| --- |
| language: ml |
| language_name: Malayalam |
| language_family: dravidian_south |
| tags: |
| - wikilangs |
| - nlp |
| - tokenizer |
| - embeddings |
| - n-gram |
| - markov |
| - wikipedia |
| - feature-extraction |
| - sentence-similarity |
| - tokenization |
| - n-grams |
| - markov-chain |
| - text-mining |
| - fasttext |
| - babelvec |
| - vocabulous |
| - vocabulary |
| - monolingual |
| - family-dravidian_south |
| license: mit |
| library_name: wikilangs |
| pipeline_tag: text-generation |
| datasets: |
| - omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly |
| dataset_info: |
| name: wikipedia-monthly |
| description: Monthly snapshots of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages |
| metrics: |
| - name: best_compression_ratio |
| type: compression |
| value: 5.366 |
| - name: best_isotropy |
| type: isotropy |
| value: 0.7956 |
| - name: vocabulary_size |
| type: vocab |
| value: 0 |
| generated: 2026-01-10 |
| --- |
| |
| # Malayalam - Wikilangs Models |
| ## Comprehensive Research Report & Full Ablation Study |
|
|
| This repository contains NLP models trained and evaluated by Wikilangs, specifically on **Malayalam** Wikipedia data. |
| We analyze tokenizers, n-gram models, Markov chains, vocabulary statistics, and word embeddings. |
|
|
| ## 📋 Repository Contents |
|
|
| ### Models & Assets |
|
|
| - Tokenizers (8k, 16k, 32k, 64k) |
| - N-gram models (2, 3, 4, 5-gram) |
| - Markov chains (context of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) |
| - Subword N-gram and Markov chains |
| - Embeddings in various sizes and dimensions (aligned and unaligned) |
| - Language Vocabulary |
| - Language Statistics |
|
|
|  |
|
|
| ### Analysis and Evaluation |
|
|
| - [1. Tokenizer Evaluation](#1-tokenizer-evaluation) |
| - [2. N-gram Model Evaluation](#2-n-gram-model-evaluation) |
| - [3. Markov Chain Evaluation](#3-markov-chain-evaluation) |
| - [4. Vocabulary Analysis](#4-vocabulary-analysis) |
| - [5. Word Embeddings Evaluation](#5-word-embeddings-evaluation) |
| - [6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)](#6--morphological-analysis-experimental) |
| - [7. Summary & Recommendations](#7-summary--recommendations) |
| - [Metrics Glossary](#appendix-metrics-glossary--interpretation-guide) |
| - [Visualizations Index](#visualizations-index) |
|
|
| --- |
| ## 1. Tokenizer Evaluation |
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| ### Results |
|
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| | Vocab Size | Compression | Avg Token Len | UNK Rate | Total Tokens | |
| |------------|-------------|---------------|----------|--------------| |
| | **8k** | 3.779x | 3.77 | 0.0796% | 1,899,588 | |
| | **16k** | 4.330x | 4.33 | 0.0913% | 1,657,653 | |
| | **32k** | 4.867x | 4.86 | 0.1026% | 1,474,841 | |
| | **64k** | 5.366x 🏆 | 5.36 | 0.1131% | 1,337,826 | |
|
|
| ### Tokenization Examples |
|
|
| Below are sample sentences tokenized with each vocabulary size: |
|
|
| **Sample 1:** `സിറിയ പരസ്യമായി തുക്കുശിക്ഷ നടപ്പിലാക്കാറുണ്ട്. രണ്ട് ജൂതന്മാരെയും ഇസ്രായേൽ ചാരൻ...` |
|
|
| | Vocab | Tokens | Count | |
| |-------|--------|-------| |
| | 8k | `▁സി റിയ ▁പരസ്യ മായി ▁തു ക്കു ശിക്ഷ ▁നടപ്പില ാക്ക ാറുണ്ട് ... (+29 more)` | 39 | |
| | 16k | `▁സിറിയ ▁പരസ്യ മായി ▁തു ക്കു ശിക്ഷ ▁നടപ്പില ാക്ക ാറുണ്ട് . ... (+22 more)` | 32 | |
| | 32k | `▁സിറിയ ▁പരസ്യമായി ▁തു ക്കു ശിക്ഷ ▁നടപ്പിലാക്ക ാറുണ്ട് . ▁രണ്ട് ▁ജൂത ... (+18 more)` | 28 | |
| | 64k | `▁സിറിയ ▁പരസ്യമായി ▁തു ക്കു ശിക്ഷ ▁നടപ്പിലാക്ക ാറുണ്ട് . ▁രണ്ട് ▁ജൂത ... (+18 more)` | 28 | |
|
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| **Sample 2:** `ജെസ്നറിയേസീ കുടുംബത്തിലെ പൂച്ചെടികളുടെ ഒരു ഇനമാണ് അച്ചിമെനെസ് സെറ്റോന. ലാണ് എച്ച...` |
|
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| | Vocab | Tokens | Count | |
| |-------|--------|-------| |
| | 8k | `▁ജെ സ് ന റിയ േസീ ▁കുടുംബത്തിലെ ▁പൂ ച്ചെ ട ികളുടെ ... (+24 more)` | 34 | |
| | 16k | `▁ജെ സ് ന റിയ േസീ ▁കുടുംബത്തിലെ ▁പൂ ച്ചെട ികളുടെ ▁ഒരു ... (+21 more)` | 31 | |
| | 32k | `▁ജെ സ്ന റിയ േസീ ▁കുടുംബത്തിലെ ▁പൂച്ചെടികളുടെ ▁ഒരു ▁ഇനമാണ് ▁അ ച്ചി ... (+16 more)` | 26 | |
| | 64k | `▁ജെ സ്ന റിയ േസീ ▁കുടുംബത്തിലെ ▁പൂച്ചെടികളുടെ ▁ഒരു ▁ഇനമാണ് ▁അ ച്ചി ... (+16 more)` | 26 | |
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| **Sample 3:** `ചുവന്ന സൂര്യകാന്തി അല്ലെങ്കിൽ മെക്സിക്കൻ സൂര്യകാന്തി (Tithonia rotundifolia) എന്...` |
|
|
| | Vocab | Tokens | Count | |
| |-------|--------|-------| |
