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Pteridosperms declined during the Mesozoic Era and had mostly disappeared by the end of the Cretaceous Period , though some pteridosperm-like plants seem to have survived into Eocene times , fossilized in Tasmania .	Pteridosperms declined during the Mesozoic Era and had mostly disappeared by the end of the Cretaceous , though some fossil pteridosperm-like plants seem to have survived into Eocene times in Tasmania .
Initially it was still thought that they were `` transitional fossils '' intermediate between the ferns and cycads , and especially in the English-speaking world they were referred to as `` seed ferns '' or `` pteridosperms '' .	Initially it was still thought that they were intermediate between the ferns and cycads , and especially in the English-speaking world they were referred to as `` seed ferns '' or `` pteridosperms '' .
The term Pteridospermatophyta ( or `` seed ferns '' ) refers to several distinct groups of extinct seed-bearing plants ( spermatophytes ) .	The term seed ferns ( Pteridospermatophyta ) are several distinct groups of extinct seed plants ( spermatophytes ) .
Also , from a purely curatorial perspective the term pteridosperms is a useful shorthand for describing the fern-like fronds that were probably produced by seed plants , which are commonly found in many Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossil floras .	Also , for curators or collectors , the term ` pteridosperm ' is a useful shorthand for describing fern-like fronds probably produced by seed plants , which are often found in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossil floras .
In the context of modern phylogenetic models , the groups often referred to as pteridosperms appear to be liberally spread across a range of clades , and many palaeobotanists today would regard pteridosperms as little more than a paraphyletic ` grade-group ' with no common lineage .	They are spread across a range of clades and many palaeobotanists today would regard pteridosperms as little more than a paraphyletic ` grade-group ' .
During the 20th century the concept of pteridosperms was expanded to include various Mesozoic groups of seed plants with fern-like fronds , such as the Corystospermales and Leptostrobales .	Later during the 20th century , the concept of pteridosperms was expanded to include various Mesozoic groups of seed plants with fern-like fronds .
They flourished particularly during the Carboniferous and Permian periods .	The oldest fossil evidence of plants of this type is from Upper Devonian strata , and they flourished particularly during the Carboniferous and Permian periods .
Shortly afterwards , the British palaeobotanists Frank Oliver and Dukinfield Henry Scott ( with the assistance of Oliver 's student at the time Marie Stopes ) made the critical discovery that some of these fronds ( genus Lyginopteris ) were associated with seeds ( genus Lagenostoma ) that had identical and very distinctive glandular hairs , and concluded that both fronds and seeds belonged to the same plant .	British palaeobotanists made the critical discovery that some of these fronds were associated with seeds , and concluded that the fronds and seeds belonged to the same plants .
Some palaeobotanists also included seed plant groups with entire leaves such as the glossopterids ( Arberiales ) and Gigantopteridales , which was clearly stretching the concept .	Some palaeobotanists also included seed plant groups with entire leaves such as Glossopteris and its relatives , which was clearly stretching the concept .
This is particularly useful for extinct seed plant groups whose systematic relationships remain speculative , as they can be classified as pteridosperms with no valid implications being made as to their systematic affinities .	This is particularly useful for extinct seed plant groups , whose relationships are unknown .
In 1862 King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister of Prussia .	In 1862 Prussian King William I named Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister-President ( prime minister ) .
In 1848 the liberals saw an opportunity when revolutions broke out across Europe .	In 1848 revolution came to Europe - the liberals had a chance .
This was the area east of the mouth of the Vistula River , later sometimes called `` Prussia proper . ''	At that time , the Duchy of Prussia was only the area east of the mouth of the Vistula River .
These western lands were to be of vital importance because they included the Ruhr Area , the center of Germany 's fledgling industrialisation , especially in the arms industry .	It was the new center of Germany 's industrialisation , and the home of the weapons industry .
Anna , granddaughter of Albert I and daughter of Duke Albert Frederick ( reigned 1568-1618 ) , married her cousin Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg .	In 1618 the new Duke of Prussia was the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg .
When the Frankfurt Parliament offered Frederick William the crown of a united Germany , he refused on the grounds that he would not accept a crown from a revolutionary assembly without the sanction of Germany 's other monarchs .	The new Frankfurt Parliament wanted to give Frederick William the crown of all Germany , but he did not want it .
