaled version of the pointer movement, with points nearer to an endpoint moving less.
This action is over when one releases the mouse button.
No action is taken is the mouse does not drag across the highlighted polygon trace.
Clicking into empty space deselects all.
Clicking and dragging on polygon points and lines yields standard response.
Dragging with modifyer down into empty space creates a new polygon.
Several polygons XOR, the resulting masks ORs with any input image bitmap mask. | <urn:uuid:1962e2d1-01a1-42b0-93d0-30aea3eb1f83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wiki.panotools.org/index.php?title=Idea_Brushing_Polygon&oldid=10443 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888377 | 694 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.