| | 8k | `▁ചുവന്ന ▁സൂര്യ കാ ന്തി ▁അല്ലെങ്കിൽ ▁മെക്സ ിക്കൻ ▁സൂര്യ കാ ന്തി ... (+15 more)` | 25 | |
| | 16k | `▁ചുവന്ന ▁സൂര്യ കാ ന്തി ▁അല്ലെങ്കിൽ ▁മെക്സിക്കൻ ▁സൂര്യ കാ ന്തി ▁( ... (+13 more)` | 23 | |
| | 32k | `▁ചുവന്ന ▁സൂര്യ കാന്തി ▁അല്ലെങ്കിൽ ▁മെക്സിക്കൻ ▁സൂര്യ കാന്തി ▁( t ith ... (+10 more)` | 20 | |
| | 64k | `▁ചുവന്ന ▁സൂര്യകാന്തി ▁അല്ലെങ്കിൽ ▁മെക്സിക്കൻ ▁സൂര്യകാന്തി ▁( t ith onia ▁rotund ... (+7 more)` | 17 | |
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| ### Key Findings |
|
|
| - **Best Compression:** 64k achieves 5.366x compression |
| - **Lowest UNK Rate:** 8k with 0.0796% unknown tokens |
| - **Trade-off:** Larger vocabularies improve compression but increase model size |
| - **Recommendation:** 32k vocabulary provides optimal balance for production use |
|
|
| --- |
| ## 2. N-gram Model Evaluation |
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| ### Results |
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| | N-gram | Variant | Perplexity | Entropy | Unique N-grams | Top-100 Coverage | Top-1000 Coverage | |
| |--------|---------|------------|---------|----------------|------------------|-------------------| |
| | **2-gram** | Word | 139,290 | 17.09 | 379,181 | 5.1% | 14.6% | |
| | **2-gram** | Subword | 4,333 🏆 | 12.08 | 159,693 | 25.9% | 60.4% | |
| | **3-gram** | Word | 162,356 | 17.31 | 343,937 | 4.1% | 12.3% | |
| | **3-gram** | Subword | 44,252 | 15.43 | 931,732 | 8.1% | 25.5% | |
| | **4-gram** | Word | 421,212 | 18.68 | 683,653 | 2.4% | 7.3% | |
| | **4-gram** | Subword | 274,830 | 18.07 | 3,800,547 | 3.9% | 12.9% | |
| | **5-gram** | Word | 348,331 | 18.41 | 513,800 | 2.5% | 7.1% | |
| | **5-gram** | Subword | 911,486 | 19.80 | 7,221,542 | 2.3% | 8.1% | |
|
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| ### Top 5 N-grams by Size |
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| **2-grams (Word):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `of the` | 18,339 | |
| | 2 | `പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ` | 13,257 | |
| | 3 | `അവലംബം പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള` | 8,470 | |
| | 4 | `എന്ന പേരിൽ` | 7,743 | |
| | 5 | `in the` | 7,446 | |
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| **3-grams (Word):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `അവലംബം പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ` | 8,392 | |
| | 2 | `അവലംബം പുറം കണ്ണികൾ` | 3,573 | |
| | 3 | `കെ ജെ യേശുദാസ്` | 3,343 | |
| | 4 | `സി പി ഐ` | 3,263 | |
| | 5 | `കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ്` | 2,878 | |
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| **4-grams (Word):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `സി പി ഐ എം` | 1,992 | |
| | 2 | `കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ്` | 1,978 | |
| | 3 | `കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം` | 1,461 | |
| | 4 | `comments endemic to india` | 990 | |
| | 5 | `സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം ലഭിച്ച` | 932 | |
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| **5-grams (Word):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ്` | 1,225 | |
| | 2 | `സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം ലഭിച്ച കൃതികൾ` | 687 | |
| | 3 | `archived from the original on` | 637 | |
| | 4 | `കോൺഗ്രസ് ഐ യു ഡി എഫ്` | 589 | |
| | 5 | `ലേബർ ലേബർ ലേബർ ലേബർ ലേബർ` | 588 | |
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| **2-grams (Subword):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `. _` | 1,783,270 | |
| | 2 | `ൽ _` | 1,276,589 | |
| | 3 | `_ അ` | 1,260,398 | |
| | 4 | `, _` | 1,069,781 | |
| | 5 | `ൻ _` | 661,867 | |
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| **3-grams (Subword):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `ന്നു . _` | 322,382 | |
| | 2 | `_ അ വ` | 260,904 | |
| | 3 | `ക ൾ _` | 257,512 | |
| | 4 | `_ ഒ രു` | 245,468 | |
| | 5 | `ഒ രു _` | 243,826 | |
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| **4-grams (Subword):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `_ ഒ രു _` | 235,393 | |
| | 2 | `രു ന്നു . _` | 110,664 | |
| | 3 | `_ എ ന്ന _` | 110,073 | |
| | 4 | `t h e _` | 94,998 | |
| | 5 | `_ t h e` | 94,093 | |
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| **5-grams (Subword):** |
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| | Rank | N-gram | Count | |
| |------|--------|-------| |
| | 1 | `_ t h e _` | 87,370 | |
| | 2 | `യി രു ന്നു . _` | 72,530 | |