It is located 55.5 kilometres ( 34.5 mi ) south-southeast of the center of Paris .	It is 55.5 kilometres ( 34.5 mi ) south-southeast of the center of Paris .
The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region ; it is the only one to cover a larger area than Paris itself .	The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region .
Fontainebleau is renowned for the large and scenic forest of Fontainebleau , a favorite weekend getaway for Parisians , as well as for the historical château de Fontainebleau , which once belonged to the kings of France .	Fontainebleau is known for the large and scenic Forest of Fontainebleau , a favorite weekend getaway for Parisians .
Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department , and it is the seat of the arrondissement of Fontainebleau .	Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department .
Fontainebleau , together with the neighbouring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes , form an urban area of 39,713 inhabitants ( according to the 2001 census ) .	Fontainebleau , together with the neighbouring commune of Avon , Seine-et-Marne and three other smaller communes , form an urban area of 36,713 people ( according to the 1999 census ) .
Once inside a host , a virus 's sole purpose is to make as many copies of itself , and infect other host cells ; everything it does is to benefit its fitness and increase the number of its offspring .	Once inside a host , a virus 's main purpose is to make as many copies of itself , and infect other host cells ; everything it does is to benefit its fitness and increase the number of its offspring .
A hole forms in the cell membrane , then the virus particle or its genetic contents are released into the host cell , where viral reproduction may commence .	A hole forms in the cell membrane , then the virus particle or its genetic contents are released into the host cell , where viral reproduction may start .
It is only active when replicating within a host , using a hosts ' resources and food .	It is only active when reproducing within a host , using a hosts ' resources and food .
After control is established and the environment is set for the virus to begin making copies of itself , replication occurs quickly by the million .	After control is taken by the virus and the environment is set for the virus to begin making copies of itself , replication occurs quickly .
Usually viral infection occurs when a virus enters the host , either : It is usually only after a virus enters a host that it can gain access to possible susceptible cells .	Usually viral infections occur when a virus enters the host : It is usually only after a virus enters a host that it can gain access to cells in order to invade .
The host cell is now no longer useful to the virus , therefore the cell often dies and the newly produced viruses must find a new host .	The cell is now no longer useful to the virus , therefore it must find a new host .
To enter the cells , proteins on the surface of the virus interact with proteins of the cell .	In order to enter the cells , proteins found on the surface of the virus interact with proteins of the cell .
Attachment , or adsorption , occurs between the viral particle and the host cell membrane .	Attachment , or adsorption , occurs between the viral part and the host cell membrane .
Viruses are similar to living organisms , however there are differences .	Viruses are near the same to living organisms , however there are differences .
One of the ways a virus can be seen as living is that a virus needs to replicate and create progeny .	One of the ways a virus can be seen as living is that a virus needs to make more of themselves .
However , unlike organisms , a virus can not survive on its own .	A virus can not survive on its own .
After a virus has made many copies of itself , it usually has exhausted the cell of its resources .	After a virus has made many copies of itself , it usually has used up the cell 's resources .
For the virus to reproduce and thereby establish infection , it must enter cells of the host organism and use those cells ' materials .	In order for the virus to make copies and infect , it must enter cells of the host animal and use those cells ' materials .
Permissibility determines the outcome of the infection .	Permissibility determines how the infection will progress .
Some viruses can `` hide '' within a cell , either to evade the host cell defenses or immune system , or simply because it is not in the best interest of the virus to continually replicate .	Some viruses can `` hide '' inside another cell , either to defend itself against the host cell defenses or immune system , or because it is not in the best interest of the virus to make more copies at the time .
The process by which virus progeny are released to find new hosts , is called shedding .	The process by viral copies are released to find new hosts , is called shedding .
A virus is totally dependent on a host cell .	The viral life cycle is dependent on a host cell .
But being civil should not be confused with being friendly or courteous , let alone charitable or credulous .	But being civil should not be confused with being friendly or courteous , let alone charitable .
Users too often cite policies , like our policy against personal attacks and our policy against incivility , not to protect themselves from personal attacks , but to protect their edits from review .	Users sometimes tell people to read and use our policies , like our policy against personal attacks and our policy against incivility , not to protect themselves from personal attacks , but to protect their edits from review .