| | 3 | `_ അ വ ലം ബം` | 64,383 | |
| | 4 | `അ വ ലം ബം _` | 54,405 | |
| | 5 | `_ ഉ പ യോ ഗി` | 50,935 | |
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| ### Key Findings |
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| - **Best Perplexity:** 2-gram (subword) with 4,333 |
| - **Entropy Trend:** Decreases with larger n-grams (more predictable) |
| - **Coverage:** Top-1000 patterns cover ~8% of corpus |
| - **Recommendation:** 4-gram or 5-gram for best predictive performance |
|
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| --- |
| ## 3. Markov Chain Evaluation |
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| ### Results |
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| | Context | Variant | Avg Entropy | Perplexity | Branching Factor | Unique Contexts | Predictability | |
| |---------|---------|-------------|------------|------------------|-----------------|----------------| |
| | **1** | Word | 0.6805 | 1.603 | 5.82 | 2,337,199 | 31.9% | |
| | **1** | Subword | 0.9605 | 1.946 | 14.48 | 34,171 | 3.9% | |
| | **2** | Word | 0.1758 | 1.130 | 1.40 | 13,589,609 | 82.4% | |
| | **2** | Subword | 0.7010 | 1.626 | 5.25 | 494,724 | 29.9% | |
| | **3** | Word | 0.0434 | 1.031 | 1.07 | 18,962,615 | 95.7% | |
| | **3** | Subword | 0.5422 | 1.456 | 3.38 | 2,596,737 | 45.8% | |
| | **4** | Word | 0.0148 🏆 | 1.010 | 1.02 | 20,273,957 | 98.5% | |
| | **4** | Subword | 0.4401 | 1.357 | 2.35 | 8,776,422 | 56.0% | |
|
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| ### Generated Text Samples (Word-based) |
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| Below are text samples generated from each word-based Markov chain model: |
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| **Context Size 1:** |
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| 1. `ഒരു ദുരന്തനാടകമായ മാക്ബെത്തിലെ ലേഡി ബേർഡ് എന്നിവയെ ലയിപ്പിച്ച് ജിയോസ്റ്റാർ ഇന്ത്യ കോസ്റ്റാറിക്ക യു ഡ...` |
| 2. `ഈ പ്രദേശത്തിന്റെ സാമൂഹിക സമത്വം എന്ന നിലയിലാണ് പ്രശസ്തൻ ജൊനാഥൻ വാൻ ഐക്കിന്റെ ചിത്രമാണ് sify archived...` |
| 3. `എന്ന ഗാനത്തിന് ഹിന്ദി ടെലിവിഷനിലും അഭിനയം കൂടാതെ ഭസ്മലേപനം തപോവേഷം യോഗ്യമല്ലാത്ത വിഭവങ്ങൾ ഉപയോഗിക്കു...` |
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| **Context Size 2:** |
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| 1. `of the vietnam war protests vietnam war in history set for tuesday observer reporter retrieved decem...` |
| 2. `പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ സർവ്വകലാശാലക്കു കീഴിലുള്ള കലാലയങ്ങൾ പുറേത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ ഗവൺെമെന്റ് കാേളേജ...` |
| 3. `അവലംബം പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ bananas org മുസെല്ല ലാസിയോകാർപമ്യൂസെല്ല ലാസിയോകാർപ മരങ്ങൾ സസ്യങ്ങൾ ബംഗ...` |
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| **Context Size 3:** |
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| 1. `അവലംബം പുറത്തേക്കുള്ള കണ്ണികൾ strasbourg the most european french city official french website in en...` |
| 2. `അവലംബം പുറം കണ്ണികൾ അമേരിക്കയിലെ സസ്യജാലം സസ്യജാലം സസ്യജാലം സസ്യജാലം സസ്യജാലം അധിനിവേശസസ്യങ്ങൾ` |
| 3. `കെ ജെ യേശുദാസ് കൈതപ്രം ദാമോദരൻ നമ്പൂതിരി തങ്കനിലാ കെ എസ് ചിത്ര അണിയറ പ്രവർത്തകർ ഛായാഗ്രഹണം ആനന്ദക്കു...` |
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| **Context Size 4:** |
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| 1. `സി പി ഐ എം ആക്കാവിള സതീക്ക് എൻ ഡി എ എം കെ രാഘവൻ കോൺഗ്രസ് ഐ യു ഡി എഫ് ഫിലിപ്പോസ് തോമസ്` |
| 2. `കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് കൺസർവേറ്റീവ് ലേബർhull south west ലിബറൽ ലിബറൽ ലിബറൽ ലിബറൽ ലിബറ...` |
| 3. `കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം ഈ കൃതിക്ക് ലഭിച്ചിട്ടുണ്ട് ഈ പുസ്തകത്തിൽ നോവലിന്റെയോ കഥപറച്ചിലിന്റെയ...` |
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| ### Generated Text Samples (Subword-based) |
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| Below are text samples generated from each subword-based Markov chain model: |
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| **Context Size 1:** |
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| 1. `_234_ഭാവരിൽ_കളജില്ല._` |
| 2. `._കുറൽ_._നാപുറൻസിന്റായിക്കു` |
| 3. `കൾഡ്_ചലയുള്ളയ്ക്ക്_ഗുണങ്ങളെ_ൽ` |
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| **Context Size 2:** |
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| 1. `._തരണത്തിലേർപ്പെട്ടില്ല._അക്കിലിനു` |
| 2. `ൽ_ബസിയിൽ_നിക്കോളാസ്_പ്രകൃതിയുടെ` |
| 3. `_അവനോടെ_പൗരന്മാർ_മന്നേയൻ_റി` |
|
|
| **Context Size 3:** |
|
|
| 1. `ന്നു._അതിർത്തിയോ_കൃഷ്ണൻ_:_♂).` |
| 2. `_അവതരിപ്പിക്കുന്നതുവരെ_പോരാട്ടത്തിനു_` |
| 3. `കൾ_ഡാർട്ട്_ഗാലറി_ഡൈക്ലോഫെനാക്_ഉ` |
|
|
| **Context Size 4:** |
|
|
| 1. `_ഒരു_മെമ്മറിയും_താലൂക്കുകൾ,_മകൾ` |
| 2. `രുന്നു._ചൈനീസ്_ലിപി:_মোহাম্মদ_সাহা` |
| 3. `_എന്ന_പട്ടണം._ഒന്നാം_ലോകമഹായുദ്ധസ` |
|
|
|
|
| ### Key Findings |
|
|
| - **Best Predictability:** Context-4 (word) with 98.5% predictability |
| - **Branching Factor:** Decreases with context size (more deterministic) |
| - **Memory Trade-off:** Larger contexts require more storage (8,776,422 contexts) |
| - **Recommendation:** Context-3 or Context-4 for text generation |
|
|
| --- |
| ## 4. Vocabulary Analysis |
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|  |
|
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| ### Statistics |
|
|
| | Metric | Value | |
| |--------|-------| |
| | Vocabulary Size | 801,863 | |
| | Total Tokens | 20,480,775 | |
| | Mean Frequency | 25.54 | |
| | Median Frequency | 3 | |
| | Frequency Std Dev | 511.27 | |
|
|
| ### Most Common Words |
|
|
| | Rank | Word | Frequency | |
| |------|------|-----------| |
| | 1 | ഒരു | 243,510 | |
| | 2 | ഈ | 162,409 | |
| | 3 | എന്ന | 110,774 | |
| | 4 | the | 94,058 | |
| | 5 | of | 88,580 | |
| | 6 | അവലംബം | 64,447 | |
| | 7 | ഇത് | 55,817 | |
| | 8 | നിന്ന് | 50,269 | |
| | 9 | അദ്ദേഹം | 49,641 | |
| | 10 | and | 49,492 | |
|
|
| ### Least Common Words (from vocabulary) |
|
|
| | Rank | Word | Frequency | |
| |------|------|-----------| |
| | 1 | areekode | 2 | |
| | 2 | ഭാഗമാകുവാനും | 2 | |
| | 3 | ഗായകനെയും | 2 | |
| | 4 | ഗഫൂറിനെ | 2 | |
| | 5 | സ്കൂളിനായി | 2 | |
| | 6 | തെല്ലിപ്പളൈ | 2 | |
| | 7 | എരവല്ലൻ | 2 | |
| | 8 | കൈകാടി | 2 | |
| | 9 | പട്ടപ്പു | 2 | |
| | 10 | ടെനോം | 2 | |
|
|
| ### Zipf's Law Analysis |
|
|
| | Metric | Value | |
| |--------|-------| |
| | Zipf Coefficient | 0.8771 | |
| | R² (Goodness of Fit) | 0.995192 | |
| | Adherence Quality | **excellent** | |
|
|
| ### Coverage Analysis |
|
|
| | Top N Words | Coverage | |
| |-------------|----------| |
| | Top 100 | 14.6% | |
| | Top 1,000 | 34.1% | |
| | Top 5,000 | 52.2% | |
| | Top 10,000 | 60.6% | |
|
|
| ### Key Findings |
|
|
| - **Zipf Compliance:** R²=0.9952 indicates excellent adherence to Zipf's law |
| - **High Frequency Dominance:** Top 100 words cover 14.6% of corpus |
| - **Long Tail:** 791,863 words needed for remaining 39.4% coverage |
|
|
| --- |
| ## 5. Word Embeddings Evaluation |
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|  |
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|
|
| ### 5.1 Cross-Lingual Alignment |
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|  |
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|
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| ### 5.2 Model Comparison |
|
|
| | Model | Dimension | Isotropy | Semantic Density | Alignment R@1 | Alignment R@10 | |
| |-------|-----------|----------|------------------|---------------|----------------| |
| | **mono_32d** | 32 | 0.7956 | 0.3438 | N/A | N/A | |
| | **mono_64d** | 64 | 0.7180 | 0.2843 | N/A | N/A | |
| | **mono_128d** | 128 | 0.6063 | 0.2328 | N/A | N/A | |
| | **aligned_32d** | 32 | 0.7956 🏆 | 0.3488 | 0.0920 | 0.4000 | |
| | **aligned_64d** | 64 | 0.7180 | 0.2864 | 0.1940 | 0.5680 | |
| | **aligned_128d** | 128 | 0.6063 | 0.2384 | 0.2720 | 0.6480 | |
|
|
| ### Key Findings |
|
|
| - **Best Isotropy:** aligned_32d with 0.7956 (more uniform distribution) |
| - **Semantic Density:** Average pairwise similarity of 0.2891. Lower values indicate better semantic separation. |
| - **Alignment Quality:** Aligned models achieve up to 27.2% R@1 in cross-lingual retrieval. |
| - **Recommendation:** 128d aligned for best cross-lingual performance |
| |
| --- |
| ## 6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental) |
| |
| This section presents an automated morphological analysis derived from the statistical divergence between word-level and subword-level models. By analyzing where subword predictability spikes and where word-level coverage fails, we can infer linguistic structures without supervised data. |
| |
| ### 6.1 Productivity & Complexity |
| |
| | Metric | Value | Interpretation | Recommendation | |
| |--------|-------|----------------|----------------| |
| | Productivity Index | **5.000** | High morphological productivity | Reliable analysis | |
| | Idiomaticity Gap | **-0.114** | Low formulaic content | - | |
| |
| ### 6.2 Affix Inventory (Productive Units) |
| |
| These are the most productive prefixes and suffixes identified by sampling the vocabulary for global substitutability patterns. A unit is considered an affix if stripping it leaves a valid stem that appears in other contexts. |
| |
| #### Productive Prefixes |
| | Prefix | Examples | |
| |--------|----------| |
| | `-ക` | കൽപി, കുടുംബത്തിൽ, കൊയ്തിരുന്നു | |
| | `-മ` | മോപ്പസാങ്ങ്, മുറിയിലേയ്ക്കു, മെലിന | |
| | `-സ` | സമഗ്രസംഭാവനാ, സ്വാധീനിച്ചിരുന്നത്, സർവ്വകലാശാല | |
| | `-അ` | അറിയപ്പെടുന്നതായുണ്ട്, അഥാനം, അൽഗൊരിതത്തെ | |
| | `-പ` | പ്രസാദാത്മകതയും, പാർലമെന്റിലേയ്ക്ക്, പ്രവിശ്യാഭരണാധികാരികൾ | |
| | `-വ` | വ്യാകരണതലമെന്നും, വോൾഗാനദിയുടെ, വെട്ടിപ്പരുക്കേൽപ്പിച്ചതിൽ | |
| | `-ന` | നിരുത്സാഹപ്പെടുത്തുന്നതിനായി, നാകമൂറക്ക്, നസ്ർ | |
| | `-ബ` | ബക്ത്, ബന്ധിപ്പിക്കണം, ബാൽഡ്വിൻ | |
| |
| #### Productive Suffixes |
| | Suffix | Examples | |
| |--------|----------| |
| | `-ൽ` | ദിവ്യശക്തിയിൽ, വെട്ടിപ്പരുക്കേൽപ്പിച്ചതിൽ, വ്യത്യാസപ്പെടുന്നുവെങ്കിൽ | |
| | `-ൾ` | പ്രവിശ്യാഭരണാധികാരികൾ, മോണോഗ്രാഫുകൾ, മനുഷ്യാവശിഷ്ടങ്ങൾ | |
| | `-യ` | വിടർത്തിയ, ഊർജസ്വലവുമായ, വ്യവസായഗ്രൂപ്പുകളിലൊന്നായ | |
| | `-ള` | തിരക്കുള്ള, വീട്ടാവശ്യത്തിനുള്ള, പുഞ്ചിരികണ്ണുള്ള | |
| | `-ൻ` | റെസിൻ, ഗ്രുൻ, ബാൽഡ്വിൻ | |
| | `-കൾ` | പ്രവിശ്യാഭരണാധികാരികൾ, മോണോഗ്രാഫുകൾ, ആദിമപ്രപഞ്ചമാതൃകകൾ | |
| | `-ന` | മെലിന, ഉപയോഗിക്കുകയെന്ന, ഭരിച്ചുപോന്ന | |
| | `-ർ` | എതിർത്തവർ, നസ്ർ, വിഷർ | |
| |
| ### 6.3 Bound Stems (Lexical Roots) |
| |
| Bound stems are high-frequency subword units that are semantically cohesive but rarely appear as standalone words. These often correspond to the 'core' of a word that requires inflection or derivation to be valid. |
| |
| | Stem | Cohesion | Substitutability | Examples | |
| |------|----------|------------------|----------| |
| | `atio` | 3.14x | 71 contexts | ratio, jatio, ratios | |
| | `tion` | 3.05x | 76 contexts | tiong, action, nation | |
| | `ment` | 3.00x | 81 contexts | ament, mentz, mentv | |
| | `nter` | 2.90x | 79 contexts | inter, unter, enter | |
| | `stor` | 3.04x | 62 contexts | storm, stora, stork | |
| | `isto` | 3.32x | 40 contexts | histo, cristo, aristo | |
| | `ture` | 2.88x | 57 contexts | turek, future, suture | |
| | `mber` | 2.89x | 56 contexts | ember, amber, imber | |
| | `nati` | 3.23x | 36 contexts | nation, donati, naties | |
| | `ctio` | 3.04x | 39 contexts | action, sectio, lectio | |
| | `iver` | 2.86x | 48 contexts | river, liver, siver | |
| | `ersi` | 2.82x | 44 contexts | persia, mersin, bersih | |
| |
| ### 6.4 Affix Compatibility (Co-occurrence) |
| |
| This table shows which prefixes and suffixes most frequently co-occur on the same stems, revealing the 'stacking' rules of the language's morphology. |
| |
| | Prefix | Suffix | Frequency | Examples | |
| |--------|--------|-----------|----------| |
| | `-ക` | `-ൽ` | 76 words | കാരണത്താൽ, കോട്ടമുറിക്കൽ | |
| | `-പ` | `-ൽ` | 58 words | പാരവശ്യത്തിൽ, പ്രഫഷനൽ | |
| | `-അ` | `-ൽ` | 36 words | അഞ്ചൽ, അക്ബർനാമയിൽ | |
| | `-ക` | `-ൾ` | 33 words | കാസ്റ്റിംഗുകൾ, കുടുംബവഴക്കുകൾ | |
| | `-ക` | `-ൻ` | 33 words | കാളിയൻ, കോടീശ്വരൻ | |
| | `-പ` | `-യ` | 33 words | പ്രായ, പ്രോഗ്രാമായ | |
| | `-സ` | `-ൽ` | 32 words | സൈപ്രസ്സിൽ, സെപ്റ്റംബരിൽ | |
| | `-ക` | `-ള` | 32 words | ക്ഷേത്രകടവിലുള്ള, കാഴ്ചപ്പാടിലുള്ള | |
| | `-വ` | `-ൽ` | 31 words | വിധേയരാകുന്നതിൽ, വെൽഡനാഗ്രത്തിൽ | |
| | `-വ` | `-ള` | 28 words | വംശങ്ങളോടുള്ള, വഞ്ചിമുട്ടംപിള്ള | |
| |
| ### 6.5 Recursive Morpheme Segmentation |
| |
| Using **Recursive Hierarchical Substitutability**, we decompose complex words into their constituent morphemes. This approach handles nested affixes (e.g., `prefix-prefix-root-suffix`). |
| |
| | Word | Suggested Split | Confidence | Stem | |
| |------|-----------------|------------|------| |
| | theophilus | **`theophil-us`** | 4.5 | `theophil` | |
| | ഉന്നതപദവികൾ | **`ഉന്നതപദവി-കൾ`** | 4.5 | `ഉന്നതപദവി` | |
| | മലയാളലിപികൾ | **`മലയാളലിപി-കൾ`** | 4.5 | `മലയാളലിപി` | |
| | നക്ഷത്രമാണിത് | **`ന-ക-്ഷത്രമാണിത്`** | 4.5 | `്ഷത്രമാണിത്` | |
| | ഡക്കാന്റെ | **`ഡ-ക-്കാന്റെ`** | 4.5 | `്കാന്റെ` | |
| | അമരക്കാരും | **`അ-മരക്കാരും`** | 4.5 | `മരക്കാരും` | |
| | അറസ്റ്റിൽ | **`അ-റസ്റ്റിൽ`** | 4.5 | `റസ്റ്റിൽ` | |
| | അശ്രദ്ധയും | **`അ-ശ്രദ്ധയും`** | 4.5 | `ശ്രദ്ധയും` | |
| | നിംബാർക്കൻ | **`നിംബാർക്ക-ൻ`** | 4.5 | `നിംബാർക്ക` | |
| | michigans | **`michigan-s`** | 4.5 | `michigan` | |
| | schimperi | **`schimper-i`** | 4.5 | `schimper` | |
| | പാടിത്തുടങ്ങിയ | **`പാടിത്തുടങ്ങി-യ`** | 4.5 | `പാടിത്തുടങ്ങി` | |
| | orientales | **`oriental-es`** | 4.5 | `oriental` | |
| | കൊത്തുപണികൾ | **`കൊത്തുപണി-കൾ`** | 4.5 | `കൊത്തുപണി` | |
| | ശബ്ദംകേട്ട് | **`ശ-ബ-്ദംകേട്ട്`** | 3.0 | `്ദംകേട്ട്` | |
| |
| ### 6.6 Linguistic Interpretation |
| |
| > **Automated Insight:** |
| The language Malayalam shows high morphological productivity. The subword models are significantly more efficient than word models, suggesting a rich system of affixation or compounding. |
| |
| --- |
| ## 7. Summary & Recommendations |
| |
|  |
| |
| ### Production Recommendations |
| |
| | Component | Recommended | Rationale | |
| |-----------|-------------|-----------| |
| | Tokenizer | **64k BPE** | Best compression (5.37x) | |
| | N-gram | **2-gram** | Lowest perplexity (4,333) | |
| | Markov | **Context-4** | Highest predictability (98.5%) | |
| | Embeddings | **100d** | Balanced semantic capture and isotropy | |
| |
| |
| --- |
| ## Appendix: Metrics Glossary & Interpretation Guide |
| |
| This section provides definitions, intuitions, and guidance for interpreting the metrics used throughout this report. |
| |
| ### Tokenizer Metrics |
| |
| **Compression Ratio** |
| > *Definition:* The ratio of characters to tokens (chars/token). Measures how efficiently the tokenizer represents text. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Higher compression means fewer tokens needed to represent the same text, reducing sequence lengths for downstream models. A 3x compression means ~3 characters per token on average. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Higher is generally better for efficiency, but extremely high compression may indicate overly aggressive merging that loses morphological information. |
| |
| **Average Token Length (Fertility)** |
| > *Definition:* Mean number of characters per token produced by the tokenizer. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Reflects the granularity of tokenization. Longer tokens capture more context but may struggle with rare words; shorter tokens are more flexible but increase sequence length. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Balance between 2-5 characters for most languages. Arabic/morphologically-rich languages may benefit from slightly longer tokens. |
| |
| **Unknown Token Rate (OOV Rate)** |
| > *Definition:* Percentage of tokens that map to the unknown/UNK token, indicating words the tokenizer cannot represent. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Lower OOV means better vocabulary coverage. High OOV indicates the tokenizer encounters many unseen character sequences. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Below 1% is excellent; below 5% is acceptable. BPE tokenizers typically achieve very low OOV due to subword fallback. |
| |
| ### N-gram Model Metrics |
| |
| **Perplexity** |
| > *Definition:* Measures how "surprised" the model is by test data. Mathematically: 2^(cross-entropy). Lower values indicate better prediction. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* If perplexity is 100, the model is as uncertain as if choosing uniformly among 100 options at each step. A perplexity of 10 means effectively choosing among 10 equally likely options. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Lower is better. Perplexity decreases with larger n-grams (more context). Values vary widely by language and corpus size. |
| |
| **Entropy** |
| > *Definition:* Average information content (in bits) needed to encode the next token given the context. Related to perplexity: perplexity = 2^entropy. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* High entropy means high uncertainty/randomness; low entropy means predictable patterns. Natural language typically has entropy between 1-4 bits per character. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Lower entropy indicates more predictable text patterns. Entropy should decrease as n-gram size increases. |
| |
| **Coverage (Top-K)** |
| > *Definition:* Percentage of corpus occurrences explained by the top K most frequent n-grams. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* High coverage with few patterns indicates repetitive/formulaic text; low coverage suggests diverse vocabulary usage. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Depends on use case. For language modeling, moderate coverage (40-60% with top-1000) is typical for natural text. |
| |
| ### Markov Chain Metrics |
| |
| **Average Entropy** |
| > *Definition:* Mean entropy across all contexts, measuring average uncertainty in next-word prediction. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Lower entropy means the model is more confident about what comes next. Context-1 has high entropy (many possible next words); Context-4 has low entropy (few likely continuations). |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Decreasing entropy with larger context sizes. Very low entropy (<0.1) indicates highly deterministic transitions. |
| |
| **Branching Factor** |
| > *Definition:* Average number of unique next tokens observed for each context. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* High branching = many possible continuations (flexible but uncertain); low branching = few options (predictable but potentially repetitive). |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Branching factor should decrease with context size. Values near 1.0 indicate nearly deterministic chains. |
| |
| **Predictability** |
| > *Definition:* Derived metric: (1 - normalized_entropy) × 100%. Indicates how deterministic the model's predictions are. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* 100% predictability means the next word is always certain; 0% means completely random. Real text falls between these extremes. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Higher predictability for text generation quality, but too high (>98%) may produce repetitive output. |
|
|
| ### Vocabulary & Zipf's Law Metrics |
|
|
| **Zipf's Coefficient** |
| > *Definition:* The slope of the log-log plot of word frequency vs. rank. Zipf's law predicts this should be approximately -1. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* A coefficient near -1 indicates the corpus follows natural language patterns where a few words are very common and most words are rare. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Values between -0.8 and -1.2 indicate healthy natural language distribution. Deviations may suggest domain-specific or artificial text. |
|
|
| **R² (Coefficient of Determination)** |
| > *Definition:* Measures how well the linear fit explains the frequency-rank relationship. Ranges from 0 to 1. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* R² near 1.0 means the data closely follows Zipf's law; lower values indicate deviation from expected word frequency patterns. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* R² > 0.95 is excellent; > 0.99 indicates near-perfect Zipf adherence typical of large natural corpora. |
|
|
| **Vocabulary Coverage** |
| > *Definition:* Cumulative percentage of corpus tokens accounted for by the top N words. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Shows how concentrated word usage is. If top-100 words cover 50% of text, the corpus relies heavily on common words. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Top-100 covering 30-50% is typical. Higher coverage indicates more repetitive text; lower suggests richer vocabulary. |
|
|
| ### Word Embedding Metrics |
|
|
| **Isotropy** |
| > *Definition:* Measures how uniformly distributed vectors are in the embedding space. Computed as the ratio of minimum to maximum singular values. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* High isotropy (near 1.0) means vectors spread evenly in all directions; low isotropy means vectors cluster in certain directions, reducing expressiveness. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Higher isotropy generally indicates better-quality embeddings. Values > 0.1 are reasonable; > 0.3 is good. Lower-dimensional embeddings tend to have higher isotropy. |
|
|
| **Average Norm** |
| > *Definition:* Mean magnitude (L2 norm) of word vectors in the embedding space. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Indicates the typical "length" of vectors. Consistent norms suggest stable training; high variance may indicate some words are undertrained. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Relatively consistent norms across models. The absolute value matters less than consistency (low std deviation). |
|
|
| **Cosine Similarity** |
| > *Definition:* Measures angular similarity between vectors, ranging from -1 (opposite) to 1 (identical direction). |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Words with similar meanings should have high cosine similarity. This is the standard metric for semantic relatedness in embeddings. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Semantically related words should score > 0.5; unrelated words should be near 0. Synonyms often score > 0.7. |
|
|
| **t-SNE Visualization** |
| > *Definition:* t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding - a dimensionality reduction technique that preserves local structure for visualization. |
| > |
| > *Intuition:* Clusters in t-SNE plots indicate groups of semantically related words. Spread indicates vocabulary diversity; tight clusters suggest semantic coherence. |
| > |
| > *What to seek:* Meaningful clusters (e.g., numbers together, verbs together). Avoid over-interpreting distances - t-SNE preserves local, not global, structure. |
|
|
| ### General Interpretation Guidelines |
|
|
| 1. **Compare within model families:** Metrics are most meaningful when comparing models of the same type (e.g., 8k vs 64k tokenizer). |
| 2. **Consider trade-offs:** Better performance on one metric often comes at the cost of another (e.g., compression vs. OOV rate). |
| 3. **Context matters:** Optimal values depend on downstream tasks. Text generation may prioritize different metrics than classification. |
| 4. **Corpus influence:** All metrics are influenced by corpus characteristics. Wikipedia text differs from social media or literature. |
| 5. **Language-specific patterns:** Morphologically rich languages (like Arabic) may show different optimal ranges than analytic languages. |
|
|
|
|
| ### Visualizations Index |
|
|
| | Visualization | Description | |
| |---------------|-------------| |
| | Tokenizer Compression | Compression ratios by vocabulary size | |
| | Tokenizer Fertility | Average token length by vocabulary | |
| | Tokenizer OOV | Unknown token rates | |
| | Tokenizer Total Tokens | Total tokens by vocabulary | |
| | N-gram Perplexity | Perplexity by n-gram size | |
| | N-gram Entropy | Entropy by n-gram size | |
| | N-gram Coverage | Top pattern coverage | |
| | N-gram Unique | Unique n-gram counts | |
| | Markov Entropy | Entropy by context size | |
| | Markov Branching | Branching factor by context | |
| | Markov Contexts | Unique context counts | |
| | Zipf's Law | Frequency-rank distribution with fit | |
| | Vocab Frequency | Word frequency distribution | |
| | Top 20 Words | Most frequent words | |
| | Vocab Coverage | Cumulative coverage curve | |
| | Embedding Isotropy | Vector space uniformity | |
| | Embedding Norms | Vector magnitude distribution | |
| | Embedding Similarity | Word similarity heatmap | |
| | Nearest Neighbors | Similar words for key terms | |
| | t-SNE Words | 2D word embedding visualization | |
| | t-SNE Sentences | 2D sentence embedding visualization | |
| | Position Encoding | Encoding method comparison | |
| | Model Sizes | Storage requirements | |
| | Performance Dashboard | Comprehensive performance overview | |
|
|
| --- |
| ## About This Project |
|
|
| ### Data Source |
|
|
| Models trained on [wikipedia-monthly](https://huggingface.co/datasets/omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly) - a monthly snapshot of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages. |
|
|
| ### Project |
|
|
| A project by **[Wikilangs](https://wikilangs.org)** - Open-source NLP models for every Wikipedia language. |
|
|
| ### Maintainer |
|
|
| [Omar Kamali](https://omarkamali.com) - [Omneity Labs](https://omneitylabs.com) |
|
|
| ### Citation |
|
|
| If you use these models in your research, please cite: |
|
|
| ```bibtex |
| @misc{wikilangs2025, |
| author = {Kamali, Omar}, |
| title = {Wikilangs: Open NLP Models for Wikipedia Languages}, |
| year = {2025}, |
| doi = {10.5281/zenodo.18073153}, |
| publisher = {Zenodo}, |
| url = {https://huggingface.co/wikilangs} |
| institution = {Omneity Labs} |
| } |
| ``` |
|
|
| ### License |
|
|
| MIT License - Free for academic and commercial use. |
|
|
| ### Links |
|
|
| - 🌐 Website: [wikilangs.org](https://wikilangs.org) |
| - 🤗 Models: [huggingface.co/wikilangs](https://huggingface.co/wikilangs) |
| - 📊 Data: [wikipedia-monthly](https://huggingface.co/datasets/omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly) |
| - 👤 Author: [Omar Kamali](https://huggingface.co/omarkamali) |
| - 🤝 Sponsor: [Featherless AI](https://featherless.ai) |
| --- |
| *Generated by Wikilangs Models Pipeline* |
|
|
| *Report Date: 2026-01-10 16:23:14* |
|